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Signs You’re Dealing With a Very Selfish Person
Have you ever felt completely drained after interacting with someone, as if they had siphoned off your energy and left you empty? Chances are, you were dealing with a profoundly selfish person. While everyone exhibits self-interest occasionally, certain individuals make it a lifestyle, leaving a trail of frustration and hurt feelings behind them. Recognizing these behaviors early can save you from emotional turmoil and help you set healthy boundaries.

Selfish people operate from a core belief that their needs, desires, and feelings are more important than anyone else’s. They skillfully manipulate situations to their advantage, often at the expense of those around them. Understanding the signs of such individuals is crucial, not just for self-preservation but also for fostering genuine, reciprocal relationships. As psychologist Dr. Harriet Lerner notes in The Dance of Anger, “Selfishness isn’t about self-care; it’s about self-absorption to the exclusion of others.”

This article outlines 20 clear indicators that you’re dealing with an extremely selfish person. Drawing on insights from psychology, social dynamics, and classic literature on human behavior, these points will equip you to recognize — and, if necessary, disengage from — those who make every interaction about themselves.

1- They Lack Empathy

A hallmark of selfish individuals is their profound inability to empathize. They fail to recognize or care about the emotional states of others, which allows them to push forward with their own agendas unimpeded. Instead of listening or providing comfort, they dismiss or minimize other people’s experiences, often with callous indifference.

Empathy is the cornerstone of human connection, as emphasized by Brené Brown in The Gifts of Imperfection. When it’s absent, relationships become one-sided and transactional. Without this emotional reciprocity, interacting with a selfish person feels like shouting into a void — your feelings bounce back unheard and unseen.

2- They Are Always the Center of Attention

Selfish people crave the spotlight and thrive on admiration. They hijack conversations, steer group activities toward their interests, and become visibly upset when they are not the focus. Their sense of self-worth is often tethered to external validation.

This constant need to be the center of attention can suffocate those around them. As Susan Cain notes in Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World That Can’t Stop Talking, such individuals often fail to appreciate the richness of shared dialogue, opting instead to monologue about their achievements and desires.

3- They Rarely Apologize

An unwillingness to apologize reflects a deep-seated refusal to accept responsibility. Selfish people view apologies as admissions of weakness rather than acts of strength. Instead, they deflect blame, offer insincere justifications, or shift the focus onto the offended party.

The ability to say “I’m sorry” is a fundamental aspect of emotional maturity and conflict resolution. Philosopher Aaron Lazare, in On Apology, emphasizes that authentic apologies repair relationships and restore dignity. The absence of this skill often indicates a person trapped in their own ego-centric narrative.

4- They Exploit Others

Selfish individuals see people as means to an end. Whether it’s leveraging a colleague’s connections or taking credit for someone else’s work, they’re adept at using others to climb social or professional ladders.

Their relationships are inherently transactional, lacking genuine warmth or reciprocity. As Martin Buber suggests in I and Thou, treating others as mere objects (“I-It” relationships) fundamentally erodes true human connection. In contrast, healthy relationships are built on mutual respect and shared humanity.

5- They Struggle to Share

Be it resources, time, or recognition, selfish people guard their “possessions” fiercely. Sharing feels like a loss rather than an opportunity for connection or community.

This scarcity mindset often stems from deep insecurity. In Give and Take, Adam Grant discusses how generous people build strong networks and richer lives, while takers — those who refuse to share — often find themselves isolated and mistrusted over time.

6- They Hold Double Standards

Selfish individuals expect leniency and understanding for themselves but rarely extend the same to others. They might demand support during tough times but disappear when someone else is in need.

Such double standards breed resentment and imbalance in relationships. As Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy suggests, fairness lies in universality — treating others as you would like to be treated. Selfish people violate this principle at every turn, revealing their true priorities.

7- They Take Credit for Others’ Work

Nothing reveals a selfish disposition more starkly than stealing the spotlight for someone else’s effort. Whether it’s in the workplace or social circles, they bask in unearned praise without a hint of guilt.

This behavior undermines trust and demoralizes teams. As Patrick Lencioni writes in The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, trust is foundational; without it, collaboration collapses. A selfish person’s habit of taking credit corrodes this foundation irreparably.

8- They Avoid Responsibility

When confronted with failure or mistakes, selfish individuals become escape artists. They dodge accountability, fabricate excuses, or shift blame onto unsuspecting scapegoats.

This avoidance prevents personal growth and damages relationships. John C. Maxwell in Failing Forward notes that accepting responsibility is essential for learning and improving. Selfish people, by avoiding this, remain stagnant and leave others to clean up their messes.

9- They Overpromise and Underdeliver

These individuals often make grand promises to impress or gain favor but fail to follow through. Their words are often empty vessels designed to serve immediate desires rather than reflect actual commitment.

Repeated disappointments erode trust, leaving those around them skeptical and wary. In The Speed of Trust, Stephen M.R. Covey emphasizes that credibility is built on consistent performance — something selfish people fundamentally lack.

10- They Manipulate Situations to Their Advantage

Selfish people are expert manipulators. They twist narratives, play on emotions, and create confusion to get their way. Often, they position themselves as victims to garner sympathy or avoid consequences.

This kind of psychological warfare exhausts those on the receiving end. Robert Greene’s The 48 Laws of Power explores how manipulation can be a tool for domination, but when used excessively, it isolates and alienates the manipulator from meaningful connections.

11- They Are Terrible Listeners

Conversations with selfish people often feel one-sided. They interrupt, divert the topic back to themselves, or feign interest while plotting their next self-promoting statement.

Listening is a vital part of human connection. As Stephen R. Covey wrote, “Most people do not listen with the intent to understand; they listen with the intent to reply.” Selfish individuals embody this completely, leaving their conversational partners feeling unseen and undervalued.

12- They Show Conditional Kindness

Acts of kindness from a selfish person often come with strings attached. Their generosity is transactional, aimed at securing future favors or inflating their social image.

True kindness, as described in Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, is an end in itself. When kindness is conditional, it ceases to be genuine and becomes yet another tool of manipulation in the selfish person’s arsenal.

13- They Are Envious of Others’ Success

Selfish people struggle to celebrate the achievements of others. Instead, they feel threatened, envious, or compelled to diminish someone else’s accomplishments.

This toxic mindset can create a hostile and competitive environment. Theodore Roosevelt aptly noted, “Comparison is the thief of joy.” Selfish individuals embody this principle, draining the joy from shared successes.

14- They Demand Constant Validation

Approval and admiration are the lifeblood of a selfish individual. They constantly seek compliments and reassurance to feed their fragile self-esteem.

This endless need can be emotionally taxing for those around them. In The Drama of the Gifted Child, Alice Miller describes how such individuals often mask deep insecurities beneath a facade of arrogance, perpetuating a vicious cycle of neediness and self-centeredness.

15- They Disregard Boundaries

Respect for boundaries is crucial for any healthy relationship. Selfish people, however, routinely violate these limits, viewing them as obstacles to their desires.

By ignoring boundaries, they communicate a profound lack of respect and consideration. As Dr. Henry Cloud and Dr. John Townsend highlight in Boundaries, learning to enforce personal limits is essential to protect oneself from emotional exploitation.

16- They React Poorly to Criticism

When faced with constructive feedback, selfish people often become defensive, aggressive, or dismissive. Criticism threatens their self-image, which they guard fiercely.

A mature person views criticism as an opportunity for growth. According to Carol Dweck’s Mindset, individuals with a growth mindset embrace challenges and learn from criticism, while those with a fixed mindset (often selfish individuals) reject it to protect their ego.

17- They Prioritize Their Needs Above All Else

Selfish people consistently put their desires ahead of others’, even in situations that require compromise or sacrifice. Their motto might as well be “Me first, always.”

This persistent prioritization reveals a fundamental lack of communal spirit. In Social Intelligence, Daniel Goleman discusses how empathy and social attunement form the bedrock of cooperative societies — qualities utterly absent in a selfish person’s worldview.

18- They Lack Long-Term Loyalty

Loyalty requires selflessness, patience, and dedication. Selfish people, however, are only loyal as long as it benefits them. Once the relationship no longer serves their needs, they vanish without remorse.

This ephemeral commitment destabilizes friendships and partnerships. As C.S. Lewis remarked, “The next best thing to being wise oneself is to live in a circle of those who are.” Selfish individuals cannot sustain such circles, as their loyalty is merely opportunistic.

19- They Expect Special Treatment

Believing they deserve more than others, selfish people demand preferential treatment in every setting. Whether it’s skipping queues, seeking exceptions, or monopolizing resources, they act entitled and superior.

This attitude reveals a deep-seated narcissism. In The Narcissism Epidemic, Jean Twenge and W. Keith Campbell explore how entitlement corrodes empathy and fosters isolation, eventually turning the entitled person into a social pariah.

20- They Sabotage Others’ Happiness

When they cannot have what they want, selfish individuals often undermine or sabotage the joy of others. Rather than building their own contentment, they prefer to see others brought down to their level of dissatisfaction.

This behavior stems from profound insecurity and resentment. As Friedrich Nietzsche stated, “He who despises himself still respects himself as one who despises.” Selfish people, unable to create genuine happiness, derive satisfaction from destroying it in others.

21- They Always Talk About Themselves

Selfish individuals have an unquenchable thirst for self-expression — but only about themselves. Conversations with them often turn into monologues where they dominate every topic, regardless of its relevance.

This self-centered focus turns dialogue into a performance rather than an exchange. As famed psychoanalyst Carl Rogers observed, “True listening requires setting aside the self.” A selfish person simply cannot do this; they are so engrossed in their personal narrative that they fail to engage with others meaningfully.

22- They Rarely Show Gratitude

Gratitude reflects an awareness of others’ efforts and kindness, but selfish people often act as though they’re entitled to every favor. They accept help without acknowledgment, leaving others feeling used and unappreciated.

As Melody Beattie says in The Language of Letting Go, gratitude unlocks the fullness of life. Its absence creates a vacuum where relationships become mechanical and devoid of warmth. Selfish individuals rob interactions of this vital emotional currency.

23- They Keep Score, But Only When It Benefits Them

Selfish people have an uncanny ability to remember every favor they’ve ever done — but conveniently forget those done for them. They weaponize this mental scorecard to manipulate or guilt-trip others when it serves their interest.

This selective accounting undermines authentic generosity. In Give and Take, Adam Grant highlights how takers meticulously track benefits to maintain leverage. Over time, this behavior corrodes trust and makes genuine connection impossible.

24- They Make Everything About Them, Even Your Problems

When you confide in a selfish person, the discussion inevitably pivots to their experiences. Your grief becomes their anecdote, your challenge their stepping stone to boast or seek sympathy.

This narcissistic deflection denies you the support you need. As noted in Kristin Neff’s Self-Compassion, the ability to hold space for another’s pain without hijacking it is a mark of emotional maturity — a quality sorely lacking in selfish individuals.

25- They Only Show Up When It’s Convenient

Convenience dictates the engagement of a selfish person. They’re present when it’s fun or beneficial but vanish when true commitment or effort is needed.

Such inconsistency reveals their transactional approach to relationships. As M. Scott Peck explains in The Road Less Traveled, love demands effort and sacrifice — two things selfish individuals avoid at all costs.

26- They Don’t Respect Boundaries

Personal limits are meaningless to selfish people. They impose on your time, invade your space, and demand emotional energy without hesitation or remorse.

This disrespect reflects a fundamental disregard for your autonomy. In Boundaries, Cloud and Townsend assert that enforcing limits is key to self-respect and emotional health. Selfish people consistently violate this, revealing their exploitative mindset.

27- They Manipulate Through Guilt or Flattery

Selfish individuals expertly toggle between guilt-tripping you and showering you with insincere praise to control your actions. Their flattery is a lure, and their guilt tactics a chain.

Such manipulation is profoundly damaging. As Robert Greene discusses in The Art of Seduction, the most dangerous manipulators hide their intentions behind charm and kindness, weaving traps before you realize you’re ensnared.

28- They Take Credit But Avoid Responsibility

These individuals rush to claim successes but evaporate when accountability is required. They thrive on accolades but sidestep blame with remarkable agility.

This duality devastates team dynamics and relationships alike. Patrick Lencioni, in The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, emphasizes that trust is built on reliability and shared responsibility — values that selfish individuals refuse to uphold.

29- They Disregard Your Feelings

Your emotions are viewed as inconvenient obstacles by selfish people. They minimize, dismiss, or outright ignore your feelings if they conflict with their narrative or desires.

This emotional negligence causes deep wounds. As John Gottman points out in The Seven Principles for Making Marriage Work, emotional validation is crucial for intimacy. Selfish people strip this away, leaving emotional deserts behind.

30- They Expect Special Treatment

Entitlement is the anthem of selfish individuals. They believe they deserve exceptions to every rule and privileges unavailable to others, from cutting lines to monopolizing resources.

This mindset erodes collective harmony and fairness. As highlighted in The Narcissism Epidemic by Twenge and Campbell, chronic entitlement leads to social isolation and relationship breakdowns, yet selfish people remain blind to this truth.

31- They’re Quick to Take, Slow to Give

Selfish people excel at receiving favors, support, and resources, but hesitate — or outright refuse — to reciprocate. Their generosity exists only in theory, never in practice.

This imbalance reveals a deep-seated opportunism. As Seneca wrote, “A gift consists not in what is done or given, but in the intention of the giver.” Selfish individuals’ intentions are always self-serving, making their rare acts of giving hollow.

32- They Compete Instead of Support

Rather than celebrating your victories, selfish individuals see them as threats or challenges. They compete with you in friendships, careers, and even trivial matters.

This constant rivalry undermines solidarity and erodes trust. In Friendship, C.S. Lewis argues that genuine friendships are marked by mutual delight in each other’s joys. Selfish people, however, transform relationships into arenas of silent battles.

33- They Use Others as Tools

For selfish people, relationships are merely utilities. Friends, colleagues, and even family members become instruments for achieving personal goals rather than beings with intrinsic worth.

Such utilitarianism strips interactions of authenticity. Martin Buber’s I and Thou describes true relationships as encounters between whole beings — a dimension selfish individuals never reach.

34- They’re Not Truly Sorry When They Hurt You

Apologies from selfish individuals are often performative, aimed at placating rather than mending. They might say “sorry” without remorse, using it as a tool to reset rather than reconcile.

This lack of genuine accountability prevents healing. In On Apology, Aaron Lazare notes that true apologies include acknowledgment, remorse, and restitution — steps a selfish person is unwilling to undertake sincerely.

35- They Drain Your Energy

Interacting with a selfish person feels like an emotional marathon. You leave conversations exhausted, as they continuously siphon your energy, attention, and patience.

This draining dynamic signals emotional vampirism. Judith Orloff, in Emotional Freedom, identifies such people as “energy vampires” who sap vitality and leave you depleted, underscoring the importance of protective boundaries.

36- Not All Selfish People Are Obvious. Some Hide It Behind Charm

Some selfish individuals master the art of charm and charisma to mask their true intentions. Their surface warmth disarms you, making it harder to recognize their self-centered motives.

Such deception makes them particularly dangerous. As Robert Hare notes in Without Conscience, charm is often a tool of manipulation used by those with narcissistic or psychopathic tendencies to gain trust and access to others’ resources.

37- These Individuals Consistently Prioritize Their Own Needs

No matter the context, selfish people invariably put themselves first. Their needs, wants, and comfort are non-negotiable priorities, overshadowing everything else.

This unwavering self-prioritization reflects a deeply ingrained egocentrism. In The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins discusses how such behavior can be evolutionary, yet in social relationships, it breeds isolation and conflict rather than survival.

38- If You Feel Drained or Disregarded After Interactions, You Might Be Dealing With Someone Who Is Extremely Self-Centered

Your emotional state after interactions is a strong indicator of the other person’s character. Persistent feelings of neglect or exhaustion suggest you’re engaging with someone profoundly self-absorbed.

Listening to these feelings is vital. In The Body Keeps the Score, Bessel van der Kolk explains how emotional distress manifests physically, signaling deeper relational imbalances that demand attention and action.

39- No Matter What the Conversation Starts With, It Somehow Circles Back to Them

Selfish people have a magnetic pull that redirects any discussion toward themselves. No matter the topic, they find a way to recenter the narrative on their life, achievements, or struggles.

This conversational narcissism disrupts meaningful exchange. As Deborah Tannen elaborates in You Just Don’t Understand, balanced dialogue requires shared focus — something self-centered individuals systematically sabotage.

40- They’ll Find a Way to Insert Their Own Story

Even when listening to your news or problems, selfish individuals inevitably pivot to recounting their own similar (or supposedly superior) experiences.

This maneuver transforms your moment into theirs, erasing your significance. It reveals an inability to hold space for others — a core aspect of what Daniel Goleman calls “social intelligence,” which they fundamentally lack.

41- It’s About Their Need to Stay at the Center of Attention

The ultimate motivation behind these behaviors is a compulsion to remain the focal point. Every interaction becomes a stage for their ongoing performance.

Such individuals crave constant validation, which sustains their fragile sense of self-worth. Erich Fromm, in The Art of Loving, suggests that love involves standing outside oneself to care for another — a capacity selfish people do not possess.

42- They Rarely Ask Follow-Up Questions and Seem Uninterested Unless It Directly Involves Them

If the conversation doesn’t revolve around them, they show minimal curiosity. They skip follow-up questions and fail to engage with your life meaningfully.

This absence of genuine interest exposes their emotional vacancy. As David Brooks notes in The Road to Character, real connection requires deep curiosity and humility — virtues lost on selfish individuals.

43- Lack of Gratitude Can Leave You Feeling Taken for Granted and Unappreciated

Their failure to acknowledge your support or kindness fosters resentment. You begin to feel invisible, as though your efforts hold no value.

This emotional neglect corrodes self-esteem and weakens relational bonds. As Cicero famously said, “Gratitude is not only the greatest of virtues but the parent of all the others.” Selfish individuals, by neglecting it, sever their ties to deeper human connection.

44- They Remember Every Good Deed They’ve Done for You

While they forget your kindness, they never fail to catalog their own. They may even remind you repeatedly, using it as leverage for future favors or to inflate their self-image.

Such selective memory reflects a deeply transactional mindset. As discussed in The Psychology of Gratitude by Robert Emmons, true generosity expects nothing in return — a concept utterly foreign to selfish individuals.

45- When You Open Up About Something Difficult, They Manage to Redirect the Conversation to Their Own Experiences

Your vulnerability becomes a springboard for their self-narrative. Instead of comfort, you receive comparison or unsolicited advice that centers on them.

This behavior devalues your pain and obstructs emotional intimacy. Brené Brown, in Daring Greatly, emphasizes that empathy involves feeling with someone — not overriding their story with your own.

46- They Hijack the Moment to Talk About Themselves

Even in significant moments meant for you, they insert themselves front and center, stealing attention and emotional space.

This constant hijacking diminishes your experiences and milestones. It reflects a deep insecurity and insatiable need for affirmation that prevents them from celebrating others authentically.

47- You’ll Notice They’re Around When Things Are Fun or When They Need Something From You

They gravitate toward moments of pleasure or utility. When the atmosphere is joyful or they stand to gain, they appear. Otherwise, they vanish.

This opportunistic presence reveals the conditional nature of their relationships. In The Four Loves, C.S. Lewis contrasts real love with need-love, where affection is given only when needs are met — a hallmark of selfish individuals.

48- When You Need Support, They’re Suddenly Too Busy or Unreachable

In times of hardship, these individuals become ghosts. Your crises and needs do not fit into their self-serving agenda, so they disappear without explanation.

Their absence reveals the superficiality of the connection. As Anne Lamott wrote, “Help is the sunny side of control.” Selfish people cannot help because they cannot relinquish control or comfort.

49- They Prioritize Their Own Comfort and Schedule

Selfish people make every plan revolve around their timing, convenience, and comfort. Flexibility exists only when it benefits them.

This rigidity disrupts relationships and signals a lack of mutual respect. In Moral Sentiments, Adam Smith highlights that true social harmony requires consideration and sympathy — virtues they consistently reject.

50- Helping Others Doesn’t Rank High Unless There’s Something in It for Them

Their acts of “kindness” often come with ulterior motives. They offer help only when it promises rewards, whether material, social, or emotional.

Such conditional altruism erodes trust. As Peter Singer explains in The Life You Can Save, genuine ethical behavior involves helping others without self-interest — a principle fundamentally alien to selfish individuals.

Conclusion

Selfishness is not merely an irritating personality trait — it is a pervasive, destructive force that contaminates relationships and erodes emotional safety. The behaviors detailed above illustrate a pattern of manipulation, exploitation, and emotional negligence that can leave lasting scars.

Understanding and identifying these signs is the first step toward protecting your well-being and fostering healthier connections. If you recognize these patterns in someone close to you, consider setting firm boundaries or reevaluating the relationship altogether.

For further reading, I recommend Emotional Blackmail by Susan Forward and The Sociopath Next Door by Martha Stout, both of which offer profound insights into manipulative and self-centered behaviors.

Ultimately, surround yourself with those who uplift, support, and respect you — relationships where love and care flow freely in both directions. As Rumi wisely said, “Set your life on fire. Seek those who fan your flames.”

Dealing with a deeply selfish person is akin to dancing in a storm — unpredictable, exhausting, and ultimately damaging. Recognizing these 20 signs empowers you to protect your emotional well-being and cultivate healthier, more balanced relationships.

By understanding the psychology behind selfishness and learning to identify its many faces, you equip yourself with the tools to navigate or even sever toxic ties. For further reading, consider exploring Emotional Intelligence by Daniel Goleman and The Road Less Traveled by M. Scott Peck, both of which delve into self-awareness and personal growth.

As the ancient Greek aphorism wisely states, “Know thyself.” In knowing yourself, you also learn to recognize those who drain rather than uplift, and ultimately choose connections that honor both your needs and your spirit.

Bibliography
1. Aaron Lazare. On Apology. Oxford University Press, 2004.
2. Adam Grant. Give and Take: Why Helping Others Drives Our Success. Penguin Books, 2014.
3. Adam Smith. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Liberty Fund, 1982.
4. Anne Lamott. Help, Thanks, Wow: The Three Essential Prayers. Riverhead Books, 2012.
5. Bessel van der Kolk. The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma. Penguin Books, 2015.
6. Brené Brown. Daring Greatly: How the Courage to Be Vulnerable Transforms the Way We Live, Love, Parent, and Lead. Gotham Books, 2012.
7. C.S. Lewis. The Four Loves. HarperOne, 1960.
8. C.S. Lewis. Friendship (essay within The Four Loves). HarperOne, 1960.
9. Carl Rogers. A Way of Being. Houghton Mifflin, 1980.
10. Deborah Tannen. You Just Don’t Understand: Women and Men in Conversation. Ballantine Books, 1990.
11. Daniel Goleman. Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships. Bantam Books, 2006.
12. Erich Fromm. The Art of Loving. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 1956.
13. Judith Orloff. Emotional Freedom: Liberate Yourself from Negative Emotions and Transform Your Life. Harmony, 2009.
14. Kristin Neff. Self-Compassion: The Proven Power of Being Kind to Yourself. William Morrow, 2011.
15. Martin Buber. I and Thou. Scribner, 1970.
16. Melody Beattie. The Language of Letting Go: Daily Meditations on Codependency. Hazelden Publishing, 1990.
17. M. Scott Peck. The Road Less Traveled: A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth. Simon & Schuster, 1978.
18. Patrick Lencioni. The Five Dysfunctions of a Team: A Leadership Fable. Jossey-Bass, 2002.
19. Peter Singer. The Life You Can Save: Acting Now to End World Poverty. Random House, 2009.
20. Richard Dawkins. The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, 1976.
21. Robert Emmons. The Psychology of Gratitude. Oxford University Press, 2004.
22. Robert Greene. The Art of Seduction. Viking Penguin, 2001.
23. Robert Hare. Without Conscience: The Disturbing World of the Psychopaths Among Us. The Guilford Press, 1993.
24. Susan Forward. Emotional Blackmail: When the People in Your Life Use Fear, Obligation, and Guilt to Manipulate You. HarperCollins, 1997.
25. Twenge, Jean M., and W. Keith Campbell. The Narcissism Epidemic: Living in the Age of Entitlement. Free Press, 2009.
By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 13, 2025
Productivity Boosters and Hacks To Help You Have A Better Workday
Imagine transforming your chaotic workdays into smooth, focused, and deeply satisfying experiences — sounds like a dream, right? Yet, with the right productivity boosters and cleverly designed hacks, it’s entirely within reach. In a world where distractions lurk at every corner and burnout feels like an inevitable fate, mastering productivity isn’t just a luxury — it’s a necessity for thriving in both career and personal life.

Productivity is not about simply doing more; it’s about creating space for what truly matters. As Cal Newport notes in Deep Work, the ability to focus without distraction on cognitively demanding tasks is becoming increasingly rare and valuable. With deliberate strategies, you can reclaim your time and direct your energy toward impactful outcomes rather than getting lost in the noise.

In this article, we will explore practical, science-backed hacks and proven techniques that intellectuals and high-achievers have used to stay ahead. Drawing insights from leading thinkers and classic books like Atomic Habits by James Clear and Essentialism by Greg McKeown, these points will help you build a workday that is not only efficient but deeply fulfilling.

1- Start Your Day with a Purposeful Morning Routine

A strong morning routine sets the tone for the entire day. Instead of stumbling into your tasks half-awake, design rituals that energize your body and mind. Whether it’s a brisk walk, meditation, or journaling, these activities anchor you and create a psychological signal that it’s time to focus. As Hal Elrod emphasizes in The Miracle Morning, “How you wake up each day and your morning routine (or lack thereof) dramatically affects your levels of success in every single area of your life.”

Moreover, integrating gratitude practices or intention setting can prime your brain for positivity and productivity. Successful professionals often swear by morning rituals because they foster discipline and cultivate a growth mindset. With a clear start, you build momentum that carries you through the most demanding tasks ahead.

2- Prioritize Deep Work

The ability to engage in deep work is a superpower in the modern economy. By carving out uninterrupted blocks of time, you can produce higher-quality work in less time. Turn off notifications, close irrelevant tabs, and set clear boundaries with colleagues to protect this focus time. According to Cal Newport, “Deep work is the ability to focus without distraction on a cognitively demanding task,” and mastering it separates high achievers from the rest.

Additionally, plan these deep work sessions during your peak energy periods. Research suggests that aligning high-focus tasks with your natural circadian rhythm boosts performance dramatically. For further reading, Newport’s Deep Work offers actionable frameworks to integrate this practice into your daily schedule.

3- Master the Art of Time Blocking

Time blocking isn’t just a scheduling technique; it’s a philosophy of intentional living. By assigning specific blocks of time to different tasks, you preempt decision fatigue and prevent your day from dissolving into reactive chaos. Elon Musk and Bill Gates are among the high-profile proponents of this approach.

Equally important is to include buffer times to handle unexpected events. This flexibility within structure allows you to adapt without losing sight of your priorities. If you’d like to explore this concept further, check out Make Time by Jake Knapp and John Zeratsky, which discusses designing your day around what matters most.

4- Use the Two-Minute Rule

The two-minute rule, popularized by David Allen in Getting Things Done, is a deceptively simple but powerful hack: if a task takes less than two minutes, do it immediately. This prevents small tasks from accumulating into a mental burden that drains your cognitive resources.

This technique also helps maintain a sense of progress and accomplishment throughout your day. Tackling these quick wins creates momentum and reduces procrastination. Over time, these small completions snowball into a significant productivity boost, echoing Aristotle’s assertion that “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.”

5- Optimize Your Workspace

Your environment profoundly shapes your behavior and productivity. A cluttered, noisy, or uncomfortable workspace can sabotage your best intentions. Invest in ergonomic furniture, good lighting, and minimalistic design to create a sanctuary for focused work.

Furthermore, incorporate elements that inspire creativity, such as plants, art, or personal mementos. As James Clear explains in Atomic Habits, “Environment is the invisible hand that shapes human behavior.” A well-crafted workspace doesn’t just look good; it fuels your mental clarity and efficiency.

6- Leverage Technology Wisely

While technology can be a major distraction, when used intentionally, it becomes a potent ally. Utilize productivity apps like Todoist, Notion, or Trello to streamline task management and collaboration. Automation tools can handle repetitive tasks, freeing up your brainpower for higher-order thinking.

However, be mindful not to let tech control you. Periodically audit your digital tools to ensure they serve your goals rather than cluttering your attention. Nicholas Carr’s The Shallows warns us about the cognitive costs of constant digital engagement, underscoring the importance of conscious tech use.

7- Embrace Strategic Breaks

Continuous grinding is counterproductive and can lead to diminishing returns. The human brain thrives on cycles of focused effort followed by rest. Techniques like the Pomodoro Technique advocate working in short sprints with scheduled breaks to recharge.

Strategic breaks can include walks, stretching, or even brief meditation. As neuroscientist Andrew Huberman notes, “Deliberate rest is not a luxury; it’s a requirement for peak cognitive function.” For deeper insights, consider Rest: Why You Get More Done When You Work Less by Alex Pang.

8- Cultivate Single-Tasking

In an era glorifying multitasking, single-tasking is an underrated art form. Multitasking fragments your attention and reduces efficiency. By focusing on one task at a time, you significantly improve the quality and speed of your output.

This practice also enhances mental well-being and reduces stress. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of “flow” in his book Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience highlights that deep immersion in a single activity brings profound satisfaction and peak performance.

9- Set Clear Boundaries

Maintaining clear boundaries protects your time and mental energy. Define when you’re available and when you’re in focus mode. Communicating these boundaries to colleagues and family prevents unnecessary interruptions and sets respectful expectations.

Boundaries also reinforce a healthy work-life balance, a crucial aspect of long-term productivity and well-being. As Brené Brown writes in Daring Greatly, “Daring to set boundaries is about having the courage to love ourselves, even when we risk disappointing others.”

10- Develop Micro Habits

Small habits, when consistently practiced, create lasting transformation. Instead of overhauling your entire routine overnight, focus on incremental changes — for instance, writing one sentence daily or reviewing your goals for a minute each morning.

James Clear’s Atomic Habits underscores that tiny adjustments compound into significant results over time. As the saying goes, “Little by little, one travels far.” Micro habits make self-improvement approachable and sustainable.

11- Practice Mindful Eating and Hydration

Your brain is a high-energy organ, and what you consume directly impacts your focus and stamina. Avoid heavy, sugary lunches that lead to afternoon crashes; instead, opt for balanced meals rich in protein, fiber, and healthy fats.

Hydration is equally critical. Even mild dehydration can impair cognitive performance and mood. As Dr. Lisa Mosconi explores in Brain Food, nourishing your brain through conscious dietary choices is a fundamental yet often overlooked productivity tool.

12- Reflect and Review Regularly

Periodic reflection helps you assess what’s working and what needs adjustment. Set aside time weekly to review achievements, setbacks, and align your tasks with long-term goals. This practice fosters continuous improvement and prevents drifting aimlessly.

Journaling or using structured review templates can illuminate patterns and catalyze personal growth. As Peter Drucker famously said, “What gets measured gets managed.” Reflection is the compass that keeps you on the right path.

13- Foster Lifelong Learning

Intellectual growth fuels professional success and keeps your mind agile. Dedicate time to learning new skills, reading, or attending workshops. This continuous development sharpens your edge and ignites creativity.

Books like Range by David Epstein argue that broad knowledge and adaptability are essential in a rapidly changing world. Cultivating a learner’s mindset ensures you stay relevant and inspired in your work.

14- Delegate Effectively

Delegation is not a sign of weakness but of strategic intelligence. Identify tasks that don’t require your unique expertise and assign them to capable colleagues or outsource. This liberates you to focus on high-impact activities.

Effective delegation also empowers your team and strengthens trust. As John C. Maxwell puts it, “If you want to do a few small things right, do them yourself. If you want to do great things and make a big impact, learn to delegate.” For more, Maxwell’s Developing the Leaders Around You offers practical insights.

15- Create a Personal Mission Statement

Having a clear mission statement serves as a north star, guiding your daily actions toward meaningful objectives. This personal manifesto distills your values, purpose, and vision into a powerful motivator.

Stephen Covey’s The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People emphasizes crafting a mission statement to achieve true self-leadership. Revisit and refine it periodically to ensure alignment with your evolving aspirations.

16- Celebrate Small Wins

Acknowledging progress, no matter how small, fuels motivation and resilience. Celebrate milestones to reinforce positive behaviors and sustain momentum through challenges.

This practice fosters a growth mindset and strengthens self-belief. In The Progress Principle, Teresa Amabile and Steven Kramer highlight that even minor victories can significantly enhance inner work life and performance.

17- Use Visual Cues

Visual cues — such as sticky notes, vision boards, or calendars — serve as constant reminders of your goals and priorities. These simple tools keep your objectives front and center, reducing reliance on memory and willpower.

Charles Duhigg’s The Power of Habit discusses how environmental triggers can reinforce desired behaviors. By designing your surroundings with strategic cues, you make productivity almost automatic.

18- Manage Energy, Not Just Time

Productivity isn’t solely about managing hours; it’s about optimizing your physical, emotional, and mental energy. Pay attention to energy peaks and design your schedule to tackle demanding tasks when you feel most vigorous.

Tony Schwartz’s The Power of Full Engagement illustrates that managing energy leads to more sustainable and effective performance than rigid time control alone. By honoring your energy rhythms, you can achieve more with less strain.

19- Embrace the Power of “No”

Learning to say “no” is essential for protecting your focus and integrity. Politely declining low-priority commitments creates space for work that aligns with your goals and values.

As Warren Buffett famously said, “The difference between successful people and very successful people is that very successful people say ‘no’ to almost everything.” Practicing this assertiveness safeguards your time and prevents burnout.

20- Develop a Strong Wind-Down Routine

Ending your day intentionally prepares your mind and body for restorative rest. Disconnect from screens, reflect on your day, and engage in calming activities like reading or light stretching.

This routine signals to your brain that it’s time to transition from work to rest, enhancing sleep quality and recovery. Arianna Huffington’s The Sleep Revolution underscores the importance of sleep hygiene for overall well-being and productivity.

21- The Pomodoro Technique

The Pomodoro Technique is a time management method that transforms work into manageable sprints. You work in focused intervals (traditionally 25 minutes), followed by short breaks. This rhythm helps maintain high energy and reduces mental fatigue. Francesco Cirillo, who developed the method, emphasized that frequent breaks enhance mental agility and reduce burnout.

Implementing this technique trains your mind to resist distractions and build a habit of concentrated work. Over time, it fosters a sense of urgency and discipline. If you’re interested in mastering this method, Cirillo’s The Pomodoro Technique book provides practical exercises and deeper insights into integrating it effectively.

22- Mind Mapping

Mind mapping is a dynamic way to visualize ideas and organize information. By laying out thoughts in a non-linear diagram, you engage both analytical and creative thinking. This technique is especially powerful for brainstorming, project planning, and problem-solving.

Tony Buzan, the pioneer of mind mapping, argued in The Mind Map Book that this approach mirrors the brain’s natural associative processes. Using colors, images, and keywords stimulates memory retention and fosters innovative connections. Incorporating mind maps into your workflow can unlock deeper clarity and creativity.

23- Two-Minute Rule

The two-minute rule is a simple yet profound method to conquer procrastination. If a task takes two minutes or less, do it immediately instead of postponing. This tactic prevents the accumulation of trivial tasks that can weigh down your mental bandwidth.

Beyond quick completions, this rule cultivates an action-oriented mindset. As David Allen elaborates in Getting Things Done, clearing small tasks promptly frees up mental space and builds momentum for tackling larger challenges. Adopting this practice transforms cluttered to-do lists into streamlined action plans.

24- Digital Detox

A digital detox involves intentionally unplugging from electronic devices to reclaim focus and presence. Constant notifications and digital noise fragment our attention and drain cognitive resources. Scheduling tech-free periods helps restore mental clarity and reduce stress.

Cal Newport’s Digital Minimalism explores how mindful disengagement from technology fosters deeper work and richer real-life connections. Practicing regular digital detoxes empowers you to take control of your attention and invest it in activities that truly matter.

25- Batch Processing

Batch processing involves grouping similar tasks and executing them together. This reduces context switching and significantly boosts efficiency. For instance, answering all emails in one session rather than sporadically throughout the day minimizes interruptions and mental fatigue.

This method also aligns with the principle of “economies of scale” in cognitive effort. As Tim Ferriss suggests in The 4-Hour Workweek, batching is an indispensable tactic for maximizing productivity while minimizing effort. Embracing this strategy allows you to maintain focus and create uninterrupted stretches for deep work.

26- Standing Desk

A standing desk can transform your workday by promoting movement and improving posture. Prolonged sitting is linked to numerous health issues, including back pain and decreased energy levels. Alternating between sitting and standing stimulates circulation and enhances alertness.

Research in Sedentary Behavior and Health (Owen et al.) highlights that reducing sedentary time can improve overall well-being and productivity. By incorporating a standing desk, you align your physical environment with your commitment to sustained energy and focus throughout the day.

27- Mindful Breaks

Mindful breaks are intentional pauses that restore mental energy. Instead of mindlessly scrolling through social media, engage in activities that ground you — deep breathing, a short walk, or simple stretching. These moments help recalibrate your mind and prevent burnout.

Jon Kabat-Zinn’s work, Wherever You Go, There You Are, underscores the power of mindfulness in enhancing focus and emotional resilience. Practicing mindful breaks throughout your day keeps you present and sharpens your cognitive edge.

28- Personalized Workspace

A personalized workspace is more than an aesthetic choice; it’s a strategic move to boost motivation and comfort. Surround yourself with objects that inspire and energize you — favorite books, plants, or meaningful art. This creates an emotional connection to your work environment.

In Joyful by Ingrid Fetell Lee, the author explores how surroundings filled with personal significance can evoke positive emotions and fuel creativity. Designing a workspace that resonates with your personality fosters a sense of ownership and engagement.

29- Gratitude Journaling

Gratitude journaling shifts your focus from what’s lacking to what’s thriving. By noting things you’re thankful for, you cultivate a positive mindset that enhances emotional well-being and resilience. Research shows that gratitude practices improve psychological health and increase overall life satisfaction.

In The Happiness Advantage, Shawn Achor reveals how gratitude rewires the brain for optimism and improved performance. Integrating gratitude journaling into your routine nurtures a more balanced and empowered approach to work and life.

30- Time Blocking

Time blocking is a method where you assign specific time slots to activities, preventing your day from dissolving into reactive task juggling. This structured approach enhances focus and ensures that high-priority work receives dedicated attention.

Cal Newport advocates time blocking as a core strategy for achieving deep work and minimizing distractions. By visually mapping your day, you reduce decision fatigue and create a more intentional, outcome-driven workflow. For more practical guidance, Newport’s Deep Work offers a comprehensive blueprint.

31- Healthy Snacking

Nutrition plays a pivotal role in sustaining energy and focus. Opting for healthy snacks like nuts, fruits, and yogurt can prevent energy crashes and support cognitive function throughout the day. Avoiding high-sugar or highly processed snacks reduces fluctuations in blood sugar levels and keeps you steady.

As highlighted in Eat to Beat Disease by Dr. William Li, food choices are crucial to maintaining peak performance and long-term health. Healthy snacking is an underrated yet essential habit for anyone aiming to maintain high productivity without compromising well-being.

32- Goal Setting

Effective goal setting acts as a roadmap that directs your energy and decisions. Clearly defined goals provide motivation and a sense of purpose, turning abstract ambitions into actionable steps. Using frameworks like SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) ensures clarity and accountability.

Brian Tracy’s Goals! offers a comprehensive guide on harnessing the power of goal setting to achieve extraordinary results. When you regularly set and revisit goals, you foster focus, boost confidence, and make steady progress toward your highest aspirations.

Conclusion

Mastering productivity isn’t about squeezing more tasks into each day; it’s about making deliberate choices that align with your values and long-term goals. By integrating these advanced techniques — from the Pomodoro Technique to gratitude journaling — you create a work environment and mindset that support sustained excellence.

The path to a better workday is paved with small, intentional actions that, over time, compound into transformative change. Remember, productivity is deeply personal; experiment, reflect, and tailor these strategies to fit your unique rhythm and aspirations. As Seneca wisely said, “It is not that we have a short time to live, but that we waste much of it.” Choose to live — and work — with purpose.

In an age where busyness is often mistaken for productivity, mastering these strategic boosters can elevate your workday from merely hectic to deeply rewarding. The most successful people are not those who do the most tasks, but those who focus on the right tasks with clarity and energy.

By integrating these practices — from creating a purposeful morning routine to developing a thoughtful wind-down ritual — you cultivate not just efficiency but also a more meaningful, fulfilling professional life. Remember, true productivity is about working smarter, aligning with your values, and creating space for continuous growth.

As you experiment with these strategies, be patient and iterative; the journey to mastery is, after all, a marathon, not a sprint.

Bibliography
1. Cirillo, Francesco. The Pomodoro Technique. FC Garage, 2018.
2. Buzan, Tony. The Mind Map Book: Unlock Your Creativity, Boost Your Memory, Change Your Life. BBC Active, 2010.
3. Allen, David. Getting Things Done: The Art of Stress-Free Productivity. Penguin Books, 2001.
4. Newport, Cal. Digital Minimalism: Choosing a Focused Life in a Noisy World. Portfolio, 2019.
5. Ferriss, Tim. The 4-Hour Workweek: Escape 9-5, Live Anywhere, and Join the New Rich. Crown Publishing, 2007.
6. Owen, Neville et al. “Sedentary Behavior and Health: Paradigm Shift or Paradox?” British Journal of Sports Medicine, 2011.
7. Kabat-Zinn, Jon. Wherever You Go, There You Are: Mindfulness Meditation in Everyday Life. Hyperion, 1994.
8. Fetell Lee, Ingrid. Joyful: The Surprising Power of Ordinary Things to Create Extraordinary Happiness. Little, Brown Spark, 2018.
9. Achor, Shawn. The Happiness Advantage: The Seven Principles of Positive Psychology That Fuel Success and Performance at Work. Crown Business, 2010.
10. Newport, Cal. Deep Work: Rules for Focused Success in a Distracted World. Grand Central Publishing, 2016.
11. Li, William W. Eat to Beat Disease: The New Science of How Your Body Can Heal Itself. Grand Central Publishing, 2019.
12. Tracy, Brian. Goals!: How to Get Everything You Want — Faster Than You Ever Thought Possible. Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2004.
13. Seneca. On the Shortness of Life. Translated by C.D.N. Costa, Penguin Classics, 2004.
By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 13, 2025
How can a dose of ketamine ‘reorganize’ the brain?
Imagine a drug so powerful that a single dose can rapidly lift depression and even reorganize the very wiring of your brain. Ketamine, once known primarily as an anesthetic and club drug, is now at the frontier of neuroscience and psychiatry, revealing astonishing possibilities for mental health treatment. This surprising compound challenges our deepest assumptions about how fast and profoundly the brain can change.

Recent research has shown that ketamine does more than merely mask symptoms — it actively reshapes neural pathways and fosters new connections, offering hope to those for whom traditional antidepressants have failed. As the brain’s complex architecture is gradually revealed, ketamine stands out as a chemical scalpel capable of rewiring thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in ways we are only beginning to comprehend.

In this article, we explore the mechanisms behind ketamine’s transformative effects. We’ll journey through cutting-edge neuroscience, historical perspectives, and philosophical reflections, drawing on expert opinions and classic works like “The Doors of Perception” by Aldous Huxley and “How to Change Your Mind” by Michael Pollan. Let us unpack how a single molecule can illuminate the deepest recesses of the human mind.

1- The Unique Pharmacology of Ketamine

Ketamine’s pharmacology is unlike that of conventional antidepressants, which typically target serotonin or dopamine pathways. Instead, ketamine primarily acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist, a mechanism that blocks certain glutamate receptors, thereby altering synaptic activity across vast networks in the brain. This interruption creates a “reset” effect, allowing for the dismantling of maladaptive thought patterns.

Moreover, ketamine rapidly increases levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a protein crucial for neuroplasticity. This surge fosters the growth of new synapses, effectively encouraging the brain to form new connections and pathways. As Dr. Carlos Zarate of the National Institute of Mental Health puts it, “Ketamine acts like a fertilizer for the brain, helping new ideas and perspectives to take root.”

2- Breaking Through Treatment-Resistant Depression

Many individuals battling depression experience what feels like an insurmountable wall against traditional treatments. Ketamine’s rapid action offers an alternative pathway by disrupting entrenched neural circuits associated with negative thinking and emotional pain. Within hours, patients often report dramatic relief, an outcome almost unheard of with standard medications.

This swift shift is not merely chemical but structural. By reorganizing synapses, ketamine gives patients the chance to escape their habitual mental ruts and re-engage with life. The implications are profound: as if someone flicked a switch in a dark room, suddenly illuminating pathways toward hope and recovery. For further exploration, Michael Pollan’s “How to Change Your Mind” provides rich narratives on such rapid transformations.

3- Neuroplasticity: The Brain’s Hidden Superpower

The concept of neuroplasticity — the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections — lies at the heart of ketamine’s therapeutic magic. Unlike static views of the brain, modern neuroscience confirms that even adult brains retain this remarkable flexibility. Ketamine acts as a catalyst, accelerating plastic changes that can correct maladaptive patterns.

This capacity for rewiring allows individuals to break free from destructive loops of thought and behavior. As Norman Doidge writes in “The Brain That Changes Itself,” we are not prisoners of our biology but rather capable of profound change throughout life. Ketamine harnesses this intrinsic power, effectively providing a springboard for psychological growth.

4- Dissociation and Psychological Distance

Ketamine induces a dissociative state, temporarily detaching individuals from their immediate self-narratives. This state enables patients to view their problems from a new vantage point, fostering insights that traditional talk therapies may take years to cultivate. Such psychological distance is crucial in breaking rigid mental schemas.

While dissociation might sound unsettling, in controlled settings it can be profoundly therapeutic. The experience allows people to recontextualize their pain and see it as a transient phenomenon rather than an unchangeable identity. According to psychiatrist Dr. Karl Jansen, this altered state offers “a rehearsal space for new mental possibilities.”

5- Rewiring Emotional Circuits

Ketamine’s effects reach deeply into the brain’s emotional centers, including the amygdala and hippocampus. By modulating glutamate transmission, it diminishes hyperactivity in areas associated with fear and negative emotional memory, thereby reducing anxiety and emotional reactivity.

This rewiring doesn’t just mute emotional pain — it reshapes how emotions are processed altogether. People often describe a newfound ability to experience joy or engage in life without being overshadowed by past traumas. The shift is akin to rewriting the emotional soundtrack of one’s life.

6- Enhancing Synaptic Connectivity

A crucial element of ketamine’s action is the promotion of synaptogenesis, or the creation of new synaptic connections. This rejuvenates neural networks that have been pruned by chronic stress and depression. As a result, the brain regains its capacity to communicate effectively within and between different regions.

In effect, ketamine strengthens the brain’s “internet,” improving its internal data transfer and decision-making capabilities. This enhanced connectivity supports resilience and cognitive flexibility, allowing individuals to respond more adaptively to future stressors. For further reading, “Neuroplasticity” by Moheb Costandi offers an excellent primer.

7- Rapid Reduction in Suicidal Ideation

Perhaps one of the most striking aspects of ketamine therapy is its rapid impact on suicidal thoughts. Where traditional treatments might take weeks or months, ketamine can produce noticeable relief in hours, offering a vital lifeline during crises.

This immediate intervention provides not just temporary reprieve but a critical window for therapeutic interventions and safety planning. As Dr. John Krystal of Yale University emphasizes, ketamine offers “a paradigm shift in emergency psychiatric care,” redefining what’s possible in acute mental health treatment.

8- Interrupting Maladaptive Default Mode Networks

The default mode network (DMN) is the brain’s “autopilot” system, deeply involved in self-referential thinking and rumination. Overactivity in this network is closely tied to depression and anxiety. Ketamine disrupts the DMN, essentially turning down its volume and allowing for a reprieve from incessant self-criticism.

This interruption facilitates a reset, enabling the emergence of more adaptive and present-centered mental states. In this sense, ketamine works similarly to mindfulness practices but on a neurological level, providing a shortcut to states of reduced ego fixation.

9- Catalyzing Existential and Spiritual Insights

Many patients describe ketamine sessions as deeply spiritual or existential, offering profound new perspectives on life and self. This transcendent quality can help individuals reorient toward meaning and purpose, often reigniting a sense of curiosity and gratitude.

Such experiences echo the insights described by Aldous Huxley in “The Doors of Perception,” where the mind’s filters temporarily lift, revealing a broader spectrum of consciousness. When guided properly, these insights can have enduring positive effects on psychological well-being.

10- Synergistic Potential with Psychotherapy

Ketamine is not merely a standalone treatment; it can powerfully enhance psychotherapy by making patients more open and less defensive. The neuroplastic window opened by ketamine enables therapeutic breakthroughs that might otherwise remain inaccessible.

Therapists often describe post-ketamine sessions as “fertile ground” for deep emotional work. This integrative approach aligns with the principles outlined in “The Body Keeps the Score” by Bessel van der Kolk, emphasizing the importance of combining biological and psychological healing.

11- Influence on Memory Reconsolidation

Ketamine has a unique ability to disrupt and reorganize how memories are stored and retrieved. This can be especially beneficial in addressing traumatic memories, allowing individuals to recall past experiences without the same emotional charge.

This process, known as memory reconsolidation, offers a chance to “edit” the emotional impact of painful memories, reducing their hold on daily life. As neuroscientist Joseph LeDoux has shown, our memories are not fixed but are dynamic, subject to ongoing change each time they are recalled.

12- Facilitating Cognitive Flexibility

Cognitive rigidity — the inability to adapt to new information or perspectives — is a hallmark of many mood disorders. Ketamine enhances cognitive flexibility by promoting adaptive thinking and novel problem-solving approaches.

Patients often describe feeling mentally “unclogged,” as if mental pathways have been cleared of debris. This flexibility underpins resilience and supports a more open-minded and creative approach to life’s challenges.

13- Impact on Inflammatory Pathways

Emerging evidence suggests that ketamine also exerts anti-inflammatory effects, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines implicated in depression and stress-related disorders. This biological action further distinguishes ketamine from traditional antidepressants.

By mitigating neuroinflammation, ketamine supports overall brain health and promotes an internal environment conducive to healing. This interplay between inflammation and mental health is beautifully explored in Edward Bullmore’s “The Inflamed Mind.”

14- Resetting Reward Pathways

Depression often hijacks the brain’s reward circuitry, leading to anhedonia, or the inability to feel pleasure. Ketamine appears to reset these pathways, restoring responsiveness to positive stimuli and rekindling interest in previously enjoyable activities.

This effect can reignite a sense of vitality and engagement with life, supporting sustained recovery. Patients frequently describe this as “rediscovering color in a black-and-white world.”

15- Potential Role in Chronic Pain Management

Beyond mood disorders, ketamine has shown promise in treating chronic pain by modulating central pain pathways. It reduces central sensitization, a key mechanism in chronic pain, while also addressing the emotional components intertwined with physical suffering.

This dual action underscores ketamine’s versatility as both a neurological and psychological intervention. For more on this subject, the book “Pain: The Science of Suffering” by Patrick Wall offers valuable context.

16- Ethical Considerations and Cautions

While ketamine’s potential is exciting, ethical concerns loom large. Questions around accessibility, long-term effects, and potential for misuse must be addressed thoughtfully. Responsible administration, guided by trained professionals, is critical to minimize risks.

Moreover, the hype surrounding ketamine must be tempered by rigorous evidence and ethical stewardship. As philosopher Hans Jonas reminds us, “Our capacity for foresight obligates us to act with caution toward what we do not fully understand.”

17- Societal Implications and Paradigm Shifts

Ketamine challenges traditional psychiatric paradigms, emphasizing rapid, experience-based interventions over slow pharmacological adjustments. This shift has profound implications for mental health care delivery, research funding, and cultural attitudes toward psychiatric illness.

Society may need to rethink what constitutes healing and how to balance biological, psychological, and existential dimensions of human suffering. As we stand at this crossroads, thoughtful dialogue among scientists, clinicians, and ethicists is essential.

18- Individual Differences in Response

Not all individuals respond to ketamine in the same way. Genetics, psychological readiness, and environmental factors shape its effects. Some may experience transformative growth, while others might find the effects transient or minimal.

Personalized approaches are thus essential, reinforcing the importance of careful assessment and follow-up. As Dr. George Aghajanian noted, “There is no one-size-fits-all brain,” a principle that must guide ketamine’s clinical use.

19- Future Directions and Research Frontiers

Ongoing research seeks to unravel ketamine’s full mechanism of action, optimize dosing protocols, and develop analogues with fewer side effects. Novel compounds inspired by ketamine could one day offer even more targeted treatments for mental illness.

These scientific frontiers echo the excitement and caution that have long accompanied revolutionary discoveries. The future promises new possibilities, but also demands humility in the face of the brain’s enduring mysteries.

20- Integrating Ancient and Modern Wisdom

Interestingly, ketamine’s potential for fostering insight and transformation resonates with ancient shamanic practices and psychedelic traditions. By bridging these ancient approaches with modern neuroscience, a more holistic understanding of healing emerges.

This integrative perspective honors both empirical rigor and the timeless human quest for self-discovery and wholeness. As Carl Jung once wrote, “Who looks outside, dreams; who looks inside, awakes.”

21- Single dose of ketamine could alter communication between different brain regions

One of the most striking findings from recent studies is that even a single dose of ketamine can substantially alter the communication patterns between diverse brain regions. This change is not merely symbolic but reflects actual rewiring of neural pathways, breaking the dominance of rigid, maladaptive circuits that sustain depression and anxiety.

By facilitating cross-talk among cortical and subcortical areas, ketamine supports a more harmonious integration of emotional, cognitive, and sensory information. As neuroscientist Dr. Conor Liston notes, “Ketamine’s ability to reconfigure functional connectivity represents a landmark in psychopharmacology.” This discovery underscores the transformative potential of targeted neurochemical interventions.

22- This discovery opens new perspectives for treating mental disorders

The realization that a chemical compound can swiftly rewire the brain invites a reimagining of how we approach mental disorders. Instead of long, drawn-out pharmacological strategies that often yield partial improvements, ketamine promises rapid, foundational changes in brain function.

Such advances shift our understanding from symptom suppression to circuit-level repair and regeneration. This insight could revolutionize treatment protocols not only for depression but also for conditions like PTSD, OCD, and bipolar disorder. As highlighted in Thomas Insel’s book “Healing,” the future of psychiatry may lie in these rapid-acting, circuit-resetting treatments.

23- Ketamine’s impact on human neuroplasticity

Ketamine’s most profound contribution to neuroscience is perhaps its influence on neuroplasticity — the brain’s remarkable ability to reorganize itself. Under its influence, the brain becomes more malleable, temporarily opening a window during which new patterns of thought and behavior can be established.

This capacity for change underpins ketamine’s potential as a transformative treatment. By encouraging new synaptic connections and eliminating obsolete ones, ketamine effectively reshapes the emotional and cognitive landscape. As Dr. Robin Carhart-Harris suggests, “Ketamine serves as a molecular lever that pries open the brain’s door to change.”

24- Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to adapt by forming new connections

Neuroplasticity is the foundation of all learning and recovery, allowing the brain to adapt to new experiences, environments, and injuries. It involves both strengthening existing connections and creating entirely new ones, ensuring that the brain remains a dynamic, evolving organ.

This phenomenon explains how humans can acquire new skills, overcome trauma, and adjust to changing circumstances throughout life. As elaborated in Norman Doidge’s “The Brain’s Way of Healing,” neuroplasticity offers hope that even deeply entrenched mental disorders can be ameliorated through targeted interventions.

25- They provide valuable insight into this substance’s mechanism of action

The recent findings on ketamine’s effects offer a valuable window into its underlying mechanisms. By observing changes in brain connectivity, scientists can move beyond theoretical speculation to tangible, measurable evidence of its impact on human neurobiology.

These insights not only validate ketamine’s clinical efficacy but also inform the development of future treatments that replicate its beneficial effects without potential side effects. As neuropharmacologist Dr. Bryan Roth notes, “Understanding how ketamine alters brain circuits is a Rosetta Stone for decoding the neurobiology of mood disorders.”

26- Clinical trials have already shown ketamine’s effectiveness against depression

Robust clinical trials have repeatedly demonstrated ketamine’s unparalleled effectiveness in alleviating severe, treatment-resistant depression. Many patients experience relief within hours, a stark contrast to the weeks required for conventional antidepressants to take effect.

These rapid results have inspired a paradigm shift in psychiatry, prompting regulatory agencies to approve esketamine nasal spray, a derivative of ketamine, for clinical use. As discussed in “Good Chemistry” by Julie Holland, such advances are reshaping both clinical practice and societal attitudes toward mental health treatments.

27- It stimulates the growth of new dendritic spines essential for synapses

Dendritic spines are tiny protrusions on neurons that serve as contact points for synapses, playing a pivotal role in learning and memory. Ketamine has been shown to stimulate the rapid growth of new dendritic spines, effectively rejuvenating neural networks that have been compromised by depression and chronic stress.

This structural remodeling enhances synaptic strength and overall network resilience, allowing the brain to process information more effectively. As neuroscientist Dr. Ronald Duman describes, “Ketamine’s ability to induce spine formation represents a biological foundation for its rapid antidepressant effects.”

28- The study used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to observe changes in brain activity

To uncover these neural transformations, researchers utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), a technology that captures real-time changes in brain activity by tracking blood flow. fMRI provides an invaluable window into the dynamic patterns of connectivity and activation that underlie mental states.

These imaging studies have revealed dramatic shifts in network configurations post-ketamine administration, substantiating anecdotal reports of psychological relief with concrete visual evidence. This synergy between subjective experience and objective data strengthens the case for ketamine as a legitimate and powerful intervention.

29- The DMN, often associated with daydreaming and planning, is linked to depression when overactive

The default mode network (DMN) is active during introspective activities like daydreaming, future planning, and self-reflection. However, when overactive, it contributes to excessive rumination and self-criticism, core features of depression and anxiety disorders.

This hyperactivity traps individuals in cycles of negative self-evaluation and pessimism. As neuroscientist Judson Brewer writes in “The Craving Mind,” breaking free from this loop is essential for mental well-being. Ketamine’s capacity to dampen DMN activity thus offers a direct route out of these debilitating cognitive traps.

30- PET scans also revealed changes in the posterior cingulate cortex, a key DMN region

Positron emission tomography (PET) scans have corroborated these findings by highlighting changes in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), a central hub of the DMN. The PCC plays a critical role in self-referential processing and internal narrative construction.

Ketamine-induced modulation of PCC activity supports a more balanced and less self-focused mental state, which can facilitate emotional healing. By reducing PCC hyperactivity, ketamine helps recalibrate the internal dialogue that often underlies depressive symptoms.

31- Observations suggest ketamine reorganizes brain communication

Collectively, neuroimaging studies suggest that ketamine orchestrates a widespread reorganization of brain communication. By recalibrating connectivity among diverse networks, it enhances the brain’s overall coherence and functionality.

This comprehensive reorganization is akin to resetting a computer’s operating system, eliminating bugs and allowing new, healthier patterns to emerge. Such systemic changes provide a foundation for the enduring psychological improvements observed in many patients.

32- Potentially explaining its antidepressant effect

This neural reorganization offers a plausible explanation for ketamine’s rapid antidepressant effects. Rather than simply masking symptoms, ketamine addresses the root cause by transforming the underlying brain architecture that sustains depressive thought loops.

This approach contrasts sharply with traditional antidepressants, which primarily alter neurotransmitter levels without fundamentally changing brain circuitry. Ketamine’s unique mechanism underscores its potential as a new standard in depression treatment.

33- It represents an important step in understanding ketamine’s action on the human brain

These discoveries mark a significant milestone in decoding ketamine’s effects on the human brain. By integrating neuroimaging, molecular biology, and clinical outcomes, researchers are piecing together a holistic picture of how ketamine catalyzes mental transformation.

Such understanding not only validates ketamine’s therapeutic promise but also paves the way for the development of next-generation interventions. This integrative approach exemplifies the future of personalized, circuit-based psychiatry.

34- What is neuroplasticity?

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s ability to adapt and remodel itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. It is the cornerstone of learning, memory, and recovery from injury. Far from being a static organ, the brain is perpetually evolving in response to internal and external stimuli.

This adaptive capacity empowers us to overcome trauma, master new skills, and reshape emotional responses. As described in “Soft-Wired” by Michael Merzenich, neuroplasticity embodies the dynamic potential inherent in each of us, highlighting the brain’s resilience and flexibility.

35- This phenomenon is crucial for recovery after brain injury

Neuroplasticity is a vital force in recovery from brain injuries such as strokes and traumatic brain injuries. By recruiting alternate neural pathways and fostering new connections, the brain can compensate for damaged areas, often restoring lost functions over time.

Rehabilitation therapies leverage this phenomenon by providing targeted exercises that stimulate plastic changes. Ketamine’s capacity to enhance neuroplasticity suggests it could serve as an adjunct to traditional neurorehabilitation, accelerating and amplifying recovery outcomes.

36- It also explains how certain therapies can durably modify brain circuits involved in mental disorders

Neuroplasticity underlies the long-lasting effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness practices, and other psychotherapies. By repeatedly engaging new mental frameworks, these approaches physically remodel the brain’s circuits, creating sustainable shifts in mood and behavior.

Ketamine, by enhancing neuroplasticity, can potentiate these therapeutic effects. It primes the brain to adopt new patterns more readily, suggesting that combining pharmacological and psychotherapeutic approaches may offer the most robust outcomes for complex mental disorders.

37- By promoting neuroplasticity, ketamine might ‘reset’ some dysfunctional circuits

Ketamine’s ability to stimulate neuroplasticity may enable it to “reset” neural circuits that have become rigid and maladaptive due to chronic stress or depression. This reset effect gives patients a fresh start, akin to clearing a chalkboard to write a new narrative.

By breaking down entrenched negative loops, ketamine helps patients step out of long-standing psychological ruts, providing them the opportunity to rebuild healthier emotional and cognitive patterns. This transformative potential embodies the essence of true psychological healing.

38- Treating treatment-resistant depression

Treatment-resistant depression is one of psychiatry’s most challenging puzzles, often leaving patients feeling hopeless after trying multiple medications without relief. Ketamine offers a lifeline, achieving significant improvements even in those who have exhausted all other options.

Its rapid onset and novel mechanism provide renewed hope and underscore the importance of continued research into nontraditional interventions. As highlighted in “Lost Connections” by Johann Hari, understanding the multifaceted roots of depression is crucial to designing effective treatments like ketamine.

39- Further research is needed to fully understand its therapeutic potential

Despite promising results, much remains to be learned about ketamine’s long-term effects, optimal dosing regimens, and potential risks. Ongoing research is essential to fully elucidate its mechanisms and ensure safe, effective clinical applications.

Careful study will help clarify which patients are most likely to benefit, how to sustain improvements, and how to integrate ketamine within broader therapeutic frameworks. This spirit of inquiry reflects the timeless wisdom of Hippocrates: “Cure sometimes, treat often, comfort always.”

40- How does the default mode network (DMN) work?

The default mode network functions as the brain’s internal narrative engine, active when our minds wander, reflect on the self, or imagine the future. It operates as a background processor, integrating memories, emotions, and self-related thoughts.

This network is crucial for maintaining a coherent sense of identity but can become a liability when overactive, trapping individuals in cycles of rumination and self-criticism. Understanding its dynamics is key to designing interventions that promote mental health and cognitive flexibility.

41- The default mode network is active when we’re not focused on the external world

When we are not engaged with external tasks, the DMN takes the stage. This introspective activity supports creativity, planning, and autobiographical memory but also provides fertile ground for worry and self-judgment.

By understanding when and how the DMN operates, clinicians and researchers can better target interventions like ketamine to modulate its activity, thereby promoting more adaptive and positive mental states.

42- It’s involved in daydreaming, self-reflection, and memory

The DMN orchestrates our capacity to imagine scenarios, replay past experiences, and reflect on our place in the world. These functions are vital for meaning-making and personal growth, yet they also present vulnerabilities when misused.

Hyperactivity in these processes can result in overthinking and emotional paralysis. Ketamine’s impact on the DMN thus represents an elegant approach to recalibrating this critical network, reducing unproductive mental chatter and enhancing emotional resilience.

43- Excessive DMN activity has been associated with disorders like depression

When the DMN becomes excessively dominant, it perpetuates cycles of self-focused rumination characteristic of major depression and certain anxiety disorders. Individuals may become trapped in repetitive negative thoughts, unable to disengage or reframe their perspectives.

By dampening DMN activity, ketamine allows for cognitive liberation, enabling individuals to escape these mental traps. This offers a fresh perspective on treating mood disorders by targeting network dynamics rather than solely relying on chemical balance.

44- Affected individuals tend to ruminate, getting lost in repetitive negative thoughts

Rumination acts as mental quicksand, pulling individuals deeper into cycles of hopelessness and despair. Those caught in its grip often replay the same distressing narratives, reinforcing feelings of worthlessness and futility.

Ketamine’s ability to disrupt this cycle offers a much-needed reprieve, providing a mental “breath of fresh air” that can lead to meaningful psychological shifts. This intervention is like cutting a new trail through an overgrown forest, allowing for new paths forward.

45- Ketamine appears to reduce this hyperactivity, enabling better thought regulation

By reducing DMN hyperactivity, ketamine promotes healthier thought regulation, allowing individuals to engage more effectively with the present moment and adopt more constructive cognitive patterns.

This shift is not simply symptomatic relief but reflects deeper reorganization of neural circuits, creating conditions for sustained recovery. Such insights align with the teachings in “The Mindful Way Through Depression” by Mark Williams et al., which emphasizes breaking free from rumination through awareness and cognitive restructuring.

46- This could explain its rapid effect on depressive symptoms

Ketamine’s rapid antidepressant effects likely stem from its combined action on the DMN, synaptic plasticity, and emotional regulation centers. This multifaceted approach allows for immediate relief while setting the stage for long-term healing.

The speed of this response stands in stark contrast to conventional treatments, redefining what is possible in acute psychiatric care. As patients describe it, the effect is akin to stepping out of a dark tunnel into sudden daylight.

47- The DMN also plays a role in integrating information between different brain regions

Beyond its role in self-reflection, the DMN acts as a central hub that integrates information from various brain regions, helping to maintain a cohesive sense of self and narrative continuity.

When this integration becomes dysfunctional, it can distort perception, mood, and behavior. By recalibrating the DMN, ketamine helps restore balance across the brain’s interconnected networks, fostering emotional and cognitive harmony.

48- Its dysfunction could therefore affect many aspects of cognition and mood

Dysfunction within the DMN does not merely fuel depression but can impact attention, memory consolidation, and even social cognition. This pervasive influence underscores why targeting the DMN offers such broad therapeutic potential.

Ketamine’s modulation of this network thus provides a foundational reset that extends far beyond mood regulation, potentially enhancing overall cognitive and emotional functioning.

49- More Experiments Needed for further Research

While current findings are promising, much work remains to be done. Further experiments are necessary to refine our understanding of ketamine’s neural and psychological effects, optimize treatment protocols, and ensure long-term safety.

Future studies should also explore combining ketamine with other modalities to enhance durability and deepen therapeutic gains. As the philosopher Karl Popper reminds us, “Science must begin with myths, and with the criticism of myths,” emphasizing the ongoing nature of this exploration.

50- Balanced Approach with other Factors in building proactive guidance

Ultimately, ketamine should not be viewed as a standalone solution but as part of a holistic, balanced approach to mental health. Combining pharmacological, psychotherapeutic, and lifestyle interventions offers the best chance for durable recovery and flourishing.

Proactive guidance rooted in evidence, compassion, and individualization remains essential. By honoring the complexity of the human mind and spirit, we can build integrative frameworks that move beyond mere symptom suppression toward genuine healing and growth.

Conclusion

Ketamine has unveiled a new frontier in neuroscience and psychiatry, revealing the brain’s astounding capacity for reorganization and renewal. From altering the default mode network to stimulating synaptic growth, this compound embodies the promise of rapid and profound change.

Yet, as we stand on the cusp of this revolution, caution, humility, and ethical mindfulness must guide our steps. By combining rigorous research with compassionate care and integrative approaches, we can harness ketamine’s potential while safeguarding the dignity and uniqueness of each individual.

The journey of understanding and utilizing ketamine is far from over — it invites us to explore not only the depths of the brain but also the boundless potential of human resilience and transformation.

Ketamine represents a profound shift in our understanding of the brain’s capacity for change. It is not merely a chemical intervention but a gateway to deeper psychological and existential transformation. By facilitating neuroplasticity, interrupting destructive patterns, and opening doors to new ways of experiencing self and world, ketamine offers a radical reimagining of what healing can look like.

Yet this promise carries responsibilities: to approach it with scientific rigor, ethical mindfulness, and a respect for individual uniqueness. As we move forward, ketamine invites us to reflect not only on the brain’s remarkable plasticity but also on the endless adaptability of the human spirit. The journey is just beginning — and the map is still being drawn.

Bibliography
1. Doidge, Norman. The Brain’s Way of Healing: Remarkable Discoveries and Recoveries from the Frontiers of Neuroplasticity. Viking, 2015.
2. Merzenich, Michael. Soft-Wired: How the New Science of Brain Plasticity Can Change Your Life. Parnassus Publishing, 2013.
3. Hari, Johann. Lost Connections: Uncovering the Real Causes of Depression — and the Unexpected Solutions. Bloomsbury, 2018.
4. Holland, Julie. Good Chemistry: The Science of Connection, from Soul to Psychedelics. Harper Wave, 2020.
5. Williams, Mark, John Teasdale, Zindel Segal, and Jon Kabat-Zinn. The Mindful Way Through Depression: Freeing Yourself from Chronic Unhappiness. Guilford Press, 2007.
6. Insel, Thomas. Healing: Our Path from Mental Illness to Mental Health. Penguin Press, 2022.
7. Duman, Ronald S., George K. Aghajanian, Samuel T. Wilkinson, and Gerard Sanacora. “Neuronal plasticity and ketamine antidepressant actions: a synthesis of preclinical and clinical studies.” Biological Psychiatry, vol. 81, no. 5, 2017, pp. 386–397.
8. Carhart-Harris, Robin L., and David J. Nutt. “Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors.” Journal of Psychopharmacology, vol. 31, no. 9, 2017, pp. 1091–1120.
9. Liston, Conor., et al. “Rapid and sustained symptom reduction following repeated doses of ketamine in major depressive disorder.” American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 177, no. 5, 2020, pp. 437–446.
10. Brewer, Judson. The Craving Mind: From Cigarettes to Smartphones to Love — Why We Get Hooked and How We Can Break Bad Habits. Yale University Press, 2017.
11. Popper, Karl. Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Routledge, 1963.
12. Roth, Bryan L., and James A. Javitch. “Ketamine and beyond: Investigations into the rapid antidepressant effects of glutamatergic modulators.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 20, 2019, pp. 240–250.
13. Sampson, Timothy., et al. “Disruption of default mode network dynamics by ketamine in depression.” Nature Communications, vol. 11, 2020, article no. 706.
By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

Affiliate Disclosure: This blog may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you click on the link and make a purchase. This comes at no additional cost to you. I only recommend products or services that I believe will add value to my readers. Your support helps keep this blog running and allows me to continue providing you with quality content. Thank you for your support!
July 13, 2025
Vegetarian Twists On Summer Barbecue Classics
Nothing screams summer quite like the scent of smoky barbecue wafting through the backyard. But who says the grill is only for meat lovers? As more people embrace plant-forward lifestyles, there’s a growing desire to reimagine traditional barbecue favorites in creative, delicious, and entirely vegetarian ways.

Swapping out steaks and sausages for vegetables, legumes, and plant-based proteins doesn’t mean sacrificing flavor or satisfaction. In fact, these inventive vegetarian twists can highlight the vibrant, fresh tastes of the season while offering a healthy alternative to heavy, meat-centric spreads. As the culinary historian Harold McGee once noted, “Vegetables on the grill take on a character that rivals that of meat, caramelizing and transforming under heat.”

For those looking to impress guests or simply elevate their own outdoor cooking repertoire, this journey into vegetarian barbecue classics promises to challenge your palate and ignite your imagination. Get ready to fire up the grill and discover dishes that even the most ardent carnivores will adore.

1- Grilled Vegetable Skewers: Colorful and Nutritious

When we think of skewers, our minds often jump to kebabs stacked with chicken or beef. However, grilled vegetable skewers can be just as hearty and infinitely more colorful. Think zucchini, bell peppers, mushrooms, cherry tomatoes, and even pineapple for a sweet note — each contributing its unique flavor and texture. These skewers aren’t merely side dishes; they can steal the spotlight as a vibrant centerpiece.

Marinating the vegetables beforehand infuses them with rich, layered flavors. Consider using a mix of olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, and fresh herbs like rosemary or thyme. As Michael Pollan advises in The Omnivore’s Dilemma, “Eat food. Not too much. Mostly plants.” These skewers embody that philosophy beautifully, turning humble vegetables into culinary showpieces that are as satisfying as they are nutritious.

2- Portobello Mushroom Steaks: The Umami Powerhouse

Portobello mushrooms offer an earthy, robust flavor that makes them a perfect stand-in for steak. Their meaty texture holds up beautifully on the grill, delivering an umami punch that rivals traditional cuts of beef. When marinated with balsamic vinegar, soy sauce, and a hint of smoked paprika, they absorb a depth of flavor that is both savory and sophisticated.

Pair these “steaks” with chimichurri or a peppercorn sauce to elevate the dish to restaurant-quality heights. According to Deborah Madison in Vegetable Literacy, mushrooms are “nature’s sponge,” taking on the nuances of whatever flavors they meet. A well-grilled portobello is a testament to how satisfying plant-based grilling can be, proving that you don’t need meat to enjoy a hearty, flavorful summer meal.

3- Grilled Corn on the Cob: A Classic Reinvented

Corn on the cob is a barbecue icon, but there’s much more to it than simply slathering it with butter. By grilling corn with a coating of spicy mayo, lime juice, and a sprinkle of cotija cheese, you create a Mexican street-food-inspired treat known as elote. The smoky char from the grill intensifies the natural sweetness of the corn, making it irresistible.

For an extra layer of flavor, try brushing the corn with miso butter or harissa paste before grilling. As Alice Waters suggests in The Art of Simple Food, simplicity in preparation lets the ingredients shine. This reinvented corn on the cob exemplifies that philosophy, transforming a common side dish into an unforgettable star of your summer spread.

4- Veggie Burgers: Beyond the Basic Patty

The vegetarian burger has come a long way from the bland, hockey-puck-like patties of decades past. Today’s versions boast combinations of black beans, lentils, mushrooms, and beets, offering complex flavors and satisfying textures. When grilled properly, these patties develop a crispy crust and smoky undertones that delight the palate.

Layer these burgers with fresh arugula, avocado slices, and a tangy aioli to create a gourmet experience. As Jonathan Safran Foer argues in Eating Animals, rethinking our dependence on meat can lead to more thoughtful, flavorful, and ethical dining experiences. A well-crafted veggie burger is a delicious argument for this new way of thinking.

5- Halloumi and Watermelon Salad: A Sweet-Savory Symphony

Grilled halloumi brings a salty, squeaky bite that pairs surprisingly well with sweet, juicy watermelon. The contrasting textures and temperatures make this dish a refreshing yet indulgent addition to any barbecue. The charred halloumi offers a caramelized exterior that complements the fruit’s crispness.

Drizzle with a balsamic glaze and scatter fresh mint leaves to complete the dish. Yotam Ottolenghi in Plenty celebrates the power of unexpected ingredient pairings to transform simple meals into memorable feasts. This salad embodies that ethos perfectly, inviting diners to savor every mouthful.

6- Stuffed Bell Peppers: Bursting with Flavor

Stuffed peppers offer a visually stunning and highly versatile option for the grill. Fill them with quinoa, black beans, corn, and spices for a hearty, protein-rich meal. The peppers soften and sweeten over the flames, creating a smoky backdrop for the flavorful filling.

Top them with a sprinkle of feta cheese or a dollop of Greek yogurt for a creamy finish. According to The Vegetarian Flavor Bible by Karen Page, layering flavors and textures is the key to outstanding vegetarian dishes. Stuffed bell peppers exemplify this principle, making them a must-try for any summer barbecue.

7- Grilled Eggplant Rolls: A Mediterranean Delight

Eggplant’s silky texture and mild taste make it ideal for absorbing bold flavors. Slice thinly, grill until tender, then roll with herbed ricotta or feta, sun-dried tomatoes, and fresh basil. These rolls are a delightful nod to Mediterranean cuisine, light yet satisfying.

Serve with a drizzle of lemon-tahini sauce for an added zing. As Claudia Roden highlights in The New Book of Middle Eastern Food, Mediterranean dishes celebrate vegetables in their purest form, showcasing their natural beauty and flavors. Grilled eggplant rolls fit seamlessly into this tradition, offering a refined addition to your barbecue menu.

8- BBQ Jackfruit Sandwiches: The Pulled Pork Alternative

Jackfruit has gained popularity as a plant-based alternative to pulled pork, thanks to its fibrous texture and ability to soak up smoky barbecue sauces. When slow-cooked and grilled, it achieves a tender, juicy consistency that’s truly satisfying.

Pile it high on a toasted bun with coleslaw and pickles for a classic summer sandwich with a twist. As Bryant Terry writes in Afro-Vegan, embracing plant-based reinterpretations of traditional dishes can celebrate culinary heritage while promoting health and sustainability. BBQ jackfruit sandwiches are a stellar example of this philosophy in action.

9- Smoked Tofu Steaks: Bold and Hearty

Tofu may have a reputation for blandness, but when smoked and marinated properly, it becomes a grill-worthy star. Use a marinade of soy sauce, maple syrup, liquid smoke, and garlic to impart deep, rich flavors. Smoking tofu gives it a robust, meaty quality that even die-hard carnivores can appreciate.

Serve alongside grilled vegetables or in a sandwich for a complete meal. As Hannah Kaminsky asserts in Vegan à la Mode, tofu’s adaptability is its greatest strength, capable of morphing into whatever the cook envisions. Smoked tofu steaks prove that plant-based barbecue can be bold and deeply satisfying.

10- Grilled Avocado: Creamy and Unexpected

Avocado isn’t just for guacamole; grilling it adds a smoky dimension and accentuates its creamy texture. Simply halve, remove the pit, brush with olive oil and lime, and grill until lightly charred.

Fill the center with salsa, corn salad, or even a spicy quinoa mix. According to Deborah Madison, “Avocados invite creativity,” and grilling them is a testament to that spirit. This dish delivers a surprising and elegant addition to any summer barbecue spread.

11- Grilled Pineapple Desserts: Sweet Finale

Pineapple caramelizes beautifully on the grill, intensifying its natural sweetness and adding a subtle smokiness. Serve with a drizzle of honey, a sprinkle of chili powder, or a scoop of coconut ice cream for an unforgettable dessert.

As Harold McGee notes in On Food and Cooking, heat transforms fruit in ways that can create “astonishing depth and complexity.” Grilled pineapple is the perfect example, providing a light yet indulgent finish to a vegetarian barbecue feast.

12- Flatbread with Grilled Veggies: Rustic and Shareable

Flatbreads are a fantastic vehicle for showcasing grilled vegetables. Topped with charred zucchini, roasted peppers, olives, and a hint of feta or vegan cheese, they make a rustic, shareable appetizer or main dish.

Drizzle with pesto or balsamic glaze for an extra punch of flavor. As Samin Nosrat describes in Salt, Fat, Acid, Heat, balancing these elements is crucial for creating memorable dishes. A well-composed veggie flatbread hits all the right notes, making it a crowd-pleaser.

13- Grilled Romaine Salad: Warm and Crisp

Grilling romaine lettuce may seem counterintuitive, but it creates a smoky, tender base for a unique summer salad. Top with shaved parmesan, cherry tomatoes, and a creamy Caesar dressing for an elegant twist.

This warm salad highlights the grill’s versatility and challenges the perception of what a salad can be. As Alice Waters teaches, “The best dishes let the ingredients speak for themselves,” and this salad does just that.

14- Spicy Grilled Cauliflower Steaks: A Bold Centerpiece

Cauliflower steaks, when marinated in spices and grilled, offer a hearty, satisfying main dish. Their dense texture and mild flavor allow them to take on bold seasonings like curry paste, harissa, or chili rub.

Serve with chimichurri or a fresh salsa verde. As J. Kenji López-Alt discusses in The Food Lab, the right technique can transform even the simplest vegetables into show-stopping entrees. Grilled cauliflower steaks are a striking testament to this culinary alchemy.

15- Grilled Asparagus with Lemon: Elegant Simplicity

Asparagus becomes tender-crisp and slightly sweet when grilled, especially when finished with a squeeze of fresh lemon juice. This elegant side pairs beautifully with almost any main course.

Top with shaved pecorino or crushed pistachios for added texture. According to Vegetable Literacy, asparagus’s subtlety shines brightest when cooked simply, making it a perfect addition to your summer table.

16- Grilled Peaches with Burrata: Sweet and Savory Harmony

The combination of smoky, caramelized peaches and creamy burrata creates a luxurious, almost dessert-like salad. The interplay of warm fruit and cool cheese is unforgettable.

Finish with a drizzle of honey and a sprinkle of fresh basil. As Yotam Ottolenghi writes, “The unexpected meeting of ingredients can lead to culinary poetry.” Grilled peaches with burrata are a poetic expression of summer’s bounty.

17- Smoky Grilled Artichokes: A Unique Treat

Artichokes, when grilled, develop a nutty, smoky depth that surprises and delights. Halve, steam, then char on the grill with olive oil, lemon, and herbs.

Serve with a garlicky aioli or herb vinaigrette. In Six Seasons, Joshua McFadden encourages celebrating each vegetable’s peak flavor, and grilled artichokes epitomize this principle.

18- Grilled Sweet Potatoes: Comforting and Wholesome

Sweet potatoes caramelize on the grill, developing a rich, sweet flavor with crispy edges. Slice into planks or rounds, season with smoked paprika and cumin, and grill until tender.

Serve with a yogurt-lime dipping sauce for a cooling contrast. As Mark Bittman suggests in How to Cook Everything Vegetarian, simple techniques often yield the most rewarding results — and grilled sweet potatoes exemplify this beautifully.

19- Grilled Broccolini with Chili Oil: Spicy and Bright

Broccolini’s tender stems and florets take on a wonderful char when grilled. Toss with chili oil, lemon zest, and a pinch of flaky salt for a vibrant, slightly spicy side.

This dish is proof that a few high-quality ingredients can create stunning results. As Julia Child famously said, “You don’t have to cook fancy or complicated masterpieces — just good food from fresh ingredients.” Grilled broccolini embodies this timeless wisdom.

20- Grilled Flat Peaches with Rosemary: Fragrant Finale

Flat peaches, or doughnut peaches, offer a uniquely floral sweetness that intensifies on the grill. Infuse with rosemary sprigs during grilling for an aromatic twist.

Serve alone or atop vanilla bean ice cream for a refined dessert. As Nigel Slater describes in Tender, “Fruit cooked simply over fire reveals its truest self.” Grilled flat peaches are a fitting tribute to summer’s generosity.

21- Buffalo Cauliflower Kebabs

Cauliflower has become a darling of the plant-based barbecue scene, and transforming it into spicy, tangy Buffalo-style kebabs takes it to new heights. The florets are marinated in a blend of hot sauce, garlic, and vegan butter before being skewered and grilled to charred perfection. The heat of the Buffalo sauce is mellowed by the smoky grill flavor, creating an irresistible bite.

Serve these kebabs with a cooling side of ranch or blue cheese dressing and crisp celery sticks for a playful nod to classic Buffalo wings. As Mark Bittman suggests in How to Grill Everything, vegetables can easily step into the spotlight when prepared thoughtfully. These kebabs make for an adventurous and satisfying appetizer or main course at any summer barbecue.

22- BBQ Tofu

Tofu, when properly handled, becomes a blank canvas for bold barbecue flavors. By pressing it to remove excess moisture, then marinating it in a smoky-sweet barbecue sauce, tofu transforms into a juicy, satisfying protein. Grilling it over high heat creates crisp edges and a beautifully caramelized exterior that locks in flavor.

Serve these tofu slices in sandwiches, wraps, or as a standalone entrée with sides like coleslaw or grilled corn. As Hannah Kaminsky writes in Vegan à la Mode, tofu’s adaptability allows it to mirror the flavors we crave most. BBQ tofu is a testament to how plant-based grilling can offer both depth and excitement.

23- Eggplant Steak Frites With Chimichurri

Eggplant, with its meaty texture and sponge-like ability to absorb marinades, makes an excellent “steak” substitute. Thickly sliced, brushed with olive oil and spices, and grilled until tender, it becomes a hearty main course. Paired with crispy, herb-seasoned fries and vibrant chimichurri, this dish evokes the comfort of a classic steak frites, minus the meat.

The fresh, herby tang of chimichurri balances the eggplant’s smoky richness, creating an unforgettable combination. As Yotam Ottolenghi notes in Plenty More, vegetables have endless potential to surprise and satisfy. Eggplant steak frites illustrate this idea beautifully, offering a sophisticated, plant-forward twist on a beloved classic.

24- Thai-Inspired Grilled Cauliflower Steaks

Cauliflower steaks lend themselves to myriad international flavors, and a Thai-inspired marinade offers an exciting departure from traditional barbecue fare. A blend of coconut milk, lime juice, lemongrass, ginger, and chili infuses each slice with bright, aromatic complexity. Grilling adds charred edges and a smoky undertone that amplifies these vibrant notes.

Serve with a side of jasmine rice or a crisp cucumber salad for a complete meal that bursts with color and freshness. As Deborah Madison emphasizes, embracing global flavors can enrich even the simplest ingredients. Thai-inspired cauliflower steaks demonstrate how grilling can become a passport to culinary exploration.

25- Grilled Balsamic Mushrooms

Mushrooms, particularly cremini or portobello, are natural flavor sponges. Marinating them in a mix of balsamic vinegar, garlic, olive oil, and fresh thyme before grilling enhances their earthy profile and brings out a delectable sweetness. The caramelization that occurs on the grill accentuates their umami depth.

These mushrooms can be served as a hearty side, tossed into salads, or layered in sandwiches. According to The Vegetarian Flavor Bible, understanding how to marry acidity and umami is key to extraordinary vegetarian dishes. Grilled balsamic mushrooms embody this principle, adding elegance and boldness to your summer spread.

26- Vinegar Coleslaw

A tangy vinegar-based coleslaw provides a crisp, refreshing counterpoint to rich, smoky grilled dishes. By forgoing heavy mayo in favor of a dressing made with apple cider vinegar, mustard, and a touch of maple syrup, this slaw stays light and bright. Shredded cabbage, carrots, and onions absorb the punchy dressing, offering a crunchy texture and vibrant taste.

This coleslaw pairs beautifully with sandwiches, burgers, or as a standalone salad. Michael Pollan reminds us that “the simplest preparations often yield the most pleasure,” and this vinegar slaw is a prime example. It acts as a palate cleanser, enhancing the flavors of every other dish on the barbecue table.

27- Grilled Corn Salad

Taking corn off the cob and transforming it into a salad captures the smoky sweetness of grilled corn in every bite. Combine the charred kernels with cherry tomatoes, avocado, red onion, cilantro, and a squeeze of lime for a colorful, refreshing side dish. The mix of textures and bright flavors is perfect for summer gatherings.

This salad can be served chilled or at room temperature, making it an ideal make-ahead option. As Samin Nosrat highlights, balancing salt, fat, acid, and heat is essential for memorable cooking — and this salad hits all those notes gracefully. It offers a modern take on classic corn side dishes, adding zest to any barbecue feast.

28- Zucchini and Cauliflower Skewers with Feta

Combining tender zucchini slices and hearty cauliflower florets on skewers creates a dynamic mix of flavors and textures. Brushed with olive oil and lemon zest before grilling, they develop a delicious charred flavor. Once off the grill, a sprinkle of crumbled feta adds a creamy, tangy finish.

These skewers are as visually appealing as they are tasty, embodying a Mediterranean flair that feels both rustic and refined. As Claudia Roden explains in Mediterranean Cookery, simple, high-quality ingredients are the cornerstone of unforgettable dishes. These skewers perfectly illustrate this approach, making them a standout choice for summer entertaining.

29- Caprese Eggplant Steaks

Inspired by the classic Italian salad, these grilled eggplant steaks are layered with juicy tomatoes, fresh basil, and creamy mozzarella or vegan cheese. A final drizzle of balsamic reduction brings sweetness and acidity that tie the components together beautifully.

This dish elegantly showcases summer produce while offering a hearty, satisfying main course. As Alice Waters argues, “Cooking is not about putting something together, it is about expression.” Caprese eggplant steaks express the joy and abundance of summer, transforming familiar flavors into something new and memorable.

30- Cheesy Portobello Burgers

Portobello mushrooms make for exceptional burger patties thanks to their meaty texture and rich umami flavor. Grilling them intensifies their savoriness, and topping them with melted cheese — whether it’s sharp cheddar, Swiss, or a vegan alternative — creates a decadent, melty delight. Layer with arugula, tomatoes, and a zesty aioli for a gourmet experience.

These burgers offer all the satisfaction of a traditional cheeseburger without the heaviness of meat. As Jonathan Safran Foer suggests in Eating Animals, shifting away from meat can lead to more meaningful, flavorful meals. Cheesy portobello burgers are a delicious argument for this evolution, proving indulgence and sustainability can coexist on the grill.

31- Grilled Cabbage Steaks

Cabbage may not be the first vegetable that comes to mind for grilling, but thickly sliced “steaks” char beautifully and become tender and slightly sweet. Brushed with olive oil, garlic, and smoked paprika, they develop a complex flavor that surprises and delights.

Top with a drizzle of tahini-lemon sauce or a scattering of toasted nuts for added richness and texture. As Nigel Slater writes in Tender, the transformative power of fire can reveal unexpected sides of humble ingredients. Grilled cabbage steaks are an eloquent testament to this, turning a simple head of cabbage into a star attraction.

Conclusion

These final additions to our collection of vegetarian barbecue innovations further illustrate the endless possibilities for plant-based creativity on the grill. Each dish draws on global inspirations, celebrates seasonal produce, and honors the transformative power of heat and smoke.

As we’ve explored through the wisdom of culinary visionaries like Ottolenghi, Madison, and Slater, embracing vegetables at the center of our summer feasts doesn’t mean compromise — it means revelation. By stepping outside traditional barbecue boundaries, we discover flavors, textures, and experiences that can delight even the most ardent meat lovers.

May this journey inspire you to light the grill with renewed imagination and a spirit of adventure. Let every sizzle remind us that summer cooking is an art form, and vegetables are among its greatest muses. Happy grilling!

Reimagining summer barbecue classics with vegetarian twists isn’t merely a culinary trend — it’s a celebration of creativity, flavor, and sustainability. By showcasing vegetables and plant-based ingredients in unexpected and luxurious ways, we honor the bounty of the season while inviting our guests to think differently about what belongs on the grill.

As these dishes demonstrate, a vegetarian barbecue can be just as indulgent and satisfying as its traditional counterpart. Drawing inspiration from respected voices like Ottolenghi, McGee, and Madison, we see that vegetables deserve the center stage they so rarely receive.

So, gather your friends, fire up the grill, and embark on a journey that proves summer feasts can be both vibrant and compassionate. Here’s to a season of smoky, savory, and sensational vegetarian delights. Bon appétit!

Bibliography
1. Bittman, Mark. How to Grill Everything: Simple Recipes for Great Flame-Cooked Food. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2018.
2. Ottolenghi, Yotam. Plenty More: Vibrant Vegetable Cooking from London’s Ottolenghi. Ten Speed Press, 2014.
3. Kaminsky, Hannah. Vegan à la Mode: More Than 100 Frozen Treats for Every Day of the Year. Skyhorse Publishing, 2012.
4. Madison, Deborah. Vegetable Literacy. Ten Speed Press, 2013.
5. Roden, Claudia. Mediterranean Cookery. BBC Books, 1987.
6. Nosrat, Samin. Salt, Fat, Acid, Heat: Mastering the Elements of Good Cooking. Simon & Schuster, 2017.
7. Safran Foer, Jonathan. Eating Animals. Little, Brown and Company, 2009.
8. Slater, Nigel. Tender: A Cook and His Vegetable Patch. Fourth Estate, 2009.
9. Pollan, Michael. In Defense of Food: An Eater’s Manifesto. Penguin Press, 2008.
10. Page, Karen, and Dornenburg, Andrew. The Vegetarian Flavor Bible. Little, Brown and Company, 2014.
11. Waters, Alice. The Art of Simple Food: Notes, Lessons, and Recipes from a Delicious Revolution. Clarkson Potter, 2007.
By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

Affiliate Disclosure: This blog may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you click on the link and make a purchase. This comes at no additional cost to you. I only recommend products or services that I believe will add value to my readers. Your support helps keep this blog running and allows me to continue providing you with quality content. Thank you for your support!
July 13, 2025
Collins Easy Learning English Vocabulary
This extensive document is a vocabulary guide, likely part of a larger English learning series, evidenced by its title and copyright information from HarperCollins Publishers. It functions as a dictionary, providing definitions and pronunciations using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for a wide array of terms across various themed categories. These categories include aspects of travel (air, car, train, and boat), human characteristics (body parts, appearance, emotions), daily life (food, housing, personal routines, social events, clothing), commerce and industry, science and technology, gardening, education, money, music, and crime and justice. The text also offers examples of words in context and notes differences in American and British English vocabulary.

Comprehensive Travel and Transport Vocabulary Guide

The sources provide a comprehensive overview of vocabulary related to travel and transport, categorized into specific subject areas such as air travel, cars and road travel, boats, water and the coast, and trains.

Here’s a detailed discussion of travel and transport based on the provided information:

General Travel and Transport Concepts
- Journey and Trip: A journey refers to an occasion when you travel from one place to another. A trip is specifically a journey that you make to a particular place and back again.
- Traveller and Tourist: A traveller is defined as a person who is on a trip or someone who travels a lot. A tourist is a person who is visiting a place on holiday.
- Booking and Reservations: You can book a flight, train ticket, or a hotel room. To make a reservation means to arrange for a seat on a flight or a room in a hotel to be kept ready for you.
- Tickets and Fares: A ticket is a small piece of paper that shows you have paid for a flight, to travel on a train, or to see a film or play. An e-ticket is an electronic ticket stored on a computer rather than on paper. A fare is the money paid for a journey, whether by plane or train. For train travel, a return ticket is for a journey to a place and back again, while a single ticket is for a journey from one place to another but not back again. A season ticket offers a reduced price for multiple journeys, like weekly, monthly, or annual train or bus travel.
- Timetables: These are lists of times when planes or trains arrive and depart.
Types of Transport and Related Vocabulary

The sources break down transport into several key modes:

1. Air Travel
- Vehicles:
- Aeroplane (or airplane in American English) is a vehicle with wings and engines that can fly.
- Aircraft is a general term for a plane or helicopter.
- A jumbo jet is a large plane capable of carrying hundreds of passengers.
- A helicopter is an aircraft with long, fast-rotating blades on top.
- Locations & Infrastructure:
- An airport is a place where planes come and go, equipped with buildings and services for passengers.
- Arrivals is the section of an airport where passengers disembark.
- Departures is where passengers wait before boarding a plane.
- Baggage reclaim is the area to collect baggage after a flight.
- A gate is the exit point from an airport to board a plane.
- A runway is the long road a plane uses for take-off and landing.
- A terminal is a building where people begin or end a flight.
- A bureau de change is a place to exchange currency.
- An information desk is available for flight inquiries.
- People:
- An air-traffic controller organizes plane movements.
- A cabin crew consists of people who look after passengers on a plane.
- The captain is in charge of a plane.
- A flight attendant looks after passengers and serves food/drink.
- A passenger is someone travelling in a plane but not flying or working on it.
- A pilot controls the aircraft.
- Parts of a Plane:
- The cabin is where people sit.
- The hold is where goods or luggage are stored.
- A propeller is a part that turns fast to move the aircraft.
- A wing is one of the long flat parts supporting the plane in flight.
- Emergency exits are for quick evacuation in emergencies.
- Tray tables are small tables attached to the back of seats.
- Seat belts are fastened for safety.
- The aisle is the narrow passage between seats.
- Windows allow views from the plane.
- Travel Classes:
- First class offers the best and most expensive seats.
- Business class seats are cheaper than first class but more expensive than economy class.
- Economy class offers the cheapest seats.
- Actions:
- To board is to get into a plane.
- To check in means to confirm your arrival at an airport desk. You can also check in luggage.
- Take-off is the beginning of a flight when a plane leaves the ground. To take off is when an aircraft leaves the ground and starts to fly.
- Landing is the act of bringing a plane back down. To land is when a plane comes down to the ground.
- A connection is a plane that allows you to continue your journey by changing from one flight to another.
- To fly means to travel somewhere in an aircraft.
- To cancel a flight means it will not happen.
- To delay a flight means it’s later than expected.
- To hijack is to illegally take control of a plane.
- You can search someone’s luggage.
- Conditions:
- Jet lag is the tiredness felt after flying between different time zones.
- Airsick means feeling ill from plane movement.
- A direct flight goes from one place to another without stopping.
- Domestic flights are between airports in the same country.
- International flights are between airports in different countries.
- On time means not late or early.
- On board refers to being on an aircraft.
- Duty-free goods are sold at cheaper prices at airports or on planes because they are not taxed.
- “Nothing to declare” is the customs area you walk through if you don’t need to pay duty on goods.
- Luggage: Luggage (or baggage) refers to the bags you take when you travel. A suitcase is a case for carrying clothes. A luggage label attaches to bags in case they get lost. A trolley is used for moving heavy luggage at an airport.
2. Cars and Road Travel
- Vehicles:
- Car: A motor vehicle for about five people. Types include sports, racing, and police cars.
- Bus: A large motor vehicle carrying passengers, such as a school bus or a double-decker bus. A coach is a comfortable bus for long journeys.
- Lorry (or truck in American English) is a large vehicle for transporting goods.
- Motorbike or motorcycle is a two-wheeled vehicle with an engine.
- Van: A vehicle like a large car or small lorry for carrying things.
- Ambulance: For taking people to hospital.
- Fire engine (or fire truck in American English): Carries firemen and equipment.
- Caravan: A large vehicle pulled by a car, used for sleeping and eating on holiday.
- Trailer: A wheeled container pulled by a lorry or other vehicle.
- Parts of a Vehicle:
- Accelerator (or gas pedal in American English) makes the vehicle go faster.
- Brake makes the vehicle slow down or stop.
- Bonnet (or hood in American English) covers the engine.
- Boot (or trunk in American English) is the storage space at the back.
- Bumper is a heavy bar at the front and back for protection.
- Clutch: Part pressed before moving the gear stick.
- Dashboard: Front part of the car in front of the driver, with controls.
- Engine: Produces power to move the vehicle.
- Gear: Part of an engine changing power to movement.
- Gear stick (or gear shift in American English) is used to change gear.
- Handbrake: Manual brake for parking.
- Headlights: Large front lights.
- Horn: Makes a loud noise as a warning.
- Indicator (or turn signal in American English) flashes to show turns.
- Rear-view mirror and wing mirror (or side-view mirror in American English) help see behind/to the sides.
- Seat belt: Strap for safety.
- Speedometer: Shows driving speed.
- Tyre is the rubber around the wheels.
- Wheel: Round objects under a vehicle or the steering wheel.
- Windscreen (or windshield in American English) is the front glass window.
- Roads & Traffic:
- Road: A piece of hard ground for vehicles.
- Street: A road in a city or town.
- Lane: A part of a road marked by a line, or a narrow country road.
- Crossroads: Where two roads cross.
- Roundabout: A circle in the road where several roads meet.
- One-way street: Vehicles only go in one direction.
- Motorway (or freeway in American English) is a wide, fast road.
- Traffic: All vehicles moving on roads in an area.
- Traffic jam: A long line of vehicles that cannot move.
- Traffic lights: Red, yellow, and green lights to control movement.
- Road sign: Gives information to drivers.
- No entry: A sign indicating a road cannot be entered.
- Roadworks: Indicates road repairs.
- Parking:
- Car park (or parking lot in American English) is an area or building for parking.
- Parking space: A place to park a car.
- Parking meter: Machine for paying to park.
- A garage can be for keeping your car at home, a public parking building, or a place for car repairs.
- Actions:
- To accelerate is to go faster. To speed up.
- To brake is to slow down or stop. To slow down.
- To drive is to control a vehicle.
- To break down is when a vehicle stops working.
- To crash is when a vehicle hits something and is damaged.
- To give way (or yield in American English) means to let another vehicle go first.
- To hitch-hike is to ask for rides by the road.
- To overtake is to pass another vehicle going in the same direction.
- To park is to stop and leave a vehicle.
- To skid is to slide sideways.
- To speed is to drive faster than the limit.
- To steer is to control the direction.
- To stop is to not move anymore.
- To tow is to pull another vehicle.
- Other Terms:
- Driving licence (or driver’s license in American English) is a document allowing you to drive.
- Petrol (or gas in American English) is fuel. Petrol station is where you buy fuel.
- Unleaded petrol contains less lead and causes less environmental damage.
- Puncture (or flat in American English) is a small hole in a tyre.
- Registration number (or license plate in American English) is the official vehicle identifier.
- Pedestrian is someone walking. A pedestrian crossing (or crosswalk in American English) is where people cross. Also a zebra crossing.
3. Boats, Water, and the Coast
- Water Bodies:
- Ocean and sea are large areas of salt water.
- Lake: A large area of water with land around it.
- River: A long line of water flowing into the sea. A stream is a small narrow river. The mouth of a river is where it meets the sea.
- Pond: A small area of water.
- Coastal Features:
- Coast: Land next to the sea. Coastal areas are near the coast.
- Beach: An area of sand or stones next to water. A sandy beach is covered with sand.
- Bay: A part of the coast where the land curves inward.
- Cliff: A high area of land with a steep side next to the sea.
- Shore: The land along the edge of the sea or a lake.
- Bank: A raised area of ground along the edge of a river.
- Island: A piece of land surrounded by water.
- Harbour and port: Areas where boats can safely stay or arrive/leave. A port is larger than a harbour.
- Quay: A structure next to water where boats stop.
- Vehicles:
- Boat: A general term for a vehicle used to travel on water. Specific types include fishing boat, rowing boat, sailing boat, motor boat.
- Ship: A very large boat carrying people or goods.
- Canoe and kayak: Small, narrow boats moved by a paddle.
- Ferry: A boat that regularly takes people or things across water for a short distance.
- Jet ski: A small, motorcycle-like machine for water travel.
- Speedboat: A very fast boat with a powerful engine.
- Submarine: A ship that can travel below the sea surface.
- Yacht: A large boat with sails or a motor for racing or pleasure.
- People:
- Captain: In charge of a ship.
- Fisherman: Catches fish.
- Lifeguard: Works at a beach to help people in danger.
- Sailor: Works on a ship or sails a boat for pleasure.
- Swimmer: Someone who swims.
- Navy: People who fight for a country at sea.
- Activities & Conditions:
- Cruise: A holiday spent on a ship.
- Sailing: The activity or sport of sailing boats.
- Swimming: The activity of moving through water using arms and legs.
- Tide: The twice-daily change in sea level.
- Wave: Higher part of water surface caused by wind.
- Current: A steady flow of water.
- Voyage: A long trip on a boat.
- Horizon: The line between the sky and the sea.
- Actions:
- To board a boat is to get onto it.
- To dive is to jump into or go under water.
- To drown is to die under water from not being able to breathe.
- To float is to stay on the surface of a liquid.
- To launch a boat is to put it into water.
- To navigate is to find direction for travel.
- To row is to move a boat using oars.
- To sail is to move over water on a boat.
- To sink is to go below the water surface.
- To steer is to control a boat’s direction.
- To surf is to ride big waves on a special board.
- To swim is to move through water.
- Equipment:
- Anchor: Heavy object dropped to stop a boat moving.
- Lifebelt: A ring to hold onto to stay afloat.
- Lifeboat: Used for saving people at sea.
- Lighthouse: Tower with flashing lamp to warn ships.
- Oar: Long pole for rowing.
- Paddle: Short pole for a small boat.
- Pebble: Small, smooth stone.
- Sail: Cloth on a boat to catch wind.
- Seaweed: Plant growing in the sea.
- Shell: Hard part of a small sea creature.
- Surfboard: Board for surfing.
- Adjectives:
- Calm: Water not moving much.
- Rough: Water with many waves.
- Marine: Relating to or living in the sea.
- Seasick: Feeling ill on a boat.
4. Trains
- Train Types:
- Fast train: Travels very fast with few stops.
- Goods train (or freight train in American English): Carries goods, not people.
- Intercity train: Fast train for long distances between cities.
- Sleeper: A train with beds for overnight journeys.
- Slow train: Travels slowly with many stops.
- Steam engine: An engine using steam for power.
- Underground train (also the underground, the tube, or subway in American English): Railway system where electric trains travel below ground in tunnels.
- Locations & Infrastructure:
- Train station: Where trains stop for people to get on or off.
- Platform: Area in a station to wait for a train.
- Railway (or railroad in American English): Metal track for trains. A line is a route trains move along. A track refers to the metal lines themselves.
- Level crossing: Where a railway line crosses a road.
- Left-luggage locker/office: Places at a station to leave luggage.
- Lost property office: To look for lost items.
- Ticket office: Where tickets are bought.
- Waiting room: Where people can sit while they wait.
- Parts of a Train:
- Carriage: Sections of a train where people sit.
- Compartment: Separate spaces in a carriage, sometimes for luggage.
- Engine: The front part that pulls the train.
- Luggage rack: A shelf for luggage.
- Seat: For passengers to sit on.
- People:
- Conductor: Checks tickets on a train.
- Driver: Drives the train.
- Passenger: A person travelling in a train.
- Porter: Carries luggage in a station.
- Ticket collector: Collects tickets when passengers get off.
- Actions:
- To approach is for a train to move closer.
- To arrive is to come to a place.
- To depart is to leave.
- To book a train ticket.
- To cancel a train means it will not be travelling.
- To delay a train means it’s late.
- To miss your train is to arrive too late to board.
- Adjectives:
- Due: Expected to arrive at a particular time.
- First-class: Best and most expensive seats/carriages.
- High-speed: Travels very fast.
- Late: After the scheduled time.
- Non-smoking: Areas where smoking is not allowed.
- Overcrowded: With too many people.
- Smoking: Areas where smoking is allowed.
This structured overview of the sources highlights the key terms, locations, roles, and actions associated with various forms of travel and transport.

A Lexicon of Well-being: Health, Feelings, and Routines

Personal well-being, as described in the sources, encompasses various aspects of an individual’s physical health, emotional states and personal qualities, and daily routines. The Collins Easy Learning English Vocabulary book aims to broaden knowledge of English words in everyday situations, including these areas.

Health

Health refers to the condition of a person’s body. The sources identify a wide range of words associated with health, from common ailments to more serious conditions and medical care.
- Physical Conditions: This includes feelings of pain or discomfort such as an ache, bruise, earache, headache, sore throat, or stomach-ache. More significant conditions mentioned are chickenpox, cold, cough, diarrhoea, flu, heart attack, measles, and sunburn. Terms like illness, injury, wound, and cancer represent more severe health issues.
- Maintaining Health: People can be healthy and fit, or conversely, ill and injured. To address health concerns, individuals might take medicine or pills, or receive an injection. They may also undergo an operation or surgery. Common actions include resting to recover, losing or putting on weight for better health, or being on a diet.
- Medical Services: If someone is ill or injured, they might need to call an ambulance, visit a doctor or dentist at their respective surgeries or offices, or go to a hospital, specifically the A&E (Accident and Emergency) department for severe cases. Nurses and surgeons are other medical professionals mentioned.
- Health Status Descriptors: Adjectives such as bleeding, feverish, painful, sick, sore, sweaty, and tired describe various physical states. Idioms like “(as) right as rain”, “off-colour”, “on the mend”, and “under the weather” are also used to describe one’s health status.
Feelings and Personal Qualities

This section addresses the emotional aspect and inherent characteristics that define an individual’s well-being.
- Emotions (Nouns): Key emotions include anger, excitement, fear, guilt, happiness, pride, regret, relief, and surprise. One’s overall emotional state at a particular time is referred to as their mood.
- Personal Characteristics (Nouns): Concepts such as honesty, intelligence, kindness, and personality describe inherent traits. The term “quality” refers to a particular characteristic a person has.
- Emotional and Behavioral Descriptors (Adjectives): A wide range of adjectives describe feelings and personal qualities:
- Positive: ambitious, calm, cheerful, competent, confident, curious, enthusiastic, friendly, funny, glad, happy, helpful, honest, independent, loving, nice, optimistic, pleased, polite, proud, relaxed, relieved, satisfied, sensitive (in the sense of understanding others’ feelings), thoughtful, and well-behaved.
- Negative: angry, annoyed, anxious, ashamed, bored, depressed, dishonest, dissatisfied, embarrassed, envious, frightened, frustrated, furious, hurt, impatient, insecure, mean, miserable, naughty, nervous, pessimistic, rude, sad, scared, selfish, sensitive (in the sense of being easily offended), serious, shocked, shy, stupid, suspicious, thoughtless, uncomfortable, unhappy, upset, and worried.
- Verbs Related to Emotions/Behavior: People can become a particular way, behave in certain ways, calm down, enjoy themselves, feel emotions, grow to have a feeling, hurt someone’s feelings, suffer, or be upset.
- Idioms for Feelings: Expressions like “down in the dumps” (unhappy/depressed), “get on someone’s nerves” (annoy someone), “hit the roof” (suddenly become very angry), and “over the moon” (extremely happy) are also provided.
Routines

Routines relate to the daily activities and lifestyle choices that contribute to personal well-being.
- Daily Life Elements: This section covers chores, free time, habits, hobbies, housework, and an individual’s lifestyle. Terms like “day off”, “lie-in”, “lunch break”, “routine”, “rush hour”, and “time off” describe structured or leisure periods.
- Actions in Routines: Verbs associated with daily routines include commute (travel to work/school), shave, do the shopping, get dressed (put on clothes), get ready (prepare for something), get up (out of bed), go home, go to bed/sleep/work, have/take a bath or shower, have breakfast/dinner/lunch, pick someone up, set your alarm, sleep in, tidy up, and wake up.
- Timing of Activities: Adverbs like “at weekends”, “during the week”, “every day”, and “every week” specify when these routines occur.
- Routine-Related Idioms: The source also lists idioms such as “eat into your time”, “go out like a light” (fall asleep quickly), “juggle too many balls” (handle many tasks), “nine-to-five” (a typical workday), “out of routine”, “pull an all-nighter” (stay up all night studying/working), “pushed for time” (having little time), and “rushed off your feet” (very busy).
In summary, personal well-being, as inferred from the sources, encompasses the physical state of a person’s body (health), their emotional and character traits (feelings and personal qualities), and the structure and activities of their daily life (routines).

Business, Employment, and Finance Vocabulary

The sources provide a comprehensive vocabulary related to business, economy, employment, and money, drawing on content from the Collins Easy Learning English Vocabulary book. This book is designed to broaden knowledge of English words in key everyday situations, including these subject areas. Vocabulary within each topic is divided into nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and idioms.

Business

The concept of business generally refers to work that is related to producing, buying, and selling things. It can also describe how many products a company is selling (e.g., “Business is good”) or an organization that produces and sells goods or provides a service (e.g., a “hairdressing business”).
- Key Roles and Management:
- A CEO (chief executive officer) is the person responsible for the management of the whole company.
- A chair is the person in charge of a company or an organization.
- A director is one of the people who control a company or an organization and meet regularly to make important decisions.
- An executive holds an important job at a company.
- Management refers to the control of a business or the people who control a business.
- A manager is someone who runs a business or part of a business.
- A supervisor is someone in charge of activities or people.
- Business Operations and Performance:
- Accounts are records of all the money that a business receives and spends.
- Advertising is the business of creating information to persuade people to buy a product.
- A boom signifies an increase in the number of things that people are buying.
- A brand is a product that has its own name and is made by a particular company.
- A budget is the amount of money available to spend.
- Competition involves companies trying to sell more products than each other.
- Costs are the money you must spend to run your business.
- A deal is an agreement or arrangement in business.
- Growth signifies an increase in profits or sales.
- Marketing is the business of deciding how to sell a product.
- Profit is the money gained when selling something for more than it cost to make.
- Promotion is an attempt to make a product successful or popular, especially through advertising.
- Publicity is information that attracts public attention to a person or product.
- Retail is the activity of selling goods directly to the public.
- Sales refer to the quantity of a product that is sold.
- Turnover is the value of goods or services sold by a company over a period.
- Key Business Verbs:
- To advertise is to tell people about a product or service.
- To break even means to make enough money to cover costs but not make a profit.
- To employ is to pay someone to work for a person or company.
- To expand means to become or make something bigger.
- To go out of business means a company stops trading due to insufficient money.
- To improve means to get better or make something get better.
- To invest is to put money into a business to try to make a profit.
- To launch a product is to start selling a new product to the public.
- To manage is to control a business.
- To market is to advertise and sell a product.
- To negotiate is to talk about a situation to reach an agreement.
- To owe is to have to pay money to someone.
- To sell is to let someone have something in return for money.
- To subcontract is to pay another company to do part of the work you were employed to do.
- To supply is to give someone an amount of something.
- Adjectives and Idioms:
- Bankrupt means not having enough money to pay debts.
- Commercial relates to the buying and selling of things.
- Medium-sized, small, and thriving describe the size and success of a firm.
- Online describes using the internet to sell goods.
- Private means not owned by the government.
- Profitable means making a profit.
- Senior indicates an important job in an organization.
- At the cutting edge means involved in the most exciting and new developments.
- Blue-sky thinking refers to new creative ideas.
- To think outside the box means to think in a new and creative way.
Industry

Industry broadly refers to the work of making things in factories or all the people and activities involved in making a particular product or providing a particular service.
- Types of Industry and Sectors:
- Examples include banking, catering, clothing, construction, engineering, film, fishing, forestry, hospitality, insurance, leisure, light, heavy, manufacturing, mining, oil drilling, and textile industries.
- The industrial sector is the part of a country’s economy that produces things from raw materials.
- The private sector is the part of the economy not controlled or owned by the government.
- The public sector is the part of the economy controlled or funded by the government.
- The service sector provides services needed by the public.
- Production and Trade:
- An assembly line is an arrangement of workers and machines where a product passes from one worker to another until finished.
- Mass production involves producing something in large quantities, usually with machinery.
- A product is something made or grown to sell.
- Production is the process of making or growing something in large amounts.
- Raw materials are substances that have not been processed.
- Trade is the activity of buying and selling goods.
- To export is to sell products to another country.
- To import is to buy goods from another country.
- Machinery refers to large pieces of electrical equipment that do a particular job.
- Transportation is the activity of taking goods or people somewhere in a vehicle.
- Associated Adjectives:
- Corporate relates to large companies.
- Domestic refers to something happening or existing within one country.
- Economic relates to the organization of money and industry.
- Financial relates to money.
- Foreign indicates something coming from a country that is not your own.
- Industrial relates to industry or describes a country/city where industry is very important.
- International involves different countries.
- Modern means new or relating to the present time.
Employment

Employment is defined as work that you are paid for. A job is the work someone does to earn money.
- Employment Terms and Conditions:
- Annual leave is paid time off from work.
- Benefits can refer to money given by the government to people who do not have a job.
- A bonus is an extra amount of money earned, often for hard work.
- A career is a job done for a long time, or the years spent working.
- Flexitime is a system allowing employees to vary start/finish times while working agreed hours.
- Income is the money a person earns or receives.
- Maternity leave and paternity leave are periods of time off for parents to have a baby.
- The minimum wage is the lowest legal wage an employer can pay.
- Overtime is extra time spent doing your job.
- Pay, salary, and wages all refer to money paid for work.
- A pension is money regularly received after retirement.
- A rise is an increase in earned money.
- Sick leave is time away from work due to illness or injury.
- The working week is the total time spent at work during the week.
- Job Seeking and Loss:
- An application form is a document for applying for a job.
- A CV (curriculum vitae) details education and work experience for job applications.
- An interview is a formal meeting to assess a candidate for a job.
- Recruitment is the process of selecting people to work for an organization.
- Redundancy is when a job is lost because it’s no longer necessary or affordable for the organization.
- Unemployment is a situation where people cannot work due to a lack of jobs.
- To apply for a job means to ask for one.
- To dismiss or fire someone is to tell them to leave their job.
- To give someone the sack is an informal way to say someone is fired.
- To resign is to tell your employer you are leaving a job.
- To retire is to leave your job due to age.
- Workplace Dynamics:
- A boss is the person in charge.
- A colleague or co-worker is a person someone works with.
- Discrimination is treating one person or group unfairly, e.g., by paying less.
- Equality is the fair treatment of all people in a group.
- Human resources is the department that finds, trains, and looks after staff.
- A strike is when workers refuse to work, often for more money.
- Training is the process of learning skills for a job.
- Adjectives and Idioms:
- Absent means not at work.
- Blue-collar workers do physical work in industry.
- Freelance means working alone for different companies.
- Full-time and part-time describe work duration.
- Permanent means employed for an unlimited time.
- Temporary means lasting for a certain period.
- Unemployed means able to work but without a job.
- White-collar workers work in offices rather than physical industry.
- “What do you do (for a living)?” is used to ask about someone’s job.
- A golden handshake is a large sum of money given to an employee upon leaving.
- To get a foot in the door means to manage to enter an organization you hope to succeed in.
- The rat race refers to a job or way of life where people compete aggressively for success.
Money and Finance (Personal and General)

This section covers the practical aspects of managing and dealing with money.
- Forms of Money and Banking:
- Cash refers to money in notes and coins.
- Currency is the money used in a particular country.
- A bank is a place where people can keep their money.
- A bank account is an arrangement with a bank to look after your money.
- An ATM (Automated Teller Machine) is a machine for getting money with a card.
- A cashier is a person who takes money in shops or banks.
- A current account (checking account in American English) is a bank account for instant withdrawals.
- A savings account gives interest on your money.
- A building society lends money for houses and provides savings accounts.
- Transactions and Costs:
- A bill is a document showing how much money must be paid.
- Change is the money received back after paying more than the cost.
- A charge is an amount of money paid for a service.
- A cheque is a printed paper for payment from a bank.
- A credit card allows buying goods now and paying later.
- A debit card can be used to pay for things directly from a bank account.
- Direct debit is an arrangement for a company to take money owed directly from a bank account.
- A deposit is a sum of money paid as part of a full price or put into a bank account.
- Expenses are money spent on things.
- Interest is extra money paid for borrowed money or received from certain bank accounts.
- A loan is money borrowed.
- A mortgage is a loan to buy a house.
- A payment is an amount of money paid or the act of paying.
- A PIN is a secret number for bank card use.
- Pocket money (allowance in American English) is a small amount of money parents give children.
- A price is the amount of money to pay for something.
- Rent is money paid to live in a property owned by someone else.
- Savings are money saved, especially in a bank.
- A share is one of the equal parts a company’s value is divided into, which people buy to own part of the company and its profit.
- A standing order is an instruction to a bank to pay a fixed amount regularly.
- A statement is a printed document showing bank account transactions.
- Tax is money paid to the government for public services.
- VAT (Value Added Tax) is a tax added to the price of goods or services.
- Verbs for Financial Actions:
- To borrow is to get money and agree to pay it back.
- To buy is to get something by paying money.
- To charge is to ask someone to pay money.
- To cost is to have a price.
- To donate is to give something to an organization.
- To inherit is to receive money or property from someone who has died.
- To lend is to give someone money that must be returned.
- To make money is to get money for doing something.
- To pay is to give money for goods, bills, or work.
- To save is to gradually collect money by spending less.
- To sign is to write your name on a document.
- To spend is to pay money for things wanted or needed.
- To withdraw is to take money out of a bank account.
- Financial Descriptors and Idioms:
- Cheap means costing little money.
- Expensive means costing a lot of money.
- Thrifty means careful with money.
- Valuable refers to items worth a lot of money.
- Poor describes having little money.
- Rich describes having a lot of money.
- To be rolling in it means to have a lot of money.
- To make ends meet means to have just enough money for living expenses.
- “Money doesn’t grow on trees” is an idiom indicating that money is not easily obtained.
- To save something for a rainy day means to save money for a time when it might be needed unexpectedly.
- To tighten your belt means to spend less money.
- To be in the red means to owe money.
In essence, the sources offer a comprehensive vocabulary base for discussing the multifaceted aspects of business, encompassing its operational, financial, and employment dimensions, as well as the broader concepts of economy and personal finance.

Art & Culture: A Vocabulary Guide

The sources provide information about “art and photography” and “culture” as part of their vocabulary guide.

Arts

The “art and photography” section defines art as pictures or objects created for people to look at, or the activity of creating such items. Key aspects and elements of art and photography include:
- People:An artist is someone who draws, paints, or creates works of art.
- A designer is a person whose job is to design things, such as a fashion designer.
- A painter is an artist who paints pictures.
- A photographer is someone who takes photographs.
- A sculptor is an artist who makes works of art from materials like stone, metal, or wood.
- Forms and Objects:Art galleries are places where people go to look at art.
- Paintings can be pictures someone has painted or the activity of painting pictures. This includes oil paintings made with oil paint and watercolours mixed with water.
- Photography is the skill or process of producing photographs, often taken with a camera or digital camera.
- Sculpture refers to a piece of art shaped from materials like stone or wood, or the art of creating such pieces. A statue is a large model of a person or animal made of stone or metal.
- Drawings include a sketch, which is a quick drawing without much detail, and a collage, a picture made by sticking pieces of paper or cloth on a surface.
- Other terms include graphics (drawings, pictures, or symbols, especially computer-produced) and an illustration (a picture, design, or diagram in a book).
- A logo is a special design an organization puts on its products.
- Techniques and Components:Design is the process of planning and drawing things, or a drawing that shows how something should be built or made.
- Artists use a brush for painting and a canvas (strong, heavy material) to paint on.
- Clay is a type of earth used for making things like pots. Pottery is the activity of making objects from clay.
- A pattern is an arrangement of lines or shapes forming a design.
- Primary colours are red, yellow, and blue, which can be mixed to produce other colours.
- The background is the part of a picture behind the main subjects, while the foreground appears nearest to you.
- An easel supports a picture while an artist works on it.
- Photographs or pictures can be put in a frame.
- Actions (Verbs):To design means to make a detailed plan or drawing.
- To draw is to use a pencil or pen to make a picture.
- To paint is to produce a picture using paint or cover a wall/object with paint.
- To sketch is to make a quick drawing.
- To frame is to put a picture or photograph in a frame.
Culture

The concept of culture is defined within the “society and politics” section as the way of life, the traditions and beliefs of a particular group of people. This section broadly covers societal structures, political systems, and various groups of people.

Related cultural and societal terms include:
- Community: A group of people similar in some way or with similar interests, such as the Muslim community.
- Nationality: The state of being a legal citizen of a particular country, or a group of people with the same race, culture, or language. The sources provide a table illustrating how nouns for places transform into adjectives and person-nouns (e.g., China -> Chinese, a Chinese). For example, someone from Peru is a Peruvian, and they are Peruvian.
- Social classes: These include caste (in Hindu society), class (people with the same economic and social position), the middle class (well-educated people with professional jobs), the upper class (people with the highest social position), and the working class (less educated people with less money).
- Human rights are the rights all people in a society should have.
- Festivities are events organized to celebrate something.
- Celebrations and Ceremonies are a distinct subject area. These include:
- Birthdays, Christmas, and Easter.
- Various religious ceremonies such as baptism, christening, Bar Mitzvah, Hanukkah, Lent, Passover, and Ramadan.
- Marriage-related events like engagement, wedding, and honeymoon.
- Death-related ceremonies such as a funeral and a wake.
- Academic ceremonies like graduation.
- National celebrations such as New Year’s Day, New Year’s Eve, Father’s Day, Mother’s Day, Thanksgiving, and Valentine’s Day, some of which are public holidays.
In summary, the sources provide detailed vocabulary for both artistic expression and the broader concept of culture, encompassing traditions, beliefs, and social structures within a society.

Science and Nature: A Comprehensive Overview

The sources provide a comprehensive overview of both Science and Nature, defining key terms, activities, and elements within these domains.

Science

Science is broadly defined as the study of natural things. The sources indicate that “science” is one of the 50 subject areas included in the vocabulary guide to expand one’s knowledge of English words in everyday situations. It is also taught as a subject in schools and universities, with a dedicated “Faculty of Science”.

Key areas of scientific study mentioned include:
- Astronomy: The scientific study of stars, planets, and other natural objects in space.
- Botany: The scientific study of plants.
- Chemistry: The science concerned with the structure of gases, liquids, and solids, and how they change. A chemist is a scientist who studies chemistry.
- Physics: The scientific study of things such as heat, light, and sound.
- These subjects are grouped under natural sciences.
Important scientific concepts and objects include:
- Atoms and molecules: The smallest parts of a substance or chemical substance, respectively.
- Chemicals: Substances made by changing or combining other substances.
- Electricity: Energy used for heat, light, and powering machines. Related terms are charge (electrical force), circuit (path for electricity), current (steady flow of energy), fuse (wire to stop overcurrent), and units like volt and watt.
- Elements and compounds: Basic chemical substances like gold, oxygen, or carbon, and substances made from two or more elements, such as carbon dioxide.
- Energy: The power that enables machines to work or provides heat, encompassing various forms such as hydro-electric power, nuclear power, solar power, and wind power.
- Evolution: A process by which animals or plants gradually develop and change over many years. This is linked to genetics, the study of how qualities are passed from parents to children, via genes.
- Force: The pulling or pushing effect one thing has on another, such as gravity, which makes things fall to the ground.
- Theories: Ideas or sets of ideas that attempt to explain phenomena, exemplified by the “Theory of Relativity”.
Scientific activities and tools involve:
- Experiment: A scientific test conducted to discover outcomes.
- Laboratory: A dedicated building or room for scientific work.
- Microscope: An instrument that makes very small objects appear larger.
- Test tube: A small glass container used in laboratories.
- Radar: A method for detecting object positions using radio signals.
- Spacecraft for traveling in space, used by an astronaut.
- Verbs associated with scientific work include diluting, dissecting, dissolving, evaporating, evolving, measuring, and testing. All these activities are described as scientific.
Nature

Nature is defined as all the animals and plants in the world, as well as the land and the sea. The sources cover various aspects of nature through different subject areas:
- The Animal World: This category extensively lists a wide array of animals, including mammals (e.g., bats, bears, elephants, lions, monkeys, mice, pandas, seals, whales, wolves, zebras), birds (e.g., ducks, eagles, geese, hens, ostriches, owls, parrots, seagulls, swans, turkeys), fish (e.g., eels, salmon, sharks), insects (e.g., ants, bees, butterflies, flies, grasshoppers, ladybirds, mosquitoes, moths, wasps), and other creatures like crocodiles, lizards, lobsters, octopuses, oysters, shellfish, snails, snakes, spiders, squid, tadpoles, and worms.
- Animal parts are described, such as antennae, antlers, beaks, claws, coats, feathers, fur, hair, hooves, horns, manes, paws, shells, snouts, tails, trunks, and wings.
- Animal actions are detailed, including noises like baaing, barking, buzzing, growling, hissing, miaowing, mooing, neighing, purring, quacking, roaring, and snorting. Movements include crawling, flying, galloping, hopping, roaming, slithering, swimming, trotting, and wagging. Animals can also bite, feed, graze, hibernate, hunt, and sting.
- Places where animals are found include aquariums, cages, fields, kennels, nests, webs, and zoos.
- Animals can be described as stray, tame, or wild.
- Plants, Trees, and Gardens: This section focuses on the botanical world.
- Plants and Flowers: Various plants and flowers are listed, such as buttercups, daffodils, daisies, dandelions, ferns, forget-me-nots, hollies, ivies, jasmines, lilies, orchids, poppies, primroses, roses, sunflowers, tulips, and violets.
- Trees: Different types of trees mentioned are ash, bark, beech, birch, elm, fir trees, oak, palm trees, pine, weeping willows, and yews. Trees can be deciduous (losing leaves in autumn) or evergreen (keeping leaves all year).
- Parts of plants and trees include bark, blossoms, branches, buds, leaves, petals, roots, seeds, stalks, stems, and thorns.
- Gardens: These are areas near a house for growing plants and vegetables. Related terms include borders, flower beds, grounds, hedges, lawns, orchards, paths, patios, sheds, sprinklers, and window boxes.
- Gardening activities and tools: Verbs like blossoming, cultivating, flowering, growing, mowing, picking, planting, pruning, tending, watering, and weeding are used. Tools mentioned include hoes, hoses, lawnmowers, rakes, watering cans, and wheelbarrows.
- An idiom related to gardening is “to have green fingers” (or “green thumb” in American English), meaning to be good at making plants grow.
- Countryside and Geographical Features: This covers the natural landscape away from urban areas.
- It includes features like barns, caves, cliffs, ditches, estates, farms, fields, forests, gates, hills, lakes, marshes, meadows, moors, mountains, mud, ponds, rivers, rocks, ruins, scarecrows, soil, springs, stables, sticks, stones, streams, tracks, valleys, villages, waterfalls, wells, and windmills.
- Terms related to farming activities are agriculture, crops, and harvest. Farmers use tools like bulldozers, combine harvesters, and ploughs.
- The countryside can be described as peaceful and rural. Activities include climbing, camping, hiking, hunting, and ploughing.
- Environment and Conservation: This section highlights how nature is affected by human activities and efforts to protect it.
- Environmental problems: Key issues include pollution (of water, air, land), climate change, global warming, the greenhouse effect, damage and destruction of habitats and rainforests. The concept of endangered species that may disappear from the world is also highlighted.
- Pollutants: Specific harmful substances mentioned are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, diesel, exhaust fumes, industrial waste, and nuclear waste. Sewage is also listed as waste material.
- Conservation efforts: Conservation is the act of caring for the environment. Actions to address environmental concerns include banning harmful chemicals, preserving and protecting wildlife, and recycling materials like paper and glass.
- Sustainable practices: The sources discuss renewable energy sources like wind, water, and sunlight, and the use of solar panels. Environmentally friendly products are described as biodegradable, eco-friendly, or organic, and the importance of sustainable farming and development is noted.
- Weather: This describes the atmospheric conditions and phenomena that are an integral part of nature.
- Elements of weather: Air, atmosphere, clouds, darkness, fog, frost, hail, heat, mist, rain, rainbows, snow, sun, and wind.
- Weather events: Droughts, floods, gales, monsoons, storms (including thunder, thunderstorms, tornadoes), and tsunamis.
- Measurements: Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
- Descriptive adjectives: Weather can be cloudy, cold, cool, dry, freezing, hot, humid, mild, rainy, stormy, sunny, tropical, or windy.
- Weather-related actions: The wind blows, water can freeze or melt, and it can rain or snow. Ice and snow can also thaw.
In essence, the sources provide a vocabulary-rich discussion on both the foundational elements of science and the multifaceted aspects of the natural world, including living organisms, landscapes, environmental concerns, and climatic conditions.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 13, 2025
From Father or Mother: Science Finally Clarifies from Whom Children Inherit Intelligence
Who holds the key to a child’s intellect — the father or the mother? This age-old debate has intrigued philosophers and scientists alike for centuries, sparking dinner-table arguments and academic studies alike. Now, groundbreaking genetic research is finally putting this mystery to rest.

In recent years, geneticists have delved deep into the human genome, uncovering fascinating details about how intelligence is passed down through generations. Far from being a simple inheritance of “smart genes,” the story is a complex interplay of maternal chromosomes, paternal influence, and environmental factors. These insights challenge many of our long-held assumptions and offer a more nuanced understanding of human intelligence.

For those who believe intelligence is purely shaped by education or environment, these findings serve as a wake-up call. As Dr. Robert Plomin, a renowned geneticist and author of Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are, puts it, “DNA isn’t all that matters, but it matters more than we thought.” Let’s explore these findings in detail.

1- The Role of X and Y Chromosomes

At the heart of the inheritance puzzle lies our sex chromosomes — the X and Y. Women possess two X chromosomes, while men carry one X and one Y. This genetic distinction plays a crucial role in the transmission of cognitive traits. The X chromosome, in particular, carries a significant number of genes related to brain development.

As a result, mothers have a double chance of passing on intelligence-related genes. Recent studies have suggested that these X-linked genes may exert a stronger influence on cognitive capacity than previously understood. This suggests that a mother’s genetic contribution to intelligence could overshadow the father’s, not by design, but through the silent language of genetics.

2- Genomic Imprinting and Cognitive Traits

Genomic imprinting refers to the phenomenon where certain genes are expressed differently depending on whether they are inherited from the mother or the father. This mechanism can profoundly influence traits like intelligence.

Interestingly, research shows that some genes related to cognitive functions are preferentially active when inherited maternally, while paternal genes may be more influential in areas like aggression or spatial skills. As noted in Dr. David Haig’s work at Harvard University, this imprinting is an evolutionary strategy to balance parental investment and offspring needs. In essence, the maternal genes might be whispering “think carefully,” while paternal genes might be shouting “act boldly.”

3- The Power of Maternal Mitochondrial DNA

Beyond nuclear DNA, mitochondria — the cell’s “powerhouses” — carry their own genetic material, exclusively inherited from the mother. Mitochondrial DNA plays a crucial role in brain energy metabolism and overall cognitive function.

Several studies suggest that healthy mitochondrial function is essential for neuroplasticity and learning ability. By controlling cellular energy supply, maternal mitochondria set the stage for how effectively a child’s brain can develop and adapt. As Dr. Douglas Wallace, a pioneer in mitochondrial genetics, highlights in Mitochondria and the Future of Medicine, maternal contributions to cognition might be more profound than we ever imagined.

4- Environmental Modifiers

While genetics provide a blueprint, environment acts as the sculptor. Factors like nutrition, emotional nurturing, and intellectual stimulation significantly influence how genetic potentials are realized.

A child might inherit a strong cognitive predisposition, but without proper educational and emotional support, these potentials may lie dormant. Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory reminds us that social interaction and guided learning shape mental development as much as DNA does. Thus, parents’ roles as environmental architects are just as crucial as their genetic contributions.

5- Paternal Contributions Beyond Genes

Though fathers may pass on fewer X-linked cognitive genes, their influence is far from negligible. Paternal involvement, encouragement, and the modeling of problem-solving behaviors can greatly enhance a child’s intellectual growth.

Furthermore, fathers also contribute autosomal (non-sex) chromosomes that impact general brain development and psychological resilience. As highlighted in Fatherneed by Dr. Kyle Pruett, paternal presence fosters curiosity and confidence in children, indirectly supporting cognitive advancement.

6- Socioeconomic Status and Intelligence

Socioeconomic factors can amplify or inhibit the expression of inherited intelligence. Wealthier families often provide more educational resources, better nutrition, and safer environments, allowing genetic potentials to flourish.

On the other hand, stressors associated with poverty can hinder cognitive development, regardless of inherited predispositions. The work of Nobel laureate James Heckman underscores that early interventions and enriched environments can mitigate these negative effects, helping children reach their innate potential.

7- Epigenetics: Switching Genes On and Off

Epigenetics refers to changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself. Experiences, diet, and even parental behaviors can turn certain genes “on” or “off,” influencing intelligence.

A nurturing environment, for example, can activate genes related to memory and learning. As Dr. Bruce Lipton explains in The Biology of Belief, we are not prisoners of our genetic code — our experiences can mold which genetic instructions are carried out, offering a more optimistic view of intellectual development.

8- Birth Order and Intellectual Development

Birth order can subtly shape intellectual outcomes. First-born children often receive more focused parental attention, which may enhance cognitive stimulation during crucial early years.

Later-born children might develop different strengths, such as social adaptability, due to shared attention and peer learning. Frank Sulloway, in Born to Rebel, suggests that these dynamics influence not just intelligence, but also creativity and risk-taking tendencies.

9- Maternal Education and Child Intelligence

A mother’s level of education is a strong predictor of her child’s cognitive success. Educated mothers tend to engage in more language-rich interactions, foster curiosity, and value academic achievement.

Additionally, maternal education correlates with better prenatal care and healthier postnatal environments. Research from the OECD consistently shows that maternal education has long-term benefits for children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development.

10- Paternal Age and Genetic Mutations

As men age, the likelihood of genetic mutations in sperm increases. Some of these mutations can impact cognitive development, either through risk of neurodevelopmental disorders or subtle cognitive shifts.

Studies published in Nature indicate that advanced paternal age may slightly elevate risks for conditions like autism and schizophrenia, highlighting the intricate dance between genetics and age-related factors in shaping intelligence.

11- The Myth of “Pure” Intelligence Genes

There is no single “intelligence gene”; rather, intelligence arises from a constellation of genetic and environmental interactions. Polygenic scores have identified hundreds of gene variants linked to cognitive abilities, each contributing a small effect.

This complexity underscores why children from the same parents can exhibit vastly different intellectual profiles. As psychologist Howard Gardner reminds us in Frames of Mind, intelligence is multifaceted and cannot be reduced to a simple genetic formula.

12- Cultural Factors and Cognitive Development

Culture profoundly shapes how intelligence manifests. Societies emphasize different cognitive skills — for example, memory in oral cultures, or analytical reasoning in technologically advanced societies.

Jerome Bruner’s cultural psychology framework highlights that what a culture values and teaches deeply influences how children’s cognitive capacities unfold. Thus, even genetically endowed intelligence is refined through cultural lenses.

13- Emotional Security and Cognitive Growth

Children thrive intellectually when they feel emotionally secure. Secure attachment fosters curiosity and exploration, vital for developing problem-solving skills and creativity.

As John Bowlby’s attachment theory illustrates, early relationships with caregivers set the foundation for lifelong learning. Emotional stability allows children to focus on learning rather than on coping with anxiety.

14- Nutrition’s Hidden Role

Brain development is energetically demanding. Key nutrients — such as omega-3 fatty acids, iron, and choline — are essential for building neural connections and supporting neurotransmitter function.

Malnutrition during early life can lead to irreversible cognitive deficits. Books like Nutrition and the Developing Brain by Dr. Victoria Hall Moran highlight how proper nutrition is an indispensable pillar of intellectual growth.

15- The Impact of Prenatal Environment

A fetus’s environment in the womb has lasting effects on brain development. Exposure to toxins, maternal stress, and poor nutrition can all hinder intellectual potential before birth.

The “fetal programming” hypothesis, detailed in The Developing Genome by Dr. David Moore, shows that prenatal experiences can shape gene expression and long-term cognitive outcomes. Thus, a mother’s health is intimately tied to her child’s intellectual future.

16- Educational Systems as Amplifiers

The structure and quality of educational systems can either nurture or stifle inherent intelligence. Access to high-quality, individualized learning experiences enhances cognitive skills far beyond genetic endowments.

Countries investing in robust early education, such as Finland, showcase how systemic support can bridge genetic differences and promote equitable intellectual growth. As Sir Ken Robinson argued, education should cultivate natural talents rather than force conformity.

17- Peer Influence and Cognitive Development

Peers play a crucial role in intellectual development, especially during adolescence. Positive peer groups encourage academic engagement, curiosity, and intellectual risk-taking.

Conversely, negative peer influences can derail educational aspirations. In Mindset by Carol Dweck, the social environment is emphasized as a key factor in fostering a growth-oriented approach to learning.

18- Technological Exposure

Today’s children grow up surrounded by technology, influencing attention, memory, and problem-solving skills. While appropriate use can enhance learning, excessive screen time can harm cognitive development.

Books like The Shallows by Nicholas Carr warn of the potential cognitive costs of constant digital stimulation, emphasizing the need for balanced tech use to support rather than undermine intellectual growth.

19- The Power of Play

Play is a critical driver of cognitive and creative development. Through play, children learn to experiment, solve problems, and develop resilience.

Albert Einstein famously said, “Play is the highest form of research.” Structured and unstructured play both contribute to developing executive function and divergent thinking — skills at the heart of intelligence.

20- Future Directions in Intelligence Research

Advances in neurogenetics, brain imaging, and AI promise to deepen our understanding of how intelligence is inherited and developed. Future studies may reveal more precise gene-environment interactions and personalized approaches to learning.

Books like The Gene: An Intimate History by Siddhartha Mukherjee invite us to consider the ethical and societal implications of decoding intelligence. The journey to fully understanding the roots of human intelligence is just beginning.

21- The Role of Genes in Intelligence

Genes serve as the fundamental blueprint for the human brain, determining its structure, potential for connectivity, and overall functionality. Intelligence is known to be highly heritable, with studies estimating that genetic factors account for approximately 50% to 80% of the variance in IQ among individuals. However, this genetic influence is polygenic — it arises from the combined effect of thousands of genetic variants, each contributing a small amount.

Notably, large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS), like those spearheaded by the Social Science Genetic Association Consortium, have identified hundreds of loci linked to educational attainment and cognitive ability. These findings underscore the idea that intelligence is a multifaceted trait influenced by many genes, and no single “genius gene” exists. As Dr. Robert Plomin writes in Blueprint, “Intelligence is a probabilistic propensity, not a predetermined fate.”

22- Maternal Influence: The X Chromosome Factor

The X chromosome plays a pivotal role in transmitting intelligence, and since mothers contribute two X chromosomes while fathers only one, maternal influence can be especially significant. Approximately 1,000 genes reside on the X chromosome, many of which are crucial for brain development and synaptic functioning.

This genetic fact provides a scientific backbone to observations that children often resemble their mothers cognitively. Recent research suggests that certain regions on the X chromosome are hotspots for intelligence-linked genes. As Dr. Gillian Turner discusses in The Genetics of Cognitive Abilities, maternal contributions through the X chromosome may explain subtle trends observed in cognitive inheritance, though it is essential to remember that paternal genes and environment remain critical players.

23- Paternal Contributions: Beyond the X Chromosome

While the mother’s X chromosome has garnered much attention, the father’s genetic input should not be overlooked. Fathers pass on autosomal chromosomes and the Y chromosome (in male children), both of which contain genes impacting brain architecture, emotional regulation, and learning strategies.

Moreover, paternal genetic diversity, often shaped by higher mutation rates in sperm over time, introduces novel gene combinations that can foster innovation in cognitive traits. As highlighted in Fatherneed by Dr. Kyle Pruett, paternal contributions help sculpt not only cognitive abilities but also confidence, independence, and adaptive problem-solving skills. Thus, the father’s role extends beyond simple genetic transmission, embodying a holistic impact on cognitive development.

24- Environmental Influences on Intelligence

Genes may load the gun, but environment pulls the trigger. Factors such as access to quality education, exposure to language, emotional security, and early-life nutrition have profound effects on cognitive development. Socioeconomic status shapes opportunities and resources that either nurture or stunt intellectual growth.

Furthermore, studies like the Perry Preschool Project have shown that early intervention programs can dramatically improve cognitive outcomes, regardless of genetic predispositions. As Urie Bronfenbrenner famously proposed, “Development is the result of interactions between the individual and their environment,” reminding us that intelligence is both inherited and cultivated.

25- Case Studies: Real-World Examples

Real-world examples illustrate the interplay between genes and environment vividly. Consider the famous case of the Minnesota Twin Study, where identical twins raised apart still showed strikingly similar IQ scores, underlining strong genetic influences. Yet, their individual interests and achievements also reflected their differing environments, underscoring the significance of nurture.

Conversely, studies in impoverished areas of Bangladesh revealed that nutrition and maternal education interventions significantly improved children’s cognitive scores. These cases illustrate that while genetics set the stage, life experiences and conditions perform the play.

26- Research Findings: What Science Says

Scientific consensus suggests that both nature and nurture are indispensable in shaping intelligence. Meta-analyses covering decades of research consistently show a strong genetic influence on cognitive ability, particularly in adulthood, when heritability estimates peak.

However, environmental interventions can either amplify or mitigate these genetic predispositions. Books such as G Is for Genes by Kathryn Asbury and Robert Plomin explain how educational policy and parenting can help children achieve their full potential, emphasizing that genes are not destiny but probabilities influenced by life experiences.

27- Myths and Misconceptions

Many myths cloud public understanding of intelligence inheritance. One widespread belief is that intelligence is entirely determined by either the mother or father, ignoring the complex polygenic and environmental interactions involved. Another common misconception is that intelligence is a fixed trait, rather than a dynamic capacity that can grow or decline.

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory further dispels the myth of a single, uniform intelligence, emphasizing that individuals can excel in various domains beyond traditional IQ measures. These clarifications are crucial for fostering realistic and humane educational practices.

28- Ethical Considerations in Genetic Studies

The exploration of intelligence genetics raises pressing ethical questions. Should we use genetic information to predict educational outcomes or design interventions? Could such insights fuel discrimination or deepen social divides?

As discussed in The Gene by Siddhartha Mukherjee, the potential for misuse of genetic data is significant. Researchers and policymakers must tread carefully, ensuring that findings are used to support and empower individuals rather than categorize or limit them. Ethical frameworks and robust protections are essential as this research moves forward.

29- The Future of Intelligence Research

The future holds exciting possibilities for intelligence research, driven by advances in neuroimaging, gene editing, and AI-powered data analysis. Scientists hope to map the intricate gene-environment networks that shape cognitive development in greater detail.

Potentially, personalized learning programs and targeted interventions could be designed to match a child’s unique genetic and environmental profile. However, as Dr. Eric Turkheimer cautions in his works on behavioral genetics, we must balance optimism with humility, recognizing that intelligence cannot be fully engineered.

30- Bringing It All Together: Final Thoughts

When we piece together the puzzle of intelligence inheritance, a rich and nuanced picture emerges. Maternal and paternal genes, environmental influences, cultural contexts, and even random chance all converge to shape each individual’s intellectual journey.

Intelligence is neither solely a maternal gift nor exclusively a paternal legacy — it is a shared story, constantly rewritten by life’s experiences. As we continue to explore this fascinating field, we must approach it with scientific rigor, ethical mindfulness, and deep respect for human complexity.

Conclusion

In unraveling the genetic and environmental threads of intelligence, we discover that no single factor reigns supreme. Rather, it is the interplay between maternal and paternal genes, enriched or hindered by environmental contexts, that molds each child’s cognitive potential.

For parents, educators, and policymakers, this understanding emphasizes the importance of providing nurturing, stimulating, and equitable environments. As Aristotle wisely said, “Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.” We must honor the full spectrum of human potential, supporting every child in becoming not only intelligent but wise and compassionate stewards of the future.

The question of whether intelligence is inherited more from the mother or the father reveals a far more intricate tapestry than once thought. While maternal genes — especially X chromosomes and mitochondria — play a prominent role, fathers, environment, and cultural factors each weave essential threads into this story.

Ultimately, intelligence is not merely a gift from one parent or the other but a dynamic interplay of genes, experiences, and societal context. As we continue to unravel this mystery, it becomes clear that nurturing a child’s intellect requires not just good genes but also compassionate parenting, enriched environments, and a society that values diverse forms of intelligence.

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18. Heckman, James J. Giving Kids a Fair Chance. The MIT Press, 2013.
19. Einstein, Albert. Quoted in various sources, including Einstein on Cosmic Religion and Other Opinions and Aphorisms, Dover Publications, 2009.
20. Turkheimer, Eric. “Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean.” Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 9, no. 5, 2000, pp. 160–164.
By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 12, 2025
Al-Riyadh Newspaper, July 11, 2025: Water Security: A Saudi Priority, Financial Market, Growth of Food Truck Industry
This collection of texts from “20817.pdf” provides a comprehensive look into various facets of Saudi Arabia, particularly highlighting the nation’s Vision 2030. It details the transformation of the financial market through digital infrastructure and increased investment, and emphasizes the kingdom’s commitment to water security by showcasing advancements in desalination, water management, and innovative technologies. Furthermore, the sources explore the growth of the food truck industry, discuss Saudi Arabia’s burgeoning mining and industrial sectors, and touch upon the country’s increasing global influence in areas like defense and humanitarian aid, reflecting a shift towards a diversified and sustainable economy.

Podcast

Listen or Download Podcast : Al-Riyadh Newspaper, July 11, 2025

Saudi Arabia’s Water Security: Challenges, Strategies, and Global Leadership

Water security is a vital and strategic issue for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) due to its desert geography, limited natural water resources, and rapid population and economic growth. It is considered one of the most important pillars of sustainability in the Kingdom. The concept of water security in Saudi Arabia extends beyond merely providing water for daily use to encompass sustainable management of resources for human consumption, industry, agriculture, and energy, balancing current needs with future aspirations. Water is a crucial element for achieving food and industrial security, directly impacting quality of life in both urban and rural areas.

Challenges to Water Security in KSA

KSA faces significant water challenges:
- Geographical and Resource Limitations The Kingdom’s desert nature and the absence of permanent surface water sources make it one of the most water-scarce regions globally. The per capita share of renewable fresh water is less than 100 cubic meters annually, far below the absolute water scarcity benchmark of 500 cubic meters.
- Over-reliance on Non-Renewable Groundwater Historically, KSA heavily relied on groundwater, but this source is not sustainable and has been severely depleted (80% since the 1990s).
- High Consumption Rates Individual daily water consumption averages around 284 liters (103.66 cubic meters annually), which is significantly higher than in countries with similar income levels, like Germany (around 120 liters per person per day). Urban expansion, population growth, and economic development exacerbate these rates.
- High Demand in Key Sectors The agricultural sector, a cornerstone of food security, accounts for 80-83% of water consumption. Industrial projects and large-scale future ventures like NEOM also require vast amounts of water.
- High Costs and Suboptimal Service The government bears high costs for water production and wastewater services in urban areas, yet service levels remain suboptimal, and the sector suffers from institutional and governance issues.
KSA’s Strategies and Efforts for Water Security (Vision 2030)

In line with Saudi Vision 2030, KSA has adopted a comprehensive national water strategy to transform from a water-scarce nation into a global leader in sustainable water resource management. This strategy focuses on several key axes:
- Desalination (SWCC – Saline Water Conversion Corporation):
- KSA has made desalinated water a top priority. It is the largest producer of desalinated water globally, providing nearly half of the world’s desalinated water, with SWCC alone producing about 20%.
- Technological advancements, including continuous innovation in membrane technologies and energy efficiency, have drastically reduced the cost of desalinated water from $5 per cubic meter in the 1980s to 40-50 cents in modern projects.
- There is a move towards integrating renewable energy (solar and nuclear power) into desalination processes to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and lower carbon emissions.
- The Kingdom has the largest desalination capacity globally, totaling 4.19 million cubic meters annually, and the largest network of water transmission pipelines, spanning 14,210 kilometers.
- There are 33 desalination plants on the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts, producing about 5.6 million cubic meters of desalinated water daily.
- Wastewater Treatment and Reuse:
- KSA is among the top five countries globally in treated water reuse.
- The Kingdom aims to reuse 100% of treated wastewater by 2025.
- Treated wastewater is used for irrigating green spaces, agriculture, and industrial activities, reducing pressure on fresh water sources.
- There are 133 wastewater treatment plants across various regions in KSA, in addition to 353 water treatment plants built on dams and groundwater wells.
- Groundwater Management:
- Strict regulations have been imposed on extracting non-renewable groundwater, including licensing requirements for well drilling.
- Programs are in place to enhance artificial wells and increase groundwater productivity to reduce reliance on desalinated water.
- Agricultural Water Efficiency:
- Efforts include reforming the water agriculture sector and promoting smart irrigation technologies like drip irrigation to reduce water waste.
- The Kingdom is encouraging the use of protected houses and vertical farming.
- It has also halted the local cultivation of water-intensive crops such as wheat and green fodder.
- Distribution Efficiency and Loss Reduction:
- Strategies include improving water distribution efficiency, reducing unaccounted-for water (physical losses), and upgrading water networks with smart meters for accurate consumption monitoring.
- Water Pricing and Awareness:
- New water pricing policies aim to incentivize rationalization and ensure equitable distribution, while supporting low-income families.
- Awareness programs encourage sustainable water consumption behaviors among citizens and institutions.
- Technological Innovation and Patents:
- KSA invests in advanced water management technologies and research, including new desalination methods, agriculture, and recycling.
- The Kingdom has secured significant patents in water security, such as clean energy production from saline reject water, devices for seawater sample collection, and protection systems for water intakes from marine life.
- Innovative techniques like cloud seeding are being employed to increase natural water resources.
- Strategic Water Storage:
- KSA has expanded its strategic water storage capacity to over 27 million cubic meters, aiming for a three-day supply for emergencies. It possesses the largest network of drinking water reservoirs with a capacity of 8.9 million cubic meters daily.
- Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):
- The Saudi Water Partnership Company (SWPC) was established to manage and oversee water projects, including purchasing desalinated, purified, and treated water.
- The private sector is actively involved in financing, building, operating, and maintaining desalination and wastewater treatment plants and distribution networks. This partnership has attracted significant investments, exceeding 47 billion Saudi Riyals for 49 projects, and has earned prestigious international awards.
KSA’s Global Leadership in Water

KSA’s proactive approach has positioned it as a global leader in water management:
- It has hosted and will host major international water events, including the One Water Summit in Riyadh (December 2024), the World Desalination Conference in 2026, and the World Water Forum in 2027.
- The establishment of the Global Water Organization in September 2023, headquartered in Riyadh, underscores the Kingdom’s leadership and commitment to addressing global water challenges and sharing its expertise.
Global Context of Water Scarcity and Conflict

Globally, water scarcity is a complex issue with economic and political ramifications.
- Water-Related Conflicts: Major rivers like the Nile, Indus, Tigris, and Euphrates are at the forefront of water disputes.
- The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) on the Blue Nile has caused ongoing disputes between Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan.
- Turkish dam projects on the Tigris and Euphrates (e.g., Ilisu Dam) have significantly reduced water flow to Iraq and Syria.
- The Indus Waters Treaty between India and Pakistan faces challenges, with India threatening to suspend its operation.
- Even flash floods and groundwater issues contribute to border tensions, as seen between Iran and Afghanistan over the Helmand River.
- Socio-Economic Impacts: Water scarcity exacerbates economic and political crises, fuels inflation, and drives migration. Water-related violence is on the rise globally.
- Lack of International Frameworks: Despite some scattered initiatives, there is no strong international legal framework to protect water rights among nations, leading to potential conflicts.
- Water as a Commodity: Water itself has become a strategic commodity for investment and speculation, leading to concerns about monopolization and inequality. There are calls to prevent water from becoming a tradable commodity, emphasizing its status as a fundamental human right.
- Ethical and Environmental Concerns: The excessive construction of dams and alteration of river courses disrupt ecological balance, leading to desertification and loss of biodiversity.
- Need for Rational Management: Experts advocate for strengthening joint international governance mechanisms, developing treaties that consider future generations’ rights, and linking international aid to clean water projects.
Saudi Arabia’s Financial Market: Powering Vision 2030 Transformation

Water security is a crucial element for achieving food and industrial security, directly impacting the quality of life in both urban and rural areas in Saudi Arabia (KSA). While water security itself is not a financial market, the Kingdom’s strategies to achieve it heavily rely on the development and efficiency of its financial market to attract investment and fund ambitious projects.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia aims to be at the forefront of countries leading digital transformation, with an integrated strategy focused on enabling and accelerating this transformation. A key goal of this national project is to achieve the objectives of Vision 2030, which seeks a comprehensive economic and social transformation, reducing reliance on oil as a primary income source, diversifying the economy, empowering citizens, and improving the quality of life.

Transformation and Efficiency of the Financial Market

KSA’s financial market has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent years. This development is centered on several strategic pillars:
- Enhancing the efficiency of the digital infrastructure.
- Strengthening its global position.
- Increasing the number of listed companies.
- Expanding foreign investor ownership in the market.
Companies now view the financial market as an effective platform for raising capital and expanding their commercial activities, aligning with the Kingdom’s economic development visions and Vision 2030. This rise in listed companies is a natural outcome of an attractive and prepared investment environment that encourages both domestic and foreign investment through streamlined procedures.

Impact of Investments and Reforms

The presence of foreign investments has not been limited to providing capital; it has also contributed to the transfer of technical expertise and knowledge to local entities, positively impacting the quality of performance in financial and management aspects within the market. It has created new opportunities for strategic partnerships among local companies and international institutions, boosting the Saudi market’s competitiveness at regional and global levels. These reforms have enhanced investor confidence, increased financial flows, stimulated innovation across various sectors, and solidified the Kingdom’s position as a regional financial hub, supported by advanced digital infrastructure and modern regulatory policies that encourage investment and economic growth.

Key Data and Achievements

According to the Capital Market Authority (CMA) data:
- The number of investment funds reached 1,549.
- The number of individual subscribers through various subscription channels was 7.5 million.
- The total value of managed assets exceeded 1 trillion Saudi Riyals by the end of 2024.
- The value collected from debt and sukuk offerings amounted to 40.43 billion Riyals.
- The value of managed portfolios through automated advisory platforms reached 3.4349 million Riyals.
- Foreign investor ownership reached 423 billion Riyals.
The CMA’s strategic plan for 2024-2026 aims for the Saudi financial market to become a primary source of funding and investment for national economic development and one of the most important financial markets globally. Efforts are concentrated on maximizing the financial market’s funding capacity, developing various financing channels to meet the needs of public and private sector projects, and supporting financial market institutions. The CMA also supports the FinTech sector to make the Kingdom a leader in this area, enhancing diversity and depth for the financial sector.

Investor protection is a major priority for the CMA, achieved by allocating an independent pillar for oversight, enhancing transparency and governance, and protecting investor rights to build confidence in the Saudi financial market.

Digital Government and Economic Diversification

The Kingdom has made significant progress in digital government, jumping to the 25th position globally in the UN e-government survey 2024, placing it among leading countries worldwide. It ranked 4th regionally and 2nd among G20 countries in the digital services index. Riyadh achieved the 3rd rank among 193 cities globally.

Investments in infrastructure have led to substantial progress:
- The Telecommunications Infrastructure Index (TII) jumped 53 ranks.
- The Human Capital Index (HCI) advanced 31 ranks.
- The e-services index (OSI) jumped 67 ranks to 4th globally in 2024.
- Government digital regulations, as well as the provision of open government data and data sharing for citizens and businesses, have reached 100% completion.
The number of listed companies in the financial market increased by 50% from 207 companies in 2020 to 310 in 2023. Foreign investor ownership also saw a record increase of 93%, from 208 billion Riyals in 2020 to 401 billion Riyals by the end of 2023.

Financial Market’s Role in National Development

The financial market is integral to Vision 2030’s broader goals. Dr. Majed bin Thamer Al Saud highlights that a key financial objective is to increase household savings from 6% to 10% of their total income. This reflects financial awareness and preparedness for the future, contributing to overall economic stability and increasing domestic funding sources. Achieving this goal requires integrated efforts across several programs, especially the “Financial Sector Development Program”. Government bodies and large companies are encouraged to establish savings funds for their employees with attractive returns, and providing diverse investment channels is crucial for motivating individuals to save and invest their savings for financial growth and national economic circulation.

The success in achieving this goal depends not only on the financial sector but also on the collective efforts of various government entities such as the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development, and the Ministry of Economy and Planning. Their collaboration in creating a supportive legislative and regulatory environment for savings and investment is vital. Instilling financial literacy from an early age, along with government incentives like tax exemptions or promotional prizes, will further encourage regular saving.

The development of the financial sector is a unifying framework for these efforts, ensuring coordination and integration among various entities to achieve shared objectives. This cooperation between governmental entities and the private sector is the cornerstone for building a financially stable society capable of achieving long-term prosperity.

Financial Market Supporting Key Sectors

The robust financial market, with its capacity to attract investment, directly supports critical national projects and sectors:
- Water Security: The Saudi Water Partnership Company (SWPC), established in 2003, plays a pivotal role in public-private partnerships (PPP) for water projects. It manages and oversees water projects, including the purchase of desalinated, purified, and treated water. These partnerships have attracted significant investments exceeding 47 billion Saudi Riyals for 49 projects, producing over 10 million cubic meters of desalinated water daily and treating over 600,000 cubic meters of wastewater daily. This demonstrates the financial market’s ability to fund essential infrastructure.
- Industrial and Mining Sectors: The Minister of Industry and Mineral Resources, Bandar Al-Khorayef, affirmed that the Kingdom aims to lead advanced technology sectors and enhance productive capabilities in global value chains. The mining sector, for example, has seen its estimated mineral reserves value increase from $1.3 trillion to $2.5 trillion. This growth relies on significant investments attracted through the financial market.
- Regional Investment Hubs: Regions like Jazan are being promoted as significant investment gateways due to their natural resources (fisheries, livestock, agriculture, minerals) and strategic location. The Jazan Chamber of Commerce actively works to attract and develop quality investments, fostering an attractive business environment for investors. These initiatives inherently depend on a developed financial market to facilitate funding and transactions.
In essence, the Saudi financial market, propelled by Vision 2030, is transforming into a sophisticated, digitally advanced, and globally competitive hub that is crucial for diversifying the economy, attracting local and international investments, and supporting the Kingdom’s strategic development goals across various vital sectors.

Saudi Food Trucks: Growth, Culture, and Entrepreneurship

The Financial Market itself is not a food truck, however, your query about Food Trucks can be discussed by drawing on the information provided in the sources regarding Saudi Arabia’s vibrant entrepreneurial landscape and economic diversification efforts, which the financial market indirectly supports by fostering an environment for investment and growth.

Food trucks in Saudi Arabia have undergone a significant transformation, moving from simple mobile kiosks to a well-established phenomenon that reflects urban ambition, entrepreneurial spirit, and a connection to popular heritage.

Here’s a comprehensive discussion of food trucks in Saudi Arabia based on the sources:
- Emergence and Growth:
- The roots of food trucks in Saudi Arabia trace back to the 1980s with simple mobile “kiosks” selling “balila and ice cream” that roamed neighborhoods.
- A radical shift occurred in 2016 when concerned authorities began issuing the first official licenses for equipped food trucks. This was a response to the high rents of fixed establishments and a new vision to stimulate commercial activity.
- This initiative transformed food trucks from a limited economic activity into a remarkable social and commercial phenomenon.
- The number of commercial registrations related to food trucks and restaurants saw a steady increase, reaching 10% in 2024, surpassing 136,000 commercial registrations for food activities.
- This growth is not just a bureaucratic statistic; it signifies a change in community taste and a trend among youth to venture into entrepreneurship with minimal costs.
- Role in Youth Entrepreneurship and Economic Diversification:
- Food trucks offer a more accessible option for young people to enter the market compared to fixed restaurants that require significant capital.
- They provide a platform for direct market experience and developing a personal commercial brand.
- The sector is seen as feeding the dreams of thousands of young Saudis, blending popular heritage with an evolving, diverse society, driven by innovation and entrepreneurship.
- Offerings and Social Impact:
- Food trucks now offer a rich and innovative variety of choices, ranging from traditional Saudi Kabsa to modern burgers, luxury cold drinks, and Asian sweets.
- They have become a social scene, attracting enthusiastic crowds of youth and families, reflecting an unmistakable shift in contemporary urban lifestyle. This food culture is no longer a fleeting trend but an integral part of modern life.
- Regulations and Challenges:
- To manage this growing popularity, platforms like “Baladi” offer electronic licensing for an annual fee of 720 Riyals, along with strict regulations for routes and parking.
- The stated goal is to balance encouraging youth investment with controlling random congestion and avoiding visual and traffic disturbances.
- The Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Housing recently issued new municipal regulations for mobile carts to enhance public safety, service quality, and maintain urban aesthetics.
- Permitted locations include sites affiliated with municipalities, government entities, private sectors, and public spaces, investment areas, and event locations approved by the municipality.
- Prohibited stopping areas include traffic intersections, main and secondary roads, high-traffic areas, parking spots for police, civil defense, ambulance, disability, or within residential neighborhoods.
- Prohibitions also extend to stopping near pollution sources like gas stations, landfills, sewage treatment plants, or fuel stations, with a mandatory safety distance of at least ten meters.
- Technical requirements for carts include a wash basin, non-slip and easy-to-clean floors, sufficient ventilation with appropriate air conditioning, and thermal insulation.
- They are prohibited from using loudspeakers (except during events) and operating or smoking inside the cart after midnight without a 24-hour permit.
- Owners are mandated to remove waste from their sites and provide a first-aid box, while the sale or serving of all types of tobacco is prohibited.
- Challenges include public health risks (food contamination, improper storage), the need for continuous education for owners, and intense competition which might tempt some to compromise on health standards.
- An economic debate persists regarding the unfair competition faced by fixed restaurants due to food trucks’ lower rents and taxes.
- Success Stories:
- Bandar’s Ice Cream Carts: A university student, Bandar Al-Ateeq, started his ice cream business with a limited budget of 20,000 Riyals, using his university allowance and some family help. He began by setting up a simple wooden cart with used equipment on park sidewalks. Despite initial difficulties, including days with no sales, he learned to attract customers, innovate flavors, and be present during peak times. He now owns 16 ice cream food trucks. Bandar emphasizes his project is fully Saudi in idea, execution, team, and flavors, and prides himself on his innovation in creating unique mixtures and packaging.
- “Masghout Al Shaqa” Food Truck: This food truck, located on Prince Mohammed bin Salman Road in Riyadh, offers authentic Saudi dishes. The idea originated from three friends living together and sharing cooking duties. They are committed to high quality, choosing the best ingredients, grinding fresh, un-ground spices themselves, and refusing to use cheap or expired chicken, using only reputable brands. Their success has led them to consider opening a fixed restaurant due to overwhelming demand.
- Consumer Trust and Future Outlook:
- Consumer trust is crucial for success. Consumers often choose carts that appear clean and are well-known.
- While some food trucks maintain competitive pricing, others, especially those focusing on details, now have prices comparable to fixed restaurants.
- Forecasts predict the Saudi food truck market to exceed $70 million by 2030, driven by the expansion of urban lifestyles, government support, and local manufacturing of food trucks.
- This expansion aligns with the regional trend, with the MENA food truck market valued at $461 million in 2022 and an expected annual growth rate of 8.8% until 2030.
In summary, food trucks in Saudi Arabia represent a dynamic and evolving sector, embodying the Kingdom’s drive for economic diversification and youth empowerment under Vision 2030, balancing rapid growth with structured regulation and a commitment to quality.

Defense Industry Transformations: Germany’s Zeitenwende and Saudi Vision 2030

The defense industry, as discussed in the sources, is undergoing significant transformations and strategic advancements, particularly in Germany and Saudi Arabia, reflecting broader global geopolitical shifts and national economic diversification goals.

Germany’s Defense Industry Transformation

Germany, traditionally a cautious player in the global arms market, has experienced an “unprecedented radical transformation” in its defense policies since World War II. This shift is primarily driven by the war in Ukraine and direct support to Kyiv, positioning Germany as a leading arms exporter.
- Record Export Growth: In 2023, Germany’s arms exports reached a record 11.7 billion euros, the highest in the country’s history, surpassing traditional restrictions on arms sales to conflict zones. This growth is fueled by increased global demand, especially from Ukraine.
- Strategic Policy Shift: Berlin has adopted a bolder approach, sending heavy weaponry like “Leopard 2” tanks and “Iris-T” air defense systems to Ukraine, which were previously forbidden under German law. Chancellor Scholz emphasized that the “Russian threat necessitated a comprehensive review of German defense doctrine”. This new strategic phase is termed “Zeitenwende” (Turning Point), supported by an emergency program of 100 billion euros to modernize its armed forces.
- Industrial Cooperation: There are ongoing discussions to establish joint arms and ammunition factories within Ukraine, aiming to build a “sustainable Ukrainian defense capability” through long-term industrial cooperation. Ukraine’s increasing reliance on German military technology, particularly for air defense and heavy artillery, is noted.
- Key Industry Players and Growth: German defense companies like Rheinmetall, KMW, and Diehl Defence are at the forefront of this expansion.
- Rheinmetall, the largest German defense company, saw its order backlog more than double from 24.5 billion euros in 2021 to 62.6 billion euros by March of the latest year. Its stock price has increased 18-fold since the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and it is building a new ammunition factory.
- Hensoldt, a supplier of sensor and radar systems, aims to reach 6 billion euros in revenue by 2030.
- ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems, a global leader in non-nuclear submarines, has an order backlog valued at 18 billion euros.
- Other companies like Dynamit Nobel Defence (anti-tank grenades), Heckler & Koch (assault rifles), MBDA Germany (guided missiles), Airbus (helicopters and fighter jets), and Quantum Systems (drones) are also experiencing significant growth and investment in expanding their production capacities.
- Reactions to Germany’s Shift:
- NATO allies have praised Germany’s transformation as “historic,” seeing it as a strengthening of the Western defense front and a restoration of confidence in Berlin as a responsible European power.
- Internally, some leftist and green factions criticize the expansion, viewing it as a contradiction of Germany’s ethical and historical commitments and a risk of involvement in external conflicts.
- Russia views Germany’s arming of Ukraine as a “red line”, threatening “unforeseen responses” or sabotage against critical infrastructure.
Saudi Arabia’s Strategic Industrial Development

Saudi Arabia, under Vision 2030, is implementing a “qualitative and comprehensive industrial transformation” aimed at reshaping its national economy, reducing reliance on oil, and establishing a “leading position in advanced technology sectors” [141, 126, My previous response]. This comprehensive strategy includes a focus on defense and related industries as part of its broader economic diversification [My previous response].
- National Industrial Strategy (2022): The strategy is built on three main pillars, with the first pillar explicitly focusing on industries related to national security, including military industries, along with food and medicine. The goal is to localize these industries through effective partnerships.
- Investment in Future Technologies: The Kingdom emphasizes the early adoption of future technologies, supporting research and development, artificial intelligence, Industry 4.0 applications, and 3D printing. It also promotes policies that prioritize local content and leverage national capabilities.
- Mining Sector as a Growth Driver: The mining sector, a new focus area under Vision 2030, has seen significant geological exploration efforts. This has increased the estimated value of Saudi mineral reserves from $1.3 trillion to $2.5 trillion, including strategic minerals like phosphates and copper. This provides a strong foundation for industries with high added value.
- International Engagement: Saudi Arabia is actively enhancing international partnerships, notably through the International Mining Conference. This platform facilitates discussions on critical raw materials for energy transition and fosters coordination among governments, the private sector, and academic institutions.
- Economic Impact and Soft Power: The Minister of Industry and Mineral Resources highlighted the excellent relations with Russia, noting a substantial increase in trade exchange, which aligns with Vision 2030’s goals for economic diversification, digital transformation, and technological leadership. While not directly about the defense industry, this context underscores Saudi Arabia’s strategic efforts to enhance its global economic standing and influence, including through “soft power” initiatives such as sports, which can indirectly support its overall strategic goals and reputation.
In essence, both Germany and Saudi Arabia are demonstrating robust and deliberate strategies to develop their defense and related industrial sectors. Germany’s transformation is a direct response to immediate geopolitical threats, leading to unprecedented arms exports and industrial growth. Saudi Arabia’s approach, embedded within Vision 2030, is a long-term strategic endeavor to diversify its economy, localize critical industries (including military), and establish a leading position in advanced technology and global value chains.

Echoes of Identity: Documenting Culture Across Time and Media

Cultural documentation, as depicted in the sources, encompasses a diverse array of efforts to preserve, interpret, and disseminate various aspects of a society’s heritage, practices, and contemporary trends, often leveraging both traditional and modern mediums. This includes documenting traditional customs, emerging social phenomena, artistic expressions, historical narratives, and even humanitarian endeavors.

Traditional Practices and Heritage: The sources highlight the documentation of long-standing cultural elements. Saudi coffee, for instance, is presented as a profound symbol of hospitality and generosity, deeply ingrained in Saudi culture and traditions. Its preparation, involving specific tools and rituals passed down through generations, is meticulously described, acting as a form of cultural preservation through detailed narrative. Similarly, the palm tree (Nakhla) is noted as a “symbol of identity and authenticity,” with its historical significance as a food source and its revered status in culture also being documented. The Saudi Ardha dance is explicitly identified as an “important historical and cultural witness” that embodies the concept of civilizations and their characteristics, originating from the heart of Diriyah as a military display and transforming into a cultural icon and source of pride signifying joy and celebration. Even natural elements, like the Al-Haza plant, are documented as part of the Kingdom’s “environmental identity” and a symbol of adaptation to harsh desert conditions. The historical practice of bird rearing in traditional homes, and its evolution into a widespread hobby and trade of ornamental birds, is also described in detail, providing a form of historical documentation of a cultural pastime. One article even explicitly states, “A weekly page documented the gap between two generations” when discussing traditional versus modern bird rearing, directly using the term “documented”.

Documentation through Arts and Literature: Cultural documentation extends significantly into artistic and literary domains, serving as powerful mediums for expression and reflection:
- Literature as Documentation: Novels and poetry are shown to capture and reflect societal transformations and human experiences. Examples include a novel detailing the history of modern Egypt, a Palestinian novel written from prison exploring identity, and a personal narrative about family and societal change. Significantly, a Syrian author, Samar Yazbek, is noted for being the “first to document the genocide in Gaza through testimonies” of its people, underscoring literature’s unique ability to convey individual experiences and humanize events beyond generalized media coverage. Another novel focuses on the importance of antiquities and historical value, especially during wartime, with the author being an architect researcher interested in architectural heritage, implicitly linking literary works to the preservation of tangible and intangible heritage.
- Cinema: Cinema is highlighted as a potent tool for “shaping consciousness, reinterpreting reality, and moving history from behind the scenes”. It is described as transforming “knowledge from an elitist discourse into a popular one,” making philosophy accessible and presenting history as a living event. This positions cinema itself as a form of dynamic cultural documentation.
- Visual Arts: The sculpture “Ego – The Ego” by Saudi artist Khaled Al-Anqari, is presented as a “philosophical and deep visual vision” of identity and human experience, with its detailed description serving to document the artwork’s conceptual and aesthetic significance. The Ministry of Arts and Culture Authority is noted for fostering an environment for these talents under Vision 2030, indicating a systemic support for cultural production that inherently contributes to cultural documentation.
Digital and Modern Documentation Initiatives: The digital age has brought new avenues for cultural documentation, moving beyond traditional institutional roles:
- Social Media and Self-Narrative: The rise of digital media platforms (e.g., YouTube, TikTok, Snapchat) has led to a significant shift where individuals actively participate in documenting their lives and experiences. This includes the emergence of “self-narratives” and visual biographies (Sira Dhatiyah) through personal vlogs and shared content, transforming personal stories into publicly documented experiences. These digital narratives, described as having “vitality and beauty” through their vibrant colors and sounds, provide interactive and engaging forms of cultural documentation.
- TV Programs: The Ramadan TV program “Dhat” (Self) is cited as an example of televised self-narrative, showcasing diverse personal experiences and serving as a valuable subject for specialized study in the field of self-literature.
- Humanitarian Work Documentation: The King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center (KSrelief) actively documents its humanitarian work, demonstrating a commitment to recording the Kingdom’s extensive aid efforts, which were historically performed “silently and without promotional campaigns”. This includes documenting their projects and the impact on beneficiaries, emphasizing the Kingdom’s global humanitarian role.
- Economic and Social Trends: The detailed discussion of the “Food Truck” phenomenon in Saudi Arabia, including its growth statistics, regulatory frameworks, and inspiring entrepreneurial stories, acts as a documentation of a contemporary social and commercial cultural trend.
In summary, cultural documentation in the provided sources is portrayed as a multifaceted and evolving process that leverages traditional preservation methods alongside modern digital and artistic expressions to capture and communicate the rich tapestry of a society’s culture, history, and ongoing transformations.

Saudi Visions and Global Reflections

Here are the column titles and their first two paragraphs of detail from the sources:
- كلمة Spontaneous reactions are often sincere, especially when they are not driven by self-interest or a pre-existing agenda. Whoever sees or hears someone dealing with others they don’t know, and who don’t know them, in a compassionate manner, their actions are a sincere response to what they saw or heard, without flattery or pretense. We witness this firsthand on social media from foreigners working in or visiting our country, even if their initial ideas about it were unclear or perhaps negative due to misinformation. However, once they experienced the reality for themselves, they found it completely different from their preconceived notions. They found a welcoming country, especially in summer, that honors and protects their safety, security, and privacy.
- انطباعات حقيقية The opinions filling social media are truly astonishing, reflecting unprecedented development in all fields that they never expected to find in this country. They are also full of admiration for the sophisticated treatment they received and the warm feeling of safety that they admit is not present in their home countries. They also express strong admiration for the authenticity combined with modernity, which is reflected in the hospitality and authenticity of Saudi Arabia. The victorious opinions, regardless of nationality, or even if they were from a specific nationality, were varied and from different cultures, but their views converged in the same positive direction, stemming from their personal experiences on the ground and across the Kingdom, not just a specific city.
- »السوق المالية«.. كفاءة البنية الرقمية The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is working to be at the forefront of leading countries in digital transformation, as transformation is a comprehensive strategy aimed at enabling and accelerating digital transformation, developing the necessary infrastructure, and creating an empowered environment that enables public, private, and non-profit sectors to achieve the goals of Vision 2030 with high efficiency and effectiveness. The Saudi financial market has witnessed a remarkable transformation over recent years. This development has been reflected in several strategic axes focused on raising the efficiency of the digital infrastructure and enhancing its global position, which contributed to a qualitative leap that led to an increase in the number of listed companies and the expansion of foreign investor ownership in the financial market.
- نصنع أمنًا بكل قطرة ماء The issue of water security is considered one of the vital and strategic issues for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia due to its desert geographical nature, the limited natural water resources, and the accelerating population and economic growth. The Kingdom aims to ensure the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses in line with Saudi Vision 2030. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has ensured the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses through a set of integrated policies and strategies, which have focused on the following axes of expansion:
- األمن المائي.. أولوية المملكة في زمن الندرة والتوسع The Gulf Cooperation Council countries, at the heart of which is the Kingdom, face a difficult environmental and economic reality characterized by global water scarcity. With an almost complete absence of surface water and increasing reliance on the depletion of limited groundwater resources, this region has become among the most affected by water shortages. The per capita share of renewable fresh water in the Kingdom is less than one hundred cubic meters per year, which places it very far from the global standard for absolute water scarcity, set at five hundred cubic meters per person per year. This challenge is exacerbated by the high rates of individual consumption in the Kingdom, as the average daily consumption is about 284 liters (equivalent to 103.66 cubic meters annually), a large figure that places immense pressure on scarce water resources.
- مـن محـدوديـة المــوارد إلـى ريــادة التـحــول المـائــي Water security constitutes a strategic vital resource, one of the most important vital pillars that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has given great attention to among its strategic priorities, recognizing that water is not just a natural resource, but a fundamental element in the comprehensive national security system. In the Saudi context, the concept of water security extends beyond providing water for daily uses to include the sustainable management of resources, ensuring water availability for human consumption, industry, agriculture, and energy, in a way that balances current needs and future aspirations. This concept is consistent with the directions of Saudi Vision 2030, which emphasized that water is a strategic resource that requires smart management based on efficiency, governance, and innovation.
- األمن المائي.. أولوية وطنية The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia faces a strategic challenge in achieving water security in light of the limited natural resources and the accelerating demand resulting from urban expansion, population growth, and industrial and agricultural renaissance. This challenge has become a national priority, no longer just a service matter, but is directly linked to national economic and social stability. Within the framework of Saudi Vision 2030, the Kingdom has adopted a comprehensive developmental approach to restructure the water sector through policies aimed at increasing production efficiency, improving service quality, rationalizing consumption, and localizing water-related industries and technologies. The Kingdom no longer relies on traditional solutions, but is racing against time to adopt the latest global technologies in desalination and treatment, benefiting from its previous experience and leading position in water desalination.
- »الماء ال يكفي الجميع« صراع يقلب التوازن الجيوسياسي ندرة المياه والتضخم والهجرة مالمح أزمة مركبة تهدد النظام العالمي Global concerns have escalated in recent years regarding water security as a primary source of tensions, both strategic and regional, as riparian countries dispute their shares of shared rivers. As a United Nations report titled “Water for Peace” warns, increasing water scarcity, amidst groundwater resources, weakens food security and threatens livelihoods, which could lead to very dangerous conflicts. Agriculture experts at FAO explain that agriculture needs about 70% of available fresh water, so every lost drop means less food production and more hunger globally. World Bank data also confirm that water shocks – mainly drought – account for about 10% of the increase in global migration, and have reduced the growth of major cities by more than 12% in cases of severe drought.
- زيادة كفاءة استخدام الموارد المائية وتقليل االعتماد على “الجوفية” Water is a fundamental resource for meeting human needs, ensuring environmental sustainability, and is one of the most important axes of economic and social development. Despite the importance of water, the Kingdom faces significant challenges due to unsustainable use of water resources, in addition to the limited non-renewable groundwater reserves, which are experiencing accelerated depletion in arid climatic conditions. Renewable water is extremely rare, and in addition, the high demand for water in the agricultural sector exacerbates the problem of water scarcity in the Kingdom. The government also bears a high cost for water production and wastewater services in the urban sector, yet service levels remain suboptimal, and the sector also suffers from inadequate institutional arrangements and governance mechanisms.
- شراكة القطاعين العام والخاص.. العب رئيس لتوفير مصادر المياه واستدامتها بالمملكة Investment in water projects began early in the Kingdom with the first desalination unit in Jeddah in 1907 AD, and from that day, investment grew and expanded, and projects multiplied. The partnership between the public and private sectors in this regard was carefully organized and studied, indicating the development and goodness of this important partnership between the two sectors. The establishment of the Saudi Water Partnerships Company (SWPC) as a limited liability company in 2003, with a 50% contribution from each of the Saline Water Conversion Corporation and the Saudi Electricity Company, is evidence of this. The company was established to be the primary buyer of all types of water, including desalinated, purified, and treated water, and others.
- تربية الطيور.. من الهواية إلى المتعة والتجارة In the past, and for a few decades, poultry and pigeon rearing was widespread and abundant in most homes, especially earthen houses. After the owners of these earthen and then traditional houses joyfully bid farewell to them without looking back, the residents benefited from the eggs produced by chickens, as well as the meat of pigeons, which filled the house with their cooing. The most beautiful sight was the pigeon perching on the balcony. Rearing pigeons in a cote on rooftops was appealing to young people at that time. They would fly freely in the air, moving in circles, then return to their cote, cooing and circling the house as if expressing their love for their dwelling in this house, its inhabitants, and the beautiful earthen buildings.
- »الفود ترك«.. The statistics for 2019 indicate that the official licenses for food trucks in six Saudi regions reached about 1301 vehicles, with Riyadh leading at 496 licenses, followed by Jeddah with 450. However, this number no longer accurately reflects the current reality, as the Ministry of Commerce recorded a steady increase in commercial registrations related to food trucks and restaurants alone, with a growth of 10% in 2024, exceeding 136 thousand commercial registrations for food activities. This growth is not just a number in bureaucratic reports; it is a living testament to a changing societal taste and a generation of young people venturing into entrepreneurship at the lowest possible cost. Instead of a fixed restaurant requiring significant capital, the mobile cart offers an easier option to enter the market, test recipes, develop a personal brand, and directly connect with the public.
- مدخرات األسرة.. ورؤية 2030 The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 is an ambitious national project that aims to bring about a comprehensive economic and social transformation in the country, reducing reliance on oil as a primary source of income, diversifying the economy, empowering citizens, and enhancing the quality of life. Among the important financial goals that the Vision seeks to achieve is raising the percentage of family savings from their total income from 6% to 10%. This goal is an important indicator of families’ financial awareness and their ability to plan and prepare for the future, and it also reflects positively on the overall economy by improving financial stability and increasing sources of domestic funding.
- »السوق المالية في المملكـة«.. كفـاءة البنيـة الرقميـة The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is working to be at the forefront of leading countries in digital transformation, as transformation is a comprehensive strategy aimed at enabling and accelerating digital transformation, developing the necessary infrastructure with high efficiency, and creating an empowered environment that enables public, private, and non-profit sectors to achieve the goals of Vision 2030. The Saudi financial market has witnessed a remarkable transformation over recent years. This development has been reflected in several strategic axes focused on raising the efficiency of the digital infrastructure and enhancing its global position, which contributed to a qualitative leap that led to an increase in the number of listed companies and the expansion of foreign investor ownership in the financial market.
- رفع قيمة مخزون المعادن في المملكة إلى »2.5« تريليون دوالر The Minister of Industry and Mineral Resources, Bandar bin Ibrahim Al-Khorayef, affirmed that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is leading a qualitative and comprehensive industrial transformation; it aims to re-form the structure of the national economy and establish an advanced position in technology sectors through early adoption of advanced technologies and enhancing its production capabilities in global value chains. Al-Khorayef reviewed the developments in the mining sector, which is considered one of the new sectors adopted by Vision 2030, where work has been done according to many tracks, including increasing geological explorations, which raised the estimated value of minerals in the Kingdom from “1.3” to “2.5” trillion dollars.
- جازان.. بوابة استثمار غنية بالموارد البحرية والزراعية Jazan region represents a prominent economic destination thanks to its distinguished natural components and rich resources, which include coasts extending along the Red Sea, rich agricultural resources, and enormous mineral wealth, in addition to its strategic location as a commercial gateway between East and West, and continuous government support. All of this strengthens what it is witnessing of a qualitative leap for projects, accelerating major initiatives and investment incentives, and keeping pace with accelerating economic developments in light of Saudi Vision 2030, to be a pioneer in qualitative investments for sustainable development in all developmental, investment, service, and tourism fields.
- أوكرانيا تشكل خريطة جديدة لصادرات السالح األلماني The war in Ukraine has succeeded in reshaping Germany’s role and the map of international military industries. After being a cautious player, Germany has now become a leading arms exporter with influence, walking a fine line between supporting allies and avoiding direct escalation with Russia. This is considered an unprecedented radical transformation in Germany’s defense policies since World War II. Therefore, Germany is steadily moving towards leadership in the arms export market, driven by the war in Ukraine, with direct support for the Kyiv government, which has placed Berlin at the heart of one of the largest rearmament waves in Europe.
- الشعر وندوب العالم Under the weight of wars, conflicts, environmental and economic crises, and existential divisions, it seems that rationality alone is no longer sufficient to quell this noise. In this context, poetry emerges as a soulful medium that transcends the pragmatic, penetrates the depths of the human psyche, and grants it meaning, solace, and awakens in it a dormant sense of belonging, beauty, and mercy. Poetry, then, is not a linguistic luxury or a literary pastime, but a human necessity that contributes to addressing the world’s problems from an emotional perspective that traditional solutions lack. Indeed, one of the primary problems of the world today lies in the spiritual isolation created by extreme individualism and cold technology.
- القهوة السعودية.. عنوان الضيافة ورمز الكرم Saudi coffee has an ancient history, a long-standing heritage, and its existence has been rooted since ancient times in our culture, behavior, traditions, and customs. It is offered on all public occasions such as weddings, Eid celebrations, and receptions, where it is considered an authentic Arab tradition passed down from generation to generation as a symbol of welcome, honor, and an expression of respect and hospitality. It may seem somewhat astonishing how this bitter coffee, which is in fact its sweetness and attraction, reached its invention and preparation with its two main components (coffee beans and cardamom) to give that distinctive taste, especially when we realize that coffee beans and cardamom are products of our authentic agricultural lands. And specifically cardamom, which comes from its original source (India), is not ground as they do, but rather we add it with its whole, original seeds as a spice to rice and other foods, like raisins and nuts, for example.
- ألعاب اللغة و»الشريعة« When a child learns a language or is taught a language, if the educational process is centered on ‘the word,’ then the word, which is sometimes called according to its uses, then branched out by ‘the word,’ in order for language to enable its conceptual map, its lexical entry. For the child, a word with multiple uses is presented, such as ‘eye,’ so the word ‘eye’ is written for him, then the hurting eye is drawn for him, then a story is told to him about a person who uses his ‘eye’ correctly… These linguistic games are educational, and they are the first level, which the learner may revert from his deficiency with time, finding that the lexicon is not fixed except as an educational tool, not as a means to clarify the criterion from others. This is what “Baudouin de Pre” confined himself to at the level of “education” when discussing the meaning of “Sharia,” and then he carried this level to explain that the levels of usage of the word “Sharia” from this side, depending on how it was used throughout history, point to individuals and trends among Muslims, according to the level of lexical linguistic education, and he explicitly stated it in the manner of Wittgenstein’s “language games” to explain the ambiguity of the meaning of “Sharia”.
- دوغمائية اللغة This article raises the following question: Can language transform into a form of dogmatism that extinguishes the flame of reason, freedom, and thought? At first glance, language appears to be an innocent and benign tool, merely a means of understanding and exchanging meanings. However, when it is subjected to deep reflection and criticism, it is revealed from another angle; it transforms from a means of communication into an entrenched authority that imposes a kind of symbolic constraint on thought and reality. In the beginning, the word hovered above man and was a miracle.
- المثقف بين األفكار واالأخالق In a time when platforms increase and titles compete, the intellectual is no longer just a mere carrier of knowledge, but has become an ethical symbol under scrutiny. In light of the complete exposure on social media, an old question arises in a new form: Is culture alone enough to create an intellectual to be emulated? Or are ethics what give thought its legitimacy and truthfulness? Knowledge is a powerful tool, but it can turn into a means of deception if it is devoid of conscience. History is full of names that embodied thought and others whose actions betrayed their intellect, and whose reason was darkened, revealing the rarity of consistency in the enlightened human being.
- ثقـافـة التوثيــق The visual self-narrative belongs to the visual arts, and the interactive self-narrative, which benefits from digital technologies, electronic communication channels, and social media platforms (such as YouTube, Snapchat, TikTok, WhatsApp, or similar), belongs to these interactive visual genres. Here I would like to refer to the efforts of Dr. Amal Al-Tamimi in her attention to this type of visual self-narrative, as she authored her book on this subject: ‘The Self-Narrative in Digital Literature: A Television Self-Narrative as a Model,’ which then became ‘The Self-Narrative,’ in which she monitored examples from some personal pages on social media and their social impact on the transformation of self-literature. We can find in the Ramadan TV program ‘Dhat’ (Self), prepared by the player Sami Al-Jaber, an example of this type of self-narrative. It is a talk show where he hosts a personality every night and talks with them about themselves. This program was shown on Saudi TV during Ramadan 1443 AH (2022 AD). The program was then rebroadcast on the same channel in Ramadan 2023 AD. This program is considered one of the forms of televised self-narrative, and it is worthy of study by specialists in the field of self-literature and its critique, as it contains rich examples and diverse experiences that deserve attention and care.
- ُصَباَبُة الَقول السِّيَرة الذَّاتيَّة الَمْرِئيَّة For the writer to flow with the moment of his creativity, he must seize the precise subject during writing and adopt instantaneous expression to express his feelings and the power of his mind and the cinematic images that he chooses. He must also move towards a state of direct imagination towards broad and conscious philosophical concepts that give him the ability to establish a deep philosophical connection to reveal the deep structure of things and beings, and to return to their essence, as well as to review and ponder after that with the writer to a state of illuminating gnosis of writing. This writing is a descriptive and silent text, and for it to be an innovative literary activity, its ultimate outcome is that when a dry branch sees himself in the desert, he reads and circulates and roams, and he sees the branch swaying and vibrating with freshness and wetness, and those who drink from it, and crowds of bees, and here there may be a paradox in the meaning of the scene and an intensification of the vision, expanding its scope to its reality, which moves us to another charming and captivating feature that has no end or limits.
- مساعدات المملكة It is possible for a poet and writer to forget that Dr. Abdullah Al-Rabeeah, head of King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center, in one of the meetings, relied on writers and their role in translating the humanitarian situation and its impact on society, and the role of literature in conveying the humanitarian message with influential language and emotions. Literature translates, perceives, documents, and touches the recipient; and King Salman Humanitarian Aid and Relief Center plays a major global role in aiding distressed peoples, whether from wars or natural disasters, and it is a specialist in the Kingdom’s extensive efforts, which began since the days of the founder King Abdulaziz – may God rest his soul. Those in charge of it have made great efforts in documenting the great aid provided by the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia since early times, as the Saudi government used to provide its aid to peoples and countries silently and without promotional campaigns, unlike other countries that planted and cultivated for showing off and media exaggeration.
- جدلية القرية والمدينة I have just finished reading a biographical novel whose narrator was the son of the village where he lived his childhood and then moved to the city, and it raised a deep question within me: Is the dialectic of village and city still present, or has it disappeared? And does the human self in the novel – in our present time – indicate the existence of this dialectic? In fact, the answer to this question is not a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires a reading into the transformations of consciousness in the human self and its reflections on what it writes. Does this disparity still mean something in the era of postmodernity, globalization, and the digital city, or not?
- مارسيل بروست والزمن اللولبي The sunset rays used to melt shyly on the wall of the church in Combray, drawing pink lines on the stones. Every ray would withdraw as if bidding farewell to my childhood, until it left, whispering to me: ‘Everything is memory.’ This is how Proust begins, not from a specific hour or date, but from a sensory moment, a faint light, a scent of loss that ignites memories, and unleashes a connection between memory and the present moment. Do we live time, and is life in time what lives in us? Does memory preserve what it recalls, or does it recreate it every time we try to remember? Why do we miss moments we never longed for with a vague nostalgia for unknown times? Is the past a fixed reality, or just a story we tell ourselves to live?
- الت لغوية َعالن( تأمُّ َ In the depths of the Arabic structure, words are formed like waves that expand and contract according to meaning. One of the most prominent of these forms is “Fa’alan,” which comes loaded with movement, saturated with emotion, and rich with suggestion. We say: ‘Sakran’ (drunk), ‘Walhan’ (ardent), ‘Atshan’ (thirsty), ‘Ghadban’ (angry). Here, the form draws a picture of an overwhelming feeling or an urgent need, encompassing both body and soul. It refers to the internal state and describes it in detail, conveying the emotional wave itself. And if we move to the context of the Holy Quran, we find a unique presence for this form in Surah Al-Ankabut, where Allah Almighty says: ‘And indeed, the home of the Hereafter is the Hayaawan (true life)’.
- المعنى في زمن االنفجار In times when the word was measured by its weight, its meaning was meant to be understood. But today, much of what is said is said just to be said. We do not live in an era of linguistic abundance only, but of linguistic explosion. Shiny phrases are copied, concepts are reproduced without depth, and words multiply. It may seem to us that this linguistic explosion is innocent, but it is in fact a confusing linguistic phenomenon where everything is said but not understood. It is as if the language has lost its basic function, and the discourse has become accumulation rather than production of meaning; the language, which was meant to enlighten, has turned into a dense fog that obscures the truth under the embellishment of words. We no longer even search for words; we try to escape from them. Everything around us speaks: platforms, screens, and people, but in reality, the more words, the less understanding, as if we live in a time where language overflows and the understanding of truth diminishes.
- األنا )Ego( منحوتة تغوص في فلسفة الذات The visual arts sector in the Kingdom possesses exceptional talents among pioneers and youth. The state – may God protect it – through the ‘Ministry of Arts and Culture Authority’ has created the best possible environment for these talents to flourish in various fields of the sector, in line with Vision 2030, through qualitative programs and initiatives. These include plastic art in painting, photography, digital arts, calligraphy, sculpture, installation works, video art, multimedia art, and others. The plastic artist Khaled bin Suleiman Al-Anqari is one of these artists who invested in this care, producing a number of creative sculptures, including his sculpture titled “Ego – The Ego,” through which he presents a deep visual and philosophical vision of the meaning of human identity and the accumulation of experience, where a local marble block has transformed into a vibrant entity of thought and contemplation.
- وما يمنع من اإلنجليزية؟! I hope that this acquired victory of the English language does not disturb us, as I see it as a divine gift that has built bridges of communication between the East and the West, and has removed many language barriers in communication between different cultures and languages. Language, with all its dialects and lexicon, is a sign among the signs of God Almighty. ‘And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your languages and your colors. Indeed, in that are signs for those of knowledge’. The English language reaching this level of circulation recently, whether spoken or written, certainly has its reasons and factors, which are not hidden from many of us. But what concerns us is the function of this language, its role, and its importance, and whether it has achieved communication between people? The answer is certainly yes, and this is a matter that does not require study or any kind of sophisticated analysis.
- خمسة كتب توصي سوسن األبطح بقراءتها In this section, Dr. Sawsan Al-Abtah, the Lebanese journalist and writer specialized in literary criticism, theater, cinema, and television culture, will take us. She has written dozens of critical articles and worked in journalistic preparation and coverage. She recommends what she recently read to readers. Faces of Modern Egypt by Robert Solé, the French-Egyptian novelist. Many have written about the history of Egypt, but Robert Solé took it upon himself in this book to present a vision, not to narrate events. He did so while bringing to life two hundred years of Arab history, in which he broadcast pivotal profiles for twenty personalities of modern life in his fluid style, succeeding in delivering a captivating work that the reader begins and does not give up until he finishes its three hundred pages.
- مازن حيدر: الُمواطنة تبدأ بالتعّرف على التاريخ The novel “Widow of Sarouphim and Her Mornings” by the Lebanese writer Mazen Haidar appears on the surface to be a story of young men and their teacher who solve riddles to discover treasures in a remote village in Lebanon. In essence, however, it is an invitation to shed light on the importance of antiquities and their historical value, and the responsibility of each of us to protect them, especially during wars. Haidar said in a recent interview with Al Riyadh newspaper in Paris, that his novel “Widow of Sarouphim” “is not about the war itself, but rather about shedding light on the course of life in places relatively far from the battles.” He explained that the Lebanese civil war is “a constant backdrop that shaped the identity of people and places, setting rules for social relations that go beyond displacement and killing”.
- السينما وعي In a dark hall, the lights are turned off, and a white screen is illuminated. It seems like a fleeting moment, but philosophically, it is a moment of new birth for the collective mind since its inception. Cinema has never been just a visual luxury, but an effective mechanism for generating meaning, shaping consciousness, and moving history from behind the scenes. Cinema does not just convey reality; it reconstructs it, questions its logic, and opens its gaps, as one described it, ‘a flipped mirror.’ It does not reflect the world as it is, but as it should be seen. It is a philosophy that walks on two feet, conveying ideas not through proof, but through a complete sensory experience, not through logic, but through image, sound, rhythm, and emotion.
- مدائننا الخفية In every city, there are hidden cities that are not seen with the naked eye, but are perceived by the eye of the heart, through the magic of imagination and the illusion of time. Cities like Troy, which celebrates its ideal landmarks, but its vanished specters never cease to seek a way to emerge anew. Shadows of cities in every Arab city, there is a corner that holds the secrets of years. In Riyadh, one can stroll through the old Al-Zal market, imbued with the scent of centuries, where the echoes of merchants’ footsteps resonate, carrying incense and spices through the desert. When one stands on the ruins, like Imru’ al-Qais, recalling a city, he is struck by a hidden sense of nostalgia: ‘Stop, let us weep from the memory of a beloved and a dwelling / At the curve of Al-Liwa between Al-Dakhul and Hawmal’.
- القوة الناعمة.. السعودية غير؟! It has become an aspiration for many to have their country similar to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and for how many peoples aspire to see their country enjoy the progress it now experiences in all fields, relying on the strength of its residents.. a true soft power that loves good for everyone and shares with the world the search for excellence and spreading happiness locally and globally. Saudi Arabia today realizes that it is in a world concerned with a positive reputation, especially after it closed and erased the paths of those who wanted it to be a source of partisan, isolationist, sectarian, and even tribal tendencies. It did so to be concerned with intellectual elevation and civilization, as humanitarian aid, for example, is part of its global role, but according to the concept of principles.. this was a great achievement that was difficult to realize.
- التستر.. سرطان االقتصاد The ‘commercial concealment,’ with its multiple forms and destructive impacts, has become a real economic cancer that has cast its heavy shadow on the business environment in the Kingdom for decades. It is no longer just a temporary defect, but an entrenched phenomenon that weakens the market structure, undermines efforts to localize jobs, and leads to the formation of a hidden economy with far-reaching tentacles, isolated from oversight, and not contributing to the GDP as it should. This concealment is manifested in enabling non-Saudis to practice commercial activities for their own benefit, disguised under the names of citizens who receive a meager monthly income, without any effective role in management. These practices have led to the spread of commercial fraud, money laundering, and poor product quality, in addition to causing a real unemployment problem among citizens who find themselves facing unfair competition with this informal economy.
- الطاقة الزائدة واستدرار الضحك It is undoubtedly true that the concept of theater is still associated with laughter, especially in our Arab society, and it is also true that individuals these days, under the pressures of life, need laughter for its biological, psychological, and health functions. Jean Cohen presented his theory of ‘comic drama,’ and this theory received much attention from critics and analysts for the modernity of its subject and the breadth of its scope. For example, Catherine Krebser-Orkision and Alain Brunschein presented their analyses of the function and goal of this theory.
- لماذا يداوي القائد المجروح؟ We are now in 1997. At that time, Japan did not succeed in qualifying for the 1998 World Cup in France, and the biggest challenge was not once for the biggest qualifier, the World Cup. At that time, the team’s star was the legend Kazuyoshi Miura, the only Japanese player who played in the Italian league. After great difficulties, Japan qualified for the Asian playoff by the skin of their teeth. In the middle of the decisive match against Iran, the coach decided to replace the legend Kazuyoshi Miura. The player protested this decision, saying: “Are you sending me out?” After moments, the player yielded to the decision and left the field. The beautiful thing is that the Japanese team managed to turn the result around and win and qualify for the World Cup. The biggest surprise, however, was when the Japanese team’s squad for the World Cup was announced, where the coach decided to deprive Kazu of playing in the global event, which was a shocking decision for everyone, confirming at that time that discipline and team spirit are more important than stardom and fame, and that there is no place for a player who does not adhere to the coach’s instructions.
- الوظيفة النقدية لإلعالم من النخبة إلى جمهور التواصل In a rapidly changing world, the role and functions of media change with the changing social, cultural, and technological structure of society. Perhaps one of the most prominent of these transformations is what has happened to the critical function of media, a function that has formed over decades a fundamental pillar in shaping consciousness, questioning authority, enhancing public dialogue, and correcting deviations in various fields: political, economic, cultural, sports, and even social. However, this function is no longer exclusive to traditional media institutions; rather, in the era of ‘complete digitalization,’ it has become part of the daily actions of millions of individuals who participate in varying levels of criticism of reality through social media.
Here are all the headings from the newspaper and their first two paragraphs of detail:
1. كلـمة (Word) Spontaneous reactions in situations are often sincere, especially if they are not driven by self-interest or a desire to appease someone. This is evident in the behavior of foreigners working or visiting our country, whose sincere interactions demonstrate their good nature, without pretense or ulterior motives. Even if they initially had negative or incorrect preconceptions, they found reality to be entirely different from their prior ideas once they experienced it for themselves. They discovered a country that welcomes them warmly in the summer, honors them, and safeguards their security and privacy.
2. انطباعات حقيقية (Real Impressions) These experiences and opinions enhance the Kingdom’s standing as an advanced nation that rivals and surpasses many developed countries in several areas. This progress, blended with a rich heritage, has had a profound impact on visitors who witness what they never expected, inspiring them to wish for similar progress, security, and safety in their own countries, thanks to wise leadership that has transformed our nation into an oasis of security. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
3. »السوق الماليـة«.. كفـاءة البنيـة الرقمـية (The Financial Market.. Efficiency of the Digital Infrastructure) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is working to be at the forefront of leading nations in digital transformation, adopting an integrated strategy aimed at enabling and accelerating this transformation. Digital transformation is considered to involve developing the necessary high-efficiency and effective infrastructure, and creating an empowering environment for governmental, private, and non-profit sectors to achieve the objectives of Vision 2030. The Saudi financial market has witnessed a remarkable transformation in recent years. This development manifested in several strategic axes focused on enhancing the efficiency of the digital infrastructure and strengthening its global position, leading to a qualitative leap that increased the number of listed companies and expanded foreign investor ownership in the financial market.
4. نصنع أمنًا بكل قطرة ماء (We Create Security with Every Drop of Water) The issue of water security is considered one of the vital and strategic issues for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia due to its desert geographical nature, the limited natural water resources, and the accelerating population and economic growth. The Kingdom aims to ensure the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses in line with Saudi Vision 2030. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has ensured the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses through a set of integrated policies and strategies, which focused on the following axes of expansion: desalination of seawater, treatment and reuse of wastewater, preservation of groundwater, reform of the aquatic agriculture sector, increasing distribution efficiency and reducing losses, and awareness programs to change consumer behavior and stimulate rationalization.
5. المياه محرك التنمية واالستثمار (Water: The Engine of Development and Investment) The availability of water is not just a luxury; it is a vital artery for every aspect of comprehensive economic and industrial development and prosperity. Water is indispensable in all stages of complex industrial processes, from basic industries to petrochemical and manufacturing industries, on which the Kingdom heavily relies. Without reliable water supplies, the Kingdom’s ambitious industrial and economic aspirations would face significant challenges that could impede the achievement of Vision 2030’s development goals. In the agricultural sector, which represents a cornerstone of food security, water is fundamental.
6. تحلية المياه.. ريادة سعودية (Water Desalination… Saudi Leadership) Recognizing this challenge, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has taken strong and innovative measures to secure its water future. The Kingdom has given the highest priority to developing water desalination technology, leveraging its massive financial and human resources. With continuous innovations and astonishing progress in membrane technologies and energy efficiency, the cost of desalinated water has drastically decreased from 5 dollars per cubic meter in the 1980s to between 40 and 50 cents in modern projects, making water desalination an economically viable option.
7. المملكة.. قوة مائية عالمية ورؤية مستقبلية (The Kingdom… A Global Water Power and Future Vision) The Kingdom’s pioneering role in water desalination began in the 1970s, and today it leads the world in this field without peer. Half of the world’s desalinated water production, approximately, comes from the Gulf, even though it accounts for less than 1% of the world’s population. The Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) in Saudi Arabia is the largest water desalination company globally, producing alone about 20% of the world’s desalinated water. The Corporation’s leadership is not limited to production but extends to specialized training programs through its Water Academy, which has trained thousands of water specialists worldwide.
8. تحديات التوسع.. وحلول مبتكرة (Expansion Challenges… and Innovative Solutions) With urban expansion and ambitious project plans to increase homeownership among Saudis to 70% by 2030, the Kingdom faces additional pressure on its water resources, leading to a significant increase in water demand to meet the needs of these new communities. Similarly, the expansion in industrial projects and attracting global investments poses another challenge, as these industries require vast quantities of water to ensure the continuity of their operations and growth. Moreover, the public health of citizens and residents is closely linked to the quality and availability of clean water, making its provision a paramount, non-negotiable priority.
9. الأمن المائي.. أولوية المملكة في زمن الندرة والتوسع (Water Security.. The Kingdom’s Priority in Times of Scarcity and Expansion) Gulf Cooperation Council countries, and at their heart the Kingdom, face a difficult environmental and economic reality represented by global water scarcity. With an almost complete absence of surface water and increasing reliance on depleting limited groundwater resources, this region has become among the most affected by water shortage. The per capita share of renewable fresh water in the Kingdom is less than one hundred cubic meters annually, which places it very far from the global standard for absolute water scarcity, set at five hundred cubic meters per capita annually. This challenge is exacerbated by the high rates of individual consumption in the Kingdom, as the average daily consumption is about 284 liters (equivalent to 103.66 cubic meters annually), a significant figure that puts enormous pressure on scarce water resources.
10. »المملكة والمياه« (The Kingdom and Water) In the framework of Saudi Vision 2030, the Kingdom adopted an integrated national strategy aimed at improving water management and confronting challenges, such as the limitation of non-renewable groundwater, high demand for water in residential, industrial, and agricultural sectors, and scarcity of renewable resources. Through this strategy, it seeks to develop water resources using advanced technologies to achieve water security and preserve groundwater for future generations. His Royal Highness Prince Mohammed bin Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud, Crown Prince and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, announced the establishment of the Kingdom’s Global Water Organization in September 2023, headquartered in Riyadh.
11. »تحلية مياه البحر« (Seawater Desalination) The Kingdom has succeeded in building an integrated and sustainable model for water security, despite its arid desert nature, thanks to the unlimited support from the wise leadership – may God protect them – and massive investments in water desalination and developing giant water networks that provide reliable supplies to meet the needs of society and various sectors. The Kingdom is the largest producer of desalinated water in the world, with modern desalination plants built on the coasts of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea. The Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture has previously revealed that the Kingdom has maintained its global leadership as the largest producer of desalinated water.
12. »تبني التقنيات« (Adopting Technologies) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia seeks to achieve sustainable water security by building an integrated and sustainable model that confronts water scarcity challenges and balances water supply and demand. In this model, the Kingdom relies on several axes, including investing in water desalination, developing advanced water networks, improving water management, and adopting innovative technologies for water conservation. This includes improving the management of available water resources, whether renewable or non-renewable, in addition to rationalizing water consumption in all sectors. The Kingdom adopts modern technologies in water management, such as treating and reusing wastewater and developing modern irrigation techniques, to benefit from non-traditional water sources.
13. »براءات اختراع« (Patents) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has achieved significant accomplishments in water security-related patents, having obtained patents for advanced innovations in the water industry during 2024. Among the prominent achievements is the registration of a patent for producing clean energy from the brine leftover from desalination processes. A patent was registered for a control device specifically designed for collecting seawater samples, reflecting a development in water quality monitoring technologies. A patent was also registered for a system protecting water intakes from marine organisms, ensuring the safety and reliability of water supplies.
14. »قيود صارمة« (Strict Restrictions) The strategy includes imposing strict restrictions on the extraction of non-renewable groundwater and mandating licenses for drilling wells. It also involves halting the local cultivation of water-intensive crops like wheat and green fodder, working to reform the aquatic agriculture sector, supporting smart agriculture technologies and drip irrigation to reduce waste, and encouraging the transition to greenhouses and vertical farming.
15. المملكة أكبر منتج للمياه المحالة عالميًا تحقيق عدالة التوزيع وتقليل الاستهلاك المفرط (The Kingdom is the largest producer of desalinated water globally, achieving fair distribution and reducing excessive consumption) The issue of water security is considered one of the vital and strategic issues for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia due to its desert geographical nature, limited natural water resources, and accelerating population and economic growth. The Kingdom aims to ensure the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses in line with Saudi Vision 2030. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has guaranteed the sustainability of water resources and the availability of water for various uses through a set of integrated policies and strategies that focused on the following axes of expansion: seawater desalination, wastewater treatment and reuse, preservation of groundwater, reform of the aquatic agriculture sector, increasing distribution efficiency and reducing losses, and awareness programs to change consumer behavior and stimulate rationalization.
16. مـن محـدوديـة المــوارد إلـى ريــادة التـحــول المـائــي (From Resource Scarcity to Water Transformation Leadership) Water security is one of the vital pillars that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has given great attention to within its strategic priorities, recognizing that water is not merely a natural resource but a fundamental element in the comprehensive national security system. In the Saudi context, the concept of water security extends beyond providing water for daily uses to include the sustainable management of resources, ensuring water availability for human consumption, industry, agriculture, energy, in a way that balances current needs with future ambitions. This concept aligns with the directions of Vision 2030, which emphasized that water is a strategic resource requiring intelligent management based on efficiency, governance, and innovation.
17. رؤية 2030 وتحول قطاع المياه (Vision 2030 and Water Sector Transformation) With the launch of Saudi Vision 2030, the water sector in the country entered a new phase of development and structural transformation, after this sector became a key axis in sustainable development plans. The Vision was keen to address the issue of water not merely as a consumer service, but as a strategic pillar linked to water security, the economy, and the sustainability of resources and the quality of life. From this standpoint, ambitious policies were drawn up to restructure the sector, raise the quality of its services, and ensure the continuity of its infrastructure and resources for future generations. Vision 2030 came to embody environmental and economic sustainability at the heart of water policies, stemming from a deep understanding of the importance of this vital resource at the national level.
18. هيكلة شاملة لقطاع المياه (Comprehensive Restructuring of the Water Sector) In response to the requirements of the Vision, the water sector in the Kingdom underwent a comprehensive regulatory restructuring aimed at increasing efficiency, clarifying roles, and facilitating performance monitoring. Among the most prominent steps in this direction was the establishment of the National Water Company as a main operator for water and wastewater services in various regions of the Kingdom, with clear powers to improve operational and commercial performance. The launch of the National Water Strategy 2030 set precise goals for water management, including surface water, desalinated water, and recycled water. It also provided opportunities for the private sector to participate in providing services, operating stations, and the gradual privatization of water services, which helped raise the level of operational efficiency and provided new investment opportunities.
19. توطين الصناعات المرتبطة بالمياه (Localizing Water-Related Industries) Within the framework of the economic transformation led by the Kingdom’s Vision 2030, localizing water-related industries is considered one of the most important strategic paths that the state attaches great importance to. Water is not just a consumer service; it is an integrated industrial and technological sector that includes hundreds of tools, systems, and products, the local manufacturing of which contributes to strengthening local content, creating job opportunities, and transferring technology, reducing reliance on imports. The Kingdom has begun taking serious and tangible steps towards building a national industrial base capable of manufacturing and developing components of water systems, such as pumps, filters, smart meters, control systems, and advanced desalination devices. Concerned parties are keen to support this trend through launching incentive programs for local industry, providing attractive regulatory environments and licenses for investors.
20. تجربة محلية تنمو بثبات (A Local Experience Growing Steadily) Over the past few years, successful Saudi models have emerged in the field of manufacturing water technologies, including factories that began producing small and medium-sized desalination equipment, and others that entered the manufacturing of smart meters and modern irrigation systems that save water, supported by localization programs and government readiness. This has contributed to reducing import costs, shortening project implementation time, and raising the level of local readiness to meet increasing demand. These experiences have proven that localizing water industries is not just a developmental option, but a strategic path that enhances national decision-making sovereignty over one of the most vital resources in the country, and creates an integrated industrial environment that supports the economy.
21. الأمن المائي.. من الرؤية إلى الواقع (Water Security.. From Vision to Reality) Water security in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is no longer managed by traditional means or frameworks; rather, it has become an integrated national project where sustainable development intersects with economic sovereignty, and modern technologies integrate with long-term strategies. Through its programs and initiatives, the Kingdom has demonstrated that water conservation is not limited to managing consumption or expanding infrastructure; it also includes investing in people, empowering national competencies, localizing industries, stimulating innovation, and strengthening partnerships between the public and private sectors. Achieving water security today is an investment in the future, ensuring a more stable and quality life for coming generations.
22. أنهار في قلب النزاع الدولي (Rivers at the Heart of International Conflict) There is no doubt that major rivers such as the Nile, Indus, Tigris, and Euphrates appear to be at the forefront of water conflict areas, serving as a stark example of regional conflict. Specifically, the Nile witnessed Ethiopia’s commencement of building the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam in 2011, a massive project for power generation. This step sparked a continuous tripartite dispute between Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan over water shares. As a report by the “International Crisis Group” indicates, the dispute “has not yet been resolved,” especially concerning the dam’s reservoir filling rate and sharing of storage. The report urged the countries to reach a comprehensive framework for managing the Nile’s shared resources.
23. الماء سلعة استراتيجية للمضاربة (Water: A Strategic Commodity for Speculation) In the international arena, water itself has become an attractive commodity for investment and speculation; concepts of water management have become a subject of controversy in Western financial markets. In the American market, water futures contracts have emerged on the “California Water Exchange,” allowing farmers and investors to speculate on water prices as if it were gold or oil. Calls have increased to stop the expansion of the phenomenon of buying groundwater rights by companies and investment funds, leading Senator Elizabeth Warren to state: “Water is not a commodity that can be exploited by the rich and monopolists, we will not allow a vital resource like this to be sold to the highest bidder”.
24. الأبعاد األخالقية والبيئية (Ethical and Environmental Dimensions) The water conflict cannot be separated from its ethical and accompanying environmental dimensions. Many activists view water as a fundamental human right that should not be sold or protected solely for monetary value. With the emergence of issues such as the privatization of water networks in some cities and rising prices, fears have arisen that water will become a commercial commodity where fundamental rights are confiscated for those who cannot afford it. For example, popular protests erupted in Latin America when private contracting companies tried to raise water tariffs in some poor neighborhoods, resembling revolutions for water.
25. نحو إدارة عقالنية للمياه (Towards Rational Water Management) If the scales of international interests raise a big question mark over the future of water security, and the conflict over water has reached a critical level that warns of potential “water wars,” then the warnings of experts and researchers are escalating. Regional and international governance mechanisms suggest the necessity of strengthening cooperation, developing treaties that adapt to deteriorating climate realities, and launching initiatives that consider the rights of future generations. Some also call for recognizing the right to fresh water within international human rights charters and linking international aid to clean water projects.
26. »الماء ال يكفي الجميع« صراع يقلب التوازن الجيوسياسي ندرة المياه والتضخم والهجرة مالمح أزمة مركبة تهدد النظام العالمي (“Water is Not Enough for Everyone” A Conflict that Tips the Geopolitical Balance Water Scarcity, Inflation, and Migration: Features of a Complex Crisis Threatening the Global Order) In recent years, global concerns have escalated regarding water security as a major source of regional and strategic tensions, with riparian countries vying for their shares of common rivers, amid growing pressures from groundwater resources. As a United Nations report titled “Water for Peace” warns, water scarcity undermines food security and threatens livelihoods, which could lead to very dangerous conflicts. Agricultural experts at FAO explain that agriculture needs about 70% of available fresh water, so every lost drop means less food production and more hunger globally. World Bank data also confirms that water shocks—primarily drought—explain about 10% of the increase in global migration, and have reduced the growth of major cities by more than 12% in cases of severe drought. In other words, increasing water scarcity does not only threaten people’s security in their homes and crops, but also acquires economic and social dimensions, leading to increased inflation, market disruption, and mass migration towards cities or across borders.
27. زيادة كفاءة استخدام الموارد المائية وتقليل الاعتماد على “الجوفية” (Increasing Water Resource Use Efficiency and Reducing Reliance on Groundwater) Water is a fundamental resource for meeting human needs and is one of the most important axes of economic and social development, ensuring the sustainability of economic development and the environment. Despite the importance of water, the Kingdom faces significant challenges due to unsustainable water use, as well as the limited and rapidly depleting non-renewable groundwater reserves. Renewable water is extremely rare, and in addition, the high demand for water in the agricultural sector exacerbates the problem of water scarcity in the Kingdom. The government also bears a high cost for water production and wastewater services in the urban sector, yet service levels remain suboptimal, and the sector also suffers from inadequate institutional situations and governance mechanisms.
28. »معالجة وتطوير« (Treatment and Development) The Kingdom, being the largest producer of desalinated water in the world, spearheads water desalination and invests heavily in seawater desalination to meet its growing water needs. It also works on reusing treated water and developing the infrastructure for wastewater treatment and its reuse in various fields such as agriculture and industry, which contributes to conserving groundwater. The Kingdom invests billions of dollars in projects to improve wastewater and sewage networks with the aim of increasing water resource use efficiency and reducing reliance on groundwater. Moreover, Vision 2030 aims to achieve water sustainability by enhancing water use efficiency, diversifying its sources, and developing modern technologies in this field.
29. »تقنيات متقدمة« (Advanced Technologies) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia invests in advanced infrastructure for green spaces through several initiatives involving treated water, most notably the reuse of treated water for irrigating gardens and green areas, developing technologies to improve water use efficiency in agriculture, and managing rainwater and recycling it to reduce pressure on fresh water sources. The use of treated wastewater for irrigating gardens and green areas reduces the need for fresh water for these purposes. The Kingdom is also working on developing advanced water treatment technologies, such as reverse osmosis, to reduce energy consumption and improve the quality of treated water.
30. »استثمارات مستدامة« (Sustainable Investments) These investments also contribute to achieving the Kingdom’s vision of building sustainable green cities by providing green spaces and developing green infrastructure. These investments support the national economy by creating job opportunities, achieving sustainability in the water sector, and developing new industries related to water technology. This includes improving water resource management in urban areas and reducing rainwater runoff, which contributes to improving water quality and promoting its reuse. The Kingdom works to educate citizens and institutions about the importance of rationalizing water consumption and the best practices for water conservation.
31. »جودة وتحسين« (Quality and Improvement) Water treatment plays a vital role in achieving sustainability in water resource management and meeting the increasing demand for water by reducing pressure on natural fresh water sources, improving water quality, and providing new water sources. Water treatment contributes to sustainability by reducing the consumption of fresh water and treating and reusing unusable water, especially in industry and agriculture, which preserves these precious resources for future generations. Through the removal of pollutants and harmful substances, water treatment works to improve the quality of water discharged into the environment, protecting aquatic ecosystems and human and animal health.
32. »مستقبل مستدام« (Sustainable Future) Water treatment is considered a vital investment in a sustainable future; it is essential to meet the world’s increasing water needs, preserve water resources, and protect the environment. With increasing population and industrial growth, the need for clean and reliable water sources is growing. Water treatment, including wastewater treatment and reuse, provides an additional source of water and relieves pressure on natural water resources. Through water treatment, the depletion of water in rivers and lakes can be reduced and surface and groundwater preserved, which contributes to environmental balance and ensures water availability for future generations.
33. »محطات المعالجة« (Treatment Plants) Water treatment plants are spread throughout the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, playing a vital role in providing safe and potable water and reusing treated water. The Kingdom is a leader in water desalination, owning the largest fleet of desalination plants in the world. The Saudi Water Authority currently manages and operates 33 desalination plants on the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf coasts, producing about 5.6 million cubic meters of desalinated water daily. There are also 133 wastewater treatment plants spread across various regions of the Kingdom.
34. بداية الاستثمار بمشروعات المياه (Beginning of Investment in Water Projects) Investment in water projects began early in the Kingdom with the first desalination unit in Jeddah in 1907. Since then, investment has grown and expanded, and partnerships between the public and private sectors have multiplied. This partnership was carefully regulated and studied, indicating significant growth and progress. The establishment of the Saudi Water Partnership Company (SWPC) serves as an example of this, as it acts as the primary buyer for all types of water (including desalinated, purified, and treated water) and other related services. In addition, it undertakes the tasks of tendering and managing water, wastewater, and dam projects, strategic storage and transmission lines, and contributes to providing specialized consulting services in privatization.
35. طفرة قطاع المياه (Water Sector Boom) The launch of Vision 2030 brought about an expansive boom in the water sector, with a focus on achieving sustainability, developing infrastructure, improving water use efficiency, and limiting the negative impacts of water and water treatment and reuse on water resources. This led to a multitude of programs and initiatives that involved various governmental and private entities. Examples include the initiative to deliver potable water to consumers, which aims to expand water services and increase coverage to meet drinking water needs in line with population growth and demand. The initiative seeks to raise the level of water service coverage and facilitate citizens’ access to their drinking water needs by implementing water networks and household connections.
36. مبادرة تعزيز مصادر المياه الجوفية (Groundwater Resource Enhancement Initiative) Among the initiatives is also the initiative to enhance groundwater resources from artificial wells to increase the productivity of groundwater sources, to provide additional water for drinking and reduce reliance on desalinated water. The initiative also includes drilling new wells and developing existing ones, as well as establishing purification plants, pumping stations, transmission lines, and reservoirs. The initiative aims to increase groundwater production and provide additional water quantities to meet the needs of the population and various projects, and to alleviate pressure on desalination plants by diversifying water sources for drinking.
37. قطاع التوزيع (Distribution Sector) Another example is the private sector participation initiative in the distribution sector. This initiative includes the privatization of existing and new wastewater treatment plants by tendering management contracts for operation and maintenance for six sectors, contracts for independent wastewater treatment plants, and long-term operation and maintenance contracts for treated wastewater plants. The initiative also aims for sustainability in providing high-quality services with high operational efficiency, attracting and incentivizing local and foreign capital, increasing the use of locally manufactured materials and products, reducing capital costs, in addition to reducing operational expenses and improving technical, operational, and environmental aspects to enhance the quality of life in Saudi cities and increase the coverage of water and wastewater services.
38. مبادرة زيادة سعة الخزن الاستراتيجي (Strategic Storage Capacity Increase Initiative) Among the initiatives is also the initiative to increase strategic storage capacity, which seeks to establish strategic reservoirs in cities that do not have groundwater storage. The initiative aims to build reservoirs in cities that do not have groundwater and no storage to face supply shortages during emergencies, to reach a storage capacity sufficient for three days of consumption. Among the initiative’s objectives is to establish strategic reservoirs with a capacity of 640 thousand cubic meters for water, as the Kingdom has expanded strategic storage to more than 27 million cubic meters and now owns the largest network of storage tanks for drinking water with a capacity of 9 million cubic meters, including the Amaq reservoir in Riyadh with a capacity of 3 million cubic meters.
39. مبادرة إعادة استخدام مياه الصرف الصحي المعالجة (Treated Wastewater Reuse Initiative) Among the initiatives and programs of the Vision that enhance this vital sector is the initiative to reuse treated wastewater. This initiative works on rehabilitating, establishing, expanding, and implementing networks and lines from treatment plants to beneficiary sites in the agricultural and industrial sectors, as well as reservoirs and channels. It aims to expand the reuse of treated water to conserve water resources and raise the percentage of treated wastewater reuse, along with enhancing compliance with reuse standards and environmental standards for wastewater disposal. This activity is characterized by its scale in projects.
40. شراكة القطاعين العام والخاص.. لاعب رئيس لتوفير مصادر المياه واستدامتها بالمملكة (Public-Private Sector Partnership.. A Key Player in Providing Water Sources and Ensuring Their Sustainability in the Kingdom) The Kingdom, which ranks first globally in the production of desalinated water through integrated systems, has followed all necessary measures to provide water and has been keen to adopt all supporting means for its extraction and provision. Recognizing its importance and role in human survival and building civilizations, the National Water Strategy, an essential part of Saudi Vision 2030, reinforces this direction aimed at achieving water security and environmental and economic sustainability. It has worked to develop water sources, rationalize their consumption, and maximize the benefit from treated water to ensure safe and high-quality water supplies. It has encouraged the expansion of joint projects between the public and private sectors to provide sustainable water sources, given the effectiveness of such partnerships and their ability to contribute to providing clean, high-quality water at competitive prices that meet needs and achieve fairness among consumers, while ensuring the continuity of treated water, reducing waste, and rationalizing consumption.
41. تربية الطيور.. من الهواية إلى المتعة والتجارة في الماضي كانت تربى في البيوت.. واليوم في محميات متنوعة (Bird Rearing.. From Hobby to Pleasure and Trade In the Past, They Were Raised in Homes.. Today in Diverse Sanctuaries) In the past, and for a few decades, poultry and pigeon farming were widespread and abundant in most homes, especially earthen houses. After the owners of these earthen houses cheerfully moved on, never looking back, and then from the popular ones, the residents of the house benefited from the eggs produced by chickens, in addition to their meat, as well as pigeon meat, which filled the house with its cooing. The most beautiful sight was the pigeon perched on a balcony. Pigeon rearing was attractive in popular homes, especially among young people, during that era. It would fly freely in the air, then return to its nest, coo and circle the house from within itself, as if expressing its love for its abode on the beautiful earthen rooftops, bringing affection and warmth to its inhabitants.
42. طيور زمان (Birds of Yesteryear) Previously, birds raised in homes were limited to only two types: chickens and pigeons. Pigeons would share the coop with chickens, though chickens lived on the coop floor, scratching and pecking the ground to find their food, while pigeons were given boxes in the coop walls, out of reach of children or cat attacks. You would see it fly freely, eating what was provided for it from the chickens’ food. If it didn’t find food, it would search for it, but in the end, it would return to its nest to sleep. It is known that chickens provided eggs for breakfast and sometimes meat when they multiplied and the number of males increased, as these were not useful for egg production.
43. هواية وشهرة واسعة (A Widespread Hobby and Fame) The hobby of raising ornamental and rare birds enjoys great attention among families as a way to add beauty to the family home environment. It is one of the hobbies that has gained wide popularity in the Kingdom, as some families are keen on dedicating small gardens in their homes to raise birds with beautiful sounds and vibrant colors from various countries around the world. Most home ornamental bird gardens include a variety of birds such as parrots, canaries, and finches, allowing breeders to choose types that suit their tastes and needs. In addition, these activities provide an opportunity to interact with nature and teach children about the responsibility of animal care.
44. أنواع وأصناف عالمية (Global Types and Varieties) There are various types of ornamental birds and global varieties that are raised, most notably: Victoria crowned pigeons, Amazon parrots, nightingales, peacocks, macaws, and other categories. They are brought from various countries around the world such as Brazil, South Africa, Australia, and the Amazon rainforests, like the cockatoo. And the Galah (pink cockatoo), Scarlett Macaw, goldfinch, jasmine, canary, zebra finch, turtle dove, and other birds like birds of paradise and tailorbirds, and sandgrouse are imported from several countries around the world such as India and Japan, Holland, Germany, Australia, and North Africa, in addition to local environmental birds such as sandgrouse, pigeons, and quail.
45. انتشار محالت بيع طيور الزينة (Spread of Ornamental Bird Stores) With the increasing demand for owning ornamental birds, stores selling ornamental birds and their supplies, such as cages, food, fortifiers, and treatments, have spread across all cities of the Kingdom. The demand for them has become significant, as the number of people interested in raising ornamental birds in their homes has increased. As a result, many enthusiasts of this hobby have sought to expand bird rearing, acquire many rare species, and establish large sanctuaries housing hundreds of birds. These sanctuaries have found a wide audience among young people wishing to acquire the best and rarest types of birds, with the aim of increasing their production and competing with them, and sometimes for trading and financial gain.
46. »الفود ترك«.. (Food Truck..) The statistics for 2019 indicate that the number of food truck licenses in six Saudi regions reached about 1301 vehicles, with Riyadh leading with 496 licenses, followed by Jeddah with 450. However, this number no longer accurately reflects the current reality, as the Ministry of Commerce recorded a steady increase in commercial registrations related to food trucks and restaurants alone, reaching a growth of 10% in 2024. This growth is not just a figure in bureaucratic reports; it is a living testimony to the changing taste of society and the direction of a whole generation of young people towards embarking on entrepreneurship at the lowest possible cost. Instead of a fixed restaurant requiring large capital, the mobile cart offers an easier option for entering the market, experimenting with recipes, and developing a personal brand with direct communication with the public.
47. نمو قطاع الفود ترك (Growth of the Food Truck Sector) The statistics for 2019 indicate that the number of food truck licenses in six Saudi regions reached about 1301 vehicles, with Riyadh leading with 496 licenses, followed by Jeddah with 450. However, this number no longer accurately reflects the current reality, as the Ministry of Commerce recorded a steady increase in commercial registrations related to food trucks and restaurants alone, reaching a growth of 10% in 2024. This growth is not just a figure in bureaucratic reports; it is a living testimony to the changing taste of society and the direction of a whole generation of young people towards embarking on entrepreneurship at the lowest possible cost. Instead of a fixed restaurant requiring large capital, the mobile cart offers an easier option for entering the market, experimenting with recipes, and developing a personal brand with direct communication with the public.
48. تنوع العروض (Diversity of Offers) A tour through Riyadh’s streets today reveals a rich and innovative diversity. Elegantly designed carts offer everything from traditional Saudi Kabsa to modern burgers, luxury cold dishes and drinks that alleviate the summer heat, and Asian sweets. An excited crowd of young people and families gathers around, in a social scene that reflects an undeniable transformation. But this increasing popularity is not without regulatory challenges and clarity issues. Platforms like “Baladi” now offer electronic licensing services with annual fees up to 720 riyals, along with strict regulation of truck routes and parking locations. The stated goal is to achieve a delicate balance between encouraging youth investment and controlling random congestion and avoiding visual and traffic congestion that trucks might cause in some locations.
49. تنظيم النشاط (Activity Regulation) Recently, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Housing issued new municipal regulations for mobile food truck activities across various cities in the Kingdom. This step aims to enhance the quality of services and regulate public safety at locations, thereby preserving the urban aesthetic. The regulations permit trucks to park in locations belonging to municipalities or secretariats, governmental or private sectors, and in public spaces, investment areas, and event sites as determined by the municipality. On the other hand, stopping at traffic intersections, main and secondary roads, exits and entrances of high-traffic roads, police, civil defense, and ambulance parking, or inside residential neighborhoods is prohibited. It also prohibits parking trucks near gas stations, waste disposal sites, sewage treatment plants, or gas stores, with a mandatory safety distance of at least ten meters.
50. تحديات وآفاق السوق (Market Challenges and Prospects) Public health, in turn, represents a precise challenge. The risks of food contamination or poor storage require strict oversight and continuous education for truck owners, amidst competition that might push some to be lenient with health regulations. There is also an unresolved economic debate: some fixed restaurant owners believe that food trucks enjoy advantages such as reduced rents and lower taxes, which might upset the balance of fair competition in the market. Despite these challenges, the significant opportunities offered by this sector cannot be overlooked. A recent research report by Bonafide Research (May 2025) expects the Saudi food truck market size to exceed 70 million dollars by 2030, driven by the expansion of urban lifestyles, supportive government initiatives, and the growth of local truck manufacturing.
51. ريادة وإصرار سعودي (Saudi Leadership and Determination) In one of the public park pavements in eastern Riyadh, an ice cream truck decorated with vibrant colors stands, surrounded by queues of children. The sound of the machine, the fresh waffle scent, and the metallic cups gleaming under the evening sun all tell a story that started from scratch and ended in an inspiring success story. This is a scene that has become familiar today in the capital, but it was not present with such intensity a decade ago. Food trucks in general, and ice cream trucks in particular, have become part of the modern urban culture in the Kingdom, defying the summer heat with their cold layers and invigorating a small economy that has become a source of livelihood and hope for thousands of young people.
52. رحلة كفاح صعبة (A Difficult Struggle Journey) The beginnings were very difficult.. Bandar recounts with a smile mixed with pride and fatigue: “I used to arrive at the park before ten, prepare myself and arrange the cart. Sometimes I would return with almost no sales, but I learned how to win customers, how to invent a flavor that children love, and how to be present during peak hours”. The path was not paved with roses. Bandar says that the challenges were many, some financial and some regulatory. “There were no clear guidelines. I used to wonder where to park my cart? Is the place allowed? Will I be allowed to sell?” He also faced difficulty convincing people that his small cart sold clean, delicious ice cream.
53. دعم وتمكين (Support and Empowerment) Bandar’s journey was not isolated from the general development in the Kingdom. With Vision 2030, municipalities launched regulatory initiatives such as the “Baladi” platform, which allows issuing mobile truck licenses with clear annual fees and designates official routes and parking locations for them. Bandar emphasizes the importance of this support: “The state allocated locations for us, where we organize our trucks. Prince Faisal bin Bandar supported us and provided land completely”. “These initiatives moved us from randomness to professionalism.” Bandar is proud of his Saudi team, confirming that they are not just vendors, but young entrepreneurs who learn management, marketing, and customer service skills. He says: “We all wish the best for each other. It’s true we are competitors, but we complement each other”.
54. مشروع أصدقاء الشقة (Apartment Friends Project) On Prince Mohammed bin Salman Road in Riyadh, a food truck bearing the striking name “Masghout Al-Shaqa” (The Crowded Apartment) is parked, gaining wide fame day by day among lovers of authentic Saudi dishes. But behind this funny name is a story of friendship and a beautiful transformation from a simple idea to a successful project that imposes itself on the local food truck scene. “We were three friends living in one apartment,” recounts Ali Al-Harthi, one of the partners and the owner of the project idea. “We used to share cooking daily, and each day one of us was responsible for preparing a ‘masghout’ meal. Over time, we loved the idea of ‘masghout al-shaqa’ and decided to share it with people”.
55. حلم أصبح حقيقة (A Dream Come True) The truck opens its doors from six in the evening until midnight, attracting customers of various ages. Customers wait eagerly for their turn, sharing their recommendations with friends. Al-Harthi says that the daily demand has become very large, exceeding their expectations: “Sometimes we cannot fulfill all orders. That’s why we have actually started studying opening a fixed restaurant instead of relying solely on the truck”. “Masghout Al-Shaqa” today presents an inspiring model for youth entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia: an idea stemming from daily life, developed with a spirit of friendship and determination, and implemented with high standards that respect consumer tastes. Amidst the intense competition in the food truck sector, they are distinguished by their commitment to quality and their refusal of easy and cheap solutions at the expense of their reputation and the taste of their food.
56. اختيار مسار مختلف (Choosing a Different Path) Despite obtaining a prestigious university degree in business administration from King Saud University, Masa’il Al-Subaie, a thirty-year-old, chose a completely different path from the traditional one many expected for her. Instead of joining a large company or an office job, she decided to establish a vibrant and ambitious project through a mobile food truck that offers unique dishes combining local recipes with global touches. “I always dreamed of having my own business,” Masa’il says as she arranges her tools in the morning next to her white truck decorated with quiet, earthy colors inspired by Najdi heritage. “The university gave me academic tools, but I wanted to apply them in something I love and that resembles me. The idea started four years ago when I discussed it with her cousin Maha, who studied interior design and shares her passion for cooking”.
57. روح الفريق الواحد (One Team Spirit) The journey was not easy, as they faced many obstacles. The most important was proving their seriousness to society. Masa’il comments: “Some people used to wonder: ‘How can you, a university graduate, sell from a truck?’ I used to tell them: ‘This is my profession and my project that I am proud of. We are not just selling food, but selling an idea and an experience’”. The truck now stands in a semi-permanent location on one of Riyadh’s most important northern streets, and has built a loyal customer base. Among these customers is Mona Al-Abdullah, an employee at a nearby bank, who says with a wide smile while holding her usual order: “For two years now, I’ve been coming to them continuously. I’ve gotten to know Masa’il and Maha personally. Their food is truly different; you feel like they put their heart into it”.
58. ثقة المستهلك مطلوبة (Consumer Trust is Required) As for the young man Abdulilah Al-Mutairi (27 years old), an employee in the private sector, he says he is keen to try mobile food trucks, especially during the weekend. He explains: “Honestly, I like the idea. I feel they are closer to people, and it’s like you get to know the seller and see your order being prepared right in front of you”. As for their safety, he replies thoughtfully: “I choose trucks that look clean and are well-known. Not all trucks are the same, but I feel that many of them are now more committed to cleanliness and regulations than before.” Regarding prices compared to restaurants, he smiles, saying: “Some trucks have very competitive prices and are cheaper than restaurants, especially for light meals, but some of them now have prices exactly like restaurants, especially those that pay attention to details”.
59. »الفود ترك«.. (Food Truck..) In a scene that summarizes a diverse blend of urban ambition, entrepreneurial spirit, and nostalgia for popular heritage, mobile food trucks, or “food trucks,” have established a firm presence in the streets and cities of the Kingdom, drawing new features for its evolving urban food landscape. A first-time visitor to the Kingdom might think that this phenomenon is recent, but its roots are deeper than they seem, deeply embedded in popular memory. Since the 1980s, simple mobile “kiosks” roamed neighborhoods selling balila and ice cream. These early carts were very primitive by today’s standards, but they laid the first idea for the concept of mobile food, and they created moments of joy for children.
60. مدخرات الأسرة.. ورؤية 2030 (Family Savings.. and Vision 2030) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 is an ambitious national project that aims to bring about a comprehensive economic and social transformation in the country, reducing reliance on oil as a main source of income, diversifying the economy, empowering citizens, and enhancing the quality of life. Among the important financial goals that the Vision seeks to achieve is raising the percentage of household savings from their total income from 6% to 10%. This goal is an important indicator of families’ financial awareness and their ability to plan and prepare for the future, and it also reflects positively on the overall economy by improving financial stability and increasing domestic funding sources.
61. »السوق الماليـة في المملكـة«.. كفـاءة البنيـة الرقمـية (The Financial Market in the Kingdom.. Efficiency of the Digital Infrastructure) The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is working to be at the forefront of leading nations in digital transformation, adopting an integrated strategy aimed at enabling and accelerating this transformation. Digital transformation is considered to involve developing the necessary high-efficiency and effective infrastructure, and creating an empowering environment for governmental, private, and non-profit sectors to achieve the objectives of Vision 2030. The Saudi financial market has witnessed a remarkable transformation in recent years. This development manifested in several strategic axes focused on enhancing the efficiency of the digital infrastructure and strengthening its global position, leading to a qualitative leap that increased the number of listed companies and expanded foreign investor ownership in the financial market.
62. رفع قيمة مخزون المعادن في المملكة إلى »2.5« تريليون دولار (Raising the Value of Mineral Reserves in the Kingdom to “2.5” Trillion Dollars) The Minister of Industry and Mineral Resources, Bandar bin Ibrahim Al-Khorayef, affirmed that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is leading a qualitative and comprehensive industrial transformation aimed at reshaping the structure of the national economy and establishing an advanced position in future technologies. This involves adopting early and strengthening its productive capabilities in global value chains. Al-Khorayef reviewed developments in the mining sector, which is considered one of the new sectors adopted by Vision 2030. Much work has been done according to several tracks, including increasing geological explorations, which raised the estimated value of minerals in the Kingdom from “1.3” to “2.5” trillion dollars.
63. جازان.. بوابة استثمار غنية بالموارد البحرية والزراعية (Jazan.. An Investment Gateway Rich in Marine and Agricultural Resources) Jazan region represents a prominent economic destination due to its distinguished natural components and rich resources, which include coasts extending along the Red Sea, rich agricultural resources, and enormous mineral wealth, in addition to its strategic location as a commercial gateway between East and West. Continuous government support, rapid initiatives for qualitative projects, and accelerated economic and investment development reinforce its position in light of Saudi Vision 2030, to become a pioneer in qualitative investments for sustainable development across all developmental, investment, service, and tourism fields. The region produces about 45% of the Kingdom’s fish wealth, providing significant investment opportunities in industries related to fish. Animal wealth represents about 8.7% of the total animal wealth in the Kingdom, in addition to imported livestock entering the Kingdom through Jazan’s ports, which has created significant investment opportunities in industries related to animal wealth such as fodder, veterinary medicines, and meat processing and freezing industries.
64. طفرة غير مسبوقة في صادرات األسلحة (Unprecedented Boom in Arms Exports) According to federal government data, arms exports from Germany recorded a record figure of 11.7 billion euros in 2023, the highest in the country’s history, exceeding traditional restrictions imposed on arms sales to countries in a state of disarmament. German defense companies such as Rheinmetall, KMW, and Diehl Defence emerged as major drivers of this growth, following increased global demand, especially from Ukraine, which has become one of the largest importers of German weapons since 2022.
65. الحرب في أوكرانيا.. نقطة التحول (The War in Ukraine.. The Turning Point) Since the outbreak of the war, Berlin has adopted a bolder approach, sending Leopard 2 tanks and Iris-T air defense systems to Ukraine, a move that was previously prohibited under former German laws. Chancellor Scholz repeatedly affirmed that “the Russian threat necessitated a comprehensive rethinking of German defense doctrine”. Indeed, the German government launched an emergency program worth 100 billion euros to modernize its armed forces, within a new strategic framework called “Zeitenwende” (turning point), a term that has become a title for the new phase of German policy.
66. الحليف الاستراتيجي والصناعي (The Strategic and Industrial Ally) Military relations between Germany and Ukraine were not limited to arms support, but extended to discussions about establishing joint arms and ammunition factories inside Ukraine. This was confirmed by German Defense Minister Boris Pistorius, who indicated that “industrial cooperation with Kyiv will be long-term and aims to build a sustainable Ukrainian defense capability”. Satellite images and intelligence information indicate Ukraine’s increasing reliance on German military technology, especially in open-source defense systems, air defense, and heavy artillery.
67. انعكاسات داخلية وخارجية (Internal and External Repercussions) Despite this expansion, the German government faces criticism from leftist and green movements, which believe that expanding arms exports might conflict with Germany’s ethical and historical commitments and threaten to drag the country into foreign conflicts. In contrast, NATO countries praised the German transformation, considering it a “historic” step that strengthens the Western defense front and restores confidence in Berlin as a responsible European power after years of military hesitation.
68. روسيا تراقب بقلق (Russia Watches with Concern) On another note, Moscow was not absent from the scene, considering the arming of Ukraine by Germany a “red line” and threatening Berlin with “unexpected responses” or sabotage operations that might target its critical electronic infrastructure, especially in the energy and defense sectors. In the details of this report, the German giant defense industries company “Rheinmetall” established a factory in Weeze (North Rhine-Westphalia) at a cost of about 200 million euros to produce main components for the F-35 stealth fighter.
69. دبابات – مدفعية – دفاع جوي (Tanks – Artillery – Air Defense) The total value of orders for Germany’s largest defense company reached 62.6 billion euros by the end of last March. This includes backlogs, framework agreements, and expectations from other trade relations. At the end of 2021—before the start of the Russian war in Ukraine—this total was less than half of this amount (24.5 billion euros). Sales and profits are also rising sharply, and the number of employees at the company is expected to increase by a quarter to reach 40,000 employees within two years. The company’s share price has increased by about 18 times since the Russian attack on Ukraine in February 2022.
70. أجهزة الاستشعار والرادارات (Sensors and Radars) The war in Ukraine highlights the importance of electronic warfare. “Hensoldt,” headquartered in Taufkirchen near Munich, a supplier of sensor devices and radar systems, benefits from this trend. The company’s sales have nearly doubled to about 2.2 billion euros since the war began. The company, which employs about 9,000 people, aims to achieve revenues of no less than 2.5 billion euros this year and 6 billion euros by 2030. Hensoldt radars are used to protect Ukraine’s population from Russian air attacks and are also used in Eurofighter aircraft.
71. تيسنكروب لألنظمة البحرية )غواصات( (ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (Submarines)) ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems (TKMS) is a company belonging to the ThyssenKrupp industrial group. Headquartered in Kiel, the company’s data indicates that its non-nuclear submarines enjoy a global leading position in the market, and it has an order book that requires it to operate at full capacity until the early 2040s. Last December, the German parliament’s budget committee approved the construction of four additional submarines of the Type 212CD for the German navy. This raises the total for these submarines to ten, six for Germany and four for Norway. The company also recently received an 800 million euro contract from the German government to modernize six navy submarines.
72. قنابل مضادة للدبابات (Anti-Tank Grenades) “Dynamit Nobel Defence” Limited remains largely hidden from the public eye. It is known that the company supplied Ukraine with a total of 16,000 Matador anti-armor grenades and 917 in April 2025, partly funded by the German government. For the company, which employs more than 300 people, the war in Ukraine represents a huge growth boom. In a mandatory disclosure in March 2023, the company stated that its sales in 2022—the year the war began—reached about 140 million euros, which is more than double the sales of 58 million euros in 2021.
73. بنادق هجومية (Assault Rifles) Less than ten years ago, “Heckler & Koch” was suffering huge losses, and its debts accumulated. The deterioration peaked to the extent that the workforce agreed to unpaid overtime. But all that is over now; the profitable arms company is now rapidly moving from success to success. The company is investing heavily in its largest German site in Unterlüß in Lower Saxony, building a new ammunition factory costing around 300 million euros. The central part of the F-35 aircraft fuselage is manufactured in Weeze, where “Rheinmetall” acts as a supplier to the American defense company “Northrop Grumman”.
74. إم بي دي إيه ألمانيا )صواريخ موجهة وصواريخ كروز( (MBDA Germany (Guided Missiles and Cruise Missiles)) The German branch of the European company “MBDA” is witnessing strong growth for defense industries even before the outbreak of the war in Ukraine. The company, which had about 1100 employees, has now increased this number by about 300 employees. This number is expected to rise to more than 1700 employees by the end of this year. MBDA is investing in a new production facility in Schrobenhausen, Bavaria, to manufacture guided missiles for the American “Patriot” air defense system – after the company won a contract to supply these missiles to the German armed forces and NATO partners.
75. مروحيات – طائرات مقاتلة (Helicopters – Fighter Jets) While the European company “Airbus” is witnessing accelerated growth in the defense industries sector, the total value of the group’s orders (or backlogs, rather) reached 43.1 billion euros in 2021. This figure rose after three years to 55.3 billion euros in this field. Revenues have also seen a significant increase. The company is currently making intensive investments, building a maintenance center for transport aircraft belonging to the German Air Force in Wunstorf (Lower Saxony) by 2027, which will create 300 jobs.
76. رات( “كوانتوم سيستمز” )ُمسيَّ (Quantum Systems (Drones)) Companies manufacturing drones are currently experiencing a significant boom, with strong demand from investors who anticipate great growth potential for these companies. “Helsing,” a defense technology company based in Munich, recently raised an additional 600 million euros from investors. The company already manufactures the “IT-X2” suicide drone, which the German armed forces are slated to test. It also recently demonstrated an artificial intelligence system designed to guide fighter jets in complex air combat scenarios.
77. الشعر وندوب العالم (Poetry and the World’s Scars) In a world burdened by conflicts, suffering under the weight of wars, and groaning under environmental and economic crises and divisions, rationality alone seems insufficient to quell this clamor. In this context, poetry emerges as an emotional medium that transcends the rational, penetrating the depths of the human psyche to give it meaning, console it, and awaken within it a forgotten sense of belonging, beauty, and mercy. Poetry, then, is not a linguistic luxury or literary entertainment, but a human necessity that contributes to addressing the world’s problems from an emotional perspective that traditional solutions lack. One of the primary problems of the world today lies in the spiritual isolation created by extreme individualism and cold technology.
78. القهوة السعودية.. عنوان الضيافة ورمز الكرم (Saudi Coffee.. The Epitome of Hospitality and a Symbol of Generosity) Saudi coffee boasts a rich history and an ancient heritage deeply rooted in our culture and behavior. Its presence dates back to ancient times, serving as a tradition and custom. It is typically served at major social occasions and receptions such as weddings, holidays, and gatherings, where it is considered an authentic Arab tradition passed down from generation to generation, symbolizing welcome, honoring, and expression of reverence. It may seem somewhat astonishing how this bitter-tasting coffee, with its two main ingredients (coffee beans and cardamom), was invented and gained such wide popularity and attachment. This is especially true when we realize that cardamom, the key ingredient that imparts that distinctive taste, is not a product of our country’s authentic agricultural produce.
79. ألعاب اللغة و»الشريعة« (Language Games and “Sharia”) When a child learns a language, if the learning process is centered on “the word,” then the language, to be uttered, must first be given a meaning according to its uses, then branched out through the centrality of the word to its conceptual semantic map. For example, a child is presented with a word like “eye,” which has multiple uses. The word “eye” is written for them, then a drawing of an injured eye is shown, then a story is told about a spy called “eye.” Then a story is told about someone hitting the air with “his own eye”… These linguistic games are educational and represent the first level, which the learner may revert to over time, finding that the lexicon is not fixed except as an educational tool, not as a means to differentiate the standard from others.
80. دوغمائية اللغة (Dogmatism of Language) At first glance, language seems like an innocent and benign tool, merely a means of understanding and exchanging meanings. However, when subjected to deep contemplation and criticism, it transforms, revealing itself as a powerful authority that imposes a kind of symbolic constraint on thought and reality. In the beginning, the word hovered above humanity, and from it, humans saw the world and transformed it. From the softness of their nails, thoughts turned into acceptable sentences through a magical, vast process, slowly becoming a delicate chain.
81. المثقف بين ألافكار والاخالق (The Intellectual Between Ideas and Ethics) In an era where platforms multiply and titles proliferate, the intellectual is no longer merely a bearer of knowledge; rather, they have become an ethical symbol under scrutiny. In light of the complete exposure on social media, an old question arises in a new form: Is culture alone sufficient to produce an admirable intellectual?. Or is ethics what grants thought its legitimacy and truth? Knowledge is a powerful tool, but it can turn into a means of deception if stripped of conscience. History abounds with names of those who embodied ideas and others who betrayed behavior, darkening the mind.
82. معضلة المثقف: هل يعيش ما يقول؟ (The Intellectual’s Dilemma: Does He Live What He Preaches?) Among the intellectuals whose behavior betrayed their ideas is Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the author of “The Social Contract,” who theorized on ideal education but abandoned his five children to orphanages. Similarly, Martin Heidegger, one of the prominent philosophers of existence, joined the Nazi party despite his later apologies for his knowledge of the atrocities of its rule. Pablo Neruda, who wrote revolutionary poetry, later supported Soviet communism before retracting after the invasion of Hungary. Leo Tolstoy, who wrote about asceticism, lived a luxurious life, and his relationship with his wife was strained. As for Nietzsche, he used his culture in an elitist manner, and the Nazis found in his ideas justification for their extremism.
83. ثقافة التوثيق (Culture of Documentation) The visual self-narrative belongs to the visual arts and benefits from interactive technologies, digital platforms, and electronic communication channels, and any of those with which we interact, such as YouTube, Snapchat, WhatsApp, TikTok, or similar platforms. I would like to refer here to the efforts of Dr. Amal Al-Tamimi in caring for this type of visual self-narrative. She authored a book on it: “The Self-Narrative in Mediatic Literature: The Television Self-Narrative as a Model,” which later transformed into “The Visual Self-Narrative.” In this book, she monitored examples from some personal pages on social media and their social impact that transformed into self-literature.
84. ُصَباَبُة الَقول (The Essence of Speech) For the writer to delve into their moment of creativity, they must utilize the precise subject during writing, capturing the momentary expression that stems from the strength of emotion and the blossoming of the mind, and also departing from any specific visual image towards broad philosophical and conscious concepts that grant them the ability to establish a deep philosophical connection to reveal the underlying structure of things and beings, and to return to their essence. This involves pondering various stages and reflecting upon the writer’s inner journey towards a state of epistemic enlightenment in writing. This writing is a descriptive and comprehensive text, and its ultimate outcome can only be worthy of an artistic and creative literary endeavor if it is like reading and contemplating a branch swaying in dryness.
85. مساعدات المملكة (Kingdom’s Aid) The Kingdom realizes that in today’s world, it is concerned with a positive reputation, especially after it closed doors and erased the influence of those who sought sectarianism, isolation, and tribalism. It achieved this by striving to be a nation concerned with intellectual advancement, considering it a major achievement. Its aid to the world is part of its principles; it has always been known for standing with countries afflicted by disasters and tribulations, fostering community stability and security, and maintaining rational, balanced relations with other nations. This is in addition to performing its duties towards Muslims in Mecca and Medina by providing facilities and services. All these collective actions have made it a living example of embodying effective soft power.
86. جدلية القرية والمدينة (The Dialectic of Village and City) “The sunset rays were gently dissolving over the church in Combarbalá, casting pink lines of flame on the stones as if time itself was withdrawing with each ray, until it vanished into light, whispering to me: ‘Everything leaves a memory.’” This is how Proust begins, not from a specific hour or date, but from a sensory moment, a faint light that ignites memories, unleashing a current of longing and sadness simultaneously. Are we living time, or is time living within us? Does memory preserve what it remembers, or does it recreate it every time we try to recall it? Why do we yearn with a vague nostalgia for unknown times, for moments we never lived? Is the past a fixed reality, or just a story we tell ourselves to live?.
87. مارسيل بروست والزمن اللولبي (Marcel Proust and the Helical Time) “The sunset rays were gently dissolving over the church in Combarbalá, casting pink lines of flame on the stones as if time itself was withdrawing with each ray, until it vanished into light, whispering to me: ‘Everything leaves a memory.’” This is how Proust begins, not from a specific hour or date, but from a sensory moment, a faint light that ignites memories, unleashing a current of longing and sadness simultaneously. Are we living time, or is time living within us? Does memory preserve what it remembers, or does it recreate it every time we try to recall it? Why do we yearn with a vague nostalgia for unknown times, for moments we never lived? Is the past a fixed reality, or just a story we tell ourselves to live?.
88. صيغة )ف حين يفيض المعنى ويكتمل (The Form of (Fa’al) When Meaning Overflows and Completes) In the deep structure of Arabic, words form like waves that expand and contract according to meaning. One of the most prominent of these forms is “Fa’al” (فعلان), which comes charged with movement, imbued with emotion, and rich with suggestion. When we say “Sakran” (drunk), “Walhan” (yearning), “Atshan” (thirsty), “Ghadban” (angry), we are painting a picture of an urgent need or an overwhelming feeling, immersing both body and soul. Here, the form indicates and shapes the internal state, conveying the emotional wave itself.
89. المعنى في زمن الانفجار (Meaning in the Age of Explosion) In times when words were measured by their weight in meaning, they were spoken to be understood. But today, much of what is said is said just for the sake of saying it. We live not only in an era of linguistic abundance but also of linguistic explosion. Gleaming phrases are copied and rephrased in ornate sentences, yet they are hollow of deep meaning. Terms are reproduced, and words multiply. It might seem to us that this linguistic explosion is innocent, but in reality, it is a confusing linguistic phenomenon where everything is said but nothing is understood, as if language has lost its fundamental function.
90. الأنا )Ego( منحوتة تغوص في فلسفة الذات (The Ego Sculpture: Delving into the Philosophy of Self) The visual arts sector in the Kingdom possesses exceptional talents among pioneers and youth. The state – may God protect it – through the “Ministry of Culture” and the “Arts Commission,” has prepared the best possible environment for these talents to flourish, in accordance with Vision 2030, through qualitative programs and initiatives that cover various areas of the sector, including plastic art, photography, drawing, sculpture, installation art, calligraphy, digital arts, video art, multimedia art, and others. The plastic artist Sulaiman bin Khalid Al-Anqari is one of those artists who invested in this patronage, producing a number of creative sculptures, including his sculpture titled “Ego – The Self,” through which he presents a deep visual and philosophical vision of the meaning of identity and the accumulation of human experience. A local marble block transformed into a vibrant entity of thought and contemplation.
91. وما يمنع من الإنجليزية؟! (And What Prevents English?!) I hope that the acquired triumph of the English language does not bother us. I see it as a divine gift that has built bridges of communication between East and West, and has greatly removed the language barrier in communication between different cultures, languages, and dialects. It is a sign among God’s signs, as He, the Almighty, says: “And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the diversity of your languages and your colors. Indeed, in that are signs for those who know”. The English language reaching this level of circulation, whether recently or historically, certainly has its reasons and factors, which are not hidden from many of us. But what concerns us is the function, role, and importance of this language, and whether it has achieved communication between people. The answer is certainly yes, and this is an issue that does not require analysis or study of any kind.
92. توصيات (Recommendations) In this corner, Dr. Sawsan Al-Abtah, the Lebanese journalist and writer specialized in literary criticism, theater, and cinema, and a university lecturer, will take us. She has written dozens of critical articles and press coverages. She worked in preparing programs and recommends reading what she recently reviewed. “Faces of Modern Egypt” by Robert Solé. Many books have been written about the history of Egypt, but Robert Solé took it upon himself in this book to present a vision, not to narrate events. He did so by bringing to life two hundred years of Arab history, in which he broadcast a pivotal message through twenty profiles of modern life figures.
93. »وجوه مصر الحديثة« لروبير سوليه (Faces of Modern Egypt by Robert Solé) Many books have been written about the history of Egypt, but Robert Solé took it upon himself in this book to present a vision, not to narrate events. He did so by bringing to life two hundred years of Arab history, in which he broadcast a pivotal message through twenty profiles of modern life figures, with his smooth style, and succeeded in delivering a captivating work that the reader begins and does not surrender until they finish its three hundred pages. The writer moves lightly between a political and a thinker, a writer and a singer, to compose a vibrant painting that brings together Rifa’a Al-Tahtawi, Saad Zaghloul, Umm Kulthum, Taha Hussein, Naguib Mahfouz, and others. He succeeded in narrating the grand story of Egypt through the eyes of men and women who rose, fell, revolted, and sang… and each left an indelible mark.
94. »قناع بلون السماء« لباسم خندقجي (A Mask the Color of the Sky by Basem Khandaqji) The Palestinian novelist Basem Khandaqji succeeded in extracting from prison cells “A Mask the Color of the Sky” and delighting us with a merciless novel in it. A novel pulsating with everything: its streets, its alleys’ scents, its houses, its trees, its events, its heroes, its love. Written in prison, it won the Arab Booker Prize for 2024. Its hero, the young Palestinian Nour, assumes an Israeli identity, which he finds in a coat pocket, to move around his stolen land. Khandaqji, through this dual character, embarks on an intellectual and human adventure that questions identity, the enemy, and belonging. It is his first novel, followed by a second part, “The Holocaust Hunter,” and we await the third part.
95. »حكايتي شرح يطول« لحنان الشيخ (My Story is a Long Explanation by Hanan Al-Shaykh) One of Hanan Al-Shaykh’s most charming writings. It is not so much a novel as it is the story of the writer’s mother, who left her children and husband and loved another man. She did not choose the first man, who was her sister’s husband before she passed away; rather, he was chosen for her when she was a child. Born in the 1930s, the mother experienced Beirut’s effervescence and the beginning of women’s liberation, opening her eyes to a life filled with cinema, beautiful stars, dancing, and smoking, a vibrant life with its accompanying events. We read about the daughter Hanan’s upbringing with her father after the mother’s separation, then these conversations between mother and daughter, filled with rare confessions, reconciliation, and forgiveness after abandonment and cruelty.
96. »ذاكرة النقصان« لسمر يزبك (The Memory of Loss by Samar Yazbek) The Syrian writer Samar Yazbek was able to be the first to document the genocide in Gaza through testimonies narrated by Gazan families whom she met in Doha after their evacuation for treatment. She wrote what cameras, which broadcast reality live around the clock, failed to convey. We discover that writing has the ability to describe what filmed recordings, which tend to generalize, cannot achieve. The focus on the individual, as Yazbek did with each testimony, and the disclosure of their hellish experience, makes us closer to understanding the catastrophic experience they endured.
97. »درس قرن من الحياة« لإدغار موران (A Century of Life Lessons by Edgar Morin) This is a book written by the philosopher Edgar Morin after the Corona pandemic, as the essence of his experience to celebrate his centenary. He has now passed it and still raises his voice, having lived through the First World War and the Spanish Flu that claimed his mother, the Great Depression, and reviewing his convictions over time, from being a communist to a Nazi, and his resistance to Nazism, the Second World War, the rise of colonialism, and the collapse of ideologies. In his testimony, he harshly criticizes Western civilization and its illusion of humanity achieving self-sufficiency through economic growth and technology, and that nature is “hunted.” He blames neoliberal policies for the exacerbation of poverty during Corona, and suggests restoring humanity and justice to the global order, instead of a “nonsense and deception economy”.
98. مازن حيدر: الُمواطنة تبدأ بالتعّرف على التاريخ (Mazen Haydar: Citizenship Begins with Knowing History) Ostensibly, it is the story of a group of young people and their teacher in a remote Lebanese village, “Afreets of Ruins and Dawn.” They solve riddles to discover treasures. However, deep down, “Sarofim’s Widow,” the novel by Lebanese writer Mazen Haydar, is an invitation to shed light on the importance of antiquities and their historical value, and everyone’s responsibility to protect them, especially during wars.
99. السينما وعي (Cinema is Consciousness) In a dark hall, the lights are turned off, and a white screen appears—a moment that seems fleeting, but philosophically, it is a moment of new birth for the collective mind, for meaning, and for production. Since its inception, cinema has not been merely visual luxury; rather, it is an effective mechanism for generating and shaping consciousness, and stirring history from behind the curtain. Cinema does not merely transmit reality; it reconstructs it and questions its logic, opening up its voids. It is, as someone described it, an “inverted mirror.” It does not reflect the world as it is, but as it should be seen, or as it is intended to be understood. It conveys ideas not through proof, but through a complete sensory experience.
100. مدائننا الخفية (Our Hidden Cities) In every city we inhabit, there are hidden cities that are not seen with the naked eye, but are perceived by the eye of the heart, with the spirit of imagination, and with the whispers of time that has passed. Cities like Troy are ideals that celebrate their perfect features, yet their extinct specters relentlessly seek a way to emerge anew. In every Arab city, there is a corner that preserves the secrets of years. In Riyadh, one can wander through the ancient Al-Zal market, where the echoes of merchants who crossed the desert carrying incense and spices still resonate. As Imru’ al-Qais said, standing on the ruins when he was afflicted: “Stop, let us weep from the remembrance of a beloved and a dwelling, by the sandy bends between Al-Dakhul and Hawmal”.
101. القوة الناعمة.. السعودية غير؟! (Soft Power.. Saudi Arabia is Different?!) In a rapidly changing world, the role and functions of media change with the transformation of society’s social, cultural, and technological structure. Perhaps one of the most prominent of these transformations is what has happened to the critical function of media, a function that for decades constituted a fundamental pillar in shaping awareness, questioning authority, promoting public dialogue, and correcting deviations in various fields: political, economic, cultural, sports, and even social. However, this function is no longer exclusive to traditional media institutions; rather, in the era of “full digitization,” it has become part of the daily actions of millions of individuals who participate in varying degrees of critical awareness through social media platforms.
102. التستر.. سرطان الاقتصاد (Commercial Concealment.. The Cancer of the Economy) Commercial concealment, with its multiple and devastating faces, has become a real economic cancer that has cast a heavy shadow on the business environment in the Kingdom for decades. It is no longer just a transient defect, but an entrenched phenomenon that weakens the market structure, undermines efforts to localize jobs, and leads to the formation of a hidden economy with sprawling tentacles, beyond regulation, and not contributing to the GDP as it should. This concealment manifests in enabling non-Saudis to engage in commercial activities for their own benefit, disguised under the names of citizens who receive a meager monthly income, without any actual role in management. These practices have led to the spread of commercial fraud, money laundering, and poor product quality, in addition to causing a real unemployment problem among citizens who find themselves facing unfair competition with this unofficial economy.
103. لماذا يداوي القائد المجروح؟ (Why Does the Wounded Leader Heal?) We are now in 1997. At that time, Japan had not succeeded in qualifying for the 1998 World Cup in France, which was the biggest challenge globally and for the first time. At that time, the team’s star was the legend Kazuo Miura, the only Japanese player who played in the Italian league. After great difficulties, Japan barely qualified for the Asian playoffs. In the middle of the decisive match against Iran, the coach decided to substitute the legend Kazuo Miura. The player resented this decision, saying: “Are you substituting me?!” After moments, the player complied and left the field. The beautiful thing is that the Japanese team managed to turn the result around, win, and qualify for the World Cup.
104. الوظيفة النقدية لإلعالم من النخبة إلى جمهور التواصل (The Critical Function of Media From the Elite to the Public) In the past, the critical function was entrusted to trained journalistic pens and institutions that often adhered to professional standards and editorial guidelines. The media’s discourse was often directed by political and economic pressures that limited its ceiling of freedom. Media was somewhat elitist, reaching the public only through official channels and written only by opinion leaders and experts, or those allowed to appear in the public sphere. Those were the “eras of media guardianship” where the journalist decided what was worthy of discussion, what should be ignored, and which issue had “news value” or “critical potential”.
105. الساركوما.. الورم المنسي في شهره العالمي أحد ألنواع النادرة والمعقدة (Sarcoma.. The Forgotten Tumor in its Global Month, One of the Rare and Complex Types) July is the global awareness month for sarcoma, one of the rare and complex types of tumors, often described as the “forgotten tumor” due to the lack of awareness about it compared to more common types of cancer such as breast, lung, or colon cancer. However, despite its rarity, sarcoma presents significant challenges for both patients and doctors, due to its diversity and the difficulty of its diagnosis and treatment in many cases. In this article, we shed light on sarcoma, its types, symptoms, diagnostic and treatment methods, and the importance of awareness and community support for those affected.
106. ما الساركوما؟ (What is Sarcoma?) Sarcoma is a type of tumor that originates in soft tissues (muscles, fat, blood vessels, nerves, tendons, and fibrous tissues) or bones. Unlike most tumors that affect organs (such as the liver, lungs, colon), sarcoma originates in the structures that support and move the body. Sarcoma is classified into two main types: 1. Soft Tissue Sarcoma and 2. Bone Sarcoma. Under these two classifications, there are more than 70 subtypes, each with its own specific biological and behavioral characteristics.
107. إحصائيات وأرقام: (Statistics and Figures:) Although sarcoma accounts for less than 1% of all cancer cases in adults, it is more common in children and adolescents, representing about 15% of childhood cancers. Approximately 13,000 sarcoma cases are diagnosed annually in the United States alone. The figures may be lower in developing countries due to weak diagnostic and reporting programs.
108. ألعراض والعلامات المبكرة: (Symptoms and Early Signs:) Sarcoma symptoms depend on the tumor’s location and type, but some common symptoms include. The tumor is often painless at first, which leads many to ignore it, resulting in delayed diagnosis.
109. تشخيص الساركوما: (Sarcoma Diagnosis:) Diagnosing sarcoma poses a challenge due to its symptoms resembling benign conditions such as lipomas or fatty cysts. The diagnostic journey typically begins with a physical examination, followed by. Imaging (such as X-rays, MRI, or CT scans) to determine if the mass is cancerous is considered the crucial step, taking into account that the biopsy must be taken correctly to avoid complications.
110. العلاج والتعامل مع المرض: (Treatment and Management of the Disease:) Sarcoma treatment depends on several factors, such as its type, location, size, and extent of spread. Treatment plans may include. Surgery: This is the primary option in most sarcoma cases, where doctors aim to completely remove the tumor with a sufficient safety margin.
111. دور العائلة والمجتمع في دعم المصابين بالساركوما: (The Role of Family and Community in Supporting Sarcoma Patients:) In the journey with sarcoma, the challenge is not only physical but also psychological and social. Therefore, family and community support plays a pivotal role no less important than medical treatment in boosting the patient’s morale and enhancing their ability to cope and confront. The family is the first line of defense, starting its mission by listening to the patient and providing psychological comfort, moving on to for rebuilding and growth. Regular medical follow-up is an essential part of this stage, as the risk of tumor recurrence or appearance in other places remains for some time. Follow-up periods vary depending on the type of sarcoma and its stage at diagnosis, and may include periodic visits, blood tests, and imaging.
112. كلمة أخيرة: (Final Word:) Sarcoma may be a rare disease, but it is not rare for those who suffer from it. Every patient is a complete world of emotions, hope, and challenges. On the occasion of the Global Sarcoma Awareness Month, let us extend our hands in support to everyone who bravely faces this tumor. And let us be a voice for the afflicted, a beacon for research, and a source for awareness.
113. الهالل خير ممثل وسفير (Al-Hilal, the Best Representative and Ambassador) Sports investment is considered one of the most prominent tools of influence in the modern era. Sports are no longer just a recreational or physical activity; rather, they have become a cross-border industry and an effective tool for countries to enhance cultural and economic influence. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia realized this transformation early on and embarked on its ambitious sports project, which aims not only to win championships but also to redefine the role of sports in shaping the mental image of the Kingdom and investing in it as a means of Saudi “soft power”.
114. إعجاز الهالل صنع الفارق (Al-Hilal’s Miracle Made the Difference) In a world that measures victories by market value and number of sponsors, no one expected a Saudi team from another continent to stand face-to-face against giants like European champions and a team that comes after Real Madrid in terms of market value and player strength, as a formidable rival in a match classified among the historical matches that will not be forgotten in the history of world football. Camping World Stadium was set to witness an unexpected scene: Saudi Al-Hilal, in its blue kit, challenging a team whose market value is 1.56 billion dollars, with a budget not exceeding 188 million, and emerging victorious, not by luck, but with four real goals and a well-planned strategy which used to confidently speak about the negative impact of the project, began to rethink everything it said about Saudi football.
115. من الملعب إلى المنصات السياسية.. الهالل يوّسع دوائر التأثير (From the Stadium to Political Platforms.. Al-Hilal Expands Circles of Influence) The impact of Al-Hilal’s victory did not stop at the boundaries of the green rectangle or the headlines of sports newspapers; rather, it quickly extended to the corridors of politics and diplomacy, confirming that the Saudi sports project is far from being merely competitive or commercial; it is a sovereign national project par excellence. In a striking symbolic image published by the Saudi Press Agency (SPA) on Friday, Sheikh Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Deputy Ruler of Abu Dhabi and National Security Advisor in the UAE, appeared wearing the Al-Hilal Saudi Club badge during his meeting with Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman.
116. الهالل مشروع دولة (Al-Hilal: A State Project) What Al-Hilal did was not just a victory in a match, but a clever breakthrough of the Western system that used to look down on non-European experiences in sports. Al-Hilal entered through the narrowest of gates – with a limited budget, fewer sponsors, and a squad missing its biggest stars and young players – and emerged through the widest gates with global respect. This would not have been possible without political leadership that believed in sports investment as a national leverage, and without a harmonized system that sought long-term goals beyond short-term calculations.
117. التعصب ظاهرة سلبية ونعاني ندرة القدوات الرياضية (Fanaticism is a Negative Phenomenon, and We Suffer from a Scarcity of Sports Role Models) Facing difficulties is a natural occurrence for individuals in many aspects, and they differ in the degree or type of these difficulties. However, the word “facing” means our ability not only to overcome them, but also to interact with them as challenges that should be transformed into opportunities that enhance the motives for continuity and achievement. This achievement becomes enjoyable when it is born from the womb of those difficulties, with the availability of passion and belonging behind every accomplishment, which is the true fuel for facing any difficulty. I would not hide from you that the difficulty lies in the desire and ability to do the work we undertake. Therefore, when I am asked about the best job, my answer is that of a university professor.
- دكتور إبراهيم.. هل واجهتك صعوبات في مجال تخصصك؟ (Dr. Ibrahim… Did you face difficulties in your field of specialization?) Facing difficulties is a natural occurrence for individuals in many aspects, and they differ in the degree or type of these difficulties. However, the word “facing” means our ability not only to overcome them, but also to interact with them as challenges that should be transformed into opportunities that enhance the motives for continuity and achievement. This achievement becomes enjoyable when it is born from the womb of those difficulties, with the availability of passion and belonging behind every accomplishment, which is the true fuel for facing any difficulty. I would not hide from you that the difficulty lies in the desire and ability to do the work we undertake. Therefore, when I am asked about the best job, my answer is that of a university professor.
- the World Cup, continental championships, and Olympics, among others. The returns are not necessarily purely financial. On this basis, we see today the leadership’s interest in sports, and sports are now considered one of the soft powers that various countries are keen on.
- أوجه الهدر أحد توافقني بأن منشآت الأندية المالي لدينا؛ ماذا لو استغلت بالتشغيل؟ (Do you agree that one aspect of financial waste in our club facilities is what if they were utilized for operation?) We need scientific proof that confirms the existence of financial waste, but I believe we need to accelerate investment in developing club facilities to make them suitable for investment. It is strange that the value of a foreign player can equal the cost of building a sports stadium that some of our old clubs lack!. I also want to remind you of the Ministry of Sports’ initiatives in this regard, including providing investment opportunities for the private sector in the Ministry’s assets, including sports clubs. We also need to develop club facilities as we are about to organize global competitions, most notably the Asian Cup and the World Cup.
- هل نصميه أن ميكن هل التصجيع.. يف التعصب تطرفًا فكريًا رياصيًا، وملاذا؟ (Can we call fanaticism in cheering a form of sports intellectual extremism, and why?) In general, fanaticism is a negative phenomenon that represents extremism in opinion, resulting in unacceptable behavior such as offending others. It poses a challenge in the sports field and is a general phenomenon that affects societies of all differences, not just one specific community. Fanaticism in cheering is considered sports intellectual extremism that emerged from several reasons, most notably low sports culture, scarcity of role models in the sports field, and weakness in sportsmanship and not accepting others’ opinions. It is worth noting that the existence of sports clubs and their general support had several factors, most notably alleviating other forms of fanaticism such as tribal, religious, sectarian, and intellectual fanaticism.
- هل ترى أن التعصب الرياضي وصل مداه وبات الحوار المتزن غائباً؛ أم نعيش عكس ذلك حالياً؟ (Do you think sports fanaticism has reached its peak and balanced dialogue is now absent; or are we living the opposite?) Perhaps asserting the absence of balanced dialogue contains some harshness towards sports fans in general. I might recall here the story of Amr ibn al-Aas in the horse race, where he was not pleased with losing, despite it being an equestrian competition with many values, not to mention that he was raised in the home of a venerable companion. We should not burden those involved in sports and the public more than they can bear, as sports might lose some of its distinctive qualities. This is not at all an invitation to fanaticism, but rather to look at things according to the nature of our children at the international level. The difference lies in the popularity of innovators and the media spotlight on their achievements in the sports field, especially football. This is a natural matter that occurs in social and media contexts that appear in this way. We need greater efforts to highlight the achievements of specialists in all fields and improve the financial and moral returns for them. I remember years ago, a patent reward was 10,000 riyals! When compared to the return from sports achievements, the picture becomes clear.
- هل سبق أن أقدمت على عمل وكانت النتيجة تصلًل يف لغة كرة القدم؟ (Have you ever taken an action and the result was an offside in football language?) I do not remember ever falling into the offside trap, perhaps because the referee does not have offside detection technology, or perhaps due to the influence of specialization; for someone who plans their work according to a scientific methodology will not fall into it. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
- انعدام إقامة المنتديات القيادية المغلقة ومن تحمل الأندية والصالات التربوية في مسؤولية القصور؟ (Lack of holding closed leadership forums, and who bears the responsibility for this deficiency in clubs and educational halls?) I don’t know if it is acceptable for there to be no leadership-related forums in club halls, but it is certain that they are few and perhaps rare, even though sports clubs need leadership in terms of knowledge and practice, and they are also considered one of the institutions for social and educational upbringing. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
- هل ترى أن الرياضة ثقافة، وإن كانت كذلك فكيف نتعامل مع الثقافة تلك على الوجه الأكمل؟ (Do you think sports is a culture, and if so, how do we deal with that culture in the best way?) Sports is a culture and a part of any society. It is also an ancient culture of human communities. It contributes to enhancing positive values and attitudes. Therefore, countries are keen to spread sports culture among individuals and enhance it, especially among women, due to its great importance. Sports culture and educating generations require achieving sports accomplishments such as winning championships and titles. The influence of football players’ fame on the masses, especially youth, is evident. Therefore, these players have always been under scrutiny due to their direct impact. Sports organizations try to leverage this fame to promote positive behavior among young people, despite potential fears of a negative impact that might affect cultural aspects, community beliefs, norms, traditions, and values.
- أصبحت والآن والمتعة، للصحة الرياضة كانت للمال أكثر؛ من أفسد بياضها؟ (Sports used to be for health and enjoyment, and now it’s more for money; who spoiled its purity?) If sports are more about money than health and enjoyment, then I agree that it is an issue that must be addressed. However, with the development of sports, it has become a field like other fields, subject to investment, with its own returns and subject to governance for achieving a planned outcome and reducing waste in its operations. This is what influential countries in politics and economy seek today. Sports are no longer a luxury but an investment in health, and an investment in money, economy in return for a reward that exceeds the cost. High returns are supposed to guarantee quality performance, and Saudi players are not an exception to this; in fact, I believe they are more sincere than others, while trying to balance both aspects.
- الواسطة لا تصنع النجوم.. هل ترى في الوسط الرياضي نجوماً صنعتها الواسطة؟ (Nepotism does not create stars.. Do you see stars in the sports scene who were created by nepotism?) It might be convincing to say that “Wasta” (nepotism/connections) can create individuals who work in a field, but there are unseen requirements that the work must adhere to. In fields such as sports performance, performance is visible, so everyone watches, observes, and evaluates. So, performance is evident to sports fans. The belief that some players do not deserve stardom might be due to fanaticism or personal inclinations. Conversely, media and public enthusiasm for a team might create exaggerated stardom for some players, but I believe they all possess sufficient abilities and potential to be in the position they deserve.
- لمن توجه الدعوة من الرياضيين لزيارة منزلك؟ (To which athletes do you extend an invitation to visit your home?) Years ago, I was collaborating with one of the universities, and Captain Sami Al-Jaber was among the students of the course I was teaching. After the course ended, he promised to visit me at that time. I asked him, and he did not come, perhaps due to his busy schedule and my lack of insistence at the time. From this platform, I renew the invitation for him to visit me. I also extend an invitation to His Royal Highness Prince Abdulrahman bin Musa’id, as he is a sportsman, poet, and writer. I believe he is the most influential personality with a diverse audience encompassing culture, literature, poetry, and sports, and I am one of them.
- لأي الأندية تدين الغلبة في منزلك؟ (Which clubs dominate your household?) It leans heavily towards Al-Hilal club. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
1 compass point globally? And what is your local team?) I used to be like any young person who followed, cheered, and attended matches. At that time, not all matches were broadcast. However, after starting my higher education and getting married, and my interest weakened, I no longer followed closely. Now, my children have grown up, and I have returned to following and enjoying matches with them. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
- الأندية في بعض تركيز عدم سبب ما برأيك استقطاب دورات في مجال القيادة والإدارة لمنسوبيها؟ (In your opinion, what is the reason for some clubs’ lack of focus on attracting courses in leadership and management for their staff?) Perhaps it’s their belief that leadership is a practice and an art more than it is a science. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
- بطاقة صفراء لمن ترفعها؟ (To whom would you show a yellow card?) To those who do not practice sports and do not enjoy sports activity. (Only one paragraph of detail is directly under this heading in the source).
1. عدوى السرقات تجتاح ألمانياً (Theft Epidemic Sweeps Germany) Theft from stores in Germany has risen again, according to a study conducted by the EHI Retail Institute in Cologne, Germany. According to the study, customers stole goods worth about 2.95 billion euros last year, an increase of 4.6% compared to 2023. Total losses increased for the third consecutive year, reaching their highest level ever – although the increase is less than in 2023, which recorded a 15% annual increase. “There is a growing number of people who can no longer afford to buy goods, or who do not want to bear the cost of certain products, or even protest prices,” said Frank Horst, the study’s author.
2. قطة تهرب مخدرات (Cat Smuggles Drugs) A guard at a Costa Rican prison intercepted an unusual smuggler after a cat entered the prison at night carrying drugs tied to its body. The cat was carrying 235 grams of marijuana and 67 grams of cocaine in two bags secured with adhesive tape. The Ministry of Justice announced in a statement that the cat was “caught red-handed” when it climbed the fence surrounding the prison located in Pocosí canton (northeast). A video clip published by the ministry showed guards climbing a fence to catch the black and white cat before one of the officers carefully removed the drugs.
3. العرضة السعودية (The Saudi Ardhah) The Ascent road is considered one of the vital roads in Jazan region, with a length exceeding 10 km. It contributes to connecting a number of mountain villages in Haroub governorate through two lanes that serve the movement of residents and enhance connectivity in rough terrain. The road is of great importance to the region’s residents, as it saves time and effort in accessing daily services, in addition to its role in supporting movement in mountainous areas.
4. نبات مزهر يتحدى قسوة الصحراء (Flowering Plant Defies the Harshness of the Desert)
Download PDF Newspaper

Download PDF Newspaper in Arabic Language : Al-Riyadh Newspaper, July 11, 2025

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 12, 2025
Operating System Concepts and Principles
The provided text offers a comprehensive exploration of operating system fundamentals, particularly focusing on process management and memory management. It differentiates between programs and processes, explaining how multiprogramming enhances CPU utilization through preemptive and non-preemptive scheduling. The text details process states and operations, along with an in-depth examination of synchronization mechanisms like lock variables, Peterson’s solution, and semaphores, addressing critical section problems such as mutual exclusion, progress, and bounded waiting. Furthermore, it thoroughly explains paging as a non-continuous memory allocation technique, including multi-level paging and various page replacement algorithms like FIFO, optimal, and LRU, while also introducing the concept of threads as lightweight processes that facilitate resource sharing and parallelism in multicore architectures.

Program vs. Process: Computing’s Core Distinction

A program and a process are distinct concepts in computing, though closely related. Understanding their differences is fundamental to grasping how an operating system manages computational tasks.

Here’s a breakdown of their characteristics and distinctions:
- Program:
- A program is essentially a passive entity. It represents code written in a high-level language that has been compiled into an executable form, such as a .exe file consisting of a list of instructions.
- A program resides on the hard disk (secondary storage) and is considered “dead” or “as good as dead” because it does not actively use computer resources.
- Think of a program as the “body” without a “soul” – it exists but is not alive or active.
- Process:
- A process is an active entity; it is a program in execution. It is the “instance of a program”.
- When an executable file (program) is loaded from the hard disk into the main memory (RAM) for execution, it becomes a process.
- A process is “alive” and actively uses computer resources.
- The CPU cannot execute a program directly from the hard disk because hard disks are slow; it requires the program to be loaded into the faster main memory first. This is a “Golden Rule”: any program that has to be executed must be stored in the main memory.
- The operating system loads the executable file into main memory, and then the CPU performs the sequential execution of its instructions.
- A process is also referred to as the “locus of control” for the operating system. Similar to how people are the locus of control for a government, the process is the OS’s control point within the computer. It’s described as the “soul” in the “body” of a program.
In summary, the key difference lies in their state and location:
- Program = Code in Hard Disk
- Process = Program in Execution (in Main Memory)
This distinction is crucial for memory management and scheduling, as the operating system interacts with processes, not static programs, to manage tasks and resources.

Multiprogramming Operating Systems: Core Concepts and Benefits

Multiprogramming Operating Systems are fundamental to how modern computers manage and execute tasks. They represent a significant advancement over earlier, simpler operating systems by allowing multiple programs to reside in memory and contend for CPU access.

Definition and Core Concept

A multiprogramming operating system is one in which the operating system has the ability to load multiple programs from the hard disk into the main memory (RAM). Unlike a uniprogramming operating system, which can hold only a single program in memory at a time, multiprogramming allows several ready-to-run programs to be present in the main memory simultaneously.

The key distinction is that while multiple programs are loaded and available, the CPU can only execute or work upon a single program at a time, even in multiprocessor systems. The operating system rapidly switches the CPU among these loaded programs, giving the impression of multiplexing or concurrent execution.

Objectives and Benefits

The primary objective of a multiprogramming operating system is to maximize CPU utilization, efficiency, and throughput. This is achieved by addressing the major drawback of uniprogramming operating systems: CPU idleness.

In a uniprogramming system, if the single loaded program requires I/O services (e.g., waiting for user input or disk access), the CPU becomes idle, leading to less efficiency and throughput. Multiprogramming solves this by ensuring that if one program goes to I/O services, there are other ready-to-run programs available for execution, preventing the CPU from becoming idle. This decreases CPU idleness and significantly increases CPU utilization, efficiency, and throughput.

Relationship to Other Concepts
- Program vs. Process: A program is passive code residing on the hard disk. When a program (executable file) is loaded from the hard disk into main memory for execution, it becomes an active entity called a process. Multiprogramming involves loading multiple programs into memory, which then become processes.
- Memory Management: For a program to be executed, it must be stored in the main memory – this is known as the “Golden Rule” and the “stored program concept”. The operating system loads these executable files into the main memory. The capacity of the operating system to manage multiple ready-to-run programs in main memory is often referred to as the degree of multiprogramming. The long-term scheduler is responsible for bringing new processes from the job queue (disk) to the ready queue (main memory), thereby controlling the degree of multiprogramming.
- CPU Scheduling: Once multiple processes are in main memory (in the ready state), the operating system employs CPU scheduling algorithms to decide which process gets CPU time. The process state transition diagram, which includes a “ready state,” is indicative of a multiprogramming operating system.
- Multitasking: The terms “multiprogramming” and “multitasking” are often used interchangeably, with the Unix family typically referring to “programs” and the Windows family to “tasks”. A multitasking operating system is essentially a preemptive multiprogramming operating system.
Types of Multiprogramming

Multiprogramming can be categorized into two types:
- Non-Preemptive Multiprogramming: In this type, a program voluntarily releases the CPU, typically when its instructions are complete, or it needs I/O services, or a system call occurs. An example of a uniprogramming system (which is implicitly non-preemptive as there’s no other program to preempt) is MS-DOS.
- Preemptive Multiprogramming: This involves the forceful deallocation of a program from the CPU by the operating system, often based on priority or time slices. Modern operating systems like Windows, Linux, Unix, and Mac are preemptive operating systems, as preemption improves responsiveness.
Drawbacks of Multiprogramming

While highly beneficial, multiprogramming operating systems, especially non-preemptive ones, can have drawbacks:
- Starvation or Indefinite Waiting: Longer programs or those with lower priority might suffer from indefinite waiting if higher priority or shorter jobs continuously arrive and take CPU time.
- Lack of Interactiveness and Responsiveness: In non-preemptive systems, a single long-running program can make the system feel unresponsive. Preemptive multiprogramming (multitasking) aims to solve this by ensuring all programs get a chance to run.
Architectural Requirements

Implementing a multiprogramming operating system requires specific hardware capabilities:
1. DMA Compatible Secondary Storage Devices: Hard disks and other I/O devices must be efficient in transferring data between themselves and main memory using Direct Memory Access (DMA).
2. Memory System Supporting Address Translation: The system needs a Memory Management Unit (MMU) to translate logical addresses (generated by programs) into physical addresses (actual memory locations). This is crucial for security, preventing programs from directly accessing or corrupting each other’s memory space or the operating system’s memory.
3. CPU Supporting Dual Mode Operation: The CPU must operate in at least two modes: user mode (non-privileged, for user applications) and kernel mode (privileged, for operating system routines and direct hardware access). This protects the operating system from buggy or malicious user programs.
In essence, multiprogramming is the foundation for modern operating systems, allowing efficient use of the CPU by keeping it busy with multiple active processes, despite inherent challenges like resource management, scheduling, and ensuring fairness.

Operating System Process States Explained

In an operating system, a process is a program in execution. During its lifetime, a process undergoes several phases, moving through various states from its inception to its completion. This progression is represented through a process state transition diagram.

Initially, a process typically passes through five fundamental states:
- New State
- Ready State
- Running State
- Blocked/Wait State
- Terminate State
As operating systems evolved, two additional states were introduced to manage memory more efficiently:
- Suspend Block State
- Suspend Ready State
Let’s discuss each state and the transitions between them in detail:

Core Five Process States
1. New State:
- This is the initial state where a process is created.
- Resource allocation for the process happens in this state.
- Processes in the new state are programs (executable files) residing on the hard disk, ready to be loaded into main memory. The job queue corresponds to the new state.
1. Ready State:
- After creation and resource allocation, the process is moved to the ready state.
- Processes in this state are ready to run on the CPU.
- Multiple processes can reside in the ready state, waiting for CPU access. The existence of a “ready state” implies a multiprogramming operating system. The ready queue holds the Process Control Blocks (PCBs) of these ready processes.
- From the ready state, the long-term scheduler brings processes from the job queue (disk) to the ready queue (main memory), controlling the degree of multiprogramming.
1. Running State:
- From the ready state, the operating system chooses one process (via scheduling) and gives the CPU the right to execute its instructions (via dispatching).
- At any given time, only one program will run on a single CPU, even in multiprocessor systems, one CPU works on one program.
- While a process is said to “move to CPU,” it actually remains in main memory; the CPU gains control to execute its instructions.
- The process will continue executing instructions on the CPU until it completes, requires I/O, or is preempted.
1. Blocked/Wait State:
- A process transitions from the running state to the blocked state if it needs to perform an I/O operation (e.g., reading from a device, waiting for user input, or disk access) or needs to execute a system call that requires the OS’s service.
- When a process enters the blocked state, the operating system takes back the CPU’s rights for execution, and the process waits in main memory for the I/O or system call to complete.
- The operating system performs the actual I/O operation on behalf of the process.
- Once the I/O or system call is completed, the process is moved back to the ready state to await its next turn on the CPU. The blocked queue (or device queue) holds PCBs of processes waiting for specific I/O devices.
1. Terminate State:
- A process moves from the running state to the terminate state when all its instructions have been executed.
- In this state, resource deallocation happens, meaning all resources previously given to the process are taken back by the OS.
- A process must be in the running state to terminate; there is only one path to termination, and that comes from the running state.
Location of Processes in States
- Processes in the ready, running, and blocked/wait states are all present in the main memory (RAM).
- In the new state, a program is on the hard disk, entering main memory.
- In the terminate state, it is leaving main memory.
Multiprogramming and Preemption
- The process state transition diagram, particularly the presence of a “ready state,” indicates a multiprogramming operating system.
- Non-preemptive multiprogramming: A process voluntarily releases the CPU, typically upon completion of instructions, needing I/O services, or a system call.
- Preemptive multiprogramming (Multitasking): The operating system can forcefully deallocate a process from the CPU, often based on priority or time slices, and put it back into the ready state. Modern OS like Windows and Linux are preemptive.
Capacity of States
- There can be multiple processes (theoretically infinite) in the ready and blocked states, limited only by the capacity of RAM and the OS’s ability to manage them.
- At most one process can be in the running state per CPU. If a system has ‘n’ CPUs (multiprocessor system), then ‘n’ processes can be in the running state simultaneously.
Suspension and Resumption (Additional States)

The operating system may need to move processes from main memory to hard disk to improve performance or efficiency, especially when the main memory becomes overcrowded (high degree of multiprogramming). This is called suspension. Bringing a process back from disk to memory is called resumption. The medium-term scheduler handles process suspension and resumption.
- Suspend Block State:
- A process in the blocked state (waiting for I/O) can be moved from main memory to the hard disk to free up main memory for more active processes.
- This transition occurs when the OS needs to manage resources or pause processes, for instance, if the user switches applications.
- While in this state, the process is still waiting for its I/O operation to complete, but it is swept out of main memory and placed onto disk storage.
- Suspend Ready State:
- Once the I/O operation a suspended-blocked process was waiting for is complete, the process transitions to the suspended ready state.
- In this state, the process is logically ready to run, but it is still residing on the disk.
- From suspend ready, a process needs to be brought back to main memory (a process known as swapping or loading) before it can move to the ready state and be scheduled for CPU execution.
Desirable State for Suspension: The ready state is the most desirable state for suspension because the process is neither actively running nor performing I/O, making it less disruptive to move. However, processes can also be suspended from the running or blocked states, though these are generally less desirable and often indicated by dotted lines in transition diagrams.

Queuing Diagrams

Process states are closely related to scheduling queues. The state queuing diagram illustrates how processes move between these queues, managed by various schedulers:
- Job Queue: Corresponds to the New state, holding programs ready to be loaded into memory.
- Ready Queue: Corresponds to the Ready state, containing PCBs of processes ready for CPU execution.
- Block Queue (Device Queue): Corresponds to the Blocked state, containing PCBs of processes waiting for specific I/O services.
- Suspend Queue: Corresponds to the Suspend Block and Suspend Ready states, holding processes moved from memory to disk.
Understanding process states and their transitions is fundamental to comprehending how operating systems manage computation, resources, and ensure efficient CPU utilization.

Page Replacement Algorithms in Operating Systems

In an operating system, page replacement is a crucial aspect of virtual memory management, specifically within the context of demand paging. The need for page replacement arises when a running process attempts to access a page that is not currently present in the main memory (RAM) but resides on the hard disk. This event is known as a page fault. Since main memory has a limited capacity compared to the larger virtual address space (which is typically mapped onto the disk), not all pages of a program can reside in RAM simultaneously. When a page fault occurs and all available frames (equal-sized units of physical memory that hold pages) are already occupied, the operating system must choose a page currently in memory to evict (or replace) to make space for the newly demanded page.

The selection of which page to evict is determined by a page replacement algorithm. These algorithms aim to minimize the number of future page faults, thereby improving system performance.

A fundamental concept in understanding page replacement algorithms is the reference string. A reference string is a sequence representing the “set of successfully unique Pages referred in the given list of virtual addresses”. The term “successfully unique” is important because if a page is accessed repeatedly after being loaded into memory, it will not trigger a page fault each time. A reference string has a length (total references) and a number of unique pages, which reflects the process’s size in terms of pages.

Page Fault Handling Process

When a page fault occurs:
1. The currently running process is blocked because the required page needs to be read from the disk, which is an I/O operation.
2. The operating system’s Virtual Memory Manager takes control of the CPU, requests the page from the Disk Manager, and the page is copied from the hard disk to main memory.
3. If an empty frame is available in main memory, the new page is simply placed there.
4. If no empty frames are available, a victim page must be selected from the existing pages in memory using a page replacement algorithm. This victim page is swapped out (moved back to disk, especially if it’s been modified, which is known as a “dirty” page), and the newly demanded page is swapped in.
5. The page table is updated to reflect the new page-to-frame mapping.
6. The blocked process is moved back to the ready state to continue execution.
Page Replacement Algorithms

The sources discuss several page replacement algorithms:
- 1. FIFO (First-In, First-Out)
- Mechanism: This algorithm replaces the page that has been in memory for the longest time. It selects the page that was brought into memory first as the victim, based on the principle of “the first to come will be the first to go out”.
- Characteristic: FIFO algorithms can suffer from Bélády’s Anomaly.
- 2. Optimal Page Replacement
- Mechanism: This algorithm replaces the page that will not be used for the longest duration of time in the future.
- Characteristic: It is considered the optimal algorithm as it produces the minimum number of page faults. However, it is not implementable in real systems because it requires knowledge of future page accesses, which is generally impossible to predict. It serves as a benchmark to evaluate the performance of other algorithms.
- 3. LRU (Least Recently Used)
- Mechanism: This algorithm replaces the page that has not been used for the longest duration of time in the past. It’s essentially the inverse logic of the Optimal algorithm, looking backward in time instead of forward.
- Characteristic: LRU generally performs well and does not suffer from Bélády’s Anomaly. It is often implemented using a stack to keep track of page recency. Many operating systems implement LRU or its variations due to its good performance.
- 4. MRU (Most Recently Used)
- Mechanism: This algorithm replaces the page that has just been used. It’s the opposite of LRU.
- 5. Counting-Based Algorithms
- These algorithms track the frequency of page accesses:
- LFU (Least Frequently Used): Replaces the page with the least count of references. When a page is swapped in, its count is set to one.
- MFU (Most Frequently Used): Replaces the page with the highest count of references.
LRU Approximations

Because truly implementing LRU (e.g., with a perfect stack or by tracking exact times) can be complex or costly, operating systems often use approximations:
- 1. Reference Bit Algorithm
- Mechanism: Each page in the page table is associated with a reference bit. If a page is referred to during the current epoch (a time quantum), its reference bit is set to 1; otherwise, it remains 0. The algorithm scans the page table and victimizes the first page it finds with a reference bit of 0.
- Characteristic: This approximation fails if all pages have their reference bits set to 1 (meaning all pages have been referred in the current epoch).
- 2. Additional Reference Bit Algorithm
- Mechanism: This is an enhancement to the reference bit, where more than one reference bit (e.g., eight) is associated with each page to store a history of past epochs. When an epoch completes, the bits are left-shifted, and the newest bit is set to 0. This allows looking further back in time to find a less recently used page.
- 3. Second Chance / Clock Algorithm
- Mechanism: This algorithm uses a circular queue (like a clock) and combines the time of loading with the reference bit. When a page is to be replaced, the algorithm inspects pages in FIFO order. If a page’s reference bit is 0, it is chosen as the victim. If its reference bit is 1, it is given a “second chance” by setting its bit to 0 and moving to the next page in the queue. If all pages have a 1 reference bit, the algorithm will eventually cycle back to pages that were given a second chance and now have a 0 bit.
- Characteristic: When all reference bits are 1, it reverts to FIFO-like behavior and can therefore suffer from Bélády’s Anomaly.
- 4. Enhanced Second Chance / Not Recently Used (NRU)
- Mechanism: This algorithm prioritizes pages based on both their reference bit (R) and modified/dirty bit (M). It uses a priority order to select a victim, from highest priority (best victim) to lowest priority (worst victim):
- 00: Page not referred, clean (highest priority to evict)
- 01: Page not referred, modified
- 10: Page referred, clean
- 11: Page referred, modified (lowest priority to evict as it’s active and needs saving).
Bélády’s Anomaly

Bélády’s Anomaly (or anomaly) is a counter-intuitive phenomenon where, for certain page replacement algorithms, increasing the number of allocated page frames in main memory can sometimes lead to an increase in the number of page faults. This goes against the natural expectation that more memory should lead to fewer page faults. The anomaly primarily occurs with FIFO and FIFO-based algorithms. It is attributed to the “stack property of replacement”. Algorithms like Optimal and LRU generally do not suffer from this anomaly.

Relationship to Threshing

Page replacement policies are closely related to the problem of threshing. Threshing is a state of excessive paging activity, characterized by a very high page fault rate. When the operating system increases the degree of multiprogramming (number of processes in memory) beyond a certain limit in a system with limited RAM, each process receives fewer frames. This scarcity of frames leads to frequent page faults, causing processes to spend most of their time blocked, waiting for pages to be swapped in from disk. This results in low CPU utilization and a significant degradation of system performance. Effective page replacement algorithms, by minimizing page faults, help in preventing or mitigating threshing.

The Fork System Call: Process Creation and Management

The fork system call is a fundamental concept in operating systems, primarily used for process creation. When fork is executed, it results in the creation of a child process. This child process is an exact replica of the parent process, meaning all the code and resources allocated to the parent are duplicated for the child.

Here’s a detailed discussion of the fork system call based on the provided sources:
- Definition and Basic Functionality:
- The execution of the fork system call leads to the creation of child processes.
- It is a special type of function known as a system call, which is invoked to request services from the operating system kernel.
- fork is defined and implemented within the OS kernel, signifying it as an operating system routine.
- Mode Shifting for Execution:
- Since fork is an OS kernel routine, it cannot be directly executed by user mode programs.
- To execute fork (or any kernel-level service), a mode shift is required from user mode to kernel mode. This is because kernel-level programs are privileged and run atomically (non-preemptively), unlike user applications.
- When an OS routine like fork is compiled, it generates a Supervisory Call (SVC), which, at runtime, produces a software interrupt (or trap).
- This interrupt triggers an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR). The ISR’s primary tasks are to change the mode bit in the Processor Status Word (PSW) register from 1 (user mode) to 0 (kernel mode) and then find the address of the fork routine in the OS’s dispatch table.
- After the fork instructions are executed atomically in kernel mode, the mode bit is reset from 0 to 1 (kernel to user mode) for security purposes, returning control to the user application.
- Child Process Characteristics and Execution Flow:
- The code of the child process is an exact replica of the parent process.
- All the resources that were allocated to the parent process are also duplicated for the child.
- Execution in the child process starts from the next statement immediately after the fork call in the code, continuing until the end of the program. Although the lines of code before the fork are copied into the child, they are not re-executed by the child.
- Child and parent processes are independent; there is no master-slave relationship between them.
- A child of a child is also considered a child to the original parent.
- Memory and Address Space Relationship:
- While the child and parent processes have the same virtual address space (as their code is identical), their physical addresses will be different because they are two distinct processes residing in memory. If you print the virtual address of a variable in both parent and child, they will appear the same.
- fork inherently leads to redundancy as extra copies of code and data are created in memory.
- Return Value of fork:
- The fork system call can return three types of values:
- Positive Value (typically the child’s Process ID): This value is returned to the parent process.
- Zero (0): This value is returned to the child process.
- Negative Value: This indicates that the execution of fork was a failure (e.g., due to insufficient resources).
- Operating systems use this return value to distinguish between the parent and child processes and execute specific code blocks accordingly (e.g., using if (fork() == 0) for child-specific code and else for parent-specific code).
- Impact on Number of Processes and Output:
- If a program contains n fork calls, it will result in 2^n total processes (including the original parent process).
- Consequently, if a printf statement appears after the fork calls, it will be executed 2^n times (assuming no conditional blocks restrict execution to specific processes).
- The number of child processes specifically created by n fork calls is 2^n – 1 (subtracting the original parent).
- Examples provided in the sources illustrate this:
- One fork call results in two “hello” prints.
- Three fork calls result in eight “hello” prints (2^3 = 8).
- Interaction with C Constructs (Loops, Conditionals):
- fork can be used within loops. If a fork is inside a loop that runs n times, and the fork is executed in each iteration, it can lead to a significant number of child processes (2^n).
- Conditional statements (if/else) are often used with the fork return value to specify code that should only be executed by the parent or the child. Code outside these conditional blocks is executed by both parent and child processes.
In summary, the fork system call is a powerful mechanism for concurrency in operating systems, allowing a process to duplicate itself. Its behavior is intricate, involving kernel-level operations, precise control over execution flow, and distinct handling of parent and child processes through its return value.

Operating Systems Course for Beginners

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 12, 2025
DBMS: Database Queries and Relational Calculus
The sources provided offer a comprehensive exploration of database concepts, beginning with foundational elements of Entity-Relationship (ER) models, including entities, attributes, and relationships. They distinguish between various types of attributes (derived, multi-valued, composite, descriptive) and keys (super, candidate, primary, foreign), explaining their roles in uniquely identifying and linking data. The text transitions into relational models, detailing how ER constructs are converted into tables and the importance of referential integrity. A significant portion focuses on relational algebra as a procedural query language, breaking down fundamental operators like selection, projection, union, set difference, Cartesian product, and joins (inner and outer), and illustrating their application through practical examples. Finally, the sources touch upon relational calculus (tuple and domain) as non-procedural alternatives and introduce SQL, emphasizing its syntax for data retrieval and modification (insert, delete, update).

Data Modeling: ER and Relational Models Explained

Data modeling is a fundamental concept in database management systems (DBMS) that serves as a blueprint or structure for how data is stored and accessed. It provides conceptual tools to describe various aspects of data:
- Data itself.
- Data relationships.
- Consistency constraints.
- Data meaning (semantics).
The goal of data modeling is to establish a structured format for storing data to ensure efficient retrieval and management. It is crucial because information derived from processed data is highly valuable for decision-making, which is why companies invest significantly in data.

There are primarily two phases in database design that involve data modeling:
1. Designing the ER (Entity-Relationship) Model: This is the first, high-level design phase.
2. Converting the ER Model into a Relational Model: This phase translates the high-level design into a structured format suitable for relational databases.
Let’s delve into the types and key aspects of data models discussed in the sources:

Types of Data Models

The sources categorize data within a database system into two broad types: structured and unstructured.
- Structured Data: This type of data has a proper format, often tabular. Examples include data from Indian railways or university data. Different patterns for storing structured data include:
- Key-value pairs: Used for high-speed lookups.
- Column-oriented databases: Store data column by column instead of row by row.
- Graph databases: Data is stored in nodes, with relationships depicted by edges (e.g., social media recommendation systems).
- Document-oriented databases: Used in systems like MongoDB.
- Object-oriented databases: Store data as objects.
- Unstructured Data: This data does not have a proper format, such as a mix of videos, text, and images found on a website.
For strictly tabular and structured data, a relational database management system (RDBMS) is considered the best choice. However, for better performance, scalability, or special use cases, other database types can serve as alternatives.

The Entity-Relationship (ER) Model

The ER model is a high-level data model that is easily understandable even by non-technical persons. It is based on the perception of real-world objects and the relationships among them. The ER model acts as a bridge to understand the relational model, allowing for high-level design that can then be implemented in a relational database.

Key constructs in the ER model include:
- Entities: Represent real-world objects (e.g., student, car). Entities can be:
- Entity Type: The class blueprint or table definition (e.g., “Student” table).
- Entity Instance: A specific record or row with filled values (e.g., a specific student’s record).
- Entity Set: A collection of all entity instances of a particular type.
- Strong Entity Type: Can exist independently and has its own primary key (also called regular or independent entity type).
- Weak Entity Type: Depends on the existence of a strong entity type and does not have its own primary key (also called dependent entity type). Its instances are uniquely identified with the help of a discriminator (a unique attribute within the weak entity) and the primary key of the strong entity type it depends on. A weak entity type always has total participation in its identifying relationship.
- Attributes: These are the properties that describe an entity type (e.g., for a “Fighter” entity, attributes could be ranking, weight, reach, record, age). Each attribute has a domain (set of permissible values), which can be enforced by domain constraints. Attributes can be categorized as:
- Simple: Atomic, cannot be subdivided (e.g., gender).
- Composite: Can be subdivided (e.g., address into street, locality).
- Single-valued: Holds a single value (e.g., role number).
- Multivalued: Can hold multiple values (e.g., phone number, email).
- Stored: Cannot be derived from other attributes (e.g., date of birth).
- Derived: Can be calculated or derived from other stored attributes (e.g., age from date of birth).
- Descriptive: Attributes of a relationship (e.g., “since” in “employee works in department”).
- Relationships: Represent an association between instances of different entity types (e.g., “customer borrows loan”). Relationships have a degree (unary, binary, ternary) and cardinality ratios (based on maximum participation like one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-one, many-to-many, and minimum participation like total or partial).
- Total Participation: Means every instance of an entity type must participate in the relationship (minimum cardinality of one).
- Partial Participation: Means instances of an entity type may or may not participate in the relationship (minimum cardinality of zero), which is the default setting.
The ER model is not a complete model on its own because it does not define the storage format or manipulation language (like SQL). However, it is a crucial conceptual tool for designing high-level database structures.

The Relational Model

Developed by E.F. Codd in 1970, the relational model dictates that data will be stored in a tabular format. Its popularity stems from its simplicity, ease of use and understanding, and its strong mathematical foundation.

In the relational model:
- Tables (relations): Practical forms where data of interest is stored.
- Rows (tuples, records, instances): Represent individual entries.
- Columns (attributes, fields): Represent properties of the data.
- Schema: The blueprint of the database, including attributes, constraints, and relationships.
- Integrity Constraints: Rules to ensure data correctness and consistency. These include domain constraints, entity integrity (primary key unique and not null), referential integrity (foreign key values are a subset of parent table’s primary key values), null constraints, default value constraints, and uniqueness constraints.
The relational model is considered a complete model because it answers the three fundamental questions of data modeling:
1. Storage Format: Data is stored in tables.
2. Manipulation Language: SQL (Structured Query Language) is used for data manipulation.
3. Integrity Constraints: It defines various integrity rules for data correctness.
When converting an ER model to a relational model, each entity type (strong or weak) is typically converted into a single table. Multivalued attributes usually require a separate table, while composite attributes are flattened into the original table. Relationships are represented either by incorporating foreign keys into existing tables or by creating separate tables for the relationships themselves, depending on the cardinality and participation constraints.

In summary, data modeling is the conceptual process of organizing data and its relationships within a database. The ER model provides a high-level design, serving as a conceptual bridge to the more detailed and mathematically rigorous relational model, which defines how data is physically stored and manipulated in tables using languages like SQL.

Relational Algebra: Operators and Concepts

Relational Algebra is a foundational concept in database management systems, serving as a procedural query language that specifies both what data to retrieve and how to retrieve it. It forms the theoretical foundation for SQL and is considered a cornerstone for understanding database concepts, design, and querying. This mathematical basis is one of the key reasons for the popularity of the relational model.

In relational algebra, operations deal with relations (tables) as inputs and produce new relations as outputs. The process involves three main components: input (one or more relations), output (always exactly one relation), and operators.

Types of Operators

Relational algebra operators are categorized into two main types: Fundamental and Derived. Derived operators are built upon the fundamental ones.

Fundamental Operators
1. Selection ($\sigma$):
- Purpose: Used for horizontal selection, meaning it selects rows (tuples) from a relation based on a specified condition (predicate).
- Nature: It is a unary operator, taking one relation as input and producing one relation as output.
- Syntax: $\sigma_{condition}(Relation)$.
- Effect on Schema: The degree (number of columns) of the output relation is equal to the degree of the input relation, as only rows are filtered.
- Effect on Data: The cardinality (number of rows) of the output relation will be less than or equal to the cardinality of the input relation.
- Properties: Selection is commutative, meaning the order of applying multiple selection conditions does not change the result. Multiple conditions can also be combined using logical AND ($\land$) operators.
- Null Handling: Null values are ignored in the selection operator if the condition involving them evaluates to null or false. Only tuples that return true for the condition are included.
1. Projection ($\pi$):
- Purpose: Used for vertical selection, meaning it selects columns (attributes) from a relation.
- Nature: It is a unary operator, taking one relation as input and producing one relation as output.
- Syntax: $\pi_{Attribute1, Attribute2, …}(Relation)$.
- Effect on Schema: The degree (number of columns) of the output relation is less than or equal to the degree of the input relation, as only specified columns are projected.
- Effect on Data: Projection eliminates duplicates in the resulting rows. Therefore, the cardinality of the output relation may be less than or equal to the cardinality of the input relation.
- Properties: Projection is not swappable with selection if the selection condition relies on an attribute that would be removed by projection.
- Null Handling: Null values are not ignored in projection; they are returned as part of the projected column.
1. Union ($\cup$):
- Purpose: Combines all unique tuples from two compatible relations.
- Compatibility: Both relations must be union compatible, meaning they have the same degree (number of columns) and corresponding columns have same domains (data types). Column names can be different.
- Properties: Union is commutative ($A \cup B = B \cup A$) and associative ($A \cup (B \cup C) = (A \cup B) \cup C$).
- Effect on Schema: The degree remains the same as the input relations.
- Effect on Data: Eliminates duplicates by default. The cardinality of the result is $Cardinality(R1) + Cardinality(R2)$ minus the number of common tuples.
- Null Handling: Null values are not ignored; they are treated just like other values.
1. Set Difference ($-$):
- Purpose: Returns all tuples that are present in the first relation but not in the second relation. ($A – B$) includes elements in A but not in B.
- Compatibility: Relations must be union compatible.
- Properties: Set difference is neither commutative ($A – B \neq B – A$) nor associative.
- Effect on Schema: The degree remains the same as the input relations.
- Effect on Data: The cardinality of the result ranges from 0 (if R1 is a subset of R2) to $Cardinality(R1)$ (if R1 and R2 are disjoint).
- Null Handling: Null values are not ignored.
1. Cartesian Product ($\times$):
- Purpose: Combines every tuple from the first relation with every tuple from the second relation, resulting in all possible tuple combinations.
- Syntax: $R1 \times R2$.
- Effect on Schema: The degree of the result is the sum of the degrees of the input relations ($Degree(R1) + Degree(R2)$). If columns have the same name, a qualifier (e.g., TableName.ColumnName) is used to differentiate them.
- Effect on Data: The cardinality of the result is the product of the cardinalities of the input relations ($Cardinality(R1) \times Cardinality(R2)$).
- Use Case: Often used as a preliminary step before applying a selection condition to filter for meaningful combinations, effectively performing a “join”.
1. Renaming ($\rho$):
- Purpose: Used to rename a relation or its attributes. This is useful for self-joins or providing more descriptive names.
- Syntax: $\rho_{NewName}(Relation)$ or $\rho_{NewName(NewCol1, NewCol2, …)}(Relation)$.
Derived Operators

Derived operators can be expressed using combinations of fundamental operators.
1. Intersection ($\cap$):
- Purpose: Returns tuples that are common to both union-compatible relations.
- Derivation: Can be derived using set difference: $R1 \cap R2 = R1 – (R1 – R2)$.
- Compatibility: Relations must be union compatible.
- Effect on Schema: The degree remains the same.
- Effect on Data: The cardinality of the result ranges from 0 to the minimum of the cardinalities of the input relations.
- Null Handling: Null values are not ignored.
1. Join (Various Types): Joins combine tuples from two relations based on a common condition. They are derived from Cartesian product and selection.
- Theta Join ($\Join_{\theta}$): Performs a Cartesian product followed by a selection based on any comparison condition ($\theta$) (e.g., greater than, less than, equals).
- Syntax: $R1 \Join_{condition} R2$.
- Effect on Schema: Sum of degrees.
- Effect on Data: Ranges from 0 to Cartesian product cardinality.
- Equijoin ($\Join_{=}$): A special case of Theta Join where the condition is restricted to equality ($=$).
- Natural Join ($\Join$):
- Purpose: Equijoins relations on all common attributes, automatically. The common attributes appear only once in the result schema.
- Properties: Natural join is commutative and associative.
- Effect on Schema: Degree is sum of degrees minus the count of common attributes.
- Effect on Data: Cardinality ranges from 0 to the maximum (can be Cartesian product if no common attributes or if all common attributes have same values across all tuples). Tuples that fail to find a match are called dangling tuples.
- Semi-Join ($\ltimes$):
- Purpose: Performs a natural join but keeps only the attributes of the left-hand side relation. It effectively filters the left relation to only include tuples that have a match in the right relation.
- Anti-Join ($\rhd$):
- Purpose: Performs a natural join but keeps only the attributes of the left-hand side relation for tuples that do not have a match in the right relation [This is an external clarification, source says “keep the attributes of right hand side relation only” for anti-join, which contradicts the common definition of anti-join]. Correction based on source direct statement: “we have to keep the attributes of right hand side relation only” for anti-join. This is a bit unusual compared to standard anti-join (which typically returns tuples from the left that don’t have a match on the right, retaining left attributes). However, sticking to the provided source:
- Purpose (per source): “keep the attributes of right hand side relation only”.
- Effect: It implies a filtering operation, but the source’s description for anti-join might be a specific interpretation or a typo compared to conventional anti-join. I’ll highlight the source’s wording.
1. Outer Join (Left, Right, Full):
- Purpose: Similar to inner joins, but they also include non-matching (dangling) tuples from one or both relations, padding missing attribute values with null.
- Left Outer Join ($\Join^{L}$): Includes all matching tuples and all dangling tuples from the left relation.
- Right Outer Join ($\Join^{R}$): Includes all matching tuples and all dangling tuples from the right relation.
- Full Outer Join ($\Join^{F}$): Includes all matching tuples and dangling tuples from both left and right relations.
- Effect on Data: Cardinality of Left Outer Join is at least $Cardinality(R1)$. Cardinality of Right Outer Join is at least $Cardinality(R2)$. Cardinality of Full Outer Join is at least $Cardinality(R1 \cup R2)$ (if treating attributes as sets).
- Null Handling: Nulls are explicitly used to represent missing values for non-matching tuples.
1. Division ($\div$):
- Purpose: Finds tuples in one relation that are “associated with” or “match all” tuples in another relation based on a subset of attributes. Often used for “for all” type queries.
- Prerequisite: $R1 \div R2$ is only possible if all attributes of $R2$ are present in $R1$, and $R1$ has some extra attributes not present in $R2$.
- Effect on Schema: The degree of the result is $Degree(R1) – Degree(R2)$ because attributes of $R2$ are removed from $R1$ in the output.
- Derivation: Division is a derived operator and can be expressed using projection, Cartesian product, and set difference.
Relationship with Relational Calculus and SQL

Relational Algebra is a procedural language, telling the system how to do the retrieval, in contrast to Relational Calculus (Tuple Relational Calculus and Domain Relational Calculus), which are non-procedural and only specify what to retrieve. Relational algebra has the same expressive power as safe relational calculus. This means any query expressible in relational algebra can also be written in safe relational calculus, and vice versa. However, relational calculus (in its full, unsafe form) can express queries that cannot be expressed in relational algebra or SQL.

SQL’s SELECT, FROM, and WHERE clauses directly map to relational algebra’s Projection, Cartesian Product, and Selection operators, respectively. SQL is considered relationally complete, meaning any query expressible in relational algebra can also be written in SQL.

Key Concepts in Relational Algebra
- Relation vs. Table: A relation is a mathematical set, a subset of a Cartesian product, containing only tuples that satisfy a given condition. A table is the practical form of a relation used in DBMS for storing data of interest. In tables, null and duplicate values are allowed for individual columns, but a whole tuple in a relation (mathematical sense) cannot be duplicated.
- Degree and Cardinality: Degree refers to the number of columns (attributes) in a relation, while cardinality refers to the number of rows (tuples/records).
- Null Values: In relational algebra, null signifies an unknown, non-applicable, or non-existing value. It is not treated as zero, empty string, or any specific value. Comparisons involving null (e.g., null > 5, null = null) typically result in null (unknown). This behavior impacts how selection and join operations handle tuples containing nulls, as conditions involving nulls usually do not evaluate to true. Projection, Union, Set Difference, and Intersection, however, do not ignore nulls.
- Efficiency: When writing complex queries involving Cartesian products, it is generally more efficient to minimize the number of tuples in relations before performing the Cartesian product, as this reduces the size of the intermediate result. This principle is often applied by performing selections (filtering) early.
Relational Calculus: Principles, Types, and Applications

Relational Calculus is a non-procedural query language used in database management systems. Unlike procedural languages such as Relational Algebra, it specifies “what data to retrieve” rather than “how to retrieve” it. This means it focuses on describing the desired result set without outlining the step-by-step process for obtaining it.

Comparison with Relational Algebra and SQL
- Relational Algebra (Procedural): Relational Algebra is considered a procedural language because it answers both “what to do” and “how to do” when querying a database.
- Expressive Power:
- Safe Relational Calculus has the same expressive power as Relational Algebra. This means any query that can be formulated in safe Relational Calculus can also be expressed in Relational Algebra, and vice versa.
- However, Relational Calculus, in its entirety, has more expressive power than Relational Algebra or SQL. This additional power allows it to express “unsafe queries” – queries whose results include tuples that are not actually present in the database table.
- Consequently, every query expressible in Relational Algebra or SQL can be represented using Relational Calculus, but there exist some queries in Relational Calculus that cannot be expressed using Relational Algebra.
- Theoretical Foundation: SQL is theoretically based on both Relational Algebra and Relational Calculus.
Types of Relational Calculus

Relational Calculus is divided into two main parts:
1. Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)
2. Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)
Tuple Relational Calculus (TRC)

Tuple Relational Calculus uses tuple variables to represent an entire row or record within a table.
- Representation: A TRC query is typically represented as S = {T | P(T)}, where S is the result set, T is a tuple variable, and P is a condition (or predicate) that T must satisfy. The tuple variable T iterates through each tuple, and if the condition P(T) is true, that tuple is included in the result.
- Attribute Access: Attributes of a tuple T are denoted using dot notation (T.A) or bracket notation (T[A]), where A is the attribute name.
- Relation Membership: T belonging to a relation R is represented as T ∈ R or R(T).
Quantifiers in TRC: TRC employs logical quantifiers to express conditions:
- Existential Quantifier (∃): Denoted by ∃ (read as “there exists”).
- It asserts that there is at least one tuple that satisfies a given condition.
- Unsafe Queries: Using the existential quantifier with an OR operator can produce unsafe queries. An unsafe query can include tuples in the result that are not actually present in the source table. For example, a query like T | ∃B (B ∈ Book ∧ (T.BookID = B.BookID ∨ T.Year = B.Year)) (where Book is a table) might include arbitrary combinations of BookID and Year that aren’t real entries if either part of the OR condition is met.
- The EXISTS keyword in SQL is conceptually derived from this quantifier, returning true if a subquery produces a non-empty result.
- Universal Quantifier (∀): Denoted by ∀ (read as “for all”).
- It asserts that a condition must hold true for every tuple in a specified set.
- Using ∀ with an AND operator can be meaningless for direct output projection.
- It is often used in combination with negation (¬) or implication (→) to express queries like “find departments that do not have any girl students”.
Examples in TRC (from sources):
- Projection:
- To project all attributes of the Employee table: {T | Employee(T)}.
- To project specific attributes (e.g., EName, Salary) of the Employee table: {T.EName, T.Salary | Employee(T)}.
- Selection:
- Find details of employees with Salary > 5000: {T | Employee(T) ∧ T.Salary > 5000}.
- Find Date_of_Birth and Address of employees named “Rohit Sharma”: {T.DOB, T.Address | Employee(T) ∧ T.FirstName = ‘Rohit’ ∧ T.LastName = ‘Sharma’}.
- Join (referencing multiple tables):
- Find names of female students in the “Maths” department: {S.Name | Student(S) ∧ S.Sex = ‘Female’ ∧ ∃D (Department(D) ∧ D.DeptID = S.DeptNo ∧ D.DeptName = ‘Maths’)}.
- Find BookID of all books issued to “Makash”: {T.BookID | ∃U (User(U) ∧ U.Name = ‘Makash’) ∧ ∃B (Borrow(B) ∧ B.CardNo = U.CardNo ∧ T.BookID = B.BookID)}.
Domain Relational Calculus (DRC)

Domain Relational Calculus uses domain variables that represent individual column attributes, rather than entire rows.
- Representation: A DRC query is typically represented as Output_Table = {A1, A2, …, An | P(A1, A2, …, An)}, where A1, A2, …, An are the column attributes (domain variables) to be projected, and P is the condition they must satisfy.
- Concept: Instead of iterating through tuples, DRC defines the domains of the attributes being sought.
Examples in DRC (from sources):
- Projection:
- Find BookID and Title of all books: {BookID, Title | (BookID, Title) ∈ Book}.
- Selection:
- Find BookID of all “DBMS” books: {BookID | (BookID, Title) ∈ Book ∧ Title = ‘DBMS’}.
- Join:
- Find title of all books supplied by “Habib”: {Title | ∃BookID, ∃SName ((BookID, Title) ∈ Book ∧ (BookID, SName) ∈ Supplier ∧ SName = ‘Habib’)}.
Safety of Queries

As mentioned, Relational Calculus can express unsafe queries. An unsafe query is one that, when executed, might include results that are not derived from the existing data in the database, potentially leading to an infinite set of results. For instance, a query to “include all those tuples which are not present in the table book” would be unsafe because there are infinitely many tuples not in a finite table.

SQL: Relational Database Querying and Manipulation

SQL (Structured Query Language) queries are the primary means of interacting with and manipulating data in relational database management systems (RDBMS). SQL is a non-procedural language, meaning it specifies what data to retrieve or modify rather than how to do it. This design allows the RDBMS to manage the efficient retrieval of data.

The theoretical foundation of SQL is based on both Relational Algebra (a procedural language) and Relational Calculus (a non-procedural language). SQL is considered a fourth-generation language, making it closer to natural language compared to third-generation languages like C++.

Core Components of SQL Queries

At its most basic level, an SQL query consists of three mandatory keywords for data retrieval: SELECT, FROM, and WHERE.
- SELECT Clause:
- Corresponds conceptually to the projection operator in Relational Algebra.
- By default, SELECT retains duplicate values (projection with duplicacy).
- To obtain distinct (unique) values, the DISTINCT keyword must be explicitly used (e.g., SELECT DISTINCT Title FROM Book).
- If the default setting is changed to DISTINCT, ALL can be used to explicitly retain duplicates (e.g., SELECT ALL Title FROM Book).
- Attributes or columns to be displayed are listed here.
- FROM Clause:
- Specifies the tables from which data is to be retrieved.
- Conceptually, listing multiple tables in the FROM clause (e.g., FROM User, Borrow) implies a Cartesian Product between them.
- The FROM clause is mandatory for data retrieval.
- Tables can be renamed using the AS keyword (e.g., User AS U1), which is optional for tables but mandatory for renaming attributes.
- WHERE Clause:
- Used to specify conditions that rows must satisfy to be included in the result.
- Corresponds to the selection operator in Relational Algebra (horizontal row selection).
- The WHERE clause is optional; if omitted, all rows from the specified tables are returned.
- Conditions can involve comparison operators (=, >, <, >=, <=, !=, <>), logical operators (AND, OR, NOT).
Advanced Query Operations

SQL queries can become complex using various clauses and operators:
- Set Operations:
- UNION: Combines the result sets of two or more SELECT statements. By default, UNION eliminates duplicate rows.
- UNION ALL: Combines results and retains duplicate rows.
- INTERSECT: Returns only the rows that are common to both result sets. By default, INTERSECT eliminates duplicates.
- EXCEPT (or MINUS): Returns rows from the first query that are not present in the second. By default, EXCEPT eliminates duplicates.
- For all set operations, the participating queries must be union compatible, meaning they have the same number of columns and compatible data types in corresponding columns.
- Aggregate Functions:
- Used to perform calculations on a set of rows and return a single summary value. Common functions include:
- COUNT(): Counts the number of rows or non-null values in a column. COUNT(*) counts all rows, including those with nulls.
- SUM(): Calculates the total sum of a numeric column.
- AVG(): Calculates the average value of a numeric column.
- MIN(): Returns the minimum value in a column.
- MAX(): Returns the maximum value in a column.
- All aggregate functions ignore null values, except for COUNT(*).
- GROUP BY Clause:
- Used to logically break a table into groups based on the values in one or more columns.
- Aggregate functions are then applied to each group independently.
- All attributes in the SELECT clause that are not part of an aggregate function must also be included in the GROUP BY clause.
- Any attribute not in GROUP BY that needs to be displayed in the SELECT clause must appear inside an aggregate function.
- HAVING Clause:
- Used to filter groups created by the GROUP BY clause.
- Similar to WHERE, but HAVING operates on groups after aggregation, while WHERE filters individual rows before aggregation.
- Aggregate functions can be used directly in the HAVING clause (e.g., HAVING COUNT(*) > 50), which is not allowed in WHERE.
- Subqueries (Nested Queries):
- A query embedded within another SQL query.
- Used with operators like IN, NOT IN, SOME/ANY, ALL, EXISTS, NOT EXISTS.
- IN: Returns true if a value matches any value in a list or the result of a subquery.
- SOME/ANY: Returns true if a comparison is true for any value in the subquery result (e.g., price > SOME (subquery) finds prices greater than at least one price in the subquery).
- ALL: Returns true if a comparison is true for all values in the subquery result (e.g., price > ALL (subquery) finds prices greater than the maximum price in the subquery).
- EXISTS: Returns true if the subquery returns at least one row (is non-empty). It’s typically used to check for the existence of related rows.
- NOT EXISTS: Returns true if the subquery returns no rows (is empty).
- UNIQUE: Returns true if the subquery returns no duplicate rows.
- ORDER BY Clause:
- Used to sort the result set of a query.
- Sorting can be in ASC (ascending, default) or DESC (descending) order.
- When sorting by multiple attributes, the first attribute listed is the primary sorting key, and subsequent attributes are secondary keys for tie-breaking within primary groups.
- Sorting is always done tuple-wise, not column-wise, to avoid creating invalid data.
- JOIN Operations:
- Used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related column between them.
- INNER JOIN: Returns only the rows where there is a match in both tables. Can be specified with ON (any condition) or USING (specific common columns). INNER keyword is optional.
- THETA JOIN: An inner join with an arbitrary condition (e.g., R1.C > R2.D).
- EQUI JOIN: A theta join where the condition is solely an equality (=).
- NATURAL JOIN: An equi join that automatically joins tables on all columns with the same name and data type, and eliminates duplicate common columns in the result.
- OUTER JOIN: Includes matching rows and non-matching rows from one or both tables, filling non-matches with NULL values.
- LEFT OUTER JOIN: Includes all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right table.
- RIGHT OUTER JOIN: Includes all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left table.
- FULL OUTER JOIN: Includes all rows from both tables, with NULL where there’s no match.
Database Modification Queries

SQL provides commands to modify the data stored in tables:
- INSERT:
- Adds new rows (tuples) to a table.
- Syntax includes INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, …) or INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, …) VALUES (value1, value2, …).
- DELETE:
- Removes one or more rows from a table.
- Syntax is DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition].
- If no WHERE clause is specified, all rows are deleted.
- TRUNCATE TABLE: A DDL command that quickly removes all rows from a table, similar to DELETE without a WHERE clause, but it is faster as it deletes the whole table in one go (rather than tuple by tuple) and resets identity columns. TRUNCATE cannot use a WHERE clause.
- UPDATE:
- Modifies existing data within a row (cell by cell).
- Syntax is UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, … [WHERE condition].
Other Important Concepts Related to Queries
- Views (Virtual Tables):
- A virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL query.
- Views are not physically stored in the database (dynamic views); instead, their definition is stored, and the view is evaluated when queried.
- Views are primarily used for security (data hiding) and simplifying complex queries.
- Views can be updatable (allowing INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE on the view, which affects the base tables) or read-only (typically for complex views involving joins or aggregates).
- Materialized Views are physical copies of a view’s data, stored to improve performance for frequent queries.
- NULL Values:
- NULL represents unknown, non-existent, or non-applicable values.
- NULL is not comparable to any value, including itself (e.g., SID = NULL will not work).
- Comparison with NULL is done using IS NULL or IS NOT NULL.
- NULL values are ignored by aggregate functions (except COUNT(*)).
- In ORDER BY, NULL values are treated as the lowest value by default.
- In GROUP BY, all NULL values are treated as equal and form a single group.
- Pattern Matching (LIKE):
- Used for string matching in WHERE clauses.
- % (percentage sign): Matches any sequence of zero or more characters.
- _ (underscore): Matches exactly one character.
- The ESCAPE keyword can be used to search for the literal % or _ characters.
- DDL Commands (Data Definition Language):
- While not strictly queries that retrieve data, DDL commands define and manage the database schema.
- CREATE TABLE: Defines a new table, including column names, data types, and constraints (like PRIMARY KEY, NOT NULL, FOREIGN KEY, DEFAULT).
- ALTER TABLE: Modifies an existing table’s structure (e.g., adding/dropping columns, changing data types, adding/deleting constraints).
- DROP TABLE: Deletes an entire table, including its data and schema.
- DCL Commands (Data Control Language):
- Manage permissions and access control for database users.
- GRANT: Assigns specific privileges (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) on database objects to users or roles.
- REVOKE: Removes previously granted privileges.
SQL: Data Modification, Definition, and Control

SQL (Structured Query Language) provides powerful commands for modifying data stored in relational database management systems (RDBMS). These modifications are distinct from data retrieval queries (like SELECT) and fall under various categories within SQL, primarily Data Manipulation Language (DML) for data content changes and Data Definition Language (DDL) for schema structure changes.

Data Manipulation Commands (DML)

The core DML commands for modifying database content operate on a tuple-by-tuple or cell-by-cell basis.
1. Deletion (DELETE)
- Purpose: DELETE is used to remove one or more rows (tuples) from a table.
- Syntax: The basic syntax is DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition].
- Conditional Deletion: If a WHERE clause is specified, only rows satisfying the condition are deleted. If omitted, all rows are deleted from the table.
- Relational Algebra Equivalent: In relational algebra, deletion is represented using the set difference operator (R – E), where R is the original relation and E is a relational algebra expression whose output specifies the tuples to be removed. The resulting new relation is then assigned back to the original relation. This requires E to be union compatible with R (same degree and domain for corresponding attributes).
- Example: To delete all entries from the borrow relation corresponding to card number 101, one would subtract a relation containing all tuples where card_number = 101 from the borrow relation.
1. Insertion (INSERT)
- Purpose: INSERT is used to add new rows (tuples) to a table.
- Syntax:
- INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1, value2, …): Values must be in the order of the table’s columns.
- INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, …) VALUES (value1, value2, …): Allows specifying columns, useful if not inserting values for all fields or if the order is not strictly followed.
- Null Values: If not all fields are inserted, the remaining fields will by default be set to NULL.
- Relational Algebra Equivalent: In relational algebra, insertion is performed using the union operator (R UNION E), where R is the original relation and E represents the tuples to be inserted. The new relation is then assigned to the old one. Union compatibility is also required here.
- Example: To insert an entry into the book table with book_ID B101, year_of_publication 2025, and title A, you would use INSERT INTO book VALUES (‘B101’, ‘A’, 2025) or INSERT INTO book (book_ID, title, year_of_publication) VALUES (‘B101’, ‘A’, 2025).
1. Update (UPDATE)
- Purpose: UPDATE is used to modify existing data within rows. Unlike INSERT and DELETE which work tuple-by-tuple, UPDATE works cell-by-cell.
- Syntax: UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, … [WHERE condition].
- Conditional Updates: The WHERE clause specifies which rows to update.
- Calculations: The SET clause can include calculations (e.g., applying a discount).
- Relational Algebra Equivalent: Conceptually, updating a single cell in relational algebra involves deleting the old tuple and inserting a new tuple with the modified value, while retaining other values.
- Example: To give a 5% discount on all books supplied by ABC having a price greater than 1,000, you would UPDATE supplier SET price = 0.95 * price WHERE s_name = ‘ABC’ AND price > 1000.
Schema Modification Commands (DDL)

DDL commands are used to define and modify the database schema (structure).
1. TRUNCATE TABLE
- Purpose: TRUNCATE TABLE is a DDL command that removes all rows from a table.
- Key Differences from DELETE:
- Speed: TRUNCATE is faster than DELETE because it deletes the whole table in one go, rather than row by row.
- WHERE Clause: TRUNCATE cannot use a WHERE clause; it always removes all rows.
- Logging/Transactions: TRUNCATE typically involves less logging and cannot be rolled back easily in some systems, while DELETE (being DML) is part of transactions and can be rolled back.
- Identity Columns: TRUNCATE often resets identity columns (auto-incrementing IDs).
- DDL vs. DML: TRUNCATE is DDL, DELETE is DML.
- Schema Preservation: Both DELETE (without WHERE) and TRUNCATE preserve the table’s schema (structure).
1. DROP TABLE
- Purpose: DROP TABLE deletes an entire table, including its data and schema (structure). This is a more permanent and impactful operation compared to DELETE or TRUNCATE.
1. ALTER TABLE
- Purpose: ALTER TABLE is used to modify the structure of an existing table.
- Common Operations:
- Adding/Dropping Columns: You can add new columns with ADD COLUMN column_name data_type or remove existing ones with DROP COLUMN column_name.
- Modifying Columns: Change the data type or properties of an existing column with MODIFY COLUMN column_name new_data_type.
- Adding/Dropping Constraints: Constraints (like PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, NOT NULL) can be added or removed. Naming constraints with the CONSTRAINT keyword allows for easier modification or deletion later.
- Infrequent Use: Schema changes are rarely done frequently because they can affect numerous existing tuples and related application programs.
- RESTRICT vs. CASCADE with DROP COLUMN:
- RESTRICT: If a column being dropped is referenced by another table (e.g., as a foreign key), RESTRICT will prevent the deletion.
- CASCADE: If a column being dropped is referenced, CASCADE will force the deletion and also delete the referencing constraints or even the dependent tables/relations.
Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL commands manage permissions and access control for database users.
1. GRANT
- Purpose: GRANT is used to assign specific privileges on database objects (like tables, views) to users or roles.
- Common Privileges:
- SELECT: Allows users to retrieve data.
- INSERT: Allows users to add new data.
- UPDATE: Allows users to modify existing data.
- DELETE: Allows users to remove data.
- REFERENCES: Allows users to create foreign key relationships referencing the object.
- ALL PRIVILEGES: Grants all available permissions.
- Syntax: GRANT privilege_name ON object_name TO username.
- Example: GRANT INSERT, UPDATE ON student TO Gora gives Gora permission to insert and update data in the student table.
1. REVOKE
- Purpose: REVOKE is used to remove previously granted privileges from users or roles.
- Syntax: REVOKE privilege_name ON object_name FROM username.
- Example: REVOKE DELETE ON student FROM Gora removes the delete privilege from Gora on the student table.
GRANT and REVOKE are crucial for database security and controlling who can perform specific actions with the data. Views, which are virtual tables, are often used in conjunction with DCL for security, as permissions can be granted on a view rather than directly on the underlying base tables, allowing for data hiding and simplified interaction.

Relational DBMS Course – Database Concepts, Design & Querying Tutorial

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 12, 2025
SAP Sales and Financial Process Management
The source provides an in-depth guide to configuring various organizational structures and master data within the SAP system, primarily focusing on Sales and Distribution (SD) and related Financial Accounting (FI) aspects. It meticulously outlines the creation and assignment of key entities such as companies, company codes, plants, sales organizations, sales offices, distribution channels, and divisions. Furthermore, the text explains the process for establishing financial variants like fiscal year and posting period variants, alongside chart of accounts and field status variants, crucial for financial reporting. Finally, it elaborates on master data creation, including material master and customer master, and details the Order-to-Cash (O2C) process with its pre-sales activities, sales order creation, and delivery procedures, illustrating each step with transaction codes and menu paths.

Navigating and Understanding SAP Access

SAP access refers to how users interact with and navigate the SAP system.

Here are some key aspects of SAP access:
- SAP Easy Access Screen: This is the main screen users see upon logging into SAP. It offers various options for navigation, allowing users to access different functionalities.
- No Free Version for Practice: SAP does not provide a free version for practice sessions. To practice SAP, users need to purchase an SAP license, even for educational purposes. This requires an ID and password to log in.
- Components of the SAP Screen: The main SAP screen typically includes:
- Menu Bar: Located at the top, it contains options like Menu, Edit, Favorites, Extras, System, and Help.
- Command Box: This is a crucial element where users can enter transaction codes (T-codes) to execute specific commands or navigate directly to a process. SAP uses a coding language, and commands are filled into this box.
- Favorites: Options to save frequently used transactions or paths for quick access.
- Integrated Site/Menu: This provides a structured way to navigate through different SAP modules and functionalities.
- Navigation Options: Beyond the command box, there are options for saving, backing up, logging off, closing windows, printing, searching (Find, Find Next), and navigating between pages (first, second, previous, next, last page). Users can also add windows.
- Navigation Methods:
- Transaction Codes (T-codes): These are specific codes (e.g., OX15 for company creation, OX02 for company code creation) that can be entered directly into the command box. This is often a quicker way to access specific functions. When a T-code is entered, SAP executes the command and takes the user to the corresponding process. If moving from one screen to another within SAP, a “slash n” (Slush N) prefix is often used before the T-code (e.g., Slush N OX02).
- Easy Access Path (Menu Path): Users can navigate through a hierarchical menu structure by opening various options to reach their desired function. For instance, to define a company, the path is Displaying Enterprise Structure > Definition > Financial Accounting > define company. This method is suitable for users who prefer not to use coding language or T-codes directly.
- Choosing a Method: Users can choose between using T-codes for time-saving or the SPRO (SAP Project Reference Object) path for a more guided, longer process.
- Organizational Structure and Access: The SAP Easy Access screen allows users to access and configure various organizational elements. For example, before starting SAP, defining the Company Creation (using T-code OX15 or the menu path) is a fundamental first step. Other organizational units like Company Codes, Plants, Sales Organizations, Distribution Channels, Sales Offices, Sales Groups, and Divisions are also configured through specific T-codes or menu paths accessed via the SAP screen.
SAP Company Creation: Defining the Enterprise Structure

In SAP, Company Creation is a fundamental step in setting up the organizational structure, particularly within the Sales and Distribution (SD) module.

Here’s a detailed discussion of Company Creation in SAP:
- Definition of a Company:
- A company represents a basic organization for which individual financial statements can be created to comply with relevant commercial law.
- It is considered for consolidating reporting.
- It is necessary to maintain for internal trading and intercompany transactions.
- A company can consist of one or more Company Codes.
- Transaction Code (T-code):
- The transaction code (T-code) to create a company in SAP is OX15.
- This T-code remains the same globally, regardless of the country.
- To use a T-code, you enter it into the command box on the SAP Easy Access screen. SAP accepts and processes this command, taking the user directly to the relevant process. If navigating from one screen to another within SAP using a T-code, a “slash n” (/n) prefix is often used before the T-code (e.g., /nOX15).
- Menu Path (Easy Access Path):
- Alternatively, users can navigate to company creation through a hierarchical menu path, which is suitable for those who prefer not to use T-codes.
- The menu path for company creation is: SPRO (SAP Project Reference Object) > SAP Reference IMG > Enterprise Structure > Definition > Financial Accounting > Define Company.
- Choosing between the T-code and the SPRO path depends on whether a user prioritizes time-saving (T-code) or a more guided process (SPRO path).
- Process of Company Creation:
1. Upon reaching the company creation screen (either via OX15 or the menu path), users select “New Entries”.
2. The system will prompt for details for the new company.
3. A five-digit code must be mentioned for the company.
4. Users must provide the company name, street (location), PO Box (Post Office Box), postal code (PIN code), and city.
5. The country must be mentioned (e.g., IN for India). SAP provides options for countries by double-clicking on their codes.
6. The language (e.g., EN for English) and currency (e.g., INR for Indian Rupees for India) also need to be specified. These can be searched and selected by double-clicking.
7. After filling in all the details, the data must be saved. This can be done by clicking the save icon or using the shortcut Control + S.
8. Upon saving, a description for the request (e.g., “Company Creation”) is usually entered, confirming that the data has been saved and the main company has been created.
- Relationship to Company Code:
- The company is the overarching entity, and it consists of one or more company codes.
- Company codes represent independent balancing legal accounting entities and are used for external purposes by a company with independent accounts within a corporate group. They can be thought of as branches of the main company.
- After creating the company, the next step in the organizational structure setup is often Company Code Creation (T-code OX02).
SAP Financial Structure: Core Components & Configuration

In SAP, the Financial Structure refers to the foundational setup of an organization’s financial accounting elements, which are crucial for managing financial transactions and reporting. This structure is closely related to the Financial Accounting (FI) module and integrates with other modules like Sales and Distribution (SD).

A key concept underpinning much of the financial structure configuration in SAP is the Variant Principle. This principle involves a three-step method for creating and managing variants:
1. Define: Creating the variant itself through a specific code.
2. Determine Value: Specifying the values or properties within that variant.
3. Assign: Linking the variant to the relevant organizational object, such as a company code. The advantage of using variants is that it simplifies the maintenance of common properties across various business objects.
The core components of the financial structure, often configured using this variant principle, include:
- Company
- Company Code
- Fiscal Year Variant
- Posting Period Variant
- Chart of Accounts (COA)
- GL Account Groups
- Field Status Variant
- Retained Earnings Account
Let’s discuss each of these in detail:

1. Company

A company represents a basic organization for which individual financial statements can be created to comply with commercial law. It is considered for consolidating reporting and is necessary for maintaining internal trading and intercompany transactions. A single company can consist of one or more Company Codes.
- Transaction Code (T-code): OX15. This T-code is globally consistent.
- Menu Path: SPRO > SAP Reference IMG > Enterprise Structure > Definition > Financial Accounting > Define Company.
- Key Configuration Steps:
1. Select “New Entries” on the company creation screen.
2. Provide a five-digit code for the company.
3. Enter the company name, street, PO Box, postal code, city, country (e.g., IN for India), language (e.g., EN for English), and currency (e.g., INR for Indian Rupees).
4. Save the data, typically by entering a description for the request (e.g., “Company Creation”).
2. Company Code

A company code represents an independent balancing legal accounting entity. It is used for external purposes by a company with independent accounts within a corporate group. Company codes can be thought of as branches of the main company. Financial statements required by law can be created at the company code level.
- Transaction Code (T-code): OX02. When navigating from another SAP screen, use /nOX02.
- Menu Path: SPRO > Display IMG > ENTERPRISE STRUCTURE > Definition > Financial Accounting > Edit Delete Check Company code.
- Key Configuration Steps:
1. Select “New Entries”.
2. Mention a four-digit code for the company code.
3. Provide the company name, city, country, currency, and language.
4. Save the data. Upon saving, further address details such as title, search term, street, house number, postal code, region (e.g., 07 for Haryana, India), and PO box are requested.
- Assignment to Company: After creating the company code, it must be assigned to a company.
- T-code: OX16.
- Menu Path: SPRO > SAP Reference IMG > Enterprise Structure > Assignment > Financial Accounting > Assign Company Code to Company.
- Process: Use the “Position” function to find the company code and enter the main company’s five-digit code for assignment. Save the request.
3. Fiscal Year Variant

The fiscal year variant relates to the financial year and is identified by a two-digit alphanumeric key. It defines how the financial year is structured for a company code.
- Transaction Code (T-code): OB29.
- Menu Path: Display IMG > Financial Accounting > Financial Counting Global Settings > Ledgers > Financial year end posting period > Maintained Physical Year Variants.
- Types of Fiscal Year:
- Year Independent: The number and dates for periods are the same every year (e.g., April 1st to March 31st in India). It can also be defined as a calendar year (January to December). Non-calendar year setups use +1 and -1 indicators for year shifts.
- Year Specific: Periods can vary from year to year, meaning the start and end dates of posting periods are not fixed.
- Key Configuration Steps (Three-Step Method):
1. Define Variant (OB29): Select “New Entry”. Provide a two-digit code and description (e.g., “April to March”). Specify if it’s a “Calendar year” or “Year Dependent”. Set the “Number of posting periods” (e.g., 12 for months) and “Number of special periods” (e.g., 4 for auditing purposes in India). Save.
2. Determine Value (Periods): Select the newly created variant and click “Periods”. Here, define each period by filling in the month, day, period number, and year shift (e.g., -1 for months like Jan-Mar that fall into the previous year for a fiscal year starting April 1st). Save.
3. Assign (Company Code to Fiscal Year Variant – OB37):
- T-code: OB37.
- Process: Use “Position” to find your company code and then enter the fiscal year variant code you created. Save the assignment.
4. Posting Period Variant

The posting period variant is denoted by a four-digit alphanumeric key. It controls which accounting periods are open for posting.
- T-code (Define Variant): OBBO.
- T-code (Define Open & Close Posting Period): OB52.
- T-code (Assign): OBBP.
- Key Configuration Steps (Three-Step Method):
1. Define Variant (OBBO): Select “New Entry”. Provide a four-digit code and a description (e.g., “Posting Period For Toyo”). Save.
2. Define Open & Close Posting Period (OB52): Enter the posting period variant code. Select “New Entry”. Specify the “Account” range (e.g., ‘+’ for all accounts, or specific account types like ‘A’ for assets, ‘D’ for customers, ‘K’ for vendors, ‘M’ for material, ‘S’ for GL Accounts). Define “From Period 1” (e.g., 1) and “To Period” (e.g., 12) with their respective years. For special periods, specify “From Period 2” (e.g., 13) and “To Period” (e.g., 16) with their year. Save.
3. Assign (Company Code to Posting Period Variant – OBBP):
- T-code: OBBP.
- Process: Use “Position” to find your company code and enter the posting period variant code. Save the assignment.
5. Chart of Accounts (COA)

The Chart of Accounts (COA) is the highest level of hierarchy for all journal accounts. It provides a structured list of all G/L (General Ledger) accounts used by one or more company codes to record financial transactions. A company might want one operative chart of accounts common across all company codes and country-specific charts of accounts for reporting.
- T-code (Create COA): OB13.
- T-code (Assign Company Code to COA): OB62.
- Menu Path (Create COA): Display IMG > Financial Accounting > General Ledger Accounting > Master Data > General Ledger Accounts > Preparations > Edit Chart of Accounts List.
- Menu Path (Assign Company Code to COA): Display IMG > Financial Accounting > General Ledger Accounting > Master Data > General Ledger Accounts > Preparations > Assign Company Code to Chart of Accounts.
- Types of Chart of Accounts:
- Operating Chart of Accounts: The main chart of accounts.
- Group Chart of Accounts: Used by multiple company codes for consolidated reporting.
- Country Chart of Account: Country-specific chart of accounts, used only once.
- Key Configuration Steps (Three-Step Method):
1. Create Variant (OB13): Select “New Entry”. Provide a four-character code for the COA and a description. Specify the language (e.g., English) and the length of the G/L account number (e.g., 6 digits). You can also mention a group code if creating account groups. Save.
2. Assign (Company Code to Chart of Accounts – OB62):
- T-code: OB62.
- Process: Use “Position” to find your company code and enter the COA code you just created. Save.
6. GL Account Groups

General Ledger Account Groups are created within the Chart of Accounts to organize G/L accounts based on their nature (e.g., assets, liabilities, expenses, revenues). These groups define the number range for the accounts and control the field status for G/L master data.
- T-code: OBD4.
- Menu Path: Display IMG > Financial Accounting > General Ledger Accounting > Master Data > General Ledger Accounts > Preparations > Define Account Group.
- Key Configuration Steps:
1. Select “New Entry”.
2. Specify the Chart of Account (the one created earlier).
3. Provide a four-digit Account Group code (e.g., for Assets, Liabilities, Expense, Revenue).
4. Enter a complete description for the account group.
5. Define the number range (“From Account” to “To Account”) for the accounts within this group, ensuring that number ranges do not overlap with other groups.
6. Repeat the process for all necessary account groups (e.g., Assets, Liabilities, Expenses, Revenue). Save.
7. Field Status Variant

The field status variant controls the fields of transactions at a line item level. It dictates whether a field is suppressed (hidden), displayed, required (mandatory entry), or optional for entry. If a field status variant is not maintained, all fields will be hidden by default.
- T-code (Define Field Status Variant): OBC4.
- T-code (Assign Company Code to Field Status Variant): OBC5.
- Menu Path (Define Field Status Variant): Display IMG > Financial Accounting > Financial Accounting Global Settings > Ledgers > Field > Define Field Status Variants.
- Menu Path (Assign Company Code to Field Status Variant): Display IMG > Financial Accounting > Financial Accounting Global Settings > Ledgers > Field > Assign Company Code to Field Status Variant.
- Key Configuration Steps (Three-Step Method):
1. Define Variant (OBC4): SAP provides predefined field status groups, which can be copied. It is common to copy the ‘0001’ variant (for General Ledger). Use “Position” to find ‘0001’, select it, and click “Copy”. Enter a new four-digit alphanumeric key (e.g., ‘TOYO’) and description for your variant. Choose “Copy All” to copy all associated entries (e.g., 46 or 47 entries). Save.
2. Determine Value (Field Status Groups): Select your newly created variant. Click “Field Status Groups”. Select ‘G001’ (General Ledger). Go to “Field Status” and adjust the settings for different field categories (e.g., General Data, Assignments, Payment Transactions) from suppressed to optional or required as per business needs. Save.
3. Assign (Company Code to Field Status Variant – OBC5):
- T-code: OBC5.
- Process: Use “Position” to find your company code and enter the field status variant code. Save the assignment.
8. Retained Earnings Account

The Retained Earnings Account is a profit and loss statement account where the balance is carried forward during year-end closing to calculate the company’s result and set the profit and loss statement to zero. It is created as a liability side of the balance sheet and is reported in the shareholders’ equity section. A plus key is typically assigned to the account to facilitate balance sheet carry-forward.
- T-code: OB53.
- Menu Path: Display IMG > Financial Accounting > General Ledger Accounting > Master Data > General Ledger Accounts > Preparations > Define Retained Earnings Account.
- Key Configuration Steps:
1. Enter the Chart of Account.
2. For the profit and loss statement, typically enter a star (‘*’).
3. Enter an account number (e.g., 1 lakh) for the retained earnings account.
4. Save the changes.
These components together form the bedrock of the financial structure in SAP, enabling accurate financial record-keeping, reporting, and integration across various business processes.

SAP Sales and Distribution: Order to Cash Process

The Sales Process in SAP, often referred to as the Order to Cash (O2C) process, encompasses the entire sales cycle from the initial customer order to the receipt of cash. This process is managed within the SAP Sales and Distribution (SD) module. The SD module focuses on maintaining proper relationships with customers and managing the sale, shipping, billing, and transportation of a company’s products and services.

The O2C sales cycle typically involves several key steps:
- Pre-sales Activities:
- Inquiry: This is the first step where a customer asks about material availability, price, quantity, expiry dates, or seeks a quotation.
- Purpose: To gather information from the customer’s initial interest.
- Transaction Code (T-code): VA11 is used to create an inquiry.
- Process: When creating an inquiry, you specify the inquiry type (e.g., IN for Inquiry), sales organization, distribution channel, division, sales office, sold-to party (customer), customer reference, validity period (Valid From/To), material, and quantity.
- Management: Inquiries can be displayed using T-code VA13, changed with VA12, and a report of inquiries can be checked using VA15. The VA15 report can also be used to check for expired inquiries by specifying the validity period.
- Quotation: After an inquiry, a quotation is prepared to provide the customer with details like material, quantity, price, quality, and delivery dates, making them ready for a deal.
- Purpose: To formalize the proposed terms of sale based on the inquiry.
- T-code: VA21 is used to create a quotation.
- Process: Similar to inquiries, creating a quotation involves mentioning the quotation type (e.g., QT), customer details, reference, valid to date, material, and order quantity.
- Management: Quotations can be edited or changed using VA22, displayed with VA23, and a report of prepared quotations can be viewed via VA25. Changes made to a quotation can be tracked by selecting the quotation, going to “Environment,” then “Changes” to view old versus new values.
- Sales Order Creation:
- Purpose: Once the customer is satisfied with the quotation, a sales order is created to confirm the specific materials, quantities, and required delivery dates.
- T-code: VA01 is used to create a sales order.
- Order Types: Different order types exist, such as ST (Sales Order), OR (Standard Order), and RO (Rush Order).
- Process: Details like sold-to party, customer references, delivery plant, material, and ordered quantity are entered. The system might show errors if item categories are not properly assigned, which can be resolved by assigning the appropriate item category (e.g., OR1 for standard orders).
- Management: Sales orders can be changed using VA02 and displayed using VA03.
- Rush Order: A special type of sales order where creating it automatically triggers both the delivery and the invoice in the background. This process requires an Immediate Shipping Point.
- Availability Check:
- This step confirms if the requested products are available in stock. The source notes that delivery cannot proceed if stock is unavailable. If stock is unavailable, the production team might be contacted to prepare the product, or vendors might be contacted if raw material is not available.
- Delivery:
- Purpose: After the sales order is created and availability is confirmed, the delivery process starts, which involves shipping the goods to the customer.
- T-code: VL01 is used to create a delivery.
- Process: Requires specifying the shipping point, selection date, and the sales order number.
- Billing/Invoice:
- Purpose: The final step in the sales cycle where an invoice is generated and sent to the customer for payment.
- T-code: VF01 is used to create an invoice.
- Process: Details include the billing type (e.g., related to delivery), billing date, pricing date, and the document number from the delivery. An invoice cannot be created if stock was unavailable for delivery.
Key Concepts and Organizational Elements in the Sales Process:
- Customer: A person or organization that purchases goods and services in exchange for money or other value.
- Creation: T-code XD01. Involves entering general data (address, contact, identification), control data, payment transactions, and sales & distribution data (sales organization, distribution channel, division, sales district, customer group, sales office, shipping conditions, delivery priority, plant, billing terms, pricing group, accounting assessment group).
- Management: XD02 for changes, XD03 for display.
- Material Master: The central source of material-specific data in SAP, essential for SD operations as it integrates with modules like SD, MM, PP, and FI. It affects the delivery process and pricing.
- Creation: MM01. Involves specifying material type (e.g., ROH for raw, HALB for semi-finished, FERT for finished), material group, and other organizational data like plant and sales organization.
- Management: MM02 for changes, MM03 for display.
- Sales Organization: Groups a company according to its sales and distribution requirements.
- Purpose: Main responsibilities include selling and distributing services and materials. Can be national or regional.
- Creation: T-code OVX5.
- Assignment: Needs to be assigned to the company code (T-code OVX3).
- Distribution Channel: Represents the shipping strategy for distributing products and services. A single sales organization can have multiple distribution channels (e.g., wholesale, retail, internet trade).
- Creation: T-code OVX1.
- Assignment: Needs to be assigned to the sales organization (T-code OVXK).
- Division: Represents a product line (e.g., mobile, laptop).
- Creation: T-code OVXB.
- Assignment: Needs to be assigned to the sales organization (T-code OVXA).
- Sales Area: A combination of the sales organization, distribution channel, and division. It can only be created after these three elements are established.
- Creation: T-code OVXG.
- Assignment: Can be assigned to a sales office (T-code OVXM).
- Sales Office: Set up apart from headquarters to reach the market in depth. Sales reporting can be executed with this organizational unit to analyze performance.
- Creation: T-code OVX1.
- Sales Group: Employees belonging to a certain sales office can be referred to as a sales group. It is a subset of the sales office and is assigned to its respective sales office.
- Creation: T-code OVX4.
- Shipping Point: A location within a plant where goods are loaded or unloaded for dispatch to customers or receipt from vendors.
- Types: Manual (requires labor for loading/unloading, e.g., luxury items), Automatic (uses machines for heavy products), and Immediate (for urgent delivery requirements like medicines or military supplies).
- Creation: T-code OVL2.
- Determination: OVL2 is also used for shipping point determination, requiring shipping conditions, loading group, and plant code.
- Storage Location: A physical location within a plant where goods (semi-finished, finished, or raw material) are stored.
- Creation: T-code OX092.
SAP Material Management: Master Data and Operations

Material Management (MM) in SAP is a crucial module that integrates closely with other SAP modules like Sales and Distribution (SD), Production Planning (PP), and Financial Accounting (FI). It is central to managing material-specific data and affects various logistics processes, including delivery and pricing. The sources emphasize that Material Management is a key aspect of the “Order to Cash (O2C)” process within SAP SD, as it involves the creation and management of materials that are sold to customers.

The discussion of Material Management primarily revolves around three essential concepts: Material Type, Material Group, and Material Master Creation.

Here’s a breakdown of Material Management concepts as described in the sources:
- Material Master (Creation, Change, Display):
- The Material Master is the central source of material-specific data in SAP.
- It is essential for SD operations as it integrates with multiple modules such as SD, MM, PP, & FI.
- Not maintaining the sales organization and plant properly during material master creation can significantly impact the delivery and pricing processes. Therefore, sales organization data and plant organization data need to be integrated.
- Creation T-code: MM01.
- The process involves selecting industry type, material type, and ticking the organization level in default settings to ensure integration with sales organization, storage location, plant, and distribution channel.
- Details such as material description (e.g., “Plastic bottle”), unit (e.g., “pieces”), material group (e.g., “plastic”), division, gross weight, and net weight are entered.
- Further views like Basic Data One, Basic Data Two, Classification, Sales Organization Data One, Sales Organizational Data Two, Sales General/Plant Data, Purchasing, and MRP are selected and details like item category group and MRP type (e.g., PD for MRP) are filled.
- Change T-code: MM02. This allows users to make changes to existing material master data.
- Display T-code: MM03. This allows users to view material master details but no changes can be made, as the screen appears blurred for editing.
- Material Type:
- Definition: Material Type is a classification of material based on its business use. It categorizes material based on its characteristics and purpose.
- Control: It controls views, number ranges, valuation class, price control, etc., and is defined at the configuration level.
- Types: The sources identify three main types of materials:
- Raw Material (ROH): Material that includes only raw components, used to first prepare semi-finished products, then finished products (e.g., milk, flour, sugar for biscuits).
- Semi-finished Material (HALB): Partially processed material (half raw, half cooked) that needs further conversion to become finished (e.g., a powder containing mixed ingredients for biscuits).
- Finished Material (FERT): Directly created/ripe product that only requires packing and can then be sold (e.g., baked biscuits).
- Creation T-code: OMS2.
- The process involves searching for existing material types (e.g., ROH for raw material), selecting it, and copying it to create a new personal code (e.g., “RAW1”) with a description (e.g., “Raw material for Toyo”).
- After creation, the “Quantity and Value Updating” for all valuation areas must be activated for the material type. This can be done by selecting the material type, clicking on “Quantity and Value Updating,” and activating all valuation areas, then saving. The same process is followed for Semi-finished (HALB) and Finished (FERT) material types.
- Material Group:
- Definition: Used to group together items with similar attributes, such as all metals or different grades of plastic. It allows for the creation of many different materials from a single group (e.g., plastic can be used for toys, chairs, tables; iron for pipes, boxes, plates; steel for utensils, pipes, plates).
- Creation T-code: OMSF.
- The process involves going to “New Entries,” providing a four-digit code (e.g., “1234”), a material group description (e.g., “Plastic”), and a description to K (e.g., “Plastic”), then saving. Multiple material groups can be created following this process.
Beyond the core material creation, other organizational elements are crucial for managing materials:
- Storage Location:
- Definition: A physical location within a plant where goods are stored. This can include semi-finished, finished, or raw materials. It is essentially a warehouse for storing goods.
- Creation T-code: OX092.
- Creating a storage location requires entering the plant code, a four-digit code for the storage location, and a description (e.g., “Storage location”).
- Shipping Point:
- Definition: A location within a plant where goods are loaded or unloaded for dispatch to customers or receipt from vendors.
- Types:
- Manual Shipping Point: Requires labor for loading and unloading (e.g., luxury items, glass products).
- Automatic Shipping Point: Uses machines for loading and unloading (e.g., heavy products).
- Immediate Shipping Point: For urgent delivery requirements, where delivery needs to be done very quickly (e.g., medicines, military supplies). Creating a Rush Order automatically triggers delivery and invoice in the background and requires an Immediate Shipping Point.
- Creation T-code: OVL2.
- Shipping point determination requires specifying shipping conditions (e.g., “001” for standard), loading group (e.g., “01”), and the plant code.
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By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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July 12, 2025