The Canterbury Tales in Modern English

This collection presents excerpts from Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, specifically focusing on a modern English translation. The text provides biographical information about Chaucer and discusses the historical and social context of his work, including perspectives on marriage and the influence of classical and contemporary writers. A significant portion includes selected tales such as “The Knight’s Tale,” “The Miller’s Tale,” “The Reeve’s Tale,” “The Man of Law’s Tale,” “The Wife of Bath’s Tale,” “The Friar’s Tale,” “The Summoner’s Tale,” “The Clerk’s Tale,” “The Merchant’s Tale,” “The Squire’s Tale,” “The Franklin’s Tale,” “The Second Nun’s Tale,” “The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale,” and “The Manciple’s Tale,” interspersed with commentary and interactions among the pilgrims. The material also touches on religious themes, social satire, and astrological concepts relevant to the stories, concluding with notes on the translation and sources.

The Life of Geoffrey Chaucer

Based on the provided sources, here is a discussion of Geoffrey Chaucer’s life:

Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London around 1342; the exact date is not known. His father, John, and grandfather, Robert, were associated with the wine trade and had some connection to the Court. His father, John, served as Deputy Butler to the King at Southampton in 1348. Chaucer’s mother is thought to have been Agnes de Copton, niece of an official at the Mint. The family lived in London in the parish of St Martin’s-in-the-Vintry and were reasonably well-to-do, though in a humbler walk of life than their son would later occupy.

It is believed that Chaucer received his early schooling at St Paul’s Almonry. From there, he became a page in the household of the Countess of Ulster, who was later the Duchess of Clarence and wife of Lionel, the third son of Edward III. The first record of Chaucer’s existence is in her household accounts for 1357, which note that she bought him a short cloak, shoes, and parti-coloured breeches. Being a page in such a prominent family was a coveted position. His duties included making beds, carrying candles, and running errands. This experience provided him with a fine education in good manners, which was important for his career as a courtier and poet. As a page, he would have waited on important figures, including John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, who became Chaucer’s most faithful patron and protector throughout his life.

In 1359, Chaucer was sent abroad as a soldier during the Hundred Years’ War against France. He was taken prisoner near Rheims and was ransomed the following year, with the King himself contributing to the payment. The sources suggest that well-trained and intelligent pages were highly valued.

It was likely in France that Chaucer’s interest in poetry was first sparked. He soon began translating the long allegorical poem of courtly love, the Roman de la Rose. His literary experience was further enhanced by visits to Italy. Chaucer was a prodigious reader with an almost faultless memory, learning to read widely in Latin, French, Anglo-Norman, and Italian. He also became an expert in contemporary sciences like astronomy, medicine, physics, and alchemy. His literary favorites among the ancients included Vergil, Ovid, Statius, Seneca, and Cicero, while among the moderns, he favored the Roman de la Rose and works by Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. He also knew the Fathers of the Church and frequently quoted from the Bible and Apocrypha.

Two journeys on the King’s business took Chaucer to Italy: the first in 1372 to Genoa, and the second in 1378 to Milan. These missions are thought to have introduced him to the Renaissance dawn, which influenced his later poetry. While retaining what he learned from French culture, he added depth from Dante and splendor from Boccaccio. The stories for Troilus and Criseyde and The Knight’s Tale came from Boccaccio. His power to tell a story seems to have emerged and derived from Italy at this time.

Meanwhile, Chaucer was steadily promoted in the Civil Service as a courtier. In 1374, he became Comptroller of customs and subsidies on wools, skins, and hides at the Port of London. He became Comptroller of petty customs in 1382, Justice of the Peace for Kent in 1385, and Knight of the Shire in 1386. He was in a position of some affluence.

Around 1374, Chaucer married Philippa de Roet, a lady in attendance on the Queen and sister to Catherine Swynford, who later became the third wife of John of Gaunt. Chaucer is not known to have written any poems to his wife, as it was not the fashion. The sources note the contrast between the courtly love ideal (secret, illicit passion for an unattainable lady) and the theoretical view of marriage (husband commands, wife obeys). Chaucer’s mature work is increasingly ironical about women as wives, as seen in the perspectives of the Wife of Bath and the Merchant. The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and the Merchant’s Tale are described as two of his most astounding performances. By the time he wrote them, Philippa had long been dead. It’s noted that these characters’ views may not reflect Chaucer’s personal convictions; he was a great writer who could lend them powerful thoughts and language. He is said to have alluded to Philippa only once, comparing her voice waking him to that of an eagle in The House of Fame.

In December 1386, Chaucer was suddenly deprived of all his offices. This occurred after John of Gaunt left England on a military expedition to Spain and was replaced by the Duke of Gloucester as an influence on King Richard II. Gloucester was not Chaucer’s patron and replaced him with his own supporters. The sources suggest this lapse in favor granted Chaucer leisure, during which he almost certainly began to set in order and compose The Canterbury Tales.

In 1389, John of Gaunt returned, and Chaucer was restored to favor and office. He was put in charge of repairs of walls, ditches, sewers, and bridges between Greenwich and Woolwich, as well as the fabric of St George’s Chapel at Windsor. He was also given the office of Sub-Forester of North Petherton, likely a sinecure. The daily pitcher of wine he was allowed by Edward III in 1374 was increased to an annual tun under Richard II, and Henry Bolingbroke gave him a scarlet robe trimmed with fur. This period saw a return of the cheerful good luck reflected in his poetry.

Chaucer felt he was growing old and complained that his faculty for rhyming had deserted him. He never finished The Canterbury Tales. He died on October 25, 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. An admirer erected a fine tomb in the fifteenth century, marking his grave as the first of those gathered in what is now known as Poets’ Corner. He is referred to as the Father of English Poetry.

Chaucer’s Social Commentary in The Canterbury Tales

Drawing on the provided sources, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales offers a rich tapestry of social commentary on 14th-century England, primarily through its diverse cast of characters and the interactions and tales that emerge during their pilgrimage.

Firstly, the work’s Prologue itself is described as a “concise portrait of an entire nation,” encompassing people of all ranks and backgrounds: “high and low, old and young, male and female, lay and clerical, learned and ignorant, rogue and righteous, land and sea, town and country”. The diverse assembly at The Tabard inn allows Chaucer to present a cross-section of society, providing implicit and explicit commentary on the various estates, professions, and social types of his era.

Commentary on specific social roles and institutions is woven throughout the descriptions of the pilgrims:

• The Clergy: Chaucer presents a spectrum of clerical figures, highlighting both ideals and widespread corruption. The holy-minded Parson is depicted as poor in wealth but rich in thought and work, a truly learned man who practices what he preaches and cares for his flock. He is contrasted with descriptions of corrupt priests who abandon their duties for personal gain. The Monk is shown as someone who enjoys worldly pleasures like hunting and fine food, seemingly neglecting monastic rules. The Friar is described as a “wanton one and merry” who arranges marriages for his “young women” and is highly beloved and intimate in his order, suggesting a departure from the mendicant ideal. The Pardoner openly admits his avarice, using fake relics and eloquent preaching solely to extract money from people, caring nothing for their souls once they are dead. This portrayal serves as a sharp critique of corrupt religious practices.
• Marriage and Gender Roles: The sources indicate that Chaucer’s mature work is increasingly ironical about women as wives. The theoretical view of marriage held that “It was for a husband to command, for a wife to obey”. The Canterbury Tales explores variations on this theme. The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale offer a lengthy and powerful commentary on marriage, female sovereignty within marriage, and the limitations placed upon women by societal expectations and male writers, particularly clergy. She challenges traditional views on virginity and presents women as desiring freedom and control. The Merchant’s Tale also delves into discussions about marriage, presenting differing viewpoints on its benefits and drawbacks.
• Social Class and Gentility: The tales touch upon the nature of nobility. The Wife of Bath’s Tale, citing authorities like Dante, Boethius, and Seneca, argues that true gentility comes from God and virtuous deeds, not merely from inherited lineage or wealth. Poverty is also discussed, with Seneca cited for the idea that there is “No shame in poverty if the heart is gay”. The Franklin is noted to engage in “self-conscious chatter about gentility”, indicating contemporary social anxieties and aspirations related to status.
• Occupational Critiques and Rivalries: Certain tales provide specific commentary on professions. The conflict between the Miller and the Reeve arises from their occupations, with the Miller mocking carpenters (the Reeve’s former trade) and the Reeve seeking to retaliate. The Summoner’s Tale provides extensive criticism of the practices and perceived vices of friars, including their gluttony and methods of collecting money. The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale exposes the deceptions and potential madness associated with the practice of alchemy, suggesting it often leads to ruin rather than prosperity. The Cook’s Prologue includes the Host’s jocular accusations of the Cook selling stale food and watering down gravy.
• Other Societal Issues: The Summoner’s Tale includes a discussion, citing Seneca, Cambyses, and Cyrus, on the dangers of anger and its destructive effects, particularly when held by those in power. The discussion among the pilgrims can also reflect social attitudes, such as the Host’s suspicion of the Parson being a Lollard, indicating contemporary religious tensions. The Pardoner’s Tale preaches against gluttony, gambling, and swearing.

Through these diverse voices and narratives, Chaucer offers a multifaceted and often satirical view of his society, highlighting both the virtues and vices prevalent among its members across different social strata. The “normality” of the characters presented in the Prologue allows them to serve as relatable figures through whom social commentary is delivered.

Canterbury Tales Relationship Dynamics

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, as seen in the provided sources, explores a variety of relationship dynamics, offering a complex and often contradictory view of human connections in the 14th century. Through the diverse characters and their tales, Chaucer delves into the intricacies of marriage, love, rivalry, and societal roles.

Here are some key relationship dynamics discussed in the sources:

• Husband and Wife Dynamics: This is perhaps the most extensively explored dynamic.
• The sources note the theoretical view of marriage where “It was for a husband to command, for a wife to obey”.
• The Wife of Bath presents a counter-perspective based on her extensive experience with five husbands. She argues for female “mastery” within marriage, stating, “For mine shall be the power all his life / Over his proper body, and not he”. She describes various tactics used to control her older husbands, including accusing them of false sins and drunkenness, complaining about their behaviour, and highlighting the financial aspect of her “belle chose”. She claims that once her fifth husband granted her sovereignty, their relationship became harmonious.
• The Merchant offers a starkly negative view of his own marriage, describing his wife as “the worst that there could be” and stating that even a fiend would be overmatched by her. His tale then explores the marriage of old January and young May, filled with deception and infidelity. The Merchant’s Tale includes conflicting views on marriage, with arguments for its bliss contrasted with cynical observations.
• The Clerk’s Tale depicts the extreme patience and obedience of Griselda to her husband Walter, who repeatedly tests her by taking away her children and pretending to marry another. This tale presents a very different model of the wife’s role compared to the Wife of Bath, though the Host’s concluding remarks offer a satirical counter-commentary suggesting wives should fight back and assert control.
• The Shipman’s Tale features a merchant’s wife who feels her husband is too “niggardly” and seeks financial assistance and romantic connection from a monk. The dynamic is transactional and deceptive.
• The Man of Law’s Tale includes instances of spousal conflict and betrayal, such as the Sultaness plotting against her son’s Christian wife. It also touches on the idea that even holy wives “Are bound to suffer patiently at night / Such necessary pleasures as the King’s”.
• The Summoner’s Tale shows a wife who feels neglected by her sick husband, leading to the Friar’s commentary on the dangers of anger between spouses.
• Several sources mention differing opinions on women as wives or whether women are to be trusted.
• Dynamics between Lovers: The sources depict various forms of romantic relationships.
• The Knight’s Tale explores the rivalry between two sworn brothers, Palamon and Arcite, for the love of Emily. Their love is initially framed in the context of courtly love (“I love and serve”), but Arcite also contrasts this with “love as to a human being”. The tale highlights the destructive potential of passionate love and jealousy, which “neither love nor power / Admit a rival”. Venus is described as capricious and powerful in governing lovers’ spirits.
• The Miller’s Tale depicts a lustful dynamic between the student Nicholas and the carpenter’s young wife Alison. Their relationship is based on opportunity and deception, contrasting with the courtly love aspirations of Absalon.
• The Merchant’s Tale shows the young wife May deceiving her old, blind husband January to be with her younger lover Damian. This relationship is portrayed as driven by desire and opportunity, facilitated by cunning.
• The sources note that Chaucer’s poem Troilus and Criseyde is a “poignant love-story”, although Queen Anne of Bohemia found it implied that women were “more faithless”.
• The Franklin’s Tale presents a marriage where the couple agrees that the husband will be the “lord” but also the “servant” in love, implying a negotiated dynamic where “Love will not be constrained by mastery”. However, the tale also introduces a potential threat to this relationship through a promise made to Aurelius based on a perceived obligation rather than love.
• Rivalries and Conflicts: Competition and antagonism are present between individuals and groups.
• As mentioned, Palamon and Arcite are fierce rivals for Emily’s love.
• The Miller and the Reeve have a clear animosity, likely rooted in their professions. The Reeve tells his tale specifically to “pay him back before I’ve done” for the Miller’s story mocking a carpenter.
• The Friar and the Summoner also engage in direct conflict, promising to tell tales that expose the vices of the other’s profession. The Friar’s Tale features a Summoner tricked by a fiend. The Summoner’s Tale heavily criticizes friars.
• Saturn, in the Knight’s Tale, notes his influence includes “the rebellion of the serfs astir”, indicating social unrest and conflict between different classes.
• Other Dynamics:
• The relationship between master and servant is seen in January and Damian and between the Canon and his Yeoman. The Yeoman’s account reveals the Canon’s deceptive practices in alchemy, which ultimately leads to their ruin.
• Parent-child dynamics are central to the Clerk’s Tale, with Griselda’s initial obedience to her father and Walter’s cruel testing involving their children. The Physician’s Tale focuses entirely on a father and his virtuous daughter.
• Interactions among the pilgrims and the Host reveal dynamics of authority, suggestion, and compliance regarding the storytelling game. The Host acts as a guide and referee, setting rules and responding to the pilgrims’ contributions.

Overall, the sources demonstrate that Chaucer presents a multifaceted view of relationships, often highlighting the gap between societal ideals (like obedience in marriage or courtly love) and the complex, sometimes corrupt or pragmatic, realities of human behaviour.

Alchemy’s Ruin and Deception in Chaucer’s Tale

Based on the provided sources, Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales offers significant social commentary on alchemical practices, particularly through the detailed and critical account given in the Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale. Chaucer himself is described as a considerable expert in contemporary sciences, especially in astronomy, medicine, psychology, physics, and alchemy. The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale is highlighted as showing an intimate but furiously contemptuous knowledge of alchemical practice.

The tale primarily focuses on the failed attempts and deceptions inherent in the pursuit of transmutation, the goal of turning base metals into gold. The Yeoman, the narrator, is the assistant to a Canon involved in this craft. Despite the Canon’s claimed “subtle powers”, the Yeoman notes that the work is never successful, and the Canon remains “sluttish,” unable to afford better clothes.

Alchemical practice, as depicted, involves hard work and the use of technical and quaint terms. Practitioners lurk in holes and corners and blind alleys, suggesting secrecy and perhaps illicit activity. The process involves working with fire, which has discoloured the Yeoman’s face. They mix numerous substances in various vessels and furnaces. The sources list a wide array of materials used, including orpiment, burnt bones, iron filing, quicksilver (mercury), lead protoxide, arsenic, brimstone (sulphur), sal ammoniac, various herbs, chalk, quicklime, ashes, piss, dung, dregs, and many others. Specific equipment like crucibles, retorts, phials, and lamps are also mentioned. Key concepts include the “spirits four” (quicksilver, orpiment, sal ammoniac, and brimstone) and the “bodies seven” (metals associated with planets: gold for the sun, silver for the moon, iron for Mars, quicksilver for Mercury, lead for Saturn, tin for Jupiter, copper for Venus). Processes like sublimation, amalgaming, calcination, rubefaction, albefaction, and fermentation are attempted. The aim is to reach citrination (turning yellow), which was thought to indicate being close to the Philosopher’s Stone.

Despite the effort and complexity, the results are consistently failure. Experiments “reach no conclusion”. The metals can be violent, leading to explosions that ruin the pots. The “cursed trade” leads to ruin for those involved. The Yeoman describes being stripped bare, worth nothing, and deep in debt from borrowing money. He warns others that they will lose their savings, gain empty money-bags and addled brains, and potentially go raging mad. Alchemy has caused “strife of old / In every class waged between men and gold” and led poor people to “destruction”.

A significant part of the commentary focuses on the deception prevalent in alchemy. Practitioners “keep plenty under that illusion” and borrow money by making people think their investment will be doubled or increased, which is a lie. The tale illustrates this through a detailed account of a canon tricking a priest into believing he can make silver. The trick involves using a fake powder, a prepared piece of coal with hidden silver filings, and a hollow stick also containing silver filings. The priest is completely fooled, believing the alchemical process worked, offers the canon his body and soul, and is so happy he offers to work for him. The canon then sells the priest the fake recipe (powder) for forty pounds, emphasizing secrecy. The canon then disappears, and the priest finds the powder doesn’t work, having been tricked and made a laughing-stock. The Yeoman expresses fury and a desire for vengeance against such “fraud and treachery”.

The tale also touches upon the theoretical aspects, citing authorities like Arnold de Villa Nova and Hermes Trismegistus on concepts such as “mortifying” mercury using sulphur. It also discusses the Philosopher’s Stone, mentioning a dialogue attributed to Plato (or Solomon) where the stone is called “Magnesia,” a liquid of the four elements, but its root principle is a secret only revealed by God’s will. The conclusion drawn is that trying to pursue this art against God’s will means one will “never thrive”, reinforcing the idea that the constant failure is perhaps divine judgment or simply the reality that some secrets are not meant for humans to discover without inspiration.

Overall, the Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale paints a picture of alchemy as a ruinous, deceptive practice based on woolly jargon that leads to debt, madness, and failure, rather than the promised wealth and knowledge. The details provided on alchemical techniques are noted as accurate and reliable for the period, and some have speculated that Chaucer’s detailed critique might stem from personal experience of being defrauded, although the source’s author doubts Chaucer would have been so easily fooled. The tale strongly advises against meddling with alchemy and warns people to shun the fire.

Canterbury Tales: Storytelling and Social Commentary

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales, as presented in the provided sources, is structured around a storytelling competition among a diverse group of pilgrims journeying to Canterbury. The Host, Harry Bailey, proposes that each pilgrim tell two tales on the way out and two on the way back, with the teller of the best story winning a supper. This framework allows for a wide variety of narratives, reflecting the different social ranks and experiences of the pilgrims.

The sources highlight several key aspects of the tales told:

• Diversity of Genre and Subject Matter: The tales span a wide range of genres popular in the 14th century. They come from various sources across Europe, including contemporary works, ancient texts, and stories from the Orient.
• Some tales are courtly or chivalric romances, like The Knight’s Tale, which explores themes of love, rivalry, and destiny through the story of Palamon and Arcite. The Host praises it as a “noble story”.
• Others are fabliaux, tales of “low life in oral circulation”, often characterized by their bawdy nature and focus on trickery. The Miller’s Tale is explicitly identified as such, a “churl’s tale” that the narrator feels compelled to repeat despite its rudeness. The Reeve’s Tale is told as a direct response and retaliation (“tap for tap”) to the Miller’s tale which mocked a carpenter. The Cook’s Tale also appears to fit into this category, featuring a lively apprentice.
• Several tales are saints’ lives or narratives with a strong religious or moral focus. The Second Nun’s Tale, the story of St Cecilia, is one such example. The Prioress’s Tale tells of a miracle involving a child murdered by Jews and is dedicated to the Virgin Mary. These tales can show a phase of “poetic piety”.
• Some tales are explicitly didactic or moral debates. Chaucer’s Tale of Melibee is a prose “dialectical homily” debating whether violence should be met with violence, drawing on numerous ancient authorities. The Parson’s Tale is a prose sermon on penitence and the Seven Deadly Sins, intended as a guide to the “celestial, to Jerusalem”.
• Tales also provide social commentary and expose corruption, particularly through the lens of occupational satire. The Friar’s Tale attacks summoners, while The Summoner’s Tale fiercely criticizes friars. The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale provides an extensive and “furiously contemptuous knowledge of alchemical practice”, depicting it as a deceptive and ruinous pursuit.
• Relationship dynamics, especially within marriage, are explored through multiple tales. The Wife of Bath’s Tale, stemming from her extensive “experience”, explores female “mastery”. The Merchant’s Tale offers a jaded view of marriage, focusing on deception and infidelity. The Clerk’s Tale presents the extreme patience of Griselda, though followed by an ironic envoy. The Franklin’s Tale examines a marriage based on mutual agreement rather than mastery [Implied from summary content, though not explicitly stated in snippets].
• Purpose and Style: Chaucer, through his characters and narrative frame, presents storytelling as serving both entertainment and instruction. Tales are expected to have a “sharp point and deducible maxim, moral, or idea”. The narrator-pilgrim emphasizes the importance of accurately repeating the tales as told, even if they are rude or inappropriate, to remain true to what occurred. This approach allows Chaucer to include “God’s plenty,” a vast array of subjects and styles.
• Interaction and Rivalry: The storytelling contest is not without conflict. Pilgrims react to each other’s tales, sometimes positively, sometimes with annoyance. Rivalries between pilgrims manifest through their tales, notably the verbal sparring and retaliatory stories between the Miller and the Reeve, and the Friar and the Summoner. The Host acts as a judge and attempts to maintain order, sometimes stopping a tale he finds unsuitable, as he does with Chaucer’s Tale of Sir Topaz.
• Chaucer’s Role as Author/Compiler: The sources note that Chaucer did not invent most of his stories but presented and embellished existing ones. However, The Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale is suggested as one of the few he may have invented. Some tales, like The Knight’s Tale, Clerk’s Tale, Man of Law’s Tale, and Tale of Melibee, are believed to be earlier works incorporated into the Canterbury Tales framework. The work was never completed, with Chaucer leaving behind ten fragments of varying sizes.

In essence, the tales told in The Canterbury Tales function as individual narratives, character revelations, social commentary, and part of a larger, dynamic storytelling event, showcasing a “robust” and “representative” picture of 14th-century English life.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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