Bertrand Russell’s Dictionary of Mind, Matter, and Morals

This collection of excerpts from Bertrand Russell’s works offers a glimpse into his wide-ranging philosophical thoughts, presented in an alphabetical dictionary format. Key entries cover topics from affectionateness and Arabian Philosophy to concepts like civilization, communism, and creativity. Russell also touches upon more technical terms like asymmetry and Dedekindian continuity, alongside his perspectives on historical figures such as Averroes and Galileo. The compilation highlights his views on freedom, the importance of reason, his critiques of fascism and dictatorship, and his thoughts on the nature of knowledge, memory, and language. Ultimately, it serves as a diverse index to the philosophical underpinnings of his vast intellectual output.

Podcast

Listen or Download Podcast – Bertrand Russell’s Dictionary of Mind, Matter, and Morals

The Nature and Value of Philosophy

Drawing on the sources, philosophy is presented as a field of inquiry with specific characteristics, aims, and historical developments.

Philosophy, as understood in the sources, is something intermediate between theology and science. It consists of speculations on matters about which definite knowledge has not yet been ascertained. Like science, philosophy appeals to human reason, but like theology, it deals with subjects where definite knowledge is currently unavailable. All definite knowledge, it is contended, belongs to science, while dogma about what surpasses definite knowledge belongs to theology. Philosophy occupies the “No Man’s Land” between these two domains. The word “philosophy” itself means “love of wisdom”.

The aims of philosophy have historically been twofold: first, seeking a theoretical understanding of the world’s structure, and second, attempting to discover and inculcate the best possible way of life. Beyond trying to understand the world, philosophy has other functions, such as enlarging the imagination through the construction of a cosmic epic or suggesting a way of life less driven by chance than that of the unreflective individual. It aims to keep alive interest in fundamental theoretical questions that science cannot currently answer, such as whether we survive death, the relationship between mind and matter, whether the universe has a purpose, or if natural laws are merely human fantasies. Philosophy should be comprehensive and bold in proposing hypotheses about the universe that science is not yet able to confirm or refute, but these must be presented as hypotheses, not immutable certainties.

A crucial part of philosophy, according to the sources, is criticizing and clarifying notions that are often regarded as fundamental and accepted uncritically. The value of philosophy is significant, partly due to its very uncertainty. Someone without any philosophical inclination tends to go through life confined by the prejudices of common sense, their age, nation, and convictions developed without deliberate reason. Such a person sees the world as definite, finite, and obvious, dismissing unfamiliar possibilities. Engaging in philosophy, however, reveals that even everyday things lead to problems with only incomplete answers.

Philosophy can provide a habit of exact and careful thought, applicable not only in mathematics and science but also in matters of significant practical importance. It can impart an impersonal breadth and scope to the conception of life’s ends. It helps the individual gain a just measure of themselves in relation to society, of present-day humanity in relation to the past and future, and of human history in relation to the astronomical cosmos. By expanding the objects of thought, philosophy offers an antidote to present anxieties and anguish, allowing for the closest possible approach to serenity for a sensitive mind in our turbulent world.

Specific philosophical concepts and schools are discussed in the sources:

• Logical Atomism is presented as a philosophy where logic is fundamental. It views the world as atomic and pluralistic, denying the existence of a single whole composed of things. This approach, advocating for piecemeal, detailed, and verifiable results, is seen as representing the same kind of advance that Galileo brought to physics, contrasting with large, untested generalities.
• Instrumentalism is described as a philosophy, particularly found in America, which is essentially a systematic contempt for philosophy itself. This view is strengthened by modern physics, which tends to see science as an art of manipulating nature rather than a theoretical understanding of it.
• Neutral-Monism is a view suggesting that matter is not as material and mind is not as mental as commonly supposed. The world is seen as constructed from “neutral” entities that lack the traditional characteristics of either mind or matter. This construction is recommended on the scientific grounds of economy and comprehensiveness. The sources state that the “stuff of the world” can be called physical, mental, both, or neither, suggesting these terms are labels for what physics and psychology study, without implying a fundamental metaphysical difference.
• Scholasticism, in its narrower sense from the twelfth century, is characterized by adherence to orthodoxy (with willingness to retract condemned views), increasing acceptance of Aristotle as the supreme authority over Plato, strong belief in dialectic and syllogistic reasoning, and a focus on the question of universals. Its defects stem from emphasizing dialectic, leading to indifference to facts, belief in reasoning where only observation suffices, and excessive focus on verbal distinctions.
• Catholic Philosophy is described through its historical periods, dominated first by Saint Augustine and Plato, and later by Saint Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle. The dualism of the City of God persists, and philosophers politically support the interests of the Church.
• Arabian Philosophy is primarily viewed as important for its role as a transmitter of Greek tradition that survived in the Eastern Empire. While commentators like Avicenna and Averroes were prominent, it is not considered significant for original theoretical thought, although writers in Arabic showed originality in mathematics and chemistry.
• Stoicism is presented as an attitude of meeting misfortune with fortitude, necessary for anyone who does not want to be a slave to fear. It is described as emotionally narrow and fanatical compared to earlier Greek philosophies, yet containing religious elements the world needed. Stoic ethics and theology contain contradictions, such as a rigidly deterministic universe alongside an autonomous individual will.
• Industrial Philosophy embodies the belief that humanity controls its fate and need not passively accept evils from nature or human folly, contrasting with the piety often found among those dependent on uncontrollable forces like the weather.

The sources also touch upon how to study a philosopher. The right attitude is neither reverence nor contempt, but initially a kind of hypothetical sympathy to understand their theories from their perspective, followed by a critical attitude resembling someone abandoning previously held opinions. Studying the philosophies of the past helps in understanding the grounds for different philosophical types that recur in the present day. The history of philosophy involves understanding the influence of the times, other philosophers, and the scientific and political events of the period.

Regarding the value of philosophy, it is stated that wisdom, defined as a right conception of the ends of life, is something science alone does not provide. An increase in science alone is insufficient for genuine progress without wisdom, although science is a necessary ingredient for progress. The sources also discuss the importance of distinguishing philosophy as part of general education (love of wisdom needed for society) from the philosophy of specialists, noting that academic studies have cultural value distinct from professional interest. Ultimately, the value of philosophy is linked to providing a habit of exact thought, a broad perspective, self-awareness in a larger context, and serenity amidst uncertainty.

The Nature and Forms of Civilization

Drawing on the sources, the concept of civilization is discussed through various definitions, historical examples, essential characteristics, and challenges.

At its most basic, civilization is characterized by forethought, which is presented as the primary distinction between humans and animals, and between adults and children. However, not all forethought counts; forethought based on superstition, while potentially leading to habits essential for the growth of true civilization (like the Puritan habit facilitating capital accumulation), does not qualify as fully civilized. An additional crucial element of civilization is knowledge. Combining these two, civilization is defined as a manner of life due to the combination of knowledge and forethought.

Another perspective defines civilization as the pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival. This kind of civilization first emerged with the introduction of agriculture in fertile river deltas like Egypt and Babylonia, where a surplus of food allowed for a small leisure class. This leisure class was responsible for inventing essential arts such as writing, architecture, mathematics, and astronomy.

In a more profound sense, civilization is considered a thing of the mind, rather than merely material adjuncts. It encompasses both knowledge and emotion. A person is civilized in this sense when they are aware of their own smallness in the context of the universe in time and space. Such a person sees their own country as one among many, all having an equal right to exist, think, and feel. They also view their current era in relation to the past and future, understanding that present-day controversies will seem as strange to future generations as past controversies seem to us now.

Genuine culture, which contributes to this mental aspect of civilization, involves being a citizen of the universe, not confined to limited fragments of space-time. It helps people understand human society as a whole, make wise decisions about societal goals, and perceive the present in connection to the past and future. This comprehensive understanding, considered an essential part of wisdom, is highly valuable, particularly for those in positions of power. Making men wise is seen as the way to make them useful.

The sources discuss various historical examples and forms of civilization:

• The distinctive Western character is said to begin with the Greeks, who are credited with inventing deductive reasoning and the science of geometry. While they may have been supreme in literature and art, these aspects were not considered uniquely distinctive or were lost during the Dark Ages. Early Greek efforts in experimental science, though notable (e.g., Archimedes), did not establish a lasting tradition.
• Islamic civilization is highlighted for its brilliance from India to Spain, flourishing particularly during the period Western Europe refers to as the “Dark Ages” (600 to 1000). Its importance is noted as a transmitter of the Greek tradition that survived in the Eastern Empire. Arab thinkers were more significant as commentators than original theoretical thinkers, although they showed originality in mathematics and chemistry.
• The Medieval world in Western Europe is characterized by decay due to incessant wars. During this time, the Church played a crucial role in preserving what remained of ancient Roman culture, albeit imperfectly due to prevailing fanaticism and superstition. Ecclesiastical institutions provided a stable framework for a later revival of learning and the arts. The medieval world is also marked by various forms of dualism, including clergy/laity, Latin/Teuton, the kingdom of God/kingdoms of this world, spirit/flesh, and Pope/Emperor.
• Traditional Chinese civilization is described by certain key features: the use of ideograms instead of an alphabet, the reliance on the Confucian ethic among educated classes instead of religion, and governance by literati selected through examination rather than a hereditary aristocracy. This approach, particularly its wisdom, is contrasted favorably with the European way of life, which is characterized by strife, exploitation, change, discontent, and destruction. The European tendency towards efficiency directed at destruction is seen as potentially leading to annihilation, suggesting a need to learn from the East’s wisdom.
• Industrial philosophy, associated with industrial civilization, embodies the belief that humanity controls its destiny and need not passively accept evils from nature or human folly. This contrasts with the piety often found among those dependent on unpredictable forces like the weather.
• A specific, more modern example is “bathroom civilization,” which is viewed positively for the improvements it brings (like better hotels due to American tourists’ demands), provided it is not considered the sole measure of civilization.
• The survival of scientific civilization is presented as depending on achieving international cohesion and a sense of the human race as a single cooperative unit. It may necessitate a world state and an educational system fostering loyalty to it. Science, while initially knowledge, is increasingly seen as the power to manipulate nature, and this power, when combined with men’s capacity for collective passions, threatens civilization’s destruction. A single superstate or world government is suggested as the only solid hope and cure for this threat, though it is presented as a political problem. Such a scientific society might require curbing self-assertiveness and spontaneity, potentially leading to dullness, though this is a speculative concern. Science is seen as a potential boon if war can be abolished and democracy and cultural freedom are maintained.

Civilization, in its function, helps to curb primitive instincts and egoisms. The abandonment of law, when widespread, can unleash these “wild beasts”. Law was considered a fundamental requirement for progress in earlier periods marked by lawlessness. Modern competition, particularly in the form of war, can revert to primitive forms of conflict.

Conversely, totalitarian regimes are seen as fatal to moral progress and every kind of moral advancement. The increased control over individuals made possible by modern governmental techniques makes events like the rise of major religions difficult and prevents moral reformers from gaining influence.

Ultimately, the sources highlight the value of civilization in cultivating a habit of exact thought, providing a broad perspective, fostering self-awareness within a larger context, and offering a measure of serenity in an uncertain world (as discussed in the previous turn, drawn from PP, although not explicitly cited in the provided excerpts for this query, it’s part of the conversation history). The struggle against “Chaos and Old Night” is described as humanity’s one truly human activity, and divisions between groups are seen as distractions from this effort.

The Nature and Struggle for Freedom

Drawing on the sources, the concept of freedom is discussed in multiple facets, highlighting its importance, challenges, and relationship with other societal elements.

Fundamentally, mental freedom is considered the most precious of all goods. This type of freedom involves individualism, personal initiative, and variety in areas outside the provision of life’s necessaries. Free thought is described as subversive, revolutionary, destructive, terrible, merciless to privilege and established institutions, indifferent to authority, anarchic, and lawless. It looks into the pit of hell without fear and is called great, swift, free, the light of the world, and the chief glory of man.

Freedom of opinion is closely linked to free speech. Thought is deemed free when it is exposed to free competition among beliefs, meaning all beliefs can state their case without legal or pecuniary advantages or disadvantages attached to them. While there is a limitation on free speech if it advocates illegal acts, men must remain free to urge changes in the laws. Governmental security is presented as an important condition for freedom of opinion. The struggle for academic freedom is seen as part of the larger battle for the freedom of the individual human spirit to express its beliefs and hopes. New hopes, new beliefs, and new thoughts, which are always necessary for mankind, cannot arise from a “dead uniformity”. It is considered immoral to allow substantial groups to drive individuals out of public office based on their opinions, race, or nationality. Being genuinely indifferent to public opinion is seen as both a strength and a source of happiness.

The sources link freedom closely with government and law. Democracy was invented as a device for reconciling government with liberty and is considered the best method for diminishing as much as possible the interference of governments with liberty. However, democracy as a sentiment can be oppressive if it inspires persecution of exceptional individuals by the herd. Widespread liberty is said to exist only under the reign of law, because when men are lawless, only the strongest are free, and then only until overcome by someone stronger. Law itself was historically the first requisite for progress in periods marked by lawlessness, as civilization curbs the primitive lusts and egoisms unleashed by the abandonment of law. Impairing respect for the law in the name of liberty incurs a grave responsibility, though revolution is sometimes presented as necessary if the law is oppressive and cannot be legally amended. To secure the maximum of freedom with the minimum of force, the principle advocated is autonomy within politically important groups and a neutral authority for deciding inter-group questions, ideally on a democratic basis.

Power is another concept discussed in relation to freedom. The essential theory of democracy is the diffusion of power among the whole people to prevent the evils arising from one person possessing great power. However, if the power of officials is not kept within bounds, even public ownership can lead to the substitution of one set of masters for another, inheriting the former powers of the capitalist. The sources warn that human nature should not be trusted with irresponsible power, which leads to appalling cruelties and abominations, such as those seen in slave labor camps, the exploitation of the Congo, or the treatment of political opponents in Germany and Russia. The exercise of power, if it is to be more than wanton torture, must be hedged by safeguards of law and custom and entrusted to supervised individuals. A diffused liberal sentiment, tinged with skepticism, makes social co-operation less difficult and liberty more possible.

Dogmatic belief and authoritarian systems are presented as antithetical to freedom. Systems of dogma without empirical foundation involve persecution of valuable sections of the population and kill the free exercise of intelligence while promoting hypocrisy. Such systems prevent progress. Examples like the Inquisition seeking out secret opinions in dictatorial countries, or the rigid censorship and restrictions in Plato’s Republic, illustrate how such regimes are fatal to moral progress and advancements [from previous turns]. Communism and Fascism are singled out as systems that severely restrict liberty, with Fascism being anti-democratic, nationalistic, capitalistic, and valuing power over happiness and force over argument. The founders of the school of thought from which Fascism grew valued will over feeling/cognition, power over happiness, force over argument, war over peace, aristocracy over democracy, and propaganda over scientific impartiality.

The concept of freedom from fear is highlighted as one of the most important things to aim for, and potentially achievable through wise education. Fear, particularly fear of anarchy and destruction, could also potentially be the cement holding a future world government together.

Other aspects of freedom mentioned include the freedom of man to examine, criticise, know, and create. The “free man’s worship” involves freedom of thoughts and comes to those who have abandoned seeking personal goods subject to temporal change. Freedom from fear can lead to approaching others with fearless friendliness. Taoism is described as a philosophy of freedom that thought ill of government and interference with nature. Punctuality is noted as a virtue not likely produced by a wholly free education, highlighting the need for social co-operation.

In summary, the sources emphasize that freedom, particularly intellectual and individual liberty, is invaluable. It is closely intertwined with democracy and the rule of law, which are seen as necessary to protect against arbitrary power and the “tyranny of the herd.” Dogmatic and authoritarian regimes are seen as the primary threats to freedom, suppressing thought and leading to persecution and cruelty. While law and international cooperation are necessary for security and widespread liberty, they must be balanced to avoid excessive control and ensure the preservation of individual initiative and creativity. Education plays a crucial role both in fostering the capacity for wise thought and freedom from fear, and potentially in cultivating loyalty to a larger cooperative unit necessary for the survival of scientific civilization.

Understanding Language: Nature, Function, and Meaning

Drawing on the sources, the concept of Language is discussed from various angles, highlighting its nature, function, and relation to thought, knowledge, and communication.

Fundamentally, language is presented as a phenomenon with two interconnected merits: it is social, and it supplies public expression for “thoughts” which would otherwise remain private. Without language, or some prelinguistic analogue, our knowledge of the environment is limited to what our own senses show us and inferences prompted by our congenital constitution. However, with the help of speech, we are able to know what others can relate, and to relate what is no longer sensibly present but only remembered.

The essence of language is not found in the use of specific means of communication, but in the employment of fixed associations. Through these associations, something currently sensible—a spoken word, a picture, a gesture, or what not—may call up the “idea” of something else. What is now sensible is called a “sign” or “symbol,” and that of which it is intended to call up the “idea” is called its “meaning”. “Meaning” can be viewed in two aspects: denotation (referring to an object) and meaning itself (a complex involving concepts and relations).

The psychological theory of significance proposes that a spoken sentence is “significant” if its causes are of a certain kind, and a heard sentence is “significant” if its effects are of a certain kind, with the theory defining these kinds. Significance also has a subjective side, related to the state of the person uttering a sentence, and an objective side, related to what would make the sentence true or false. When through the law of conditioned reflexes, one thing (A) becomes a cause of another (C), A is called an “associative” cause of C, and C an “associative” effect of A. The word A, when heard, “means” C if its associative effects are closely similar to C’s, and when uttered, “means” C if uttering A is an associative effect of C or something associated with C. This schema becomes complex but remains fundamentally true.

Words, though not essential to propositions, are central to language.

• A minimum vocabulary is defined as one containing no word capable of verbal definition in terms of other words in the vocabulary.
• There are words called “egocentric” whose meaning changes depending on the speaker and their position in time and space, such as “I,” “you,” “here,” “now,” and “this”. Simple egocentric words are learned ostensively (by experiencing the object they denote). For “this,” what is constant is not the object denoted on each occasion, but its relation to the particular use of the word. A description not involving an egocentric particular cannot have the unique property of “this”.
• “Indicative” words are those that mean objects, including names, qualities (“white,” “hard,” “warm”), and perceptible relations (“before,” “above,” “in”). While indicative words would suffice if language’s sole purpose were describing sensible facts, they are insufficient for expressing doubt, desire, or disbelief, or logical connections (“if,” “all,” “some,” “the,” “a”).
• An “object-word” is a class of similar noises or utterances that, through habit, are associated with a class of similar occurrences experienced at the same time.
• Some words are said to be “syncategorimatic,” meaning they have no significance by themselves but contribute to the significance of sentences. Proper names are not syncategorimatic.

Sentences are typically words put together according to syntax rules, expressing something like an assertion, denial, imperative, desire, or question. We can understand a sentence if we know the meaning of its words and the rules of syntax. A form of words expressing what is either true or false is called a proposition. The same proposition can be said in different languages (e.g., “Socrates is mortal” and “Socrate est mortel”) and in various ways within a given language. Therefore, two forms of words can “have the same meaning”. Indicative sentences specifically “express” a belief. Atomic sentences are those containing no apparent variables or logical words. Molecular propositions, composed of “atomic” propositions, have their truth or falsehood derived by syntactical rules without requiring fresh observation of facts, operating in the domain of logic. The meaning of a description (composed of several words) results from the fixed meanings of its constituent words. The question of whether all propositions are reducible to the subject-predicate form is fundamental for philosophy using the notion of substance.

The use of words in “thinking” depends, at least originally, upon images, and cannot be fully explained solely on behaviorist lines. The most essential function of words in thinking is that, through connection with images, they bring us into touch with what is remote in time or space. This process seems telescoped when it operates without images. Thus, the problem of the meaning of words is linked to the problem of the meaning of images. The correct use of relational words, which form sentences, involves the “perception of form”—a definite reaction to a stimulus which is a form. The ability to use sentences correctly is proof of sensitivity to formal or relational stimuli. Mathematics, for example, is said to teach the habit of thinking without passion, allowing one to use the mind passionlessly on matters about which one feels passionately, leading to more likely true conclusions. This suggests language and symbolic systems like mathematics facilitate abstract, dispassionate thought. Physical laws can be expressed in such a way (using methods like tensors) that the expression is independent of the specific system of coordinates used, preventing confusion between expressing the same law differently and having different laws.

Language is also implicitly linked to education, the Socratic method (which involves examining word usage), and international understanding. The ability to communicate and understand across different social circles or nationalities is seen as valuable for diminishing prejudice. In the context of law and international relations, language is crucial for defining terms (like “aggressor”) and settling disputes legally. However, vagueness is noted as an important notion, being a matter of degree, as all thinking is vague to some extent, and complete accuracy is a theoretical ideal. Sometimes debates arise that are merely about words, not facts. Even variations in language, like American modifications of English, are noted, with some slang being found refreshingly expressive.

The Dynamics and Perils of Power

Drawing on the provided sources, the concept of Power is explored in terms of its nature, different forms, associated dangers, and how it relates to society, knowledge, and freedom.

The Nature and Kinds of Power Power can be broadly defined as the ability to cause people to act as we wish, when they would have acted otherwise but for the effects of our desires. It also includes the ability to prevent people from acting against our wishes.

The sources distinguish between different kinds of power, though the lines are not always sharp:

• Military power is associated with armies and navies.
• Economic power belongs to figures like trust magnates. In a developed industrial community, economic power is held by large corporations where directors have control, and ordinary shareholders are deprived of effective voice. Ownership does not typically confer appreciable power.
• Mental power is illustrated by institutions like the Catholic Church.

Beyond these kinds, a crucial distinction is made between traditional power and naked power. Traditional power is upheld by existing beliefs and habits. As these decay, it may give way to power based on new beliefs or to naked power. Naked power involves no acquiescence on the part of the subject. Examples include the power of a butcher over a sheep, an invading army over a vanquished nation, or the police over detected conspirators. Traditional power examples include the Catholic Church over Catholics or the State over loyal citizens, while their power over those they persecute or who rebel becomes naked power.

Dangers and Evils Associated with Power The sources strongly emphasize the negative aspects and dangers of power. The mere possession of power tends to produce a love of power, which is described as a very dangerous motive. The surest proof of power lies in preventing others from doing what they wish.

Many of the great abominations in human history are connected with naked power. These include war, slavery, exploitation, cruelty to children, judicial torture, oppressive criminal law, prisons, workhouses, religious persecution, and the atrocious treatment of political opponents in dictatorial regimes. These are examples of naked power used against defenseless victims. The impulse towards power is said to be the source of success for insanity in politics.

Within organizations and the state, there is the danger that if the power of officials is not kept within bounds, socialism could merely substitute one set of masters (officials) for another (capitalists). Human nature is not to be trusted with irresponsible power; where it exists, appalling cruelties are to be expected, as seen in forced labor camps. The inequality of power is considered by one source to be the greatest political evil, surpassing even the inequality of wealth.

Power and Society/Government Power is seen as necessary for government. There must be power, whether of governments or anarchic adventurers, and even naked power to deal with rebels and criminals. However, for human life to be more than misery and horror, there must be as little naked power as possible.

The essential theory of democracy is the diffusion of power among the whole people to obviate the evils of one person holding great power. However, this diffusion is only effective when voters are interested in the questions involved. For those who believe in democracy, transferring ultimate economic power into the hands of the democratic state is seen as the only practicable way to make it democratic. Public ownership and control of large-scale industry and finance is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the taming of power; it requires a more thoroughgoing democracy with safeguards against official tyranny and provision for freedom of propaganda.

Government by a church or political party, known as a theocracy, is described as a form of oligarchy that has taken on new importance in modern times.

To secure the maximum of freedom with the minimum of force (or power), the principle suggested is autonomy within each important group and a neutral authority for relations between groups. This neutral authority should be democratic and represent a wider constituency.

Power, Knowledge, and Thought The saying “Knowledge is power” is commonly attributed to Bacon, who emphasized using science for mankind’s mastery over nature. Science gives us the power of manipulating nature. However, science itself does not provide an ethic for how this power should be used. Science enables holders of power to realize their purposes more fully than they could otherwise. The diversion of science to destructive methods can only be cured by a single superstate strong enough to prevent serious wars, presenting a problem for politicians rather than scientists.

Censorship is a tool used when power is confined to one sect; it paralyzes intelligence and promotes credulity over criticism. Governments feeling unstable also use censorship and investigate/punish secret opinions. Education under a totalitarian regime (like Plato’s Republic as described in the sources) involves rigid censorship to produce desired traits like courage in battle.

Thought itself is presented as a force that is feared by men, as it is subversive, revolutionary, merciless to privilege and established institutions, anarchic, lawless, and indifferent to authority.

Controlling and Using Power Well The sources advocate for methods to control and guide the use of power. For human life to be better, the exercise of power must be hedged around by safeguards of law and custom, permitted only after due deliberation, and entrusted to men who are closely supervised in the interests of their subjects. There can be no widespread liberty except under the reign of law, as lawlessness allows only the strongest to be free, and only until they are overcome. Controlling possessive impulses and the use of force by a public neutral authority (state or international parliament) is necessary for liberty and justice.

The ultimate aim of those who have power should be to promote social co-operation in the whole human race. The main obstacle to this is unfriendliness and the desire for superiority. These feelings can be reduced by morality/religion or by removing political/economic competition for power and wealth. Both approaches are needed. The creation of a world authority strong enough to prevent world wars is presented as a practical possibility that could liberate creative endeavors from oppressive circumstances.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

Affiliate Disclosure: This blog may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you click on the link and make a purchase. This comes at no additional cost to you. I only recommend products or services that I believe will add value to my readers. Your support helps keep this blog running and allows me to continue providing you with quality content. Thank you for your support!