The text chronicles major historical events from the early 1800s to the end of World War II, focusing on the rise and fall of empires and the concurrent rise of nationalism and liberalism. It examines key revolutions and uprisings across Europe, including the Serbian, Greek, and Spanish Revolutions, as well as the Revolutions of 1848. The narrative then shifts to the unifications of Italy and Germany, discusses imperialism in Africa and Asia, and concludes with a detailed account of World War I and World War II, including the Holocaust and the rise of fascism. Finally, it briefly touches upon the post-war restructuring of Europe and the emergence of the Cold War.

European and World History 1800-1945: A Study Guide

Short Answer Questions

Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.

1. How did Napoleon’s invasion of Portugal indirectly contribute to the rise of Brazilian independence?
2. What was the Carbonari, and what role did it play in early 19th-century Italian politics?
3. How did the Reform Act of 1832 change the political landscape of Great Britain?
4. What were the key factors that led to the Crimean War?
5. Explain the significance of Giuseppe Garibaldi in the process of Italian unification.
6. What was Otto von Bismarck’s “Realpolitik”, and how did he use it to achieve German unification?
7. Describe the role of technology and media in the Crimean War.
8. What were the major consequences of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78?
9. How did the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 contribute to the tensions leading up to World War I?
10. Explain the significance of Simón Bolívar in the context of South American independence movements.

Short Answer Question Key

1. Napoleon’s invasion forced the Portuguese royal court to flee to Brazil. This elevated Brazil’s status and exposed Brazilians to new ideas, fostering a sense of autonomy that eventually led to their independence.
2. The Carbonari was a secret society in Italy that advocated for liberal reforms and Italian unification. It played a key role in organizing uprisings and promoting nationalist sentiments in the early 19th century.
3. The Reform Act of 1832 expanded the electorate, redistributed parliamentary representation, and abolished “rotten boroughs” in Great Britain. It marked a significant step towards a more democratic system, empowering the middle class and diminishing the power of the aristocracy.
4. The Crimean War was caused by a complex interplay of factors, including Russian expansionism, Ottoman weakness, religious tensions over the Holy Land, and the strategic interests of Britain and France in containing Russian influence.
5. Giuseppe Garibaldi was an Italian general and nationalist who played a pivotal role in unifying Italy. His leadership of the “Expedition of the Thousand” in 1860 resulted in the conquest of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was later merged with the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy.
6. Otto von Bismarck’s “Realpolitik” was a pragmatic approach to politics that emphasized power and national interest over ideology and ethics. He used it to maneuver Prussia into advantageous positions, orchestrating wars and alliances to achieve German unification under Prussian leadership.
7. The Crimean War saw the use of new technologies like the telegraph for communication and photography for documenting the conflict. Media coverage, particularly newspaper reporting, shaped public opinion and increased awareness of the war’s realities, including the horrors of battlefield conditions and the inadequacy of medical care.
8. The Russo-Turkish War led to the decline of Ottoman influence in the Balkans, the rise of new nation-states like Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro, and increased tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over control of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
9. The Bosnian Crisis of 1908, triggered by Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia, heightened tensions in the Balkans by fueling Serbian nationalism and provoking Russian opposition. It intensified the rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, contributing to the volatile atmosphere that led to World War I.
10. Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan military and political leader who played a key role in the independence movements of several South American countries. He is known as “El Libertador” for leading the liberation of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from Spanish rule.

Essay Questions

1. Compare and contrast the processes of Italian and German unification in the 19th century. Consider the roles of key figures, ideologies, and the use of diplomacy and warfare.
2. Analyze the impact of the Industrial Revolution on European society during the 19th century. Discuss both its positive and negative consequences, including changes in economic structures, social classes, and living conditions.
3. To what extent did the rise of nationalism contribute to the outbreak of World War I? Evaluate the role of nationalist sentiments, alliances, and imperial rivalries in the events leading up to the war.
4. Discuss the causes and consequences of European imperialism in Africa during the 19th century. Consider the motivations of European powers, the impact on African societies, and the legacies of colonialism.
5. How did the experiences of World War I shape the political and social landscape of Europe in the interwar period (1919-1939)? Analyze the rise of new ideologies, the challenges to traditional systems of government, and the economic and social upheavals of the time.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Carbonari: A secret society in early 19th-century Italy that advocated for liberal reforms and Italian unification.
• Realpolitik: A pragmatic approach to politics that emphasizes power and national interest over ideology and ethics.
• Crimean War: A conflict (1853-1856) fought primarily in the Crimean Peninsula between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and Sardinia.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi: An Italian general and nationalist who played a key role in unifying Italy through his leadership of the “Expedition of the Thousand” in 1860.
• Otto von Bismarck: A Prussian statesman who orchestrated the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership through his “Realpolitik” strategy.
• Russo-Turkish War (1877-78): A conflict between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire fought primarily in the Balkans, leading to the decline of Ottoman influence in the region and the emergence of new nation-states.
• Bosnian Crisis (1908): A diplomatic crisis triggered by Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia, which fueled Serbian nationalism and increased tensions in the Balkans.
• Simón Bolívar: A Venezuelan military and political leader who played a crucial role in liberating several South American countries from Spanish rule, earning him the title “El Libertador.”
• Tanzimat: A period of reforms in the Ottoman Empire (1839-1876) aimed at modernizing the state and society.
• Zionism: A movement that sought to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine, culminating in the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.
• Balfour Declaration (1917): A statement by the British government expressing support for the establishment of a “national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine.
• Mandate System: A system established by the League of Nations after World War I to administer former Ottoman territories, including Palestine, Iraq, and Syria.
• Fascism: A far-right, authoritarian, and nationalist political ideology and movement that emerged in Europe in the early 20th century, characterized by dictatorial power, suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy.
• Nazism: A form of fascism that incorporated scientific racism and anti-Semitism, leading to the Holocaust.
• Blitzkrieg: A military tactic emphasizing speed and surprise, using coordinated air and ground assaults to overwhelm enemy defenses.
• Holocaust: The genocide perpetrated by Nazi Germany and its collaborators against Jews and other groups during World War II.
• Cold War: A period of geopolitical tension (1947-1991) between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies.
• Yalta Conference: A meeting in February 1945 between the leaders of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union to discuss the post-war order of Europe.

This study guide provides a framework for reviewing key concepts, figures, and events in European and world history from 1800 to 1945. It is intended to be a starting point for your studies, and further research and exploration are encouraged. Good luck!

Europe in Turmoil: A Detailed Briefing from 1800 to 1945

This briefing document analyzes key themes and events from 1800 to 1945, drawing insights from the provided source material. The period witnessed dramatic shifts in power, ideologies, and global landscapes, shaped by revolutions, industrialization, and ultimately, two world wars.

I. The Rise of Nationalism and Liberalism (1800-1871)

A. Revolutions and Reform: The 19th century was a period of upheaval, spurred by the ideals of the French Revolution. Liberalism, advocating for individual rights and representative government, clashed with traditional monarchies. Nationalist sentiments surged, uniting people based on shared language, culture, and history.

1. European Revolutions of 1820 and 1830: Inspired by liberal ideals, these revolutions aimed to establish constitutional monarchies and limit the power of monarchs. Notably, the Reform Act of 1832 in Britain expanded the electorate, marking a “Monumental step towards a more democratic Britain.”

“The Reform Act of 1832 redrew the electoral map. It abolished rotten boroughs, created new constituencies, and expanded the electorate. Though far from granting universal suffrage, it was a Monumental step towards a more democratic Britain.”

1. Revolutions of 1848: The Springtime of Peoples: This wave of revolutions across Europe, fueled by economic hardship and calls for liberal reforms, was largely unsuccessful but demonstrated the growing power of these ideologies.
2. Italian Unification (1848-1870): Italy, divided into multiple states, yearned for unification. Driven by figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi, and the cunning diplomacy of Count Cavour, Italy finally achieved unification under Victor Emmanuel II in 1861.

“In 1861, unification was finally achieved and Italy was proclaimed as a kingdom under the Savoy king Victor Emanuel II.”

1. German Unification (1864-1871): Under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, Prussia’s “blood and iron” policy led to the unification of the German states. Through shrewd diplomacy and strategic wars, Bismarck forged a powerful German Empire, excluding Austria from German affairs.

“Otto von Bismarck’s approach to statecraft, known as Realpolitik, was characterized by a pragmatic and practical approach to politics with a focus on the realities of power rather than ideals or ethical considerations.”

B. The Crimean War (1853-1856): This conflict, primarily between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, exposed the inadequacies of traditional military tactics and highlighted the power of modern technology. The war had lasting consequences for the balance of power in Europe, weakening Russia and leading to reforms in military medicine, spearheaded by Florence Nightingale.

“The Crimean War’s significance lies not only in its immediate outcomes but also in its demonstration of the power of modern technology and media in Warfare.”

C. The Eastern Question: The decline of the Ottoman Empire, dubbed the “sick man of Europe,” created instability in the Balkans, attracting the attention of European powers seeking to expand their influence. This competition for territory and control would be a key factor leading to the First World War.

II. The Age of Imperialism (1871-1914)

A. The Scramble for Africa (1881-1914): European powers, driven by economic and strategic motives, rapidly colonized Africa, dividing the continent among themselves with little regard for existing political and social structures. This period witnessed brutal exploitation of resources and people, shaping the continent’s future.

1. British Expansion: The British Empire, fueled by the ambition of figures like Cecil Rhodes, established vast territories in Africa, from Egypt and Sudan to South Africa, creating tensions with rival powers and leading to conflicts like the Boer War.

“Rhodes dreamed of a massive project, the Cape to Cairo Railway, linking South Africa to Egypt.”

1. The Berlin Conference (1884-1885): This conference regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, formalizing the partition of the continent and solidifying European dominance.

B. Imperialism in Asia: European powers, particularly Britain, established control over vast regions of Asia, exploiting resources and influencing political structures.

1. British Raj in India: Following the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, the British crown took direct control of India, implementing reforms but also solidifying its colonial grip.

“India remained The Jewel of the crown and the British Empire spared no effort to protect its prized possession from potential threats.”

1. The Great Game: The rivalry between Britain and Russia for influence in Central Asia, particularly in Afghanistan, led to espionage, political maneuvering, and military clashes.
2. French Indochina: France gradually established control over Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia, creating a valuable colonial possession and contributing to tensions with other European powers.

C. Japanese Imperialism: Following the Meiji Restoration, Japan embarked on its own imperial expansion, seeking to establish itself as a dominant power in East Asia.

1. Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japan’s victory in this conflict against China demonstrated its growing military strength and resulted in the acquisition of Taiwan and influence in Korea.
2. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Japan’s shocking victory over Russia established it as a major world power and marked the decline of Russian influence in East Asia.

“The treaty recognized Japan’s Paramount interests in Korea and ceded Russia’s lease on Port Arthur and the Leung Peninsula to Japan.”

D. The Ottoman Empire’s Decline: The Ottoman Empire continued to weaken, facing internal challenges and external pressures from European powers. Nationalist movements within the empire, such as the Arab Revolt and the rise of Turkish nationalism, further contributed to its decline.

III. World War I and its Aftermath (1914-1939)

A. The Great War (1914-1918): Triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, a complex web of alliances drew European powers into a global conflict characterized by unprecedented levels of violence, technological advancements, and devastating consequences.

1. Trench Warfare: The Western Front devolved into a bloody stalemate, characterized by trench warfare and massive casualties. The introduction of new technologies, such as tanks, machine guns, and poison gas, transformed warfare and led to unprecedented levels of destruction.

“These trenches became the enduring Grim setting for hundreds of thousands of soldiers over the next 3 years as the initial hopes for a quick Victory turned into a protracted, nightmarish conflict unprecedented in history.”

1. The Russian Revolution (1917): Amidst the war, Russia experienced two revolutions. The February Revolution overthrew the Tsarist regime, and the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power in the October Revolution, establishing the world’s first communist state.
2. The United States Enters the War (1917): Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare, including the sinking of the Lusitania, and the Zimmerman Telegram, proposing an alliance between Germany and Mexico, prompted the United States to declare war on Germany, tipping the balance in favor of the Allies.
3. The Treaty of Versailles (1919): The treaty that ended the war imposed harsh punishments on Germany, including territorial losses, disarmament, and significant reparations, contributing to resentment and instability in the postwar era.

B. The Interwar Period: The years between the two world wars were characterized by political and economic instability, the rise of totalitarian ideologies, and the failure of collective security efforts to prevent another global conflict.

1. The Rise of Fascism and Nazism: In Italy and Germany, economic hardship, political turmoil, and resentment towards the Treaty of Versailles contributed to the rise of fascist and Nazi movements, led by Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, respectively. These ideologies emphasized extreme nationalism, authoritarianism, and racial purity, ultimately leading to the Second World War.

“National Socialism instead emphasized Unity among all racially pure Germans transcending class differences for the sake of national unity.”

1. The Great Depression (1929-1939): The global economic crisis further exacerbated political and social tensions, contributing to the appeal of extremist ideologies.
2. Japanese Expansionism: Japan continued its expansionist policies, invading Manchuria in 1931 and engaging in a full-scale war with China in 1937.
3. Appeasement: The policy of appeasement adopted by Britain and France towards Nazi Germany, hoping to avoid war through concessions, ultimately failed to prevent Hitler’s aggression.

IV. World War II and its Aftermath (1939-1945)

A. The Second World War (1939-1945): Triggered by Germany’s invasion of Poland, the Second World War was a global conflict of unprecedented scale and brutality, resulting in millions of deaths and reshaping the world order.

1. Blitzkrieg: Germany’s lightning war tactics, utilizing coordinated air and ground assaults, allowed for rapid conquests in Europe, overwhelming opponents and expanding the Nazi empire.
2. The Holocaust: The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and extermination of Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 6 million Jews.

“The systematic, state-sponsored persecution and extermination of Jews by the Nazi regime and its collaborators, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 6 million Jews.”

1. The Battle of Britain (1940): The air campaign waged by Germany against Britain, seeking to achieve air superiority and pave the way for an invasion, ended in failure, marking the first major defeat for Nazi Germany.

“The Battle of Britain marked the first major defeat for Hitler’s military forces demonstrating that Germany could be resisted.”

1. Operation Barbarossa (1941): Germany’s invasion of the Soviet Union, aiming to conquer vast territories and destroy the Soviet state, turned into a protracted and brutal conflict, ultimately contributing to Germany’s defeat.
2. Pearl Harbor and the Pacific War (1941): Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into the war, expanding the conflict to the Pacific theater.
3. The Allied Victory: The combined efforts of the Allied powers, including the United States, the Soviet Union, Britain, and others, ultimately led to the defeat of the Axis powers.

B. The Postwar World: The end of World War II marked the beginning of a new era, characterized by the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, the emergence of new superpowers, and the process of decolonization.

1. The Cold War: The ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union, each seeking to expand its influence and promote its respective political and economic systems, shaped global politics for decades.
2. Decolonization: Following World War II, European colonial empires began to disintegrate, leading to the independence of numerous nations across Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.
3. The Formation of the United Nations: The United Nations was established in 1945 with the goal of maintaining international peace and security and promoting cooperation among nations.

This briefing document provides a glimpse into the complex and tumultuous period from 1800 to 1945. The events discussed have shaped the world we live in today, highlighting the enduring impact of nationalism, ideology, and the consequences of global conflicts.

FAQ: The Long Nineteenth Century (1789-1914)

1. What major political and social changes occurred in Europe during the early 19th century?

The early 19th century was a period of significant upheaval in Europe, marked by the rise of liberalism, nationalism, and revolutionary fervor. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815) had a profound impact, spreading revolutionary ideas and challenging the existing political order.

Key developments included:

• Liberalism: This ideology emphasized individual rights, constitutional government, and economic freedom. It gained traction in countries like Portugal and Spain, leading to the adoption of constitutions and attempts at reform.
• Nationalism: A sense of shared identity and the desire for national unification or independence fueled movements across Europe. Italy, divided into multiple states, saw the rise of secret societies like the Carbonari advocating for unification.
• Revolutions: Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, uprisings broke out in various parts of Europe, demanding political and social change. The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830, though ultimately suppressed, demonstrated the growing desire for reform and popular sovereignty.

2. How did the Revolutions of 1848 shape the political landscape of Europe?

The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the “Springtime of Peoples,” were a series of widespread uprisings across Europe fueled by economic hardship, political discontent, and the desire for liberal reforms and national unification. Though ultimately unsuccessful in achieving their immediate goals, they had a lasting impact on the political landscape:

• Spread of Liberal Ideas: The revolutions further popularized liberal ideals, leading to the adoption of constitutions in some states, and prompting reforms even in those where uprisings were suppressed.
• Rise of Nationalism: The desire for national unification was a driving force in many revolutions, particularly in the Italian and German states. Though unification was not achieved immediately, the revolutions laid the groundwork for future nation-building efforts.
• Weakening of Traditional Powers: The revolutions challenged the authority of traditional monarchies and empires, contributing to the gradual decline of these systems in the long term.

3. How did the Crimean War (1853-1856) impact the balance of power in Europe?

The Crimean War, fought primarily between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, France, Britain, and Sardinia, had significant repercussions for the balance of power in Europe:

• Weakening of Russia: Russia’s defeat in the war diminished its influence in European affairs. The Treaty of Paris imposed restrictions on Russia’s military presence in the Black Sea, highlighting its diminished power.
• Emergence of New Powers: The war provided an opportunity for Piedmont-Sardinia to gain international recognition and play a role on the European stage. This paved the way for its future leadership in Italian unification.
• Shifting Alliances: The war strained relations between Russia and Austria, as Austria remained neutral, leading to a shift in alliances. This realignment contributed to the eventual unification of both Germany and Italy.

4. What were the key factors leading to the unification of Italy and Germany?

The unification of Italy and Germany in the 19th century was a complex process driven by a combination of factors:

Italy:

• Nationalism: A shared cultural and linguistic heritage fueled the desire for a unified Italian state.
• Leadership of Piedmont-Sardinia: Under King Victor Emmanuel II and his chief minister, Count Camillo di Cavour, Piedmont-Sardinia played a pivotal role in orchestrating unification through diplomacy, strategic alliances, and military campaigns.
• Role of Garibaldi: Giuseppe Garibaldi’s charismatic leadership and his Expedition of the Thousand in 1860, liberating Sicily and Naples, contributed significantly to the unification movement.

Germany:

• Prussian Leadership: Prussia, under the leadership of Otto von Bismarck, played a dominant role in German unification. Bismarck’s “Realpolitik” – a pragmatic, power-based approach – guided his strategy of using diplomacy and carefully calculated wars to achieve unification.
• Military Strength: Prussia’s powerful military, modernized and expanded under Bismarck, was crucial in defeating Austria and France, paving the way for unification.
• Nationalism: A growing sense of German identity, fostered by shared language, culture, and the desire for a strong, unified nation, played a significant role.

5. How did industrialization and urbanization transform European society during the late 19th century?

The Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, accelerated in the 19th century, leading to profound social and economic changes:

• Industrialization: Technological innovations, particularly in textiles, iron production, and steam power, led to mass production, factory systems, and the growth of industrial cities.
• Urbanization: People migrated from rural areas to cities seeking work, leading to rapid urban growth and the emergence of new social classes – a large industrial working class and a growing middle class.
• Social Changes: Industrialization and urbanization created new challenges, including poverty, overcrowding, and social unrest. Labor movements and socialist ideas emerged as workers sought to improve their living and working conditions.

6. What were the major characteristics of imperialism in the late 19th century?

The late 19th century witnessed a wave of European imperialism, driven by a complex interplay of economic, political, and ideological factors. Key characteristics of this “New Imperialism” included:

• Competition for Colonies: European powers competed fiercely for colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, driven by the desire for raw materials, markets for their manufactured goods, and strategic advantages.
• Economic Exploitation: Colonies were often exploited for their resources and labor, with profits flowing back to the colonizing powers.
• Racial Ideology: Imperialism was often justified by racist ideologies, with European powers claiming a moral duty to “civilize” and uplift non-European peoples.
• Military Domination: European powers used their superior military technology and organization to conquer and control their colonies, often facing resistance from indigenous populations.

7. How did the rise of Japan as a major power impact the global balance of power in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

Japan’s rapid modernization and emergence as a major power in the late 19th and early 20th centuries significantly altered the global balance of power:

• Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration of 1868 led to a period of rapid modernization, industrialization, and military buildup, transforming Japan into a formidable force in East Asia.
• Victory in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Japan’s decisive victory over China demonstrated its military strength and marked its ascendance as a regional power.
• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Japan’s stunning victory over Russia, a major European power, shocked the world and established Japan as a global force to be reckoned with.

8. What were the major factors leading to the outbreak of World War I?

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was the result of a complex interplay of long-term factors and a series of immediate events:

• Nationalism: Intense nationalism, particularly in the Balkans, fueled tensions and rivalries between European powers.
• Imperialism: Competition for colonies and resources heightened tensions and created a climate of distrust.
• Militarism: A build-up of armies and navies created an atmosphere of fear and suspicion.
• Alliance System: A complex network of alliances obligated countries to come to each other’s aid, escalating local conflicts into wider wars.
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo by a Serbian nationalist on June 28, 1914, triggered a chain reaction of events that led to war.

A Global History: 1800-1945

Timeline of Main Events

1800s

• Early 1800s:Napoleonic Wars end, leading to the Congress of Vienna and the restoration of monarchies in Europe.
• Latin American Wars of Independence begin, with figures like Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín leading the charge against Spanish rule.
• The Industrial Revolution begins to transform Europe and the United States, leading to social and economic changes.
• 1820s:Liberal revolutions erupt in Europe, including Portugal, Spain, and the Italian states, demanding constitutional reforms.
• The Greek War of Independence begins, with support from European powers.
• The first wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine, known as the First Aliyah, begins.
• 1830s:The Reform Act of 1832 expands the electorate in Britain.
• Slavery is abolished in the British Empire.
• The Texas Revolution sees Texas declare independence from Mexico.
• 1840s:The First Opium War between Britain and China sees Britain gain control of Hong Kong.
• The “Springtime of Peoples” brings another wave of revolutions in Europe, fueled by nationalism and liberalism.
• The Mexican-American War results in the United States gaining vast territories from Mexico.
• 1850s:The Crimean War pits Russia against the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France.
• The Second Opium War further weakens the Qing Dynasty in China.
• The Indian Rebellion of 1857 leads to the British Crown taking direct control of India.
• 1860s:The Unification of Italy under the House of Savoy.
• The American Civil War sees the end of slavery in the United States.
• Otto von Bismarck orchestrates the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership through a series of wars.
• 1870s:The Russo-Turkish War leads to the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and the independence of several Balkan states.
• The Scramble for Africa begins, with European powers vying for control of the continent.
• 1880s:The Meiji Restoration in Japan sees the modernization and Westernization of the country.
• European powers establish colonies in Southeast Asia, including Burma and Indochina.
• 1890s:The Sino-Japanese War results in Japan gaining control of Taiwan and Korea.
• The Spanish-American War leads to the United States acquiring Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines.
• The Boer War sees Britain gain control of South Africa.

1900s

• 1900s:The Boxer Rebellion in China sees an uprising against foreign influence.
• The Russo-Japanese War sees Japan defeat Russia, marking the rise of Japan as a major power.
• 1910s:The Mexican Revolution overthrows the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz.
• The Balkan Wars lead to the further decline of the Ottoman Empire and increased tensions in the region.
• World War I (1914-1918):The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggers a chain reaction of alliances, plunging Europe into war.
• Trench warfare on the Western Front leads to a bloody stalemate.
• The Russian Revolution sees the Bolsheviks seize power and withdraw Russia from the war.
• The United States enters the war on the side of the Allies, tipping the balance in their favor.
• The Central Powers are defeated, leading to the Treaty of Versailles and the redrawing of the map of Europe.
• 1920s:The League of Nations is formed in an attempt to prevent future wars.
• The Ottoman Empire collapses, leading to the creation of the Republic of Turkey.
• The rise of fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini.
• The Roaring Twenties sees economic prosperity in the United States and parts of Europe.
• 1930s:The Great Depression leads to economic hardship worldwide.
• The rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party in Germany.
• Japan invades Manchuria and begins its expansionist campaign in East Asia.
• The Spanish Civil War sees a conflict between the Republicans and the Nationalists, with support from foreign powers.
• Germany annexes Austria and Czechoslovakia, escalating tensions in Europe.
• 1940s:World War II (1939-1945):Germany invades Poland, triggering the start of the war.
• The Battle of Britain sees the Royal Air Force defend Britain against the Luftwaffe.
• Germany launches Operation Barbarossa, invading the Soviet Union.
• Japan attacks Pearl Harbor, bringing the United States into the war.
• The Holocaust sees the systematic extermination of Jews and other minorities by the Nazi regime.
• The Allied forces defeat the Axis powers in Europe and Asia.
• The war ends with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.

Cast of Characters

1. Political and Military Leaders

• Simón Bolívar (1783-1830): Venezuelan military and political leader, instrumental in the liberation of several South American countries from Spanish rule. Known as “El Libertador” (The Liberator).
• José de San Martín (1778-1850): Argentine general and key figure in the South American Wars of Independence. Contributed to the liberation of Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
• King João VI of Portugal (1767-1826): Ruler of Portugal who fled to Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars. Accepted a constitutional monarchy upon his return.
• Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies (1751-1825): King of Naples and Sicily, known for his autocratic rule and resistance to liberal reforms.
• Charles Albert of Sardinia (1798-1849): King of Sardinia-Piedmont who granted a constitution and supported Italian unification.
• Field Marshal Radetzky (1766-1858): Austrian military leader who successfully defended Austrian interests in Italy during the revolutions of 1848.
• Napoleon III (1808-1873): Emperor of France who initially ruled autocratically but later liberalized his regime. Supported Italian unification and engaged in conflicts such as the Crimean War.
• Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878): King of Sardinia-Piedmont who became the first king of a unified Italy.
• Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (1810-1861): Prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont, instrumental in the unification of Italy through diplomacy and strategic alliances.
• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882): Italian general and nationalist who played a key role in the unification of Italy, particularly through his leadership of the Expedition of the Thousand.
• Wilhelm I of Prussia (1797-1888): King of Prussia who became the first German emperor after the unification of Germany.
• Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898): Prussian statesman known as the “Iron Chancellor.” Orchestrated the unification of Germany through diplomacy and military campaigns.
• Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865): 16th president of the United States, known for leading the Union through the American Civil War and ending slavery.
• Andrew Jackson (1767-1848): 7th president of the United States, known for his populist policies and expansionist agenda.
• Santa Anna (1794-1876): Mexican general and politician who served as president on multiple occasions. Known for his role in the loss of Texas and the Mexican-American War.
• Queen Victoria (1819-1901): Queen of the United Kingdom, presiding over a period of significant industrial, economic, and imperial expansion.
• Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919): 26th president of the United States, known for his progressive policies, conservation efforts, and role in international affairs.
• Nicholas II of Russia (1868-1918): Last Tsar of Russia, forced to abdicate during the Russian Revolution. Known for his autocratic rule and resistance to reforms.
• Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924): Leader of the Bolshevik Revolution and first head of the Soviet Union. Implemented communist policies and withdrew Russia from World War I.
• Leon Trotsky (1879-1940): Key figure in the Bolshevik Revolution, responsible for organizing the Red Army and serving as foreign minister. Later exiled and assassinated.
• Joseph Stalin (1878-1953): Successor to Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union, ruled with an iron fist, implementing a totalitarian regime and overseeing rapid industrialization and collectivization.
• Benito Mussolini (1883-1945): Italian dictator and founder of fascism. Led Italy into World War II as an ally of Nazi Germany.
• Adolf Hitler (1889-1945): Leader of the Nazi party and dictator of Germany. Orchestrated the Holocaust and led Germany into World War II.
• Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945): 32nd president of the United States, known for his New Deal programs during the Great Depression and leadership during World War II.
• Winston Churchill (1874-1965): Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II, known for his leadership and defiance against Nazi Germany.
• Emperor Hirohito (1901-1989): Emperor of Japan during World War II. His role in the war remains a subject of debate.
• General Douglas MacArthur (1880-1964): American general who played a key role in the Pacific theater of World War II and the occupation of Japan.
• Mao Zedong (1893-1976): Leader of the Communist Party of China, founder of the People’s Republic of China. Implemented communist policies and oversaw the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
• Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948): Leader of the Indian independence movement, known for his philosophy of nonviolent resistance. Played a key role in India’s independence from British rule.
• Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964): First Prime Minister of India after independence. Played a key role in shaping India’s domestic and foreign policies.
• Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1886-1948): Leader of the Muslim League in India, advocate for the creation of Pakistan. Became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.

2. Intellectuals, Reformers, and Activists

• Florence Nightingale (1820-1910): British nurse and social reformer, known for her pioneering work in modern nursing during the Crimean War.
• Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902): British businessman and politician, instrumental in the expansion of the British Empire in southern Africa.
• Theodore Herzl (1860-1904): Austro-Hungarian journalist and founder of the Zionist movement, advocate for the establishment of a Jewish state.
• Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925): Chinese revolutionary and founder of the Kuomintang (KMT). Played a key role in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China.
• Hassan al-Banna (1906-1949): Egyptian schoolteacher and Islamic scholar, founder of the Muslim Brotherhood.
• Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918-1970): Second president of Egypt, known for his pan-Arabist and socialist policies. Nationalized the Suez Canal and played a leading role in the Arab world.

3. Others

• The Carbonari: A network of secret revolutionary societies in Italy that advocated for liberal reforms and Italian unification.
• The Slavophiles: A group of intellectuals in Russia who believed in Russia’s unique path of development based on its own culture and traditions.
• The Westernizers: A group of intellectuals in Russia who advocated for the adoption of Western ideas and technologies to modernize the country.
• The Boers: Descendants of Dutch settlers in South Africa who clashed with the British over land, resources, and political control.
• The Zulu: A powerful African kingdom in southern Africa, known for its military prowess under the leadership of Shaka Zulu.
• The Meiji Oligarchs: A group of leaders in Japan who orchestrated the Meiji Restoration and modernized the country.
• The Zaibatsu: Powerful family-controlled corporate conglomerates that dominated the Japanese economy during the Meiji period and beyond.
• The Young Turks: A reformist movement in the Ottoman Empire that aimed to modernize the country and implement constitutional reforms.

This list is by no means exhaustive. Countless individuals played crucial roles in shaping the course of history during this period. These are merely some of the most prominent figures mentioned in the provided text.

The Serbian Revolution: From Uprising to Autonomy

The Serbian Revolution, sparked by the Ottoman Empire’s brutal treatment of the Serbian people, unfolded in distinct phases. [1] For centuries, the Serbian people endured oppression under Ottoman rule, facing heavy taxation and cultural suppression. [1] The massacre of 72 Serbian nobles by Ottoman janissaries ignited a firestorm of resistance, giving birth to the Serbian Revolution in 1804. [1]

The first uprising initially achieved success, establishing a revolutionary Serbian government. [1] However, Ottoman forces reasserted control by 1813, imposing even harsher measures. [1] Despite the setback, the second uprising in 1815, spearheaded by Miloš Obrenović, led to the creation of the autonomous Principality of Serbia. [1] This victory challenged both the Ottomans and Habsburgs. [1]

The Serbian Revolution’s significance extends beyond the establishment of an autonomous principality. It marked the beginning of the dismantling of Ottoman control in the Balkans, paving the way for future uprisings and the eventual emergence of independent Balkan states. [1]

The Greek War of Independence

Like the Serbian Revolution, the Greek War of Independence was a pivotal moment in the dismantling of the Ottoman Empire’s control in the Balkans. The Greeks, yearning for freedom after centuries of Ottoman oppression, rose up in 1821, fueled by heavy taxation, cultural suppression, and a burning desire for liberty. [1]

The flame of revolution was fanned by secret societies, notably the Filiki Eteria, which played a critical role in organizing and preparing for the uprising. [1] The cry of “Freedom or Death” echoed throughout Greece as people from all walks of life took up arms against their oppressors. [1]

The Ottoman response was brutal, exemplified by the horrific massacre at Chios. However, Greek determination only strengthened in the face of such atrocities. [1] The Greeks’ valiant struggle captivated Europe, drawing support from Philhellenes inspired by the Greek cause and its connection to ancient Greek ideals. [1] Lord Byron, the renowned poet, became a symbol of this international support, ultimately sacrificing his life for the cause of Greek freedom. [1]

The Greek War of Independence became intertwined with the geopolitical interests of European powers. Britain, France, and Russia eventually intervened, driven by a combination of sympathy for the Greek cause and a desire to weaken the Ottoman Empire. [1] Naval victories, particularly the decisive Battle of Navarino in 1827, where the combined fleets of the Great Powers crushed the Ottoman-Egyptian armada, paved the path to Greek independence. [2]

In 1832, the Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as an independent state. [2] The Great Powers, however, exerted their influence on the nascent nation, delineating its borders and installing a Bavarian Prince, Otto, as the first King of Greece. [2] This choice of a non-Greek ruler aimed to maintain the European balance of power and establish a government favorable to their interests in the Eastern Mediterranean. [2] The birth of modern Greece marked a significant shift in the geopolitical landscape of the region, signaling the decline of Ottoman power and the rise of new, independent nation-states. [2]

Liberal Revolutions in 19th-Century Europe

The 1820s and 1830s witnessed a wave of liberal revolutions across Europe, challenging the conservative order established by the Congress of Vienna. These uprisings were fueled by a potent mix of Enlightenment ideals, burgeoning nationalism, and economic discontent. While some achieved temporary success, others were brutally suppressed, underscoring the persistent struggle between liberalism and conservatism in 19th-century Europe.

In Spain, the return of King Ferdinand VII in 1814 marked the beginning of a clash between absolute monarchy and liberal aspirations. Ferdinand, eager to reassert his authority, abolished the liberal constitution adopted by the Cortes of Cádiz during his absence, plunging Spain into repression. However, in 1820, Rafael del Riego led a military uprising, demanding the restoration of the constitution. Ferdinand, under duress, agreed, ushering in the Trienio Liberal, a three-year period of liberal rule.

The Trienio Liberal witnessed a series of reforms, including freedom of the press, reduction of monastic orders, and the establishment of a parliamentary regime. However, it faced challenges from conservative factions and the clergy, who opposed the secularization of education and land. Moreover, the Holy Alliance, a coalition of conservative European monarchies, viewed Spain’s liberal experiment with suspicion.

In 1823, at the behest of the Holy Alliance, French troops invaded Spain, effectively crushing the liberal dream. Ferdinand was restored to absolute power, and a wave of retribution followed. The Trienio Liberal, though short-lived, left an indelible mark on Spanish history, highlighting the persistent tension between liberalism and conservatism that would continue to shape Spain’s political landscape.

Portugal also experienced a liberal revolution in 1820. Inspired by events in Spain, a liberal uprising in Porto demanded a constitutional framework. King John VI, having returned from Brazil after the Napoleonic Wars, reluctantly accepted the new constitution. Portugal’s first constitution, adopted in 1822, reflected liberal and Enlightenment ideals, mirroring developments in other parts of Europe. However, Portugal’s path to liberalism was marked by instability and conflict, including a civil war (the Miguelist Wars) following King John’s death in 1826.

The 1830s brought another wave of liberal uprisings, notably the July Revolution in France. Charles X, seeking to reassert absolute monarchical power, issued the July Ordinances in 1830. These ordinances, seen as an assault on liberal gains, ignited public fury, leading to “Three Glorious Days” of protests and clashes in Paris. The uprising forced Charles X to abdicate, ending the Bourbon monarchy’s restoration.

Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans, was proclaimed King of the French, establishing a constitutional monarchy that reflected the aspirations of the liberal bourgeoisie. The July Revolution’s impact reverberated across Europe, inspiring liberal movements and demonstrating the potential for popular uprisings to challenge conservative regimes.

Great Britain, in contrast to the continental revolutions, experienced a more gradual path to liberal reform. The Reform Act of 1832, though not granting universal suffrage, was a landmark achievement, expanding the electorate and redistributing parliamentary representation. This act addressed the growing demands of the middle and working classes for greater political participation, averting the kind of mass upheaval that gripped other European nations.

Across Europe, the liberal revolutions of the 1820s and 1830s left an enduring legacy. They demonstrated the growing power of liberal and nationalist ideas, the potential for popular uprisings to challenge the established order, and the need for governments to address the demands for greater political participation and social justice. These revolutions set the stage for further struggles and reforms in the decades to come, shaping the political landscape of Europe and paving the way for the more widespread revolutions of 1848.

The Risorgimento: Unification of Italy

The unification of Italy, or the Risorgimento, was a complex process that unfolded throughout the 19th century, culminating in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. The sources provide insight into the key players, events, and challenges that shaped this transformative period in Italian history.

Prior to unification, Italy was a fragmented patchwork of states, many under foreign control. The Austrian Empire held significant sway in the north, controlling Lombardy and Venetia. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by the House of Savoy, emerged as a leading force for unification. [1]

Early attempts at unification, such as the Carbonari uprisings in the 1820s, were met with suppression by Austrian forces. [2] These uprisings, driven by liberal and nationalist ideals, highlighted the desire for a unified and independent Italy, but lacked the necessary coordination and military strength to succeed.

The Revolutions of 1848, inspired by liberal and nationalist fervor sweeping across Europe, reignited the hopes for Italian unification. [3] Uprisings erupted in various Italian states, including the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, where calls for independence and a constitution challenged Bourbon rule. [3] In the Austrian-controlled north, the Five Days of Milan witnessed the expulsion of Austrian forces from the city. Venice declared itself a republic, defying Austrian control. [3]

Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia, seizing the opportunity, engaged in a war against Austria, aiming to unite Northern Italy under his rule. [3] However, despite initial successes, the revolutionary momentum waned due to a lack of coordination among the Italian states and the military might of Austria. [4]

The Crimean War (1853-1856) provided a crucial turning point for Italian unification. Victor Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia, skillfully positioned his kingdom on the side of the victorious British and French, gaining international recognition and strengthening his position. [5]

The appointment of Count Camillo Benso di Cavour as Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia in 1852 was instrumental in orchestrating unification. [5] Cavour, a shrewd diplomat and pragmatist, pursued a strategy of alliances and calculated risks. He forged a crucial alliance with Napoleon III of France, recognizing that Piedmont-Sardinia alone could not defeat Austria. [5]

Cavour cleverly provoked Austria into attacking Piedmont-Sardinia in 1859, triggering the Second War of Italian Independence. [5] With French support, Piedmont-Sardinia defeated Austria, gaining Lombardy. This victory fueled nationalist sentiment across Italy. [5] Several Northern Italian duchies, inspired by the Piedmontese success, overthrew their governments and joined Piedmont-Sardinia. [5]

Giuseppe Garibaldi, a charismatic revolutionary leader, played a pivotal role in unifying Southern Italy. [6] In 1860, Garibaldi and his legendary “Expedition of the Thousand” conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, further galvanizing the movement for unification. [6] Garibaldi’s decision to hand over his conquests to Piedmont-Sardinia solidified the path to a unified Italian kingdom. [6]

In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under Victor Emmanuel II, marking a major milestone in Italian unification. [6] However, unification was not yet complete. Venetia remained under Austrian control, and the Papal States, encompassing Rome, resisted unification.

Italy’s alliance with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in the acquisition of Venetia. [7] The Franco-Prussian War of 1870, which saw French troops withdrawn from Rome, allowed the Italian army to seize the city, completing Italian unification and establishing Rome as the capital. [8]

The unification of Italy had profound implications for the country and the European balance of power. However, the newly unified nation faced challenges, including regional disparities, political divisions, and the need to forge a national identity from a mosaic of diverse regions. Despite these challenges, the Risorgimento represented a triumph of nationalist aspirations and a pivotal moment in the shaping of modern Italy.

The Unification of Germany

Similar to the unification of Italy, the unification of Germany during the 19th century was a complex and multifaceted process, driven by a combination of nationalism, political maneuvering, and military might. The sources provide insight into the key figures, events, and challenges that culminated in the establishment of the German Empire in 1871.

Before unification, the German-speaking territories were divided into a multitude of states, loosely connected under the German Confederation, a fragile entity dominated by Austria. The Revolutions of 1848, inspired by liberal and nationalist aspirations, witnessed attempts to forge a unified German nation-state. However, these efforts faltered due to internal divisions and the resistance of conservative powers, notably Prussia and Austria.

Prussia, under the leadership of King Wilhelm I and his astute Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck, emerged as the driving force for unification. Bismarck, a master of realpolitik, understood that the path to unity lay in Prussian military strength and strategic diplomacy.

Bismarck’s approach, known as Realpolitik, prioritized pragmatic considerations and the pursuit of national interests over idealistic principles. He famously declared that the “great questions of the time will be decided by iron and blood,” signaling his willingness to use force and strategic maneuvering to achieve his goals.

Bismarck orchestrated a series of wars that ultimately led to German unification. The Danish War of 1864, fought alongside Austria, secured the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, territories with significant German populations. This conflict served as a prelude to Bismarck’s grander design.

In 1866, Bismarck skillfully maneuvered Austria into the Austro-Prussian War, a conflict that lasted a mere seven weeks. Prussia’s decisive victory at the Battle of Königgrätz shattered the old German Confederation and allowed Bismarck to establish the North German Confederation, a Prussian-dominated entity that excluded Austria from German affairs.

The Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 proved to be the final catalyst for unification. Bismarck, exploiting a diplomatic dispute over the Spanish throne, provoked France into declaring war. The South German states, bound by alliances with Prussia, joined the conflict, demonstrating their commitment to a unified Germany.

Prussian and allied forces decisively defeated the French army, capturing Emperor Napoleon III himself. The siege of Paris and the subsequent German victory led to the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine, a territory with a mixed German and French population, further fueling Franco-German animosity.

The culmination of Bismarck’s strategy came on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, where the German princes, recognizing King Wilhelm I of Prussia as their Emperor, proclaimed the German Empire. The unification of Germany under Prussian leadership had profound implications for the European balance of power.

The newly unified Germany, with its growing industrial and military might, emerged as a dominant force on the continent. Bismarck’s Realpolitik and the unification process itself set the stage for future conflicts and the complex web of alliances that would lead to World War I.

The Original Text

[Music] [Music] a time of Revolution a time of imperialism and a time when the seeds of conflict were swn join us as the era of Peace descend into the era of World War during the end of the last period the face of Europe changed wind and water was replaced with coal and steam small workshops with gigantic factories this this was the era of the Industrial Revolution it was a time when the slow rhythmical pace of agrarian life gave way to the Relentless heartbeat of machines when rural societies were uprooted migrating towards the Smoky Horizons of burgeoning cities and when Innovations in technology transportation and communication rewrote the possibilities of human existence most historians agree that the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution began around 7 1960 in Great Britain why Britain new agricultural advances led to less workers needed for farming adding to this Britain along with the rest of Europe was experiencing a population boom providing a larger Workforce the rise of private banking and the lack of an absolutist ruler also kept economic Affairs in the hands of more people a major factor was Britain’s Colonial Supremacy and their supplanting of the Dutch and French in the forging of a global Empire this gave industrialists access to markets all over the world further in Britain’s favor was its supplies of coal and iron ore which would become widely used in manufacturing processes the Catalyst for revolution though was the growing demand for cotton cloth textiles and woven fabrics the process involved two major parts spinning and weaving in 1733 John K patented the flying shuttle which sped up the weaving process with this Weavers could double their output on their looms by the late 1700s Edmund cartrite patented a mechanized Loom that could be powered by water further speeding up the weaving process but faster weaving led to shortages in yarn so the spinning process needed to be increased as well by 1768 James harre perfected the spinning jenny which allowed a single spinner to work multiple spools of thread simultaneously dramatically increasing the amount of yarn produced compared to the traditional Spinning Wheel the introduction of the spinning jenny not only augmented yarn production but also contributed to the growth of textile factories as these machines were more productive when grouped in larger numbers Richard arcrite exemplified this shift setting up his own Mill in 1769 using his patented water frame to spin cotton thread the water frame produced stronger yarn than the spinning jenny and needed to be placed beside a water source for power later Crompton combined the best elements of both the spinning jenny and the water frame into the spinning mule capable of producing both strong and fine Yarns in Greater quantities Britain was blessed with its access to water which led to the building of canals for easier transport and trade within a decade he had workers in waterp powerered Mills all over Britain arite was eventually granted a Knighthood for his Ingenuity and he died a fabulously wealthy man this shift led to changes in labor patterns with workers increasingly leaving homebased workshops to work in larger more efficient factories but soon after a breakthrough in technology pushed textile production through the roof in the 1760 s James Watt a Scottish engineer built an engine that was powered by steam it was able to pump water from mines much more efficiently than a previous engine model by Thomas nemman and this allowed miners access to more coal Coal was dense with energy so could be fired up and the heat it produced would in turn power the steam engine in 1782 watt’s introduction of the rotary engine expanded the utility of the steam engine far beyond pumping soon cotton Mills powered by the steam engine emerged all over Britain cotton products shot up exponentially in just 100 years and by the mid 1800s British cotton goods were being sold all over the world life in the factory was quite mundane and often dangerous many of the workers were from rural communities where work had always been diverse and at their own pace in a Factory the owners had more power than ever and were able to find their workers for different infractions from being a few minutes late to coming to work drunk larger offenses could result in immediate dismissal iron production also changed fairly rapidly after centuries of very little change a process developed called puddling the most efficient way to make rought iron out of crude iron in 1804 Richard Trevi built a locomotive for the penid Daran Iron Works in South Wales to transport iron this locomotive was the first to successfully haul a load on a railway soon after George Stevenson and his son built their own called Rocket which opened in 1830 connecting Liverpool to Manchester becoming the first public Railway Britain would soon be filled with thousands of miles of Railways by the tail endend of the Industrial Revolution around the mid- 1800s Britain was arguably the richest state on Earth this marked a shift in which Europe emanating from Britain emerged as the global economic and Industrial leader overtaking regions such as China and India which had historically been large and influential economies this is called the Great Divergence while there is no historical consensus a variety of factors are used to explain it the most obvious is the Industrial Revolution itself but it wouldn’t have been possible without Britain’s wealth of iron and coal and its easy access to water they also built off their intellectual movements in the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment as well as the large amounts of wealth accumulated in their large Colonial Empire the great Divergence is a crucial aspect of this period and its effects can still be felt today now the dominant Powers Austria Prussia Russia and Britain met at the Congress of Vienna in [Music] 1814 Prince metage foreign minister of Austria endorsed the principle of legitimacy aiming to restore monarchs and traditional structures that Napoleon had displaced this was part of a conservative response to the Revolutionary changes that occurred in France and elsewhere the Congress was a complex diplomatic event lasting until 1815 but was only the beginning of widespread conservative reaction to the radical changes of the French Revolution many monarchs deposed by Napoleon were restored like the Bourbons in France and Spain and the maintenance of aristocratic and monarchical Rule became Paramount over all other systems conservatism became the norm throughout Europe the peace was maintained through the concert of Europe which was based on the principle that the major powers of Europe initially Austria Russia Prussia Great Britain and later France would work together to solve international disputes and maintain peace and stability while conservative governments contined to rule throughout the 1800s other ideologies lay under the surface liberal and nationalist revolutions would come to dominate the post-napoleonic era in separate waves but the first major one began in the early 1800s in the heart of the Balkans for over 300 years the Serbian people endured the Yoke of of the Ottoman Empire a renegade group of Ottoman janises assassinated 72 members of the Serbian nobility displaying their lifeless heads in public this sparked forceful resistance and in 1804 the Serbian Revolution began the first Uprising was initially successful with a revolutionary Serbian government set up but by 1813 the Ottomans had reasserted control imposing even stricter me measur es while the initial Revolt wasn’t successful the second uprising of 1815 led by Milos the great saw the establishment of the autonomous principality of Serbia upsetting both the Ottomans and habsburgs it was later recognized as fully independent after the Ottomans were expelled and by 1882 Serbia was established as an independent Kingdom Under Milan the nearby the land of Plato and Aristotle lay under two centuries of Ottoman rule but the spirit of freedom kindled in the hearts of the Greek people was about to ignite a revolution that would Echo Through the Ages Greece a land with a glorious past suffered under the weight of Ottoman oppression heavy Taxation and cultural suppression were the bitter realities of the day but the flame of Liberty was found by secret societies among them the filik ataria founded to liberate Greece played a pivotal role in organization the call for Freedom or death became the rallying Cry of a Nation yearning for Independence in 1821 after a few setbacks the revolution erupted from the pelones to the mountains of epirus Greeks of all walks of life took up arms and the Greek war of independence had begun the ottoman response was brutal exemplified by the massacre at chios yet the Greek resolve only strengthened fueling their fight for liberty the Greek struggle captivated Europe Phil helin inspired by the Greek cause joined the fight the poet Lord Byron became a symbol of this international support eventually the geopolitical interests of Britain France and Russia led to their intervention Naval victories and the decisive battle of navarino in 18 27 where the combined Fleet of the great Powers crushed the ottoman Egyptian Armada paved the way for Greek Independence In 1832 the Treaty of Constantinople recognized Greece as an independent state the great Powers decided on the borders of the new state and installed a Bavarian Prince Otto as the first king of Greece a non- Greek was chosen so as not to disturb the European balance of power and to establish a friendly government in the East Mediterranean the birth of modern Greece marked the end of one struggle and the beginning of another the building of a Nation From the Ashes of foreign rule in the 1820s Europe was met with its first major wave of liberal Revolutions in 1814 King Ferdinand iith returned to Spain a nation weary from war and occupation but he found that during his absence the Cortez of cadth a new Parliament adopted a liberal constitution in 1812 quick to reassert absolute power he abolished the Constitution plunging Spain into a period of repression in January 1820 Raphael Del rgo a charismatic army officer led a military Uprising demanding the restoration of the Constitution Ferdinand was forced to restore the constitution ushering in the trio liberal 3 years of liberal rule reforms were initiated like freedom of the press reduction of monastic orders and the establishment of a parliamentary regime but the revolution faced challenges as conservative factions resisted and the clergy opposed the secularization of education and land abroad the holy Alliance of conservative European monarchies viewed Spain’s liberal experiment with suspicion in 1823 at the behest of the Holy Alliance French troops TRS known as the 100,000 sons of St Louie invaded Spain the Battle of trokadero marked the end of the liberal dream Ferdinand was restored to absolute power and retribution against liberals followed though brief the trio liberal left an indelible mark on Spanish history it was a harbinger of the persistent struggle between conservatism and liberalism which would continue with a series of Civil Wars known as the carlist Wars in Portugal the Royal Court had fled to Brazil during Napoleon’s invasion after his defeat a liberal Revolution began spreading from Porto in 1820 King Joel v 6 who returned to Portugal in 1821 after the Brazilian Declaration of Independence accepted the new constitutional framework albeit reluctantly Portugal’s first constitution was adopted in 1822 it was influenced by liberal and Enlightenment ideals mirroring similar developments in other parts of Europe like the Spanish constitution of 1812 after the death of King joa in 1826 Portugal plunged into a civil war known as the megalist or liberal Wars early 19th century Italy was still a land either divided or controlled by foreign powers to the north the regions of Lombardi and venetsia were were combined into a single Kingdom but in reality were Crown lands of the Austrian Empire in the Northwest was the kingdom of pedman Sardinia it comprised the island of Sardinia but the more important region was pedant on the mainland run from Turin by the house of seavoy central Italy continued to be dominated by smaller duches and the Papal States but in the South lay the largest Italian Kingdom of the time the kingdom of the two sicilies initially this was two separate kingdoms the kingdom of Naples and the kingdom of Sicily which had been part of the massive Spanish Empire under Charles I of the Habsburg Dynasty but after the war of Spanish succession it came under control of the Spanish Bourbons when King Charles became King Charles III of Spain in 1759 he had to renounce his claims to Naples and Sicily giving the throne to his son Ferdinand Ferdinand f Naples during the Napoleonic Wars but was restored in the aftermath just in time for another revolution in this era of uncertainty a secret society emerged from the Shadows the carbonari or charcoal burners were a network of secret revolutionary societies spread across Italy perhaps an offshoot of the Freemasons composed mainly of intellectuals students and Military Officers they were United by a desire for Itali Italian Independence and liberal reform in 1820 discontent in Naples reached a boiling point the carbonari seizing the moment ignited an uprising they demanded a constitution and liberal reforms and Under Pressure King Ferdinand agreed emboldened by the success in Naples the Revolutionary fervor spread to pment and other Italian regions but the carbonari call for change resonated too loudly challenging the restored monarchies Austrian troops marched into Italy determined to restore order and suppress any challenge to the conservative status quo in the end the revolts in Italy were unsuccessful the carbonari faced persecution and many were forced into Exile or underground despite the suppression their legacy endured inspiring the Next Generation to continue the struggle for Italian unification in the vast Empire ruled by the romanovs a simmering unrest was stirring under Zar Alexander the first Russia was a land of Stark contrasts opulent royalty and impoverished surfs despite an era of military Glory the Zars failure to implement meaningful reforms fueled discontent among the educated Elite though Alexander had been one of the foremost factors in Napoleon’s defeat it was perhaps the little Corporal who’d have the last laugh during the Napoleonic Wars the ideals of the Enlightenment and Revolution were exposed to Russian officers and Aristocrats influenced by these liberal and constitutional ideals they planned to create a Russia free from despotism and they soon got their chance in December 1825 Emperor Alexander died unexpectedly leaving a void on the throne a succession crisis ensued his brother Constantine was next in line but had secretly renounced his claim to the throne so the throne went to San Nicholas another of Alexander’s brothers on December 14th 1825 the deists who supported Constantine made their stand in Senate square but they found themselves outnumbered and out maneuvered the Revolt was poorly organized and lacked widespread support Zar Nicholas I determined to maintain order and his authority responded decisively the Revolt was suppressed by the military and the leaders were arrested in the aftermath five of the Revolt leaders were executed and many others were exiled to Siberia the next decade brought more Revolution and more reform as nationalism and liberalism broke down the old conservative structure arguably the most significant of the 1830 uprises risings occurred in Paris France the spirit of Revolution once ignited in 1789 was about to flare up again the bourbon monarchy restored after the fall of Napoleon faced a nation yearning for change after Louis VI 18th died Charles I 10th came to the throne in 1824 seeking to reestablish the absolute power of the monarchy his Reign marked by conservative and reactionary policies alienated many especially the burgeoning Bourgeois and liberal thinkers in July 1830 Charles I 10th issued the July ordinances dissolving the Chamber of deputies restricting the press and altering the Electoral laws these acts seen as a direct assault on liberal gains sparked immediate public outcry Paris erupted barricades Rose and the streets filled with protesters the people of Paris from workers to the bouris united in defiance against the monarchy the three Glorious Days of 27th to the 29th of July were marked by Fierce clashes the tricolor flag symbol of the Revolution flew over barricades the Insurrection ended with the abdication of Charles I 10th and the fall of the bourbon monarchy in the revolution’s aftermath Louis Philipe Duke of oron was proclaimed claimed King of the French he was called the bouro Monarch because of his popularity among the upper middle class a constitutional monarchy was established reflecting the aspirations of the liberal Bourgeois the July Revolution had profound implications it redefined the French political landscape and inspired liberal movements across Europe following the Congress of Vienna in 18155 the Austrian Netherlands had been part part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands set up as a buffer State against France but in this region both Dutch speaking Flemings and french-speaking walloons both predominantly Catholic were discontent under Dutch rule in August 1830 a performance at the Brussels Opera House ignited revolutionary fervor the nationalistic Opera louet dep portii resonated with the audience sparking a passionate demonstration that quickly escalated into a full-blown Uprising Brussels erupted in defiance with barricades erected and clashes with Dutch troops King William I first of the Netherlands attempted to quell the uprising with military force but without success in September revolutionaries formed a provisional government declaring independence a new nation was born amidst the cheers of its people the kingdom of Belgium the London Conference of 1830 to 1831 recognized Belgian Independence leading to its establishment as a constitutional monarchy Leopold I of saxberg was chosen as the first king of the belgians marking the start of a new era Britain took a different path in 1798 the Irish influenced by revolutionary fur from France and led by the Society of United Irishmen sought to end British rule an establish an independent Irish Republic the uprising was violently suppressed but it highlighted the fragility of the political situation and the potential for future unrest this was a major Catalyst for the act of Union which United Great Britain and Ireland into the United Kingdom but apart from the growing nationalism in Ireland Britain had always remained more liberal than most states on the continent appeasing their growing Bourgeois class King George III died in 1820 aged 81 as the longest reigning British monarch until that point and Still Remains the longest reigning male he oversaw many significant military conflicts including the Seven Years War the American Revolutionary War and Napoleonic Wars all of which you can check out in our last video George the fourth then took the throne after having acted as Regent during his ailen father’s final years but it was Parliament who controlled most matters as George had no surviving heirs it was his 64-year-old brother William IV sometimes known as the Sailor King who succeeded him his Reign oversaw a number of significant reforms passed by parliament under the parliamentary system representation was grossly unequal rotten burs usually more wealthy but with few voters send the same number of MPS to Parliament as large cities as the middle and working classes grew in number and influence so did their demand for representation in response the wigs under prime minister Lord gray introduced the Reform Bill it proposed sweeping changes to the electoral system aiming to make parliamentary representation more Equitable the House of Commons the lower house passed the bill but it faced resistance in the House of Lords the Upper House amidst growing public unrest King William I fourth stepped in threatening to create new peers to pass the Bill he pressured the Lords into relenting in June 1832 the Reform Act became law to widespread a claim the Reform Act of 1832 redrew the electoral map it abolished rotten burrowers created new constituencies and expanded the electorate though far from granting Universal suffering it was a Monumental step towards a more democratic Britain it was also during this government that slavery was abolished within most of the Empire and that child labor was restricted but the other nationalist uprisings in Europe didn’t succeed polish forces failed to liberate themselves from Russian Rule and Austria quelled the uprisings in the Italian states these were but the faint murmurs of a bigger revolutionary movement in the late 18 40s the springtime of peoples 1848 the culmination of a decade of bad harvests an economic downturn and The Surge of liberalism and nationalism Italy stood at the crossroads of change though divided into multiple States the Italian people were still joined by the common dream of a United independent Italy in the Kingdom of the two sicilies Ferdinand I’s Reign ended in 182 5 and after King Francis who mostly kept out of politics his son Ferdinand II proved to be popular problems began during his violent suppression of liberal calls for a constitution in 1848 Kohls instead called for a revolt against bourbon rule completely declaring independence by April they would remain independent for 16 months before ferdinand’s troops invaded and subdued the island further north in the Kingdom of Sardinia King Charles Albert granted a constitution the albertine statute and took up the cause of Italian unification even the Papal States and Tuscany granted constitutions in the Austrian controlled North the 5 days of Milan were a significant Victory as the austrians were expelled from the city Venice declared itself a republic under Daniel aanin defying Austrian rule the Austrian Empire determined to maintain its grip on the Italian territories responded with military force Charles Albert of Sardinia pedman took this as an opportunity to unite Northern Italy under his Rule and engaged in the war against Austria field Marshall radetzki a seasoned Commander played a pivotal role in suppressing the uprisings despite initial successes the Revolutionary momentum waned the lack of coordination among the Italian States and the military might of Austria led to a series of defeats Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emanuel II and an Armistice was signed this was just the first war of Italian Independence but it played a crucial role in placing the kingdom of Sardinia as the foremost Contender for unification in France amidst The Growing Pains of industrialization political discontent and social injustice set the stage for change under the rule of King Louis Philipe the bouris flourished but the working class and peasantry languished under economic hardship he promised to be a more Centrist leader than the Bourbons following a just Mia the banquet campaign a series of political Gatherings calling for reform gained momentum but when the government banned a major banquet in February 1848 The public’s frustration boiled over into open revolt from February 22nd to 24th Paris erupted barricades Rose and the people clashed with troops faced with widespread unrest Louis Philipe abdicated and fled to England following the fall of a monarchy the second French Republic was proclaimed it was based on Liberty equality and fraternity the same principles of the First Republic set up during the French Revolution the new government implemented various reforms including the establishment of universal male suffrage the abolition of slavery in French colonies and the introduction of social workshops for the unemployed in the presidential election held in December the winner was a somewhat familiar name Charles Louie Napoleon bonapart the nephew of the last ruler of France who dared to Crown himself Emperor but within a few years Napoleon followed the same path aoup in 1851 and the establishment of the second French Empire in 1852 he named himself Napoleon theii recognizing his uncle as Napoleon the first and the brief reign of his cousin Napoleon II France once again had an authoritarian Emperor after the Napoleonic Wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire the German Confederation formed in Central Europe a patchwork of principalities and kingdoms here began a series of revolutions that would shake the very foundations of German Society inspired by the February revolution in France the flame of Revolt ignited in the German states their demands rooted in National Unity liberal reforms and the establishment of constitutional governments the middle class workers professors and students alike rose up in cities like Berlin mus and Vienna in a groundbreaking move the Frankfurt Parliament convened a symbol of Hope for a United Germany delegates from across the Confederation gathered to draft a constitution for a unified nation state but the task proved daunting the conservative Powers particularly Prussia and Austria resisted the tide of Change by 1849 the revolutions faltered and the Frankfurt Parliament dissolved its dream of Unity unfulfilled so German unification was to remain on the back burner for now after Austrian Emperor Francis also the last Holy Roman Emperor died in 1835 his son Ferdinand the first took the throne but proved to be a somewhat passive ruler due to his severe epilepsy but in 1848 nationalist aspiration simmered among the Empire’s varied peoples apart from the German and Italians which we touched on already there were Bohemians poles ukrainians hungarians and many others each yearning for autonomy and rights in March Vienna exploded into protest as students and workers took to the streets demanding liberal reforms the powerful Chancellor metage symbol of the old order resigned and fled marking the end of an era in Hungary the charismatic loyo poo led a revolution for Independence and a democratic Constitution the Hungarian Revolt became one of the most formidable challenges to Habsburg Authority simultaneously in the Italian and Bohemian land of the Empire revolts also erupted the Habsburg monarchy unwilling to relent responded with military force Emperor Ferdinand abdicated the throne in December and under the leadership of the next Habsburg Emperor Frank Joseph the revolts were brutally suppressed with the help of 300,000 Russian troops the austrians put down the Rebellion by 1849 imposing martial law in the wake of the revolutions the Habsburg Empire moved towards a more centralized and absolutist regime under France Joseph Ireland had been joined with Great Britain forming the United Kingdom in 1801 but the majority Catholic agricultural workers of the island found themselves underrepresented in Parliament as Protestant landowners held the political power in 1829 after a decade’s long emancipation movement led by Daniel o’ Connell the Roman Catholic Relief act finally allowed Catholics into Parliament but taking inspiration from the French some Irish elements remained more radical at first this movement called young Ireland wasn’t well received but during the 1840s disaster struck a potato blight devastated potato crops for several years casting down a period of mass starvation disease and immigration this was the Great Famine or great hunger the potato was the staple food for a large portion of the population particularly the rural Poe the famine led to the death of approximately 1 million people and the immigration of another million significantly reducing the Island’s population British response to the famine was widely criticized for being inadequate and in some cases exacerbating the problem this contributed to a growing resentment against British rule in Ireland the young Ireland movement a political and cultural organization was inspired by the wave of Revolutions in Europe in 1848 under the leadership of figures like William Smith o’ban the movement rebelled against British rule partly motivated by the desire for Irish Independence and partly by frustration with the British response to the famine the rebellion was relatively small scale and was quickly suppressed by the British authorities the leaders of the Rebellion were arrested and convicted of sedition despite many failures the Revolutions of 1848 had profound long-term implications they highlighted The Growing Power and discontent of the work and middle classes the strength of nationalist sentiments and the need for social and political reform during this time the industrial revolution had spread from Britain to the continent firmly gaining a hold after the Napoleonic Wars France and the German states set up engineering and other technical schools during the 1800s governments were much more involved in these projects than in Britain and grants were awarded to investors who built long stretches of iron Railways and canals connecting Europe at a scale never before seen during the course of the Industrial Revolution because of less disease and less devastating Wars Europe’s population almost doubled reaching around 250 million leading to an increase in urban centers because of the influx of inhabitants to the urban centers most workers lived in terribly cramped conditions industrial towns had roow houses for workers to live near their work site Reports say up to five or six people had to share a single bed Outdoors wasn’t much better Urban Roads had open drains and apart from the horrid smell were quite unhealthy and quick to spread disease industrial capitalism changed the nature of the middle class it was originally just a person who lived in the city a burger from where we get the term Bourgeois these could be artist an or Merchants lawyers writers and others soon joined this group with the rise of banking and commerce but after industrialization the new bouris became those who built factories and bought the machines for their workers to run the Bourgeois became wealthy over time but were still not considered part of the landed nobility and they considered themselves marginalized compared to the upper class of society they were still well ahead of the very workers they employed though A working class which came to be dominated by Factory workers known as the proletariat these workers were often subjected to miserable work conditions working shift 6 days a week from 12 to 16 hours with just a short time for lunch and dinner wages would have been a meager pittance as minimum wage still did not exist life at the cotton mill was especially dirty working in intense summer heat locked inside for 14 hours a day still even worse than the Mills were the mines men would dig the mine and dig for the coal while women children and horses would transport the coal to a lift death was common due to cave-ins explosions and Suffocation women and children also commonly worked in factories as both had worked in pre-industrial societies this wasn’t seen as novel or strange child labor became much more more extreme though being placed in dangerous situations or small areas only they could fit due to their smaller hands they were especially useful in the spinning of cotton and crawling under the machines to grab loose ends you could find children as young as seven enduring 15-hour days in the intense heat of these Mills they were also much cheaper to hire than an adult male by 1830 women and children made up the majority of those work working in Cotton Mills in 1833 though the parliament of the UK introduced the factory act which served as a regulatory law it restricted working hours for those under 18 years old and outright prohibited work for those under nine child labor decreased but children still work to help support their families women ended up replacing much of the child Workforce the Dismal conditions in the mines Factor and even housing conditions gave rise to a reform movement called socialism this early socialism was based not on competition but cooperation the word itself is derived from the Latin meaning to share the proponents of this approach were termed utopian socialists because they tended to conceptualize ideal societies without necessarily detailing the Practical means to achieve them they generally believed that Society could be transformed PE pefully and through the Goodwill and moral conviction of people including the wealthy and Powerful utopian socialism would be criticized by later analysts like KL Marx changes occurred among a workers as well who formed labor organizations in order to ensure better wages and working conditions skilled workers like coal miners and iron workers were some of the first to create trade unions as banding together was the only way to Garner any power against the bouris some even withheld their labor what’s known as a strike in order to gain improvements for themselves and others in their industry these unions sometimes became National the largest in the mid 1800s being The Amalgamated Society of Engineers formed in Britain in 1851 in exchange for Union Jews trade unions were able to provide unemployment benefits to their workers back in the East the weakening of the Ottoman Empire now often referred to as the sick man of Europe created a power vacuum and made them a target of Russian expansionist Ambitions uncertainties arose over the fate of Eastern Europe and the unstable balance of power what became known as the Eastern question the spark ignited over the rights to the Christian holy sites in the ottoman controlled Holy Land Russia asserting itself as the protector of Eastern Orthodox Christians now had their rationale to go on the offensive in July 1853 the Russians occupied the danubian principalities of Valia and mavia territory under ottoman Susy leading to an ottoman declaration of war in October the start of the Crimean War the war witnessed early Naval engagement in the Black Sea including the Battle of sinop in November where a Russian Fleet destroyed an ottoman squadron at Harbor killing 3,000 outrage mounted in Britain and France and soon they declared war against Russia in March 1854 the Western Powers didn’t want the massive Empire to supplant the ottoman presence in the East and upset the balance of power the most famous phase of the war saw the Allied Forces of the British French Ottomans and later sardinians Landing Crimea and lay Siege to the Russian naval base at sasap pole The Siege lasted almost a year and involved several major battles including the battles of balaclava and inan the Battle of balaclava has lived on in infamy because of a military action involving British light Cavalry the British Light Brigade commanded by Lord cardigan was supposed to pursue and harass a retreating Russian Artillery unit but due to a miscommunication the Brigade was sent into a different Valley where they were confronted by well-prepared Russian Artillery and Infantry despite the obvious danger the Light Brigade charged down the valley with over 600 cavalrymen they faced intense fire from the Russian forces positioned on the surrounding Hills although they reached the Russian Artillery they were forced to retreat under heavy fire resulting in heavy casualties it remained a tactical failure and the Russians won the battle at balaclava but the misstep became emblematic of the bravery and discipline of the Cavalry and the futility of war the story was immortalized in a famous poem by Alfred Lord Tennyson The Charge of the Light Brigade which emphasized the Valor of the cavalryman in the face of certain death despite the setback saster pole fell in September 1855 and the conflict ended with the Treaty of Paris in March 1856 Russia conceded to a neutral black sea prohibiting warships and fortifications along its coasts the return of of all conquered territories and recognition of the Ottoman Empire the Crimean War’s significance lies not only in its immediate outcomes but also in its demonstration of the power of modern technology and media in Warfare it exposed the inadequacies in military command and medical treatment leading to several reforms most famously nursing care reforms led by Florence Nightingale she improved sanitation conditions and helped make nursing a professional middle class occupation Russia having lost territories and suffered casualties with almost half a million dead didn’t interfere in European Affairs for the rest of the period Britain on the other side of the continent also wrew from European Affairs Austria having stayed neutral was seen as a betrayal in St Petersburg and Austria lost what allies it had the balance of power was crumbling leaving a power vacuum this was the perfect time for the birth of two great Powers after the Italian states failed in the Revolutions of 1848 it seemed like the Italian Peninsula would never become a unified entity the seavoy king of pedman Sardinia Victor Emanuel II brought his kingdom to prominence by aiding the French and British forces against the Russians during the Crimean War his appointment of the count of cavor as his prime minister in 185 2 brought Swift economic changes that allowed Revenue to go into the military despite this kavo knew his Italian kingdom was still too weak to take on the austrians on their own so he formed an alliance with Napoleon III at that point the emperor of France cavor then cleverly provoked the austrians into attacking pedman in 1859 the French came to their aid and defeated the austrians after this second war of Italian Independence the French came away with Nissan seavoy while the kingdom of pedman Sardinia gained Lombardy from the austrians later many Northern Italian duches like Tuscany Palmer and Moda driven by a sense of nationalism overthrew their governments and joined pedman uniting in what came to be called the United provinces of central Italy in southern Italy The Saga of unification truly caught fire with the exploits of JP p garab Baldi a name that would echo through history as a symbol of courage and freedom garabaldi with a heart fiercely devoted to the Italian cause led the legendary expedition of the thousand in 1860 this band of volunteers seemingly Against All Odds conquered the kingdom of the two sicilies their victory was a beacon a rallying call to unification to further the Nationalist Italian cause garabaldi handed his conqu quests to pedman in 1861 unification was finally achieved and Italy was proclaimed as a kingdom under the seavoy king Victor Emanuel II yet like all great Tales the unification of Italy or rento was but a beginning unification was still not complete Venicia or venetsia the region to the Northeast where lay the large city of Venice was under Austrian control and the small region of the Papal States remained under the pope though the Germans also failed to unite during the 1848 revolutions their time came later looking to the prussians to lead them in the unification effort Prussia under the hoenor became quite a powerful Kingdom both politically and militarily during the 1860s vilhelm the first became the official Prussian king after the death of his brother and immediately came to blows with the more liberal land tag a representative assembly introduced to Prussia after the 1848 revolutions to facilitate his attempts of enlarging the Army and political power he appointed as his prime minister a certain man cementing a partnership that would accomplish tremendous Feats enter Otto von bismar a Prussian nobleman turned Statesman with a vision that would Forge a nation Through Blood and iron appointed as the Minister President of Prussia he saw the fragmentation of German territories not as a medley of charming diversity but as an anvil awaiting the hammer to craft a unified empire bismar was willing to ignore parliamentary proceedings and use tax revenues to strengthen the Army utto Von bism Mar’s approach to statecraft known as Ra politique was characterized by a pragmatic and practical approach to politics with a focus on the realities of power rather than ideals or ethical considerations the term itself translates roughly to the politics of reality and it emphasized the use of power and the national interest of the state above all else pragmatism over reality Wars only for specific goals and the maintenance of power bismar knew that the path to Unity was through the might of Prussia and astute diplomacy entwined with the careful timing of War his eyes turned first to the north where the Danish war of 1864 became the Prelude to his his Grand Design the first of three short but very significant Wars with Austrian assistance the prussians stood side by side to rest the duches of sches and holin from the kingdom of Denmark’s grasp but this Alliance was only temporary in 1866 bismar goed the austrians into war the austr Prussian war of 1866 known as the 7even weeks War erupted over the administration of these conquered territories prussia’s victory was Swift and decisive beating the austrians at congrats leading to the dissolution of the old German Confederation and the establishment of the north German Confederation with Prussia uncontestably at its Helm while Austria was excluded from German Affairs the southern German states mostly Catholic instead remained independent but Allied themselves with Prussia because of their fear of the French to their West Italy sided with the prussians during this war and after their Victory Italy was awarded Venetia leaving only the Papal States left to complete Italian unification Prussia now in control of the north German Confederation soon saw France as a threat themselves bismar took advantage of a dispute over the Throne of bourbon Spain and provoked the French under Napoleon III into declaring war Napoleon III’s rule in France was initially authoritarian with tight control over the Press public expression and political dissent despite this his regime also ushered in new Public Works and the modernization of the French economy in the 1860s Napoleon theii began to liberalize his regime allowing for more public debate and legislative power the core legislative gained a greater role in the legislative process with increased powers of debate and Amendment but still its powers remained limited compared to the executive authority of the emperor during Napoleon’s rule the French economy grew rapidly with the expansion of the Railway Network significant investment in industry and the promotion of the banking sector the narrow medieval streets and Alleyways were replaced with spacious boulevards and larger public squares and plazas an underground sewer system was built along with street lights powered by gas the period of the Second Empire is often remembered for its contributions to the modernization of France including significant urban renewal in Paris under the direction of George Eugene hosman often referred to as housem maniz which gave Paris much of its modern form once the Franco Prussian War began in 1870 cleverly provoked by the M dispatch it stirred a wave of nationalistic fervor that swept across the South German states who honored their Alliance and joined the north German Confederation under the leadership of vilhelm King of Prussia and bismar the more numerous and modernized Prussian forces along with their allies in the Confederation halted the French advance and made their own way toward Paris the German side was much too strong and at sadan captured Napoleon the third himself soon after Paris fell Rome was under the protection of the French but they withdrew from the city during the war allowing the Italian Army to March into the stored City and Annex it in September Italy was finally unified as the Kingdom of Italy for the first time in history and Rome became the new Italian capital in France Emperor Napoleon’s forces were vanquished and Paris lay besieged as a poignant symbol for the humbled French the German princes recognized King vilhelm of Prussia as their emperor in the opulent Hall of Mirrors at versailes and a new Empire was proclaimed on January 18th 1871 the German Empire a patchwork of States under Prussian Supremacy was born they annexed alus Lorraine from the French and the second French Empire crumbled the war brought a period of turmoil in a battered France before the establishment of the third French Republic a system of government that would last until World War II the new German State meant the Triumph of military authoritarianism and the failure of a liberal constitutional system Bismark the Iron Chancellor the architect of this Grand edifice would later say the great questions of the time will be decided by Iron and blood and at this moment he was correct this period was marked by the unifications of Italy and Germany but the other European powers went through their own significant changes after the Revolutions of 184 48 in Great Britain Mass upheaval was averted because of more liberal reform not to be overlooked was Britain’s enormous economic expansion thanks to the Industrial Revolution which also kept Rebellion tempered the industrial middle classes obtained significant wealth and though the working class still lived in deplorable conditions their wages increased after King William Queen Victoria granddaughter of George III came to the throne at 18 and ruled for over 63 years the second longest reign of any British monarch at that time the Victorian era named after her was a period of great industrial cultural political scientific and Military change within the United Kingdom and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire a sense of Duty and morality was entwined with British national pride and this reached down to the work class the wigs or today’s liberals had been responsible for the Reform Act of 1832 and the Tories or conservatives passed additional reform legislation in the Reform Act of 1867 passed under Benjamin Israeli still though while this significantly expanded voting rights Universal male suffrage was still decades away the Austrian Empire was one of the states that succeeded in suppressing the Revolutions of 1848 stifling the Nationalist fervor in their territories they restored their autocratic rule without reform but they were weakened after their loss to the prussians in 1866 this gave the hungarians a chance to rise up once again negotiations began and the result came just a year later the orlik refers to the compromise of 1867 a political agreement that restructured the Habsburg Empire it created a new political entity that aimed to balance the power between the Austrian Germans and the hungarians establishing the dual monarchy of Austria Hungary both Austria and Hungary were to have their own governments and legislatures and their own capitals the Austrian Capital remained at Vienna and the Hungarian Capital was at Buddha the head of both States would still be the Emperor of Austria who also became king of Hungary the orlik was meant to bring stability by giving Hungary more autonomy but it also created new tensions other nationalities within the Empire sought similar Arrangements leading to complex internal Politics the compromise did not fully satisfy any of the national groups and often led to gridlock in the administration of the Empire further east Russia remained an autocratic Society with most still living rurally and relying on an agricultural economy Nicholas I took the throne amid the decemberist revolt and his Reign is often characterized by his Stern and conservative rule focused on the doctrine of autocracy Orthodoxy and nationality he was known for his reactionary policies stringent censorship and a vast secret police Network that suppressed descent after the emperor’s death and Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War in 1856 many realized conservative ideals needed to soften and Make Way for modernization and reform this was accomplished under the next Emperor Alexander II Alexander is perhaps best known for his emancipation reform of 1861 which freed the Surfs who were bound to the land and to the nobility peasants were also expected to repay the state through installments paid to the local meia or Village commune Alexander also modernized the military education and the Russian economy but despite these reforms his Reign was not without descent radical groups believed the reforms did not go far enough and sought more dramatic change this discontent led to several assassination attempts and on March 13th 1881 Alexander II was killed by members of the revolutionary group The People’s will Alexander II’s death profoundly affected Russian history leading to a period of coun reforms under his son Alexander iiii who revers many of his father’s liberal policies in favor of increased autocracy this part of the long 19th century also brought about new cultural and intellectual movements which challenged earlier ideals alongside the Industrial Revolution neoclassicism a powerful artistic and cultural movement emerged in the mid 18th century that sought to revive the classical art and architecture of ancient Greece and Rome it was a response to the baroan roko Styles favoring Clarity Simplicity and enduring Elegance in the Age of Enlightenment A Renewed interest in classical Antiquity took hold archaeological discoveries such as those at Pompei and herculanum fueled fascination with the ancient world philosophers and artists turned to classical models for inspiration valuing rationality and symmetry in painting artists like Jack Louie devid embraced neoclassicism depicting scenes of classical history and mythology with a focus on realism and moral virtue sculpture under artists like Antonio Canova returned to the grace and simplicity of ancient Greece and Rome architecture underwent a classical Revival neoclassical buildings characterized by Grand columns domes and clean lines Rose across Europe and America these structures symbolized democratic ideals order and as was becoming more clear a Timeless Beauty neoclassicism extended its reach beyond the Arts influencing fashion with Empire waistlines and classical draping apart from neoclassicism the 1800s saw the Revival of many former European Styles in the form of neogothic Neo Renaissance Neo barok and roko Revival seeking to balance the rational and reasoned methods of the Enlightenment with the human elements of emotion and Imagination the artistic and intellectual movement of Romanticism emerged Romanticism celebrated individual emotion personal values and Imagination as the highest forms of human experience it emphasized subjectivity and the uniqueness of each person romantic artists and thinkers frequently position themselves in opposition to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and the industrialization of society nature was often seen as a refuge from the artificial walls of civilization so romantic artists and writers had a deep fascination with it viewing nature as a source of beauty and a manifestation of sublime power that could evoke a and wonder there was also a strong interest in national identity and the preservation of folk Traditions languages and histories emerging in the form of romantic nationalism this was partly a reaction against the universalism of the Enlightenment and the Cosmopolitan culture of the urban Elite Romanticism was intrigued by the mystical the mysterious and the supernatural this is evident in the literature and art of the time which often explored Gothic themes The Uncanny and the transcendental this Gothic literature took shape in what is regarded as the first science fiction novel Mary Shell’s Frankenstein and in more Chilling Tales like those works by Edgar aleno others look to history and figures they deemed more exotic like karid kublan many romantic authors experimented with cocaine opium or other drugs in order to alter their state of mind and Consciousness the Romantic Movement included many artistic disciplines and included poets like Lord Byron novelists like Mary shell and composers like ludig van Beethoven in the visual arts Romanticism led to new styles that emphasized Vivid colors and free expression a Spanish painter and print maker Francisco goyer is often considered the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns his works such as the 3rd of May 1808 reflect both the romantic interest in the individual experience and a critical eye on Society Eugene deac was a French romantic artist famous for his use of expressive brush strokes and study of the optical effects of color his painting Liberty Leading the People is an iconic image of the era embodying the spirit of the July Revolution and the emphasis on emotion and nationalism Caspar David Friedrich a German landscape painter is best known for his allegorical Landscapes which typically feature contemplative figure silhouetted against night skies morning Mists Baron trees or gothic ruins his paintings like wander above the Sea of fog epitomize romanticisms preoccupation with the sublime and the individual’s relationship with nature out of Romanticism a rejection emerged called realism realism was characterized by a focus on ordinary people and everyday situations rather than the idealized heroic or exotic subjects typical of Romanticism realist artists and writers strove for detailed and accurate depictions of the world around them they aim to portray subjects truthfully without idealization and with attention to the nuances of everyday life many realist Works were critical of social structures and Norms often highlighting the lives of the working class the poor and other marginalized groups the British novelist Charles Dickens is most known for his realist novels Focus focusing on the working classes during Britain’s industrial age his stories depict the harsh conditions of urban areas in a realistic and often jarring way realism made it into the visual arts as well especially during the latter half of the 1800s the movement was led primarily by the French whose realist paintings depicted Real World scenes and the commoner place in it paintings were made to reflect a more accurate snapshot of daily life this is exemplified with Gustav Corb the most prominent realist painter regular people became the focus and were depicted on a grand scale shining a light on those who had previously been neglected it is no surprise then that Corb was a staunt socialist involved in the Paris commune of the 1870s he justified his work by his famous words I have never seen either Angels or goddesses so I am not interested in in painting them as to be expected his work like the stone Breakers was not generally accepted among the higher classes as they saw no value in the highlighting of mundane work just as important the results of the scientific and Industrial revolutions once again fed into more scientific advancements Louie pter a French biologist had a massive breakthrough in human health with his germ theory of disease while in chemistry the Russian scientist Dimitri Mev classified all known elements on earth into a periodic table based on their atomic weights Michael Faraday made several key discoveries in electromagnetism including the principles of electromagnetic induction diamagnetism and electrolysis his invention of the electric generator or Dynamo laid the foundation for the use of electricity as a practical power source Charles Darwin’s on the orig of species and Descent of Man introduced the idea of natural selection and that humans were descended from an animal species dramatically changing the way scientists understood the development of life on Earth from the 1870s onwards there was a period of Rapid Industrial Development primarily in Western Europe North America and Japan this was the Second Industrial Revolution following the first which focused on Steam steam engines textile manufacturing and iron production this subsequent phase was characterized by technological socioeconomic and cultural changes a newer material became favored steel steel became used to create smaller and lighter machines so was useful for Railways ships and weapons a new form of energy began to be harnessed as well a form that could easily be converted into heat light and motion this was electricity in just a few decades factories and private homes had access to a common electrical power source new inventions came out of this like the light bulb credited to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison but also worked on earlier by Humphrey Davy and Warren delu by the end of the 1800s electric powered street cars and Subways ran in Europe communication were revolutionized thanks to Alexander Graham Bell inventing the telephone in 1876 and Marone who sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901 using gasoline and oil the internal combustion engine made possible the development of sea travel in large ocean liners an air travel with planes the first successful recorded flight was in 1903 by Brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright and within a decade the first passenger service was established faster land travel came with the invention of the automobile often credited with building the first self-propelled mechanical vehicle was Nicholas Joseph cuno 1769 Fier aaper it was a three-wheeled steam powered tractor intended for military use but its practicality and efficiency were limited in 1885 Carl Benz built the Benz patent motor vargon often acknowledged as the first true automobile around the same time as Benz gotlib Daimler working with vilhelm maybar was making similar advances in 1886 Daimler converted a stage coach by adding a gasoline powerered engine an approach differing from benz’s purpose-built model by 1900 worldwide car production still stood at only 9,000 but American industrialist Henry Ford revolutionized the automobile with the mass production of the Model T by 1916 his factories were producing over 700,000 cars per year the rise in worker wages in the latter half of the 1800s and the availability of newer products made for a new consumer Society transportation and manufacturing of goods was cheaper so the average person was able to purchase electric light bulbs sewing machines clocks bicycles and more during this second revolution Germany supplanted Britain as the dominant industrial power in Europe and most of Western and Central Europe became a more advanced industrial core with a higher standard of living those areas to the south and east like the Mediterranean States balans and Russia were still mainly agrarian economies providing the modernized states with food and other raw materials in Russia Sergey vitty a finance minister led the government to a railway construction project that created tens of thousands of miles of track Russia’s steel production also grew significantly along with its oil production which grew to export half of the whole world’s output the Second Industrial Revolution made it possible for more women to gain employment with the increase of more products department stores and other businesses emerged everywhere and as the men generally worked in the factories employers could employ women for a newer set of White Collar jobs these were the file clerks typists secretaries and other less physically demanding jobs and were generally lower paid though conditions were generally better in White Collar positions the majority of industrial workers still had shameful work and living conditions during the late 1800s many political parties and labor unions formed based on the ideals of of a new kind of socialism written about in the works of German philosopher KL Marx the working class and a multitude of left-wing factions unified across state lines through the iwa or First International but it dissolved soon after due to infighting between marxists and anarchists marxists themselves were internally divided with pure marxists Vine to overthrow capitalism and set up a socialist State through violent revolution while the revisionist which came to be known as Democratic socialists believed the proletariat should gain support within the current system and transition to a socialist State through Democratic means politically this period from the 1870s onwards marked a shift in Europe where the more Nationalist and liberal elements won out over autocracy with the expansion of votes came a period of mass politics and the rise of a number of political parties but Western Europe’s experience was quite different from the east in the late Victorian period Britain stood as a global power with a vast Empire industry and Technology continued to advance bringing new Comforts the era was also rich in arts and literature with figures like Oscar wild and Thomas Hardy capturing the complexities of Victorian society with the ascent of king Edward iith in 1901 the Edwardian era began continuing the period of peace and prosperity the period is noted for its cultural Elegance advancements in fashion and the rise of the middle class which began to challenge the traditional social hierarchy the era witnessed significant social and political changes as the familiar two-party system evolved the wigs which broadened their base and became the Liberal Party along with the conservatives were joined by a third rival the labor party with the rise in trade unions and labor party membership the two traditional parties began taking the workingclass more seriously and with the Liberals in power they implemented reforms giving the workingclass sickness and unemployment benefits along with pensions and workplace injury compensation the late Victorian and Edwardian era is considered a golden age in Britain and it coincided with a similar occurrence in France label aoch la Bel aoch translating to the beautiful era was a time characterized by optimism economic prosperity and cultural flourishing in France though the term is sometimes used for all of Europe but following the fall of the second French Empire France went through a period of political turmoil soldiers of the French national guard attempted to set up a revolutionary government called the Paris commune but it only lasted a mere 2 months before the French army suppressed it during a week marked by Bloodshed by 1875 a constitution was established establishing A bamal legislature with the Senate as the upper house and the Chamber of deputies as the lower the president which was to serve terms of 7 years served as the executive branch a prime minister was appointed by the president and held more power in day-to-day Affairs the third Republic would remain highly unstable though because of the presence of over 10 political parties and Coalition making was the only way to stay in power to the South Italy was finally unified as the Kingdom of Italy but it still suffered from factionalism National Unity was challenged by the disparity between the standard of living in the industrialized North and the poverty levels of the south in Germany in the East the older ways persisted after the reign of vilhelm I which lasted over 7 years the German Empire passed to Frederick III in 1888 but he died less than 100 days later and vilhelm II ascended the throne marking 1888 as the year of three Emperors or Kaisers government legislature was run by a byic Camal system with the lower house or rack and the Upper House the bundesrat the most important Minister was the chancellor who was responsible only to the emperor himself while the emperor was responsible for the military and foreign policy during Vil Helm’s Reign Germany continued as an authoritarian State and came out of the period as a strong military and Industrial power most workers had given up agricultural work for jobs in industry and the urban class Rose significantly in Austria Hungary a parliamentary system was introduced to Austria but the emperor Francis Joseph was a more reactionary ruler and resisted constitutional rule as the Germans were a ruling minority in Austria they needed to deal with the various groups in their empire like the Czechs poles and other Slavic groups over in Russia the westernizers were a group of intellectuals who believed Russia’s development hinged on adopting Western European technology and liberal governmental structures they advocated for industrialization and for other Western ideas to be implemented the slavophiles were a group of intellectuals who opposed the westernizers they believed that Russia should follow a path of development based on its own history culture and Orthodox Faith rather than imitating Western European models slavophiles celebrated the Russian peasantry for its communal Spirit which they saw as a manifestation of Russian collectivism and spirituality in contrast to the individualism of the West yet another group rejected both sides choosing a more radical approach the main group among these were the anarchists who believed that revolutionaries could cause the fall of the state through more violent means like strategic assassinations one of these groups which we mentioned earlier even succeeded in the killing of Alexander II in 1881 the pendulum then swung in the opposite direction under Alexander III now more convinced than ever that reform wasn’t an option he went after all reformers and revolutionaries and when he died in 1894 he urged his son Nicholas the second to preserve the power of the Empire after the wars of unification though Europe mostly remained at peace from the 1870s into the early 1900s by the turn of the century European Society was significantly changed and with material change came a new outlook on life the sense was that with the Improv M ments of Technology both from the first and second industrial revolutions and the advances of Enlightenment thought progress would be linear and inevitable but this is when newer ideas challenged this worldview in the field of the Sciences the foundations of classical physics are shaken as Max plank introduced quantum theory challenging long-held Notions about the nature of energy the deterministic Newtonian Universe fails at a subatomic level quantum mechanics in contrast introduces inherent uncertainties and is probabilistic for example the exact position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously known with complete Precision a principle known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle in 1905 Albert Einstein contributed to the hypothesis proposing that light could be described as discrete packets of energy which were later called photons this work was pivotal in establishing the concept of wave particle duality a core principle of quantum mechanics Einstein’s contributions to Quantum Theory however were complex as he later became a Critic of the Theory’s probabilistic nature famously stating God does not play dice with the universe he would become more famous for his work the electrodynamics of the moving bodies the special theory of relativity the main tenant of this Theory is that the speed of light is constant So the faster you move the more time slows down a process called time dilation for example if you left the planet in a spaceship traveling near light speed and returned you would find that less time has passed for you compared to everyone on Earth and it would feel like you travel to the Future his famous equation tells us that mass or M and energy or E are two forms of the same thing and and can be converted into each other this proved to be the key into unlocking the power contained in atoms leading to the atomic age just as the old views of physics were being challenged so too were the views on the human mind as Austrian physician Sigman Freud developed theories of the unconscious part of the human process of which they were unaware the field of Arts also evolved with the Advent of a new philosophical and artistic movement called modernism a break from from the realism that dominated the mid 1800s but modernism had its precursors in two movements from the late 1800s the first impressionism which developed in the 1870s in France marked a significant departure from the principles of realism unlike realists who focused on depicting the world as it objectively was Impressionists used loose brush work to capture fleeting moments and the transient effects of light in color Impressionists often painted Outdoors to capture their immediate impressions of the scene before them some of the most influential were Camille pisaro who claimed impressionist art is subjective to the individual artists and that impressionism need not the precise Strokes of realist paintings and Claude Mane whose painting scene here gave the movement its very name art moved even further from realism with the post-impressionist movement post-impressionism while building on impressionism diverged by emphasizing more structured compositions symbolic content and personal expression artists like van go and seisan took impressionism use of color and light but added more personal emotion and structure to their paintings they focus not just on how a scene looked at a moment but also on expressing deeper feelings or ideas using Bolder colors and distinct brush strokes and often distorting or simplifying form forms for emotional or symbolic effect in the early 1900s Pablo Picasso and George bra co-founded cubism a movement that radically broke from traditional perspective and representation further pushing the boundaries of what would become modernist art cubism significantly abstracted and fragmented reality it broke objects into geometric shapes and reassembled them in a way that depicted the subject from multiple viewpoints simultaneous ously a major step towards abstraction in art abstract art was a complete departure from any visual reality vasel Kandinsky was a pioneering Russian abstract painter often credited as one of the first artists to create purely abstract Works around 1910 to 1914 Kandinsky began to create paintings that did not depict any recognizable objects focusing instead on abstract forms and colors he believed that colors and shapes could be used to express spiritual and emotional experiences the shift away from realism mirrored the findings in The Sciences placing less emphasis on universal truths and became more centered on individuality by the end of the long 19th century Society had shifted into something new the start of what sociologists call Mass Society Mass Society is a concept that refers to a society character cized by large scale impersonal and somewhat homogenized social structures and institutions at the core of this was urbanization and industrialization the more people that moved to the city the more people were available to work at the factories leading to a surge in production this mass production led to mass consumption the urban influx forced governments to step into provide more housing reforms requiring new buildings to have running water and drainage systems some governments began building their own governmental housing as well mass media like newspapers radio and later the television played a critical role in shaping public opinion disseminating information and creating a shared cultural experience Mass education established standardized often state-run education systems to manage various aspects of society including cluding governance Health and Welfare the shift from autocracy to democracy led to the involvement of all classes called Mass politics Universal male suffrage was already implemented in Europe by the turn of the century but women still couldn’t vote women’s rights slowly churned on First on property rights and divorce and later with expanded employment opportunities in teaching and nursing while the women’s vote was still Beyond reach in this period Finland was the first European state to Grant women’s suffrage in 1906 new forms of leisure also emerged with mass Leisure because the work schedule was more strict and regular Leisure Time became almost exclusively during the evenings and end of the week leisure activities often involved the new devices and Technologies of the late 1800s the new street cars and Subways meant people were able to travel relatively far distances within a city to watch athletic events or head on to the amusement park Sports became part of mass Leisure with the introduction of structured leagues we also saw the rise of numerous world’s fairs also known as International expositions or World Expos these events showcase the latest advancements in technology culture and the Arts and were often centered around themes of industrialization and progress the first recogniz ized was the great exhibition of 1851 in the specially constructed Crystal Palace in London the expos unel in Paris was famous for the unveiling of the Eiffel Tower this Fair celebrated the Centennial of the French Revolution and showcased French industrial achievements the exposion in 1900 debuted the Paris Metro and showcased art Novo this Fair also featured the first appearance of motion picture and escalators these world’s fairs were not only platforms for national pride and competition but also exhibitions of technological innovation and cultural Exchange in the minds of most there was a sense of progress and wonder European conflict mostly took place abroad during this time but on the continent the unification of Germany caused a major shift in the European balance of power and bismar knew this fearing the other European States creating alliances among themselves the Germans preemptively formed a defensive alliance with Austria Hungary in [Music] 1879 the 1879 alliance between Germany and Austria Hungary formerly known as The Duel Alliance was a defensive Alliance where both countries agreed to come to each other’s Aid if they were attacked by Russia it also stipulated that they would remain neutral if one of them was attacked by another the European power this Alliance was a Cornerstone of German foreign policy under Chancellor bismar and was aimed at isolating France and maintaining peace in Europe by deterring aggression from Russia in 1882 Italy joined the alliance seeking support against France ever the pragmatist bismar also signed a different treaty with Russia but in 1890 Emperor vilhelm II dismissed the chancellor and adopted a more aggressive foreign policy he also abandoned the treaty with Russia but this just drove the French and Russians to Ally with one another and they formed an official Alliance in 1894 the duel untuned or Franco Russo Alliance during the next decade Britain’s relations with France greatly improved forming the anank cordel by 1907 the United Kingdom French third Republic and the Russian Empire were in informal military alliance called the triple untuned Europe was now divided into two major camps but crisis was still not inevitable in 1905 a wave of mass political and social unrest spread throughout the Russian Empire it included worker strikes peasant unrest and Military mutinies it led to Emperor Nicholas granting more civil liberties albeit reluctantly and the establishment of a limited constitutional monarchy this created the state Duma the multi-party system and the Russian constitution of 1906 the unrest was partially precipitated by Russia’s defeat in a war to the east the Russo Japanese war the Russo Japanese War Began just a year prior against the Empire of Japan over Imperial Ambitions in manua and Korea the war was marked by the defeat of the Russian Baltic Fleet at the Battle of tsushima and the siege of Port Arthur which showcased Japan’s emergence as a modernized military power and signaled the decline of Russia’s influence the unrest of 1905 is often referred to as the first Russian Revolution which set the stage for the more famous Bolshevik Revolution which we will get to in a later episode of this series so be sure to subscribe the Ottomans continued their rule in the borans but just like in the austr Hungarian Empire it had to deal with the ing nationalism within the many different groups living within its borders this was an Empire fraught with corruption and a military that had fallen behind the modernization of most European armies Christian uprisings began all over the borans but the Ottomans intervened to quell them in 1876 the Ottomans had brutally suppressed a rebellion in Bulgaria called the April Uprising and this led to increased pressure on Russia to intervene Russia still had political motivations to weaken the Ottoman Empire and gain access to the Mediterranean Sea and the panss Slavic movement also played a role in pushing the country towards War the conflict began the next year when Russia declared war on the Ottomans in April 1877 the start of the Russo Turkish War Russian forces along with those of its allies Romania Serbia and Montenegro Advanced into the Balan territories of the Ottoman Empire the war was fought on two main fronts in the borans and in the Caucasus Romania seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire fought alongside Russian forces the fall of plva in December 1877 was a turning point in the war after a prolonged Siege the ottoman forces led by Osman pasia surrendered clearing the way for Russian advances towards the ottoman capital the war ended with a Treaty of San Stefano in March 1878 this treaty significantly reduced ottoman influence in the borans by the summer it was modified by the Congress of Berlin and the Boran map was redrawn fearing a large Bulgarian State under Russian influence the Berlin Congress reduced its size splitting it to create the autonomous province of Eastern rumelia although both still nominally remained part of the Ottoman Empire though within a decade Bulgaria would still Annex this territory apart from this Bosnia and herina was placed under austr Hungarian Administration and the independence of Serbia Montenegro and Romania was recognized with Austria Hungary occupying Bosnia Herzegovina they fully annexed it in 1908 in order to create a buffer State between their empire and the Slavic States the immediate trigger for the annexation was the Young Turk revolution in the Ottoman Empire which aimed to modernize the Empire and Implement constitutional reforms sensing that the new ottoman government might attempt to reassert authority over Bosnia Austria Hungary moved to formerly Annex the territories the annexation significantly heightened tensions in the borans what’s known as the Bosnian crisis it angered Serbian nationalists who wished to Annex Bosnia the M themselves for access to the Adriatic coast and increased ethnic tensions in the region contributing to the outbreak of more war the Russian Empire also a Slavic State sided with Serbia in opposing the Austria Hungarian annexation the serbs with Russian support then prepared for war but Austria Hungary had allies as well German Emperor vilhelm the second stepped in claiming a war with the austr hungarians would also bring war with the German Empire’s military machine the Russians still reeling from the Russo Japanese war backed down and accepted the Bosnian annexation with the Ottomans in an even more weakened State Serbia Bulgaria Greece and Montenegro banded together to form the Boran League declaring war to drive out the Ottomans once and for all this was the Boran war of 1912 the league achieved rapid success with significant victories such as the siege of adrianople in Bulgaria and the Battle of kumanovo led by the serbs the war ended with the Treaty of London in May 1913 the Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territories with significant gains for the Boran League Albania also declared its independence during this time tensions among the former allies over the division of The Spoils of the Boran War particularly the region of Macedonia escalated into conflict in June 1913 Bulgaria attacked its former allies Serbia and Greece in a bid to revise the division of territories this led to the second ban War Bulgaria quickly found itself fighting on multiple fronts against Serbia Greece Montenegro and even Romania who attacked from the north they also faced renewed ottoman attacks the Bulgarian forces were overstretched and suffered several defeats the war ended with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913 and the Treaty of Constantinople between Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire Bulgaria lost much of the territory it had gained in the first Balan War to Serbia Greece and Romania the Ottoman Empire regained some territories in eastern thce Serbia was angered at its inability to create a larger Kingdom and blamed the austrians while austro Hungary still feared Serbian expansion the Russians were also still angered at the Germans and vowed Vengeance against the austrians Austria and its allies Italy and Germany prepared for conflict while Russia and its allies Britain and France waited as well with all eye centered on Bosnia and Serbia and in 1914 the long 19th century finally came to an end with the gunshot heard round the world in this episode we move away from Europe to focus on the new beginnings across the pond in the Americas in the early 1800s Latin America was still largely under control of the Portuguese in Brazil and the Spanish in the Spanish Americas governed through their viceo check out our last Mega documentary for the background of the this region in the previous period by 1800 the Spanish Americas were divided into four large Vice royalties New Spain was the largest and most important region of the Spanish Empire it largely encompassed present day Mexico Central America parts of the Caribbean the Philippines and many current American states like California and Texas at this point Society was dominated by the Creo Yos those of full Spanish descent born in the Americas and the peninsulas those born in Spain who came to join them in the colonies but some Creos had been influenced by Enlightenment and nationalist ideals often from studying abroad at European universities this was a period when the United States had recently won its independence the French overthrew their monarchy and the Haitians had overthrown their French slave masters in 1808 after Napoleon forced the dation of the Spanish King many regions in Latin America established hunters or councils to govern in the name of the deposed Monarch a step that laid the groundwork for the assertion of full Independence the Creos and peninsulas began vying for control the start of the Latin American wars of Independence in 1810 the Mexican war of independence began in a small town in the early morning of September 16th Catholic priest Miguel ad algo eosa rang his Bell and gave a call to Arms elgo to Dolores Italo’s claran call was against Spanish rule aiming to end slavery and the tribute system affecting indigenous and myo populations who were in the midst of a famine idalgo gathered a large but poorly equipped indigenous and myo army they managed to capture several cities but were defeated in 1811 at the Battle of Calderon Bridge idalgo fled but was later captured and executed by the Spanish after idalgo execution leadership passed to other revolutionary leaders including Jose Maria Morelos another priest who convened the Congress of chil pan Singo to formally declare independence and draft a constitution Morelos was captured and executed in 1815 leading to a period of Guerilla Warfare though leaders like Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria caused headaches for the royalist powers they were never seen as a significant threat to Spanish rule but in 1820 King Ferdinand of Spain was forced to adopt a liberal Constitution alienating many of the more conservative Creos in New Spain in a surprising turn of events a conservative royalist military leader agustine D toid switched sides to join the independence cause siding with Guerrero they settled on the plan of agar which promised the three guarantees Independence under a constitutional monarchy equality for peninsulas and Creos and the protection of the Catholic Church MOS the indigenous and other mixed groups would implicitly also be offered social equality in a new multiethnic state E Today knew a tactical Alliance could ensure independence from the Spanish liberal Constitution while also satisfying Guerrero’s supporters the alliance between IID and Guerrero known as the army of the three guarantees successfully pressured the remaining Spanish forces and the vicroy signed the Treaty of Cordoba on August 24th 1821 recognizing Mexico’s independence on September 27th the army of the three guarantees marched into Mexico City and the first Mexican Empire was established with theab crowned emperor in 1822 but it was clear from the start the Empire wasn’t to last eBay’s leadership style was increasingly autocratic he dissolved Congress and ruled through a hunter which alienated many of his initial supporters guad Lupe Victoria orchestrated a coup and Under Pressure EAB abdicated and was executed the monarchy was abolished in 1823 while Central America broke off to create their own Federation ated Republic after a short provisional government a new Mexican First Republic was established with Victoria as its first president by 1829 Vicente Guerrero became president through a peaceful transition of power becoming the first president of African descent on Mainland North America Independence in the rest of Spanish America took a similar form Peru was initially the only Vice royalty in South America but by the early 1800s it shared the continent with new Granada which lay to the north and Rio DEA platter in the south in South America the key figure would come to be known as El liberador The Liberator this was Simon Bolivar born in 1783 in the captaincy general of Venezuela an autonomous division of new Granada he spent his youth as many wealthy Creos did studying abroad in Europe there the young B went on a grand tour of Italy witnessing Napoleon’s Italian coronation and then the sacred mount in Rome the inspirational sight of the first secession of the plebs when he returned to Venezuela Bolivar was set on independence from Spain and he got his chance once the peninsula War began in Europe the Venezuelan war of independence began on April 19th after an Insurrection in Caracus forced the abdication of the captain General by 1811 Venezuela became the first Spanish colony in the Americas to formally declare independence and the First Republic was established but just a year later the unforeseen occurred the devastating earthquake of 1812 hit mainly Republican regions and was portrayed by the royalists as Divine Providence against the Rebellion much of the population switched sides and the captaincy was reestablished in 18 193 Bolivar led the admirable campaign a military offensive that resulted in the liberation of the western part of Venezuela he became known as The Liberator from the Grateful citizens of Caracus and the second Republic of Venezuela was established but this to was reoccupied by the Spanish just a year later the Patriot forces became too arrogant and suffered a massive defeat against a royalist army composed of irregular troops the devastating Una Rose after this Turning Point Bolivar and 2/3 of the population fled the capital resulting in another major setback during Exile he wrote of how a true Republic might not even be possible to succeed and leaned more towards an oligarchic system as a Creo himself he warned of the dangers of rule by the mixed ethnicities and feared the social tensions that would arise after the war bolivar’s ultimate Vision was of a United Latin America America and the coordination of Defense economy and policy upon his return he changed tactics and instead of striking Venezuela he managed a daring crossing of the Andes Mountains to strike at new Granada present day Panama and Colombia on August 7th 1819 at the Battle of boa boliva liberated new Granada this victory was pivotal leading to the eventual establishment of the independent nation of grand Colombia Grand Colombia became a republic that briefly United much of Northern South America the Congress of angura in 1819 laid the foundation for this new nation aiming to unify the Spanish colonies into a single sovereign state and elected Bolivar as president Bolivar continued his campaign against Spanish rule leading to the decisive battle of carabobo on June 24th 1821 which secured the independence of Venezuela boliva then sent his trusted General Antonio Jose duuk to secure the liberation of Kito now Ecuador which was achieved after the battle of pincha on May 24th 1822 this Victory led to the incorporation of Keto into Grand Colombia the Crux of grand Colombia comprised the territories of the modern countries of Venezuela Colombia including Panama at the time Ecuador and parts of Northern Peru Guyana and Northwestern Brazil while Bolivar was liberating the north there was yet another liberating the South Jose Des San Martin was born in the vice royalty of Rio De La Plata his family moved to Spain when he was a child where he later joined the Spanish Army and fought in various battles including against the Napoleonic forces in Spain his experiences in Europe particularly witnessing the Spanish resistance against Napoleon and the liberal ideals of the time influenced his revolutionary ideas mirroring the April revolution in Venezuela the May Revolution deposed the vice Roy creating what would become the United provinces of Rio De La Plata precursor to the Argentine State and beginning the Argentine war of independence Paraguay once part of the Rio DEA platter declared independence in 1811 and in the vice royality of Peru to the West Chile declared independence overthrowing their own captaincy General San Martin returned to his native land now part of the United provinces of the Rio DEA platter and became a leader in the independence movement he led the army of the north against royalist forces and Independence was declared in 1816 but San Martin realized that a more strategic approach was needed to secure his position he proposed and executed the crossing of the Andes to attack the Spanish from a less defended Direction This daring and difficult maneuver is considered one of the greatest military Feats in history most of his horses and mules died along the journey and many soldiers froze to death many endured under heavy gasps from the lack of oxygen after the crossing San Martin and his forces defeated the Spanish at the Battle of chabuk and the Battle of myu effectively securing Chilean Independence he placed Bernardo o Higgins one of his military leaders a supreme director of Chile in 1817 with Chile as a base San Martin then led a naval expedition to Peru Landing in 1820 his diplomatic and Military efforts in Peru contributed significantly to the Declaration of Peruvian Independence in 1821 after the capture of Lima from the Spanish San Martin was named protector of Peru a position he held while seeking to establish a stable government San Martin met with Bolivar in Gill to discuss the future of Peru and the broader South American independence movement the details of their discussions remain a matter of historical debate but San Martin resigned his position in Peru shortly after leaving Bolivar to continue the fight for independence bolivard took the Revolutionary fight to the South leading campaigns in uper for Peru and Peru his forces achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of hunin the last piece of The Grand Design came on the morning of December 9th 1824 on the high andian plains near ayacucho this became the stage for the battle that would etch itself into the annals of history as the decisive end to Spanish colonial rule in South America led by General sucra this was not merely a confrontation of armies but a clash of IDE theology marking the final chapter in the continent’s long and arduous struggle for Independence in the aftermath the capitulation of aaucha was signed sealing the end of the Spanish Empire’s rule in South America after the wars of Independence the region of upper Peru was renamed Bolivia in honor of Bolivar who drafted a constitution for the new nation this act recognized his contributions and the respect he commanded across the liberated territories by the time of King ferdinand’s death in 1833 the only Spanish Holdings in the Americas were Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Caribbean in Brazil the largest state on the continent Independence came much more peacefully most saw ties to Portugal as advantageous as they provided slaves and were more fair in Brazilian economics and policy than the Spanish were in their colonies during Napoleon’s invasion of Portugal the Royal Court fled to Brazil moving the capital from Lisbon to Rio De Janeiro and raising the colony to the status of a kingdom after the 1820 liberal revolts in Portugal Don Joel v 6 returned to Portugal in 1821 amid demands from Portuguese liberals that the court return to Lisbon and restore Brazil’s Colonial status he left his son Don Pedro as Prince Regent in Brazil responding to the growing call for Independence and the pressure from Lisbon for his return Don Pedro also driven by personal ambition aligned himself with Brazilian nationalists on September 7th 1822 standing by the uranga river Don Pedro famously declared Brazil’s Independence reportedly shouting Independence or death a moment immortalized as the Cry of uranga the Declaration of Independence was followed by a relatively brief conflict with Portugal as Brazilian troops engaged Portuguese forces in various parts of the colony by 1823 Brazil had effectively secured its independence and Don Pedro was crowned emperor of Brazil Portugal formerly recognized Brazil’s Independence in 1825 scandals both political and sexual forced Pedro to leave Brazil for Portugal abdicating his throne to his son Don Pedro II who would Reign for over for 58 years Brazil’s monarchal system was quite different from the rest of Latin America by the 1830s the vast majority of South America was independent from European powers but instability was a recurrent theme Grand Colombia wared with Peru before breaking apart into new Granada Venezuela and Ecuador sucra and Bolivar also met their end in 1830 through assassination and disease the cisplatine war between Rio de La Plata later Argentina and the Empire of Brazil ended in stalemate as well before both States agreed to the independence of a buffer state with the treaty de mon Vio this became the independent Uruguay the paraguayan war or War of the Triple Alliance involved Paraguay against an alliance of Brazil Argentina and Uruguay it resulted in significant territorial losses and a catastrophic loss of population for Paraguay with up to 300,000 dead soldiers and civilians ranking it as the deadliest Interstate conflict in Latin American history by the end of the wars South America begins to look strikingly similar to today although border disputes would continue throughout the 1800s the newly independent nations faced significant challenges in establishing stable governance leading to the emergence of strong men called cios these were military or political leaders who often ruled in an authoritarian manner similar to a warlord Guan Manuel D rois was a dominant figure in Argentine politics during the first half of the 19th century ruling buenos iries Province and effectively Argentina with interruptions from 1829 to 1852 roses was known for his authoritarian methods including censorship political persecution and the use of force to maintain power his Masa was a parap police that killed thousands of civilians and his regime became totalitarian as all aspects of his Society became controlled including elections he is often compared to Lopez D Santa Anna his contemporary in Mexico desanta Ana served as president on 11 non-consecutive occasions between 1833 and 1855 he is often criticized for his role in the loss of Texas and the territory seeded after the Mexican-American War both of which we will get to later in this video Jose Antonio parz was a key leader in the Venezuelan independence movement and later became one of the country’s most influential calos serving as president in various terms between 1830 and 1863 known for his role in the separation of Venezuela from Grand col Colombia Paris initially enjoyed considerable support for his efforts in stabilizing the country and fostering economic growth he was a champion of the conservative cause focusing on the development of Agriculture and the military although his later years were marked by opposition to his Rule and eventual Exile Raphael Carrera was a significant figure in the history of Guatemala and Central America during the 19th century his period of influence particularly from the 1830s to his death in 1865 was marked by his efforts to consolidate power preserve Guatemala’s Independence and shaped the country’s political and social landscape though foreign military intervention was averted much of Latin America became a source of raw materials for Europe and the United States coffee along with tobacco and sugar became the main exports corruption was rampant on these plantations called henders those with political power were often landholders themselves so their policies promoted others of the landed aristocracy they were able to buy more land and expand their farms and plantations well beyond their means of using it and much of the land lay unused and fallow as those who did not own land lived in poverty by the latter half of the 19th century Latin American export steadily increased and the British began investing heavily in the trading infrastructure through Railways street cars and Mining projects slavery became abolished by the 1850s throughout the former Spanish colonies and Brazil abolished slavery by 1888 in Mexico once D Santa Ana’s dictatorship was overthrown In 1855 liberals enacted the constitution of 1857 which introduced significant liberal reforms aimed at modernizing Mexico based on enlightenment ideals and a federalist government several key pieces of legislation known collectively as the reform laws were enacted by the liberal government led by figures like Bonito huarez who would later become one of Mexico’s most renowned presidents these laws included the L quarz which curtailed the Privileges of the military and clergy the Le Leo which mandated the sale of property held by the church and communal indigenous lands and the Leia glaciers which regulated Church fees to prevent abuses this divided the country leading to the reform war with conservatives establishing a rival government the conflict was characterized by a series of battles and sieges across Mexico but the Liberals gradually gained the upper hand thanks in part to the leadership of huarez and the support of the United States which provided Arms and Supplies to the liberal forces on December 22nd 1860 the the Liberals achieved their decisive Victory and by January president harez and the Liberals left their Holdings in verac Cruz and triumphantly marched into Mexico City but the conflict weakened the country economically and militarily leaving it vulnerable to foreign intervention due to its severe financial crisis Mexico suspended foreign debt payments in 1861 France along with Britain and Spain signed the convention of London forming a tripartite Alliance to demand repayment and protection of their national interests in Mexico while Britain and Spain negotiated settlements and withdrew France under Napoleon III pursued a more aggressive policy and an invasion was launched aiming to establish a friendly monarchy in Mexico that would support French interests the initial French campaign suffered a significant setback on May 5th 1862 when Mexican forces led by General ignasio Saragosa defeated the French army at the Battle of Puebla this Victory is celebrated annually as CCO Deo despite the setback at Puebla French forces reinforced and supported by conservative Mexican factions captured Mexico City in 1863 dissolving the federal republic and allowing them to proceed with their plan to establish a monarchy the second Mexican Empire leadership was offered to Maximillion of the habsburgs and with assurances of support from Napoleon and Mexican conservatives he accepted becoming Emperor maximilan I of Mexico in 1864 the regime of maximilan faced resistance from the start led by Republican forces under President Bonito huarez the French and Imperial forces controlled much of the country initially but faced Guerilla Warfare and lacked widespread popular support the United States opposing European intervention pressured France to withdraw facing military setbacks in Europe and growing resistance within Mexico Napoleon began withdrawing French troops in 1866 with the withdrawal of French support maximillian’s regime quickly crumbled he was captured by Republican forces tried and executed in 1867 marking the end of the second Mexican Empire EMP and the French intervention Bonito huarez and the Republicans regained control restoring the Mexican Republic and reinforcing the 1857 Constitution and the reform laws the intervention and the Empire left Mexico deeply divided and financially ruined but it also fostered a sense of national unity and resistance against foreign intervention but not even a decade later another military leader seized power poerio Diaz would come to rule Mexico in 1876 barring a brief interlude until 1911 under a dictatorship known as the poyato his leadership brought stability and economic growth attracting foreign investment and modernizing Mexico’s infrastructure however this progress came at a significant cost the wealth Gap widened indigenous lands were seized and political descent was ruthless suppressed the majority of Mexicans especially rural workers and the indigenous population lived in abject poverty the spark for Revolution was lit when Diaz rening on earlier promises to step down manipulated elections to secure another term in office in 1910 Francisco ignasio Madero a wealthy landowner who believed in democracy and social reform challenged Diaz’s presidency after being jailed during the elections Madero fled to the United States calling for an armed Uprising against Diaz on November 20th 1910 The Call to Arms against the conservative order was heeded by various leaders across Mexico including more radical elements representing the lower classes like Pancho Vier in the north often Associated as a modern-day Robin Hood and amelo saata leading a peasant rebellion in the South with the rallying Cry of tiara ilber Hadad or land and Liberty demanding land redistribution the initial phase of the Revolution was successful and by May 1911 Diaz resigned and went into Exile the liberal Madero was officially elected in October but his moderate policies satisfied neither those who benefited from the old conservative order nor the lower class who demanded land reform in 1913 a coup led by General victoriano werter with support from conservative factions and the US ambassador overthrew Madero who was subsequently assassinated to give the coup the appearance of legitimacy he had madero’s foreign secretary assume the presidency first and then appoint wera to the government as the next in line before resigning this made Pedro Lan’s presidency lasting anywhere from 15 to 56 minutes the shortest presidency in history this ushered in the next phase of the Revolution as liberals of the new constitutionalist Army like vastano coranza and alvro oon joined forces with Pancho via and Emiliano Zapata to counter W’s regime by 1914 WTA was ousted leading to a brief period where coranza sought to consolidate power the convention of agas Calientes in 1914 attempted to reconcile the differences among the revolutionary leaders but It ultimately failed the caransa and oon Wing defeated Pancho via and saata in 1915 karanza eventually emerged Victorious becoming president and promulgated the constitution of 1917 which included significant reforms such as the breakup of large Estates and land redistribution labor rights and restrictions on foreign ownership of Mexican resources despite these advances the revolution continued in various forms until the 1920s with ongoing skirmishes and resistance Revolution also spurred a cultural renesance with artists like Diego Rivera Jose Clement o Rosco and David aloro ceros using their work to depict the social and political changes of the era but by 1928 all five of the major revolutionaries would be killed Madero met his end during the 10 tragic days in 1913 Zapata was lured into an ambush and assassinated on April 10th 1919 by forces loyal to president karanza who saw Zapata as a threat to his regime president karanza was assassinated in 1920 after a Fallout with other revolutionary leaders like his former Ally oon via retired in 1920 but was assassinated in 1923 auan of the new Social Democratic laborist party was elected in 1920 and again in 1928 but was assassinated before he could begin his second term around the turn of the century it wasn’t only Europe that had a keen interest in Latin America the early 1900 saw the rise of a new superpower one which supplanted European foreign investments to Latin America this was the United States when we last left the United States they had just won their independence from the British during the Revolutionary Wars and by 1789 ratified their constitution intense debate between Federalists who supported a strong central government and Anti-Federalists who feared the concentration of power would lead to tyranny marked the beginnings of the Federalist era George Washington’s election as the first president of the United States in 1789 and John Adams as vice president set the stage for the the Federalist party’s influence Washington though nonpartisan was sympathetic to the Federalist cause and his administration with Alexander Hamilton as the Secretary of the Treasury implemented a series of financial policies aimed at stabilizing the nation’s economy these included the federal Assumption of State debts the establishment of a national bank and the imposition of a tariff system to encourage domestic manufacturing but these measures sparked controversy and laid the foundation for the nation’s first political parties and the first party system Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic Republican party opposed Hamilton’s financial plan advocating for State’s rights and a focus on The Agrarian worker the Federalist era also witnessed the establishment of the US Judicial System including the creation of the Supreme Court and the enactment of the Judiciary Act of 1789 foreign policy challenges such as the French Revolution and the subsequent war between Britain and France tested the Young Nation Hamilton and the Federalists favored neutrality while Jeffersonian sympathized with revolutionary France following the American Revolution the United States found itself in possession of the vast territory seeded by Britain Vermont which had been an independent state since 1777 joined the Union in 1791 the indigenous population were not parties to the Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolution and did not recognize American claims to their lands so the stage was set for conflict as American settlers pushed into the Western frontier leading to increasing clashes with the native inhabitants the Catalyst for the first major open conflict was the United States attempts to confirm its claims in the Northwest Territory which was planned to be turned into a number of new states in the union but a confederation of Native societies including the Miami sha Delaware and others came together under the leadership of formidable Warriors such as little turtle of the Miami and blue jacket of the Sha this native Confederation represented a significant military force capable of challenging United States efforts to assert control over the Northwest Territory the conflict saw several key engagements including the battles of the war bash in 1791 where the United States suffered a devastating defeat with General Arthur Sinclair’s forces being soundly beaten by the native Confederation this battle remains one of the worst defeats in US Army history the loss shocked the Young Nation and led to a re-evaluation of its military strategies and policies towards Native Society no more would they be underestimated in response President Washington appointed General Mad Anthony Wayne to lead a newly trained and disciplined Force the Legion of the United States Wayne’s approach combined military force with efforts to secure Native American lands through negotiation the Turning Point came at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794 where Wayne’s forces defeated the native Confederation leading to the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 this treaty marked a significant session of Native American territory to the United States establishing a boundary line between native lands and those open to American settlement John Adams presidency continued the Federalist dominance but was marred by internal party divisions and opposition to his policies like the Alien and Sedition Acts which aimed to strengthen National Security but were criticized for infringing on civil liberties the acts became a major point of contention and contributed to the decline of the Federalist party’s popularity the Federalist era concluded with the election of 1800 a bitter contest between Adams and Jefferson resulting in Jefferson’s victory and the peaceful transfer of power from one political party to another a testament to the strength of the nation’s constitutional framework the Jeffersonian Era spanning from 1801 to 1815 represented a significant shift in American politics and Society marking the ascendancy of the democratic Republican party under Thomas Jefferson’s leadership this period is characterized by its commitment to agrarian society state rights and a more decentralized federal government diverging from the Federalist vision of a strong centralized Authority it encapsulates Jefferson’s two terms as president and the presidency of his close Ally James Madison often considered the climax of the era Jefferson envisioned a nation of independent yman Farmers seeing agriculture as the backbone of the economy and the embodiment of virtuous citizenship he believed in a limited Federal government’s role emphasizing the importance of individual liberties and state sovereignty one of the most significant achievements of Jefferson’s presidency was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 for $15 million the United States acquired approximately $820 8,000 square miles of territory from France doubling the size of the nation this acquisition which Jefferson pursued despite concerns about its constitutionality fulfilled his vision of expanding Westward providing ample land for agriculture and furthering The Agrarian foundation of the Republic to fully explore the newly acquired western territories President Jefferson commissioned the Lewis and Clark Expedition which culminated in a journey all the way to the the Pacific coast Saka jaia a shason woman played a crucial role as a guide and interpreter her knowledge of the geography and her diplomatic presence among indigenous societies proving invaluable to their success Jefferson also worked to reduce the national debt and streamline the federal government he repealed Federalist policies such as the excise tax on Whiskey and reduced the size of the military however Jefferson maintained the Bank of the United States recognizing its importance in stabilizing the economy a pragmatic move that showed his flexibility in governance a landmarked case of the Supreme Court Marbury V Madison was also decided in 1803 establishing judicial review giving courts the power to invalidate laws that go contrary to the Constitution Foreign Affairs posed significant challenges during the Jeffersonian Era the barbery wars fought against North African States marked the first overseas military engagements by the United States aiming to protect American shipping from piracy after the second war in 1815 the Menace of the barbery Pirates was quelled and American ships were safe to access the Mediterranean James Madison Jefferson’s successor continued many of the same policies but faced escalating tensions with Britain leading to what some call the second war of independ dependence the war’s Origins can be traced to the Seas where American Merchants attempting to trade with both Waring sides in Europe were caught in the crossfire of British and French restrictions on neutral trade the British policy of impressment seizing American Sailors and forcing them into service on the pretext that they were deserters from the Royal Navy was particularly agrees inflaming American public opinion and igniting calls for War by this point the Northwest Territory had been divided into the territories of Illinois Indiana and Michigan as well as the state of Ohio encroaching on the terms of previous treaties there was renewed resistance and the start of a new war against American settlers from native communities who weren’t part of the treaties and were supported by British Arms and Supplies furthering tensions this conflict came to a head in the Battle of tipik Cano in 1811 where future president will Henry Harrison defeated a confederation of tribes led by tumpa further straining relations with Britain despite the Federalist party’s opposition primarily in New England where trade with Britain was an economic Cornerstone President James Madison signed a declaration of war against Great Britain on June 18th 1812 but the United States was ill-prepared its Army was still small and inexperienced and its Navy was significantly out matched by the Royal Navy the world’s largest and most powerful the first major battle was at Queenston Heights in 182 where the Americans were repelled by the Anglo Canadian Army a major victory came though in 1813 with the burning of York modern-day Toronto but the British and Canadians managed to maintain control over upper and lower Canada at Sea the United States Navy despite its smaller size achieved notable victories against the British including the USS Constitution’s defeat of HMS gerer these victories boosted American morale and demonstrated the effectiveness of American ship design and Naval tactics takuma’s Confederacy having sided with the British continued the fight but tumsa met his death against the Americans at the Battle of the temps in 1813 and the Confederacy dissolved in 1814 during the Chesapeake campaign the British launched a successful raid against Washington DC burning the White House and the capital in retaliation for the American attack on York but their subsequent attempt to take Baltimore was repelled in the Battle of Fort McKenry inspiring Francis Scott Key to write the Star Spangled Banner the Treaty of gent signed on December 24th 1814 and ratified by the US Senate in February 1815 effectively ended the war but news had not yet reached the armies in the South and the Americans took a final decisive victory at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815 where General Andrew Jackson’s forces defeated a much larger British Army the war’s outcome boosted American nationalism paved the way for westward expansion and marked the beginning of the end for the Federalist Party which had opposed the war the Federalist Party effectively dissolved as a National Force as their opposition to the war and the disastrous Hartford Convention where some Federalists hinted at secession alienated them from mainstream American politics in 1817 James Monroe was elected president and made his Goodwill tour in the aftermath of the War of 1812 and the Napoleonic Wars Monroe’s time in office was driven by a sense of national purpose and a desire for Unity among Americans the Federalist Party had all but disappeared leaving the Democratic Republican party as the dominant force in American politics political stability and the lack of parties in Conflict led a newspaper to famously coin this the Era of Good Feelings Monroe’s Administration is perhaps best known for the Monroe Doctrine a Cornerstone of American foreign policy that declared the Western Hemisphere off limits to European colonization and interference dur in man Rose tenure disputes with Spanish Florida increased as escaped American slaves fled across the border leading to slave owners conducting raids to retrieve them this escalated tensions with the native seols and after skirmishes the American Army marched into Spanish Florida and occupied Pensacola by 1819 the Spanish transferred the burdensome region to the Americans with the adamonis treaty which redefined the borders between the expanded United United States and New Spain Monroe also focused on internal improvements supporting the construction of roads and canals to facilitate Commerce and bind the nation more closely together this focus on infrastructure development was part of the larger American System proposed by Henry Clay which also included support for a National Bank and protective tariffs to promote American industry the introduction of new technologies and the expansion of the factory system also contributed to economic growth particularly in the Northeast in 1820 the United States had 11 free states and 11 slave states maintaining a balance between the North and the South Missouri’s request for admission to the Union as a slave state a territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase threatened to upset the balance between states that allowed and prohibited slavery the Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state but also Maine formerly part of Massachusetts as a free state while Banning slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana perches territory north of latitude line 3630 this held the balance at 12 States each maintaining equilibrium in Congress but it would only be a temporary solution underscoring the Deep divisions that were beginning to fracture the union the Era of Good Feelings also witnessed a surge in cultural nationalism with Americans taking pride in their country’s achievements and potential the period saw the establishment of new educational institutions including public schools and universities and the emergence of distinctly American themes in art and literature technological innovations and improvements in transportation and communication such as the steamboat the Eerie Canal and the early railroads transformed the American economy and Society in 1829 Andrew Jackson a war hero and populist became the seventh president of the United States ushering in the Jacksonian era which continued until 1849 under his successors van buin Harrison Tyler and poke one of the Hallmark features of the Jacksonian era was the expansion of democracy an increased political participation among white male citizens this was facilitated by the elimination of property qualification for voting in many states allowing a broader segment of the population to vote and hold office the irsur surgin voter turnout and the rise of mass political parties which mobilized voters through new campaign tactics like rallies parades and barbecues the Jacksonian era also saw the crystallization of the second party system the Democratic Republican party of Jefferson’s time coalesced into Jackson’s democratic Party founded in 1828 and his opponents coalesced into the wig party the Democrats Champion states rights limited government and policies favorable to Farmers and the working class while the wigs had a more middleclass base of entrepreneurs and urban professionals and supported a more active role for the federal government in promoting Economic Development including a national bank and protective tariffs Jackson’s presidency was marked by significant economic policies including his famous battle against the Second Bank of the United States Andrew Jackson’s opponents labeled him a jackass for his populist beliefs and stubbornness but he instead embraced the insult and the image of the strong willed donkey later became associated with the Democratic party in 1830 he signed the Indian Removal Act which authorized the forced relocation of what the Americans called the five civil ized tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to territories west of the Mississippi River in what was called Indian Territory present day Oklahoma the removal most infamously the Trail of Tears resulted in the death and suffering of thousands of Native Americans and remains a dark chapter in American history the Jacksonian era was also characterized by intense debates over state rights most famously the Nullification Crisis of 18 32-33 which saw South Carolina challenge Federal Authority regarding tariffs before a compromise was reached the era also saw pivotal developments which would have long-term implications the first began earlier but culminated during this time a powerful religious revival called the Great Awakening this movement was characterized by large emotional Revival meetings where thousands gathered to hear sermons convert and renew their faith it had a profound impact on American society encouraging a wave of Evangelical fervor and the growth of new denominations some preachers called circuit Riders would travel on Horseback to spread Methodist teachings across Rural America and remote communities adventism had its Origins during this time the faith originated from William Miller who predicted the second coming of Jesus would occur between 1843 and 1844 leading to the great disappointment in New York state Joseph Smith formed the Church of Christ later to be called The Church of latterday saints it was based on the Book of Mormon published in 1830 which Smith stated he translated from Golden Plates he found in Upstate New York the plates were said to contain the religious history of an ancient American civilization including its Origins conflicts and teachings this religious revival emphasized individual piety and personal Salvation And it democratized American Christianity by suggesting that salvation was accessible to all moreover it spurred many to engage in social reforms including movements for temperance women’s rights and particularly the abolition of slavery Manifest Destiny was a term coined in 1845 by journalist John Ellis Sullivan to describe the belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand across the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean it Justified Westward Expansion as a noble Endeavor promoting democracy and civilization and played a crucial role in shaping American policy and attitudes in the 19th century the concept of manifest destiny was not without controversy as it became entwined with the debate over slavery’s expansion into new territories and states moreover it led to the displacement and mistreatment of Native American populations and conflicts with other nations over territorial claims the region of Texas had originally been part of New Spain a vast and sparsely populated land after the Latin wars of Independence it came to be controlled by Mexico and slavery was outlawed during the 1820s large numbers of anglo-american settlers began moving into Texas drawn by land grants offered by The Mexican government to empresarios who were land agents and developers Steven F Austin was among the most successful of these founding colonies that brought 300 families into Texas by the mid 1820s by 1830 concerns over the growing American influence in Texas and their import of slaves led the Mexican Government to Outlaw further American Immigration and impose stricter laws increasing t ions between Anglo settlers and the Mexican Government the escalating tensions culminated in the Texas Revolution in 1835 erupting from San Antonio battles like the siege of the Alamo a successful 13-day Siege by the Mexicans and the decisive texian victory at the Battle of San jinto became iconic in the rebel struggle against Mexican forces shortly before War’s end the texian rebels formerly declared independence from Mexico forming the Republic of Texas the Republic of Texas existed as an independent nation until 1845 it was recognized by several countries including the United States but faced continuous threats from Mexico which never formerly acknowledged its independence on December 29th 1845 Texas was admitted as the 28th state of the United States leading to the first and most significant war between America and Mexico the Mexican-American war was a direct outcome of the ideology of manifest destiny president poke a strong proponent of expansion used a border dispute as a pretext to declare war aiming to secure not only Texas but also New Mexico and California the United States emerged victorious in the conflict and the Treaty of guad Lupe idalgo forly ended the war forcing mexic me to seed an enormous portion of its Northern Territories to the us including present-day California Nevada Utah and portions of New Mexico Colorado and Wyoming during the Jacksonian era the great migrations to the West took place along three important trails in the 1830s an over 2,000m route that came to be known as the Oregon Trail began to funnel a steady stream of wagons across the American continent from the Missouri River to the fertile valleys of Oregon Oregon Country a large region in the Pacific Northwest had been jointly claimed by the British and Americans with the British calling it Colombia District the Oregon Trail was blazed by fur Traders and explorers but it was the promise of abundant land rich in resources that Drew families farmers and Pioneers Westward Travelers face challenges such as disease severe weather difficult terrain and occasionally conflicts with Native American tribes whose lands they altered forever though president poke wanted a majority of the territory incorporated into the United States his administration entered into negotiations with the British the result was the Oregon Treaty of 1846 in which the United States and Great Britain agreed on the 49th parallel with some adjustments to maintain Vancouver Island’s British continuity as the boundary between British North America and the United States it became Oregon territory in 1848 present day Oregon Washington and Idaho the Mormons after leaving New York had migrated to resettle in their Promised Land Missouri but their lifestyle which included polygamy and communal living worried the non-mormon population and tensions escalated into war the Mormons were expelled and settled in Illinois after flourishing in their new home old disputes resurfaced and both Joseph Smith and his brother were arrested and later killed by a mob it was clear this was no home for members of the LDS church and after further tensions sometimes known as the Mormon Illinois War the community LED an exodus to the West along what came to be known as the Mormon trail destination Salt Lake Valley in Utah territory further west the discovery of gold at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma California in January 1848 would ignite the most famous gold rush in American history prompting further migration as news of the discovery spread it Unleashed a torrent of gold Seekers known as 49ers referring to the peak year of 1849 from across the United States and around the world they abandoned Farms left families and jobs and embarked on a journey to the promise of wealth in the goldfields of California the Gold Rush transformed California from a remote Outpost into a bustling Center of Commerce and population almost overnight San Francisco Grew From a small settlement to a major city and towns sprang up across California the influx of wealth contributed to Rapid social Economic and infrastructural Development but it also led to significant environmental changes and devastating impacts on Native populations these Western migrations and subsequent territorial acquisition completed the Continental expansion and vision by Manifest Destiny but also exacerbated the contentious issue of slavery in new territories contributing to the sectional tensions that would escalate into an era of Civil War by the 1850s cotton constituted about 50% of all US exports underscoring its importance to the National economy the South produced more than 2third of the world’s cotton Supply fueling the global textile industry particularly in Britain and France the use of slave labor significantly contributed to the wealth of the southern states and their land owners by the mid- 1800s the market value of enslaved people increased dramatically making them the South’s largest single financial asset the Compromise of 1850 similar to the Missouri Compromise was a new series of laws aimed to balance the interests of the slaveholding South and the free North it included the admission of California as a free state the establishment of Utah and New Mexico territories with the question of Slavery to be decided by popular sovereignty and the enactment of a stricter Fugitive Slave Law while temporarily quelling tensions the compromise ultimately sowed further Discord by 1854 the Kansas NE Nebraska Act proposed by Senator Steven A Douglas allowed the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide the issue of slavery based on popular sovereignty the ACT effectively repealed the Missouri compromises prohibition of slavery north of latitude 3630 and led to Violent conflicts in Kansas known as Bleeding Kansas as Pro and anti-slavery settlers clashed this sparked outrage in the north leading to the creation of a new party which Champion anti-slavery this was the Republican Party the wig party had dissolved by the mid 1850s but the new Republican party became the main opposition of the Democrats the election of Abraham Lincoln as the 16th president of the United States on a platform of preventing the expansion of slavery into new territories was the final straw for the Southern States because of the South’s heavy Reliance on slave labor they feared the institution of slavery was under threat in December 1860 South Carolina repealed their ratification of the Constitution soon six more Southern States followed seceding from the union before Lincoln’s inauguration forming the Confederate States of America this would reach 11 states total after the outbreak of the deadliest conflict in American history Jefferson Davis senator from Mississippi became president of the newly formed Confederacy in April 1861 Confederate forces fired on Fort Sumpter in Charleston Harbor South Carolina forcing its surrender these were the first shots of the Civil War both the union and Confederates initially underestimated the war’s duration and cost many Southerners and large landowning Aristocrats had a much more robust military tradition than the North which was more focused on business and assumed a the defense of the South would be far easier than the North’s goal of reconquest they also believed that economics would win the day and that both European and the northern manufacturers would take their side for continued access to their cheap cotton the early years of the war saw several key battles including the First Battle of Bull Run which shattered any hopes of a quick Union victory the war dragged on with a significant Union victory at antium in 18 62 in Maryland and later Confederate victories at the battles of Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville in Virginia on January 1st 1863 President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation which declared all slaves in Confederate held territory to be free while it did not immediately free all slaves it transformed the war’s purpose into a fight to end slavery and allowed African-Americans to join the Union Army and Navy the year 1863 saw two major turning points the Battle of Gettysburg which ended General Robert Lee’s invasion of the north and The Siege of Vicksburg which gave the union control of the Mississippi River these victories were crucial in Shifting the momentum of the war in favor of the Union the final phase of the war was marked by Union general ulyses es Grant’s Relentless pursuit of the Confederate Army leading to the surrender of General Lee at aam matic’s courthouse on April ail 9th 1865 the war Remains the deadliest conflict in American history with between 6 750,000 soldiers left dead from war and disease and an undetermined number of civilians now came the daunting task of rebuilding the shattered southern economy integrating freed slaves into American society and restoring the southern states to the union spanning from 1865 to 1877 this was the Reconstruction Era the assassination of President Lincoln mere days after the Civil War’s end left Vice President Andrew Johnson in charge of the Reconstruction process unlike Lincoln Johnson was a southern Democrat while remaining loyal to the union he initially pursued a lenient approach to reconstruction president of the Confederacy Jefferson Davis was imprisoned for 2 years but there were no trials for treas Johnson’s policies instead aim to quickly restore the southern states to the union with minimal changes to their pre-war societal structures apart for the abolition of slavery as mandated by the new 13th Amendment officially ratified in December 1865 Johnson’s approach allowed the quick formation of new state governments in the South which enacted what were collectively called Black Codes laws designed to control the freed africanamerican population and maintain a system of racial subordination these laws and the lenient reintegration of former Confederate states sparked outrage in the Republican dominated Congress in response to the southern states resistance Radical Republicans in Congress took control of reconstruction in 1867 this period known as radical or Congressional reconstruction sought to protect the rights of freed slaves and ensure their integration as equal citizens Congress passed the Reconstruction Act which divided the South into military districts governed by Union Generals requiring southern states to draft new constitutions that guaranteed blackmail suffrage states were required to ratify the 14th Amendment which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States including former slaves the 15th Amendment ratified in 187 further protected voting rights by prohibiting the denial of the right to vote based on race color or previous condition of servitude these amendments Mark significant strides towards legal and civil equality for African-Americans but loopholes for discrimination still remained reconstruction faced significant challenges and opposition white supremacist groups like The K Klux Clan emerged using violence and intimidation to suppress African-American political participation and restore Supremacy the federal government’s efforts to combat these groups were initially robust but waned over time due to political and public fatigue as the years rolled on the economic rebuilding of the South was also a formidable task the Southern economy heavily reliant on slavery was devastated and efforts to rebuild it and integrate freed slaves were met with resistance sharecropping and tenant farming became prevalent often trapping African-Americans and the poor in cycles of debt and poverty the 1876 presidential election between Republican Rutherford B Hayes and Democrat Samuel Tien became hotly disputed the compromise of 1877 secured Hayes’s presidency in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the south effectively ending Federal enforcement of reconstruction policies the end of Rec construction marked the beginning of the Jim Crow era characterized by the systematic disenfranchisement of African-Americans and the establishment of laws enforcing racial segregation back out west the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 revolutionized Transportation facilitating the movement of settlers cattle and goods a journey that could take months now only took days there was more Westward Movement of set settlers the displacement of Native American tribes the rise of cattle ranching and Mining Industries and the mythologizing of the frontier lifestyle this was the apex of the American frontier often romanticized as the old west the federal government encouraged settlement through laws like the Homestead Act of 1862 which offered 160 Acres of public land to settlers for a small fee provided they improve the land by building a dwelling and cultivating crops this led to a wave of homesteading where families moved West to claim land and build new lives but life on the frontier was challenging with settlers facing isolation harsh weather and conflicts with Native societies and outlaws the open ranges of the West gave rise to the cattle industry which became a Cornerstone of the frontier economy Cowboys drove vast herds of cattle along Trails such as the Chism Trail to rail heads in Kansas where the cattle was shipped to markets in the East this period of the so-called cattle kingdom was shortlived as overgrazing harsh Winters and the spread of barbed wire fencing restricted the Open Range leading to its decline by the late 1880s the discovery of Gold Silver and other minerals led to mining booms in States like California Nevada and Colorado Town sprang up overnight around mines drawing a diverse population of Prospectors entrepreneurs and those looking to profit from the miners while some struck it rich many others faced hardship and disappointment the rapid growth of Frontier towns often outpaced the establishment of formal law enforcement leading to periods of lawlessness what we know today as the wild west famous lawmen and outlaws such as Wyatt up Billy the Kid and Jesse James became Legends embodying the themes of justice and rebellion in the old west the expansion into the West led to numerous conflicts with Native American societies whose lands were increasingly encroached upon by settlers and miners this period saw a series of Wars west of the Mississippi as the US government sought to relocate natives to reservations to open up land for American use in the southwest particularly in New Mexico the Navajo had already been in conflict with the Spanish subsequent Mexican government and now found themselves against the United States once they claimed the territory in the 1840s the Navajo Wars against the Americans culminated in the Long Walk of the Navajo in 1864 where thousands of Navajo were forcibly relocated to BOS Redondo a devastating march that resulted in many deaths the Apache Wars occurred in Arizona New Mexico and Texas leaders such as cooches Victorio and gono became well known for their resistance efforts between 1876 and 1886 jono eluded capture and led a series of raids against us and Mexican settlements but the US Army pursued gono and his band jono’s final surrender in 1886 marked the end of the Apache Wars although minor clashes continued for decades longer longer in the Great Plains there were a series of conflicts between the United States and various factions of the sue people including the Dakota war of 1862 in Minnesota but the climax came during the Great Sue war of 1876 to 77 also known as the Black Hills War it erupted over us violations of the Treaty of Fort laramy which had granted the Black Hills of Dakota territory to the Lakota Sue but the discovery of gold in the Black Hills in 1874 led to an influx of American Prospectors prompting the US government to seek control of the area the Sue led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse refused to seed their sacred lands leading to a series of battles a pivotal moment in the war was the Battle of the Little Big Horn in June 1876 where leftenant Colonel kuster and his seventh Cavalry were decisively defeated by a coalition of Sue and cheyen warriors despite this Victory the Sue could not withstand the sustained military campaigns by the Army by 1877 the war had ended with the US seizing the Black Hills and many Sue were forced onto reservations Crazy Horse surrendered in 1877 while Sitting Bull retreated to Canada but returned and was captured in 1881 tensions between the Sue and the US government had escalated due to the spread of the Ghost Dance Movement which the US military feared as a potential Rebellion when the seventh Cavalry attempted to disarm a band of Minik conju a tribe of the Lakota near wounded KNE Creek on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation a gun discharged accidentally leading to indiscriminate firing by the soldiers over50 Lakota men women and children were killed with many more wounded the Wounded Knee massacre in 1890 is often considered the last major conflict of the Sue Wars marking a tragic end to the American Indian Wars on the Great Plains the era of the American frontier is often considered to have ended in 1890 when the US Census Bureau declared that the frontier line no longer existed this map shows us the various territorial Acquisitions that were gained in less than a century cementing America’s presence from sea to shining sea even the north wasn’t exempt from American expansion the Alaska Purchase of 1867 was negotiated by Secretary of State William H Seward to purchase Alaska from the Russians for $7.2 million it was a transaction that was initially mocked to Seward’s folly or Seward’s ice box due to the perception of Alaska as a Barren and worthless land but surprisingly the acquisition of Alaska proved to be of imense strategic and economic value once gold was discovered in the neighboring Yukon Alaska played a significant role as a gateway to the kondy goldfields after reconstruction a new era began marked by rapid economic growth especially in the north and west driven by industrialization the expansion of railroads and technological innovations this was the Gilded Age a term coined by Mark Twain while it was a time of great wealth and opulence for some it also highlighted the Stark growing inequalities between the poor and those who became wealthy from industrialization Innovations in technology and production methods led to increased efficiency and the mass production of goods this period also witnessed the rise of titans of industry and finance such as John D Rockefeller Andrew Carnegie and JP Morgan whose vast fortunes were built on monopolies and the control of major sectors of the American economy by 1900 the Carnegie Steel company alone was producing more steel than the entirety of Great Britain many of these men became synonymous with the robber baron a term for a Cutthroat businessman who engaged in crony capitalism want and destruction of Natural Resources wage slavery and building of monopolies to control the market these industrialists were coined the novo reach meaning they made their wealth dur during their own lifetimes not from inheritances Carnegie believed that New Wealth should be given back to the community and stressed the importance of philanthropy in the face of the growing inequality New York Boston and Philadelphia swelled in size not only from domestic migrations but immigrants from Europe and Asia who poured into the United States in search of economic opportunities and freedom settling in urban areas and often working in low-paying laboring intensive jobs this period saw the emergence of ethnic neighborhoods and contributed to the rich cultural diversity of American cities the first true waves were during the mid 1800s with immigrants fleeing the famine in Ireland and the upheaval of the 1848 Revolutions in Germany the immigrants of the late 1800s came in through New York greeted by the iconic Statue of Liberty a gift from the French commemorating America’s abolishment of SL slavery many Chinese and Irish immigrants worked on the Transcontinental Railway connecting the East and West just as we saw in Europe the rapid industrialization and the harsh working conditions in factories led to the growth of Labor movements workers organized strikes and formed unions such as the American Federation of Labor to demand better wages shorter work days and safer working conditions although membership numbers remained quite low notable labor conflicts including the great Railroad Strike of 1877 and the Haymarket Riot of 1886 highlighted the tensions between labor and capital the pinkertons often acted as private security and were criticized for acting as hired enforcers for big business against labor movements and Strikes the Gilded Age also exposed the underside of American Prosperity with widespread poverty child labor and squalid living conditions in crowded Urban tenaments reformers and journalists known as mut rers exposed corruption inequality and social injustices the era was also marked by political corruption and patronage exemplified by powerful political machines such as tamy Hall in New York City whose leader Boss Tweed defrauded the city of millions of dollars in response to the era’s corruption and inequality po the seeds of Reform were planted the populist movement which emerged from rural discontent in the South and West called for stronger government intervention in the economy to support farmers and workers against the monopolies while the populists were not successful in all their Endeavors their efforts contributed to the broader push for reform that would characterize the early 20th century over in the Pacific American settlers and missionaries had been present in Hawaii since the early 19th century gradually exerting influence over the lucrative sugar economy and Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 a group of American businessmen with the support of the United States minister to Hawaii an armed US Marines overthrew Queen Liu okalani who had sought to strengthen the monarchy and reduce foreign influence the provisional government established by the coup leader sought annexation by the United States but president Gro over Cleveland viewing the overthrow as illegal initially refused to Annex the islands but Hawaii’s importance would soon be reassessed in 1898 under President William McKinley the United States officially annexed Hawaii through a joint resolution of Congress making it a US Territory this change of heart came from Hawaii strategic importance in a conflict that had recently started the Spanish American War it all began with Cuba’s struggle for Independence and the brutal methods used by the Spanish to suppress it including a reconcentration policy a precursor to concentration camps this was Amplified by American economic interests and sensationalist journalism that swayed public opinion the mysterious sinking of the USS Main in Havana Harbor escalated tensions leading to direct us intervention under the guise of liberating Cuba in April 1898 President McKinley pushed by public opinion and the aggressive stance of Congress reluctantly asked for a declaration of war against Spain there were two main theaters of operation in the Caribbean particularly Cuba and in the Pacific especially the Philippines which was another Spanish colony in the Caribbean the most notable battle was the land and naval battle of Santiago de Cuba which resulted in a decisive us Victory and the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron in the Pacific Commodore George dy’s Fleet achieved a swift victory at the Battle of Manila Bay destroying the Spanish Pacific Squadron and demonstrating the United States Naval power this Victory paved the way for the eventual capture of Manila and exerted US influence in the Pacific the war concluded with the Treaty of Paris signed on December 10th 1898 Spain seeded its sovereignty over over Cuba and transferred ownership of its Pacific and Caribbean colonies to the United States including Puerto Rico Guam and the Philippines the transfer of the Philippines acquired for $20 million sparked debate within the United States about the merits and morals of imperialism the war also left a legacy of unresolved issues including the struggle for Philippine Independence which led to the Philippine American War and the complex Pro process of establishing a stable and independent Cuba this left the United States as one of the great world powers ushering in an age of domestic progress the Progressive Era spanning from the late 1890s to the early 1920s became a period of widespread social political and economic reform progressives aimed to address the issues of the Gilded Age through government intervention advocating for changes that would improve democracy and promote Justice the fourth party system saw the Republicans and Democrats as the major parties still with the Republicans dominating until the election of 1912 Theodore Roosevelt a veteran of the Spanish American war became president after the assassination of McKinley in 1901 he firmly planted the Americans on the world stage chairing peace negotiations abroad sending American warships on a tour around the world and overseeing the construction of the Panama Canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans much more easily for trade at home Progressive sought to mitigate the impact of poverty improve working conditions and protect consumers from unsafe products the settlement house movement led by figures such as Jane Adams provided essential services and education to Urban poor communities aiming to uplift immigrants and the working class labor reforms were a significant focus with legislation introduced to regulate child labor limit working hours and improve safety conditions in factories and mines the establishment of the Department of Labor in 1913 underscored the growing recognition of workers rights and the need for a government role in labor relations the federal Meat Inspection Act passed in 1906 to standardize and regulate slaughter houses and meat processing plants the Pure Food and Drug Act further added more consumer protections as the unregulated markets often use dangerous chemicals in food and medicines for infants often included alcohol or opium antitrust laws became more enforced leading to the breakup of monopolies like American Tobacco and standard oil and the establishment of the Federal Trade Commission for further consumer protections under woodro Wilson banking reforms were also implemented Colman ating in the creation of the Federal Reserve System in 1913 which aimed to stabilize the economy by regulating the supply of money and serving as a lender of Last Resort his presidency also saw the enactment of a graduated federal income tax the women’s suffrage movement a critical part of the Progressive Era achieved a significant Victory with the ratification of the 19th amendment in 1920 granting women the right to vote this success was the result of Decades of activism by suffragists who used both state and National strategies to advance their cause conservation of Natural Resources also became a Hallmark of the Progressive Era led by figures like President Theodore Roosevelt and conservationist John mior the movement aimed to balance Economic Development with the preservation of wilderness areas leading to the establishment of national parks forests and Wildlife refugees the Antiquities Act of 1906 allowed the president to designate national monuments protecting significant natural and historical sites the progressive era was a time of significant change and reform that reshaped American society when American values shifted to democracy environmentalism and justice for all classes in just a bit over a century the United States considered itself the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere and Pacific soon to rival even the long stored European States like Britain but what of the British to the north those who remained on the continent after the American Revolution following the independence of the 13 American colonies up to 100,000 loyalists fled North to the British territories in what is now Canada their arrival significantly increased the population of the British North American colonies and led to the creation of new settlements to accommodate the flux the British government divided the province of Quebec into Upper Canada and Lower Canada with the constitutional act of 1791 establishing separate governments for each with elected assemblies to accommodate the English-speaking Loyalists and french-speaking Canadian the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States had significant repercussions for Canada American invasions were repelled by British forces local militias and indigenous allies fostering a sense of unity and identity among the residents of British North America the war’s outcome which solidified Canada’s boundaries was instrumental in shaping Canadian identity and its distinct path from the United States the rest of the early 19th century was marked by economic growth driven by the fur trade Agriculture and Timber but also by political unrest the 1830s were a tumultuous political period in Upper and Lower Canada culminating in the rebellions of 1837-38 in both colonies reformers sought responsible government and an end to the autocratic rule of the colonial Elites known as the family compact in Upper Canada and the Chateau click in Lower Canada although the rebellions were quashed they highlighted the need for political reform in response the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes of the unrest his report led to the act of Union 1840 which United Upper and Lower Canada into the province of Canada and implemented reforms that moved the colony toward responsible government where the executive branch had to have the support of the elected assembly to govern but issues arose concerning defense against the expansionist United States while economic interests pushed for the construction of a transcontinental Railway calling for a union of all the British North American colonies in the East apart from the new province of Canada this included Newland Nova Scotia New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island the Charlotte Town conference in 1864 initially convened to discuss a maritime Union became the setting for broader discussions about a Federation of all the British North American colonies these discussions continued at the Quebec conference later that year and the London conference in 1866 culminating in the British North America act on July 1st 1867 the Dominion of Canada was created uniting the province of Canada which split into Ontario and Quebec with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a federal system with a central government while retaining significant powers for the provinces Newland remained a British colony for the time being the new nation of Canada was granted self-government although Foreign Affairs remained under British control John a McDonald a leading figure in the Confederation movement became the first Prime Minister the early years of Confederation saw Canada’s expansion Westward with the purchase of Rupert’s Land from the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1869 and the entry of Manitoba in 1870 British Colombia in 1871 and Prince Edward Island in 1873 the promise of a transcontinental Railway was a key factor in British Colombia’s decision to join leading to the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway completed in 1885 which was instrumental in the settlement and development of the Canadian West the railway also brought the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan into the Dominion of Canada by 1905 but as in the United States Westwood expansion brought conflict the Red River Rebellion from 1869 to 1870 and the Northwest rebellion of 1885 led by matey leader Lou Riel highlighted the tensions between the federal government and the matey as well as other indigenous peoples whose lands and rights were increasingly encroached upon by settlement and government policies economically Canada experienced growth and diversification with the expansion of agriculture in the Prairies the development of Industries in the central provinces and the growth of urban centers there were still major tensions between the French population and English-speaking majority but this temporarily subsided once Wilfred Lauer became the first French Canadian Prime Minister in 1896 during his time in office industrialization increased and Canada welcomed hundreds of thousands of European immigrants to settle the west by 1914 Canada had developed a distinct national identity albeit one still close ly tied to its British colonial Roots this episode we move away from the Americas to set our gaze back out east we will first explore Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent southeast Asia and Beyond to Oceania and finally Africa what do all these locations have in common they were all Targets of what became known as New imperialism this wasn’t the same as the colonial structure of old which died out with the declining Spanish Empire instead of European ships arriving to trade their gold and silver for spices this imperialism was driven by industrialization and the extraction of raw materials if you’d like some background on these themes check out the age of Discovery video from our last Mega documentary where we go over the beginnings of European Colonial expansion in some of the regions we’ll talk about today the shift began as a result of the Industrial Revolution which required an abundance of resources from abroad there were different motivations for the push for imperialism for the French which had a tumultuous long 19th century with constant revolutions and War imperialism was seen as a way to Anchor itself as one of the great European powers lest It Fall Into Obscurity for Britain the main center of the Industrial Revolution many imperialists adopted a stance of social Darwinism survival of the fittest but with human societies many believed the great civilizations of the past were built upon the bones of those inferior and that it was just the Natural Way of the World others still Justified imperialism as a moral obligation and the expansion and spread of Christianity democracy and capitalism was simply a gift to those less civilized apart from European powers the United States engaged in its own imperialistic Endeavors which we spoke about last time as well as the Japanese which we will cover next episode the colonial system was often done through indirect rule where local rulers cooperated with imperialist powers this was the case in many parts of Africa the Indian subcontinent and the Malay Peninsula if there was resistance though imperialist Powers would overthrow the governing body and establish direct rule like in Algeria the Dutch East Indies and Vietnam when we last left the Indian subcontinent the British East India Company had achieved victory in the Bengal and against the maratas and Kingdom of myo after the French gave up their claims in the region the EIC was the dominant power the mugal emperor once dominant in the early modern remained only a figurehead in Delhi with nominal Authority his true power limited the British East India Company controlled much of India either directly or through subsidiary alliances with local rulers during the 1800s the British implemented various reforms across the subcontinent some of which by consequence improved the life of those upper class Indians a new school system was established and later a postal service and Telegraph system the first Railway in India was inaugurated on April 16th 1853 covering a distance of 34 km about 21 Mi between Bombay and tan industrialization increased with the opening of textile mills but trade remained uneven benefiting the British the British also cracked down on the wandering gangs of thuggy Bandits and abolished the practice of Sati in which a widow would be made to sacrifice herself on her deceased husband’s funeral P to simplify the process of Revenue collection in the vast and diverse territories under British control a class of land owners known as Zas became responsible for collecting taxes from The Peasants who worked the land they were required to pay a fixed annual tax to the British East India Company in return they could retain the Surplus Revenue but they were also responsible for any shortfall this system incentivized zedas to increase agricultural production but also led to widespread exploitation of peasants as zamars often resorted to high rents and and harsh measures to ensure their own profits and meet the fixed Revenue demands British women’s arrival in larger numbers during the 19th century led to the establishment of more defined racial and social barriers as the British aimed to recreate a version of British Society in India in line with Victorian morals and values by 1857 the British grip on India was both formidable and unyielding but in the dusty Garrison town of meot there was unrest among the ranks of the Native soldiers serving under the British East India company’s Banner these Indian soldiers were known as SE they were fueled by the heavy-handed policies of annexation the disrespectful treatment of local rulers and the introduction of new military practices that clashed with the SEO religious beliefs the spark that ignited the Powder Keg was the introduction of the new Enfield rifle rumors spread like wildfire among the SEO ranks that the cartridges for the rifle were greased with cow and pig fat substances abhorrent to the Hindu and Muslim soldiers for religious reasons to load the rifle seys had to bite off the end of the cartridge an act that would defile them despite protests the concerns of the seys were dismissed by their British commanders a mistake that would soon prove costly on the 10th of May 1857 the resentment turned into open Rebellion the SE of miror rose up against their British officers unleashing a fury that had accumulated over years of subjugation the Revolt quickly spread across the northern and Central parts of India engulfing cities such as Delhi where the Aged Mughal Emperor anestine poet bahad sha Zafar was proclaimed the leader of the Rebellion symbolizing the desire to restore India’s past but lack of coordination among the Indian provinces and tensions between the Hindu and Muslim population gave the advantage to the British the East India company’s Vengeance was Swift and merciless aimed at quelling the uprising with all means necessary and with Superior military tactics and reinforcements from back home they gradually regained control the capture of Delhi in September 1857 marked the Turning of the tide and by mid 1858 the Rebellion had been largely suppressed the aftermath of the rebellion was a turning point in Indian history history the British crown took Direct Control of India from the East India Company ushering in a new era of British imperialism on the subcontinent the British Raj the Mughal Empire though in Decline for decades was dissolved reforms were introduced to address some of the Grievances that had fueled the uprising and efforts were made to win back the Loyalty of the Indian people with the British crown in Direct Control they reformed the military relying more on those soldiers loyal to the British like the siks from the Punjab and the giras Nepali speaking Indians from the Himalayas despite reforms the scars of the Rebellion ran deep giving rise to a nationalism that would eventually lead to India’s struggle for Independence India remained The Jewel of the crown and the British Empire spared no effort to protect its prized possession from potential threats but in Central Asia Russia was gradually expanding its territory and influence in response to the perceived Russian threat Britain sought to strengthen its borders in India and extend its own influence into Afghanistan and Iran aiming to create buffer States between India and the advancing Russian Empire this rivalry became known as the great game Afghanistan became a central Battleground the British engaged in several Anglo Afghan Wars to establish a friendly and stable regime that could resist Russian advant es but resistance was too strong and the British were hampered by difficult terrain nonetheless the Emirate of Afghanistan and kajar Iran were increasingly encroached upon by the British and Russians respectively both Empires sent spies and diplomats to map terrain Forge alliances with local rulers and gather intelligence in a subversive dance of Espionage the anglo-russian convention of 1907 is often cited as the end of the great game an agreement that resolved many territorial disputes and allowed both Empires to maintain a united front against a more pressing issue in Europe The increased aggression of Germany nearby in Southeast Asia colonization efforts continued by the start of our timeline in 1800 Southeast Asia was still relatively free of European colonization with only the Philippines under the Spanish the Dutch in the East Indies who had taken over from the Dutch East India Company in in 1799 and the Portuguese in teamour but while the British were consolidating power in the subcontinent they also wared with neighboring Burma when we last left Burma current day Myanmar it was under the control of the tangu Empire which at its peak was the most powerful Southeast Asian Empire but constant Rebellion weakened the Empire and in 1740 the mon the indigenous austroasiatic people of the region restored their own Kingdom and by 1752 overthrew the tangu Empire establishing themselves in lower Burma but the burmes under the Kong Dynasty went to war with the mon Kingdom and annexed their territory by 1757 the Kongs remained a Powerhouse in the region constantly Waring with the Siamese in Atia leading to its collapse and fending off invasions from the Ching to the north the Kong Dynasty itself was eventually defeated by the Bri in a series of three Anglo Burmese Wars leading to the complete annexation of Burma by the British Empire in 1885 when it was added to British India under direct rule by this time the British had also come to control Malaya part of the Malay Peninsula and Singapore giving them access to the important straight of Mala and later Northern Borneo after treaties with the Dutch Britain’s sudden expansion in key areas of South and Southeast Asia frightened longtime Rivals France they looked to Vietnam which already had a presence of French missionaries we last left Vietnam during our last series during the reign of Kong Trang of the tan Dynasty who restored prosperity to Vietnam after Civil War but Kong trang’s Heir wasn’t as capable a leader and one of the exiled win Lords regained power with the help of a French missionary in 1802 the nwin dynasty was established under Emperor yam and by 1804 he had D viet’s name changed to Vietnam symbolizing the unification of the North and South under Napoleon thei the second French Empire launched a campaign in 1858 with the help of Spain and set up a colony in the mikong River delta in southern Vietnam in 1862 called French coach in China by the end of the century the French had established control over all of Vietnam and the neighboring Cambodia and La forming French Indochina as their main economic interest was in the South they established direct rule there while tonin in the north and Anam in the central region were made into protectorates with the emperor retaining nominal Authority Cambodia and La were also placed under indirect Rule the Kingdom of AA had collapsed to the Burmese in 1767 and broke into five Waring States but sayam was soon reunified by taxin the great of the tomuri Kingdom in 1782 amidst growing concerns about King toxin’s rule and his alleged Insanity a palace coup was orchestrated his friend and military leader Tong dwang took the throne on April 6th 1782 marking the beginning of the rattin aosen kingdom and the Chri Dynasty which continues to rule Thailand to this day he established his capital crossed the river from tonburi and took the regnal name of King Rama I the beginning of a new golden age for Thailand there he ordered the construction of the Grand Palace and Temple of the emerald Buddha signifying the establishment of Bangkok as the new capital the move to ratanakosin also symbolized a fresh start for the kingdom distancing it from the brief yet turbulent reign of King taxin Rama’s Reign focused on consolidating his power reforming the administ ministration compiling the legal codes and promoting religion and culture laying the foundations for the modern Thai State he also continued the defense of Siam against Burmese aggression securing the Kingdom’s Independence and sovereignty under later rulers Rama IV and his son Rama V F Siam kept Western powers from invading through a series of treaties opening up their ports and liberalizing foreign trade through the end of the 1800s and beginning of the 1900s Siam became more westernized as European Styles mixed with their art and culture and the upper classes received a European styled education by 1900 Cam’s diplomacy had kept it as the only independent Southeast Asian State both the surrounding French and English acknowledge Siam as a buffer State between British India and French Indochina by the end of the century the United States also entered Southeast Asia supplanting the Spanish in the Philippines from Southeast Asia the British shipped out Teakwood from Burma for ship building and luxury furniture and rubber from Malaya for the burgeoning new automobile industry in Indochina the French exported rice from the Mong River delta in southern Vietnam and coal from the north the Dutch continued exporting spices from the malakas along with coffee and palm oil the Portuguese on tour FOC focused on Sandalwood valued for its scent and medicinal uses despite being there for the raw materials some Western po Justified occupation as what was popularized by the turn of the century as The White Man’s Burden a moral obligation to civilize those deemed less civilized similar to the concept of manifest destiny from last episode some cities grew and modernized like Saigon in Indochina but it was mostly only the upper classes who profited the common native citizen did not benefit from the educational reforms and the middleclass merchants often had less opportunities as trade became not only controlled by the Europeans but many markets came under the control of wealthy Indian or Chinese Merchants though a new Urban culture emerged most still worked as agricultural laborers many worked for European plantation owners for poverty wages a consequence of colonial rule was that Sanitation and infrastructure increased resulting in a stark decrease in child mortality and a population surge many peasant families who usually had many children to offset early death grew so large that many had to relocate to the larger cities to work in the new factories forming a class of urban poor still as more were born more came into poverty as the economic wealth was extracted for the benefit of the mother nation back in Europe and workers had to go through all the hardship of the new Factory life and Industrial Revolution as in Europe but without any of the rights or Liberties peasant revolts and anti-colonial movements became common in Burma nationalist movements sprang up around the turn of the century like the ymba by the 1930s the first large Insurrection against the government took place with the saan Rebellion it was a major peasant Uprising against British rule led by Salah San a physician and former monk who declared himself King although the rebellion was crushed it highlighted the widespread discontent with British economic policies and inspired later nationalist movements in Indochina after being dethroned by the French in aou Emperor hangi fled to the mountains of central Vietnam from where he issued the caning edict calling on the people of Vietnam to rise up against the French occupiers the movement brought together various segments of Vietnamese Society spearheaded by Scholars along with peasant support it involved Guerilla Warfare and represented a broad-based resistance against French colonialism one of the most notable leaders of the Insurgency was fanden fun A Confucian scholar who led several successful engagements against French forces in Central Vietnam the movement faced strong military retaliation from the French who deployed substantial resources to suppress the uprising the movement was gradually weakened by French military campaigns internal divisions and eventually the capture of emperor hangi in 1888 who was then exiled to Algeria further south British explorers most notably Captain James Cook undertook extensive voyages mapping many islands in the Pacific and claiming eastern Australia for Britain in 1770 following the loss of the American colonies after the American war of indep dependence Britain needed a new location to relieve overcrowded prisons in Britain and to establish a strategic base in the Pacific region the First Fleet carrying convicts soldiers and settlers arrived at botony Bay in January 1788 but soon relocated to Port Jackson to establish the first European settlement on the continent named New South Wales Captain Arthur philli was the colony’s first governor over the following decade additional settlements were established across the continent including in Tasmania then known as van Demon’s land Western and South Australia Victoria Queensland and the Northern Territory the colonization process involved the exploration and mapping of the continent claiming land for agriculture and settlement the arrival of Europeans had a devastating impact on indigenous Australians including displacement introduction of diseases and violent conflict over land indigenous populations were significantly reduced and dispossessed of their land without treaty negotiations the British expanded their influence in Oceania annexing New Zealand in 1840 through the Treaty of wangi and later establishing control over Fiji in 1874 and parts of Papua New Guinea France also established a presence in the Pacific French explorers such as Lou L antoan de bugville and Ron frad de Gallup made significant voyages France took control of various territories including New Caledonia in 1853 and Tahiti became the center of the French establishments in Polynesia Germany annexed parts of Papua New Guinea and several Island groups including the Marshall Islands the Hawaiian Islands were first visited by Europeans in the late 18th century with Captain James Cook arriving in 1778 throughout the early 19th century Hawaii became a strategic stop for wailing ships Traders and missionaries from Europe and the United States the influence of these groups especially American missionaries grew over time after years of conflict King Kamehameha I unified the islands under his rule by 1810 the Kingdom of Hawaii entered into treaties with various countries and became an important center for the Pacific wailing industry sugar production and trade but the growing influence of American and European settlers especially in the economic sphere led to increasing control over Hawaiian lands and politics and in 1898 Hawaii was officially annexed by the United States in Africa European intervention had been limited apart from the initial small scale raids into the interior during the 1500 00s Traders later mainly dealt with African rulers on the coast by the 1800s the transatlantic slave trade was in Decline as more States took measures to abolish slavery which included both legal measures and active enforcement this helped suppress the slave trade itself but slavery continued in many major States until the mid 1800s being abolished in the British Empire in the 1830s and the French colonies by 1848 the Brazilian Empire was the last Western power to abolish slavery in 1888 in West Africa with humans off the market trade in other Goods gained prominence gold remained a major export joined by peanuts to produce oil palm oil for soaps and cooking Ivory for piano keys and Timber for ship building and furniture with the decline of the Portuguese Empire the British and French established their own settlements along the coast Sierra Leon was established as a colony for freed slaves in 1787 and freet toown the colony’s Capital became a British crown colony in 1808 Sierra Leon served as a base for the British Navy’s West Africa Squadron which was tasked with efforts to intercept illegal slave ships and suppress the transatlantic slave trade the early 19th century also saw the British consolidate their influence on the Gold Coast president present day Ghana primarily through trade the British encroachment led to a series of wars with the Ashanti Empire and Aken people living further Inland the first conflict began as a result of ashany efforts to enforce their claims over territories that paid tribute to them including areas under the influence of the British on the coast the war was triggered by Ashanti incursions into coastal areas and in 1824 Governor Charles McCarthy LED an exp Expedition against them but he was defeated and killed in battle and his head was reportedly used as a drinking cup by the Ashanti the war ended in a stalemate with no formal treaty signed the second war was a brief conflict primarily over the refusal of the Ashanti to recognize a treaty Britain had made with the fante a coastal people under Ashanti domination the British launched a punitive Expedition but were forced to retreat due to disease and logistic issues resulting in an inconclusive end to the conflict the third War began after the Ashanti invaded the British protectorate of the fante in 1873 following disputes over tribute and territory the British led by Sir ganet wolsley launched a well-prepared Expedition that reached Kumasi the Ashanti capital in January 1874 the Ashanti were defeated and their Capital was briefly occupied and looted the Treaty of fira ended the war with the Ashanti agreeing to British demands including the payment of a large Indemnity the fourth conflict was sparked by the Ashanti refusal to abide by the terms of the treaty ending the third war particularly the stipulation forbidding them from deploying their army without British permission the British expeditionary Force quickly overran the Ashanti facing minimal resistance and Kumasi was occupied again the war ended with the Ashanti king prea I being captured and exiled and the Ashanti Empire becoming a British protectorate the final Conflict also known as the yah asanwa war was triggered by the British Governor’s demand for the symbolic and sacred golden stool which represented the Ashanti Nation sovereignty yah Assan Taya the Queen Mother of eisu led the Ashanti in a rebellion against British rule despite initial successes including the siege of the British Fort at Kumasi the uprising was suppressed by British forces the war resulted in the formal annexation of the Ashanti Empire by the British Empire in 1902 incorporating it into the Gold Coast colony and Y asanwa and other leaders were exiled to the seels despite the victory the British never captured the golden sto which remained hidden throughout the war the French had been present in Sagal since the 17th century focusing on trade particularly in slaves Gum arabic and later peanuts during the early 19th century French control was Consolidated in Sagal serving as a base for further exploration and expansion into West Africa Liberia was established by the American Colonization Society in 1822 as a settlement for freed africanamerican and Caribbean slaves and declared its independence in 1847 becoming Africa’s First Republic the America liberians descendants of these freed slaves dominated the country’s political economic and social systems often at the expense of the indigenous African populations the British and French also showed great interest in North Africa and had for a while the land of the pyramids had stood at the crossroads of three continents and greater than any natural resource Egypt was home to the small Swampy ismos between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea Napoleon attempted to control the crucial region during his expedition in 1798 and even toppled the reigning mamluks but was eventually driven out after British interference in the power vacuum the Ottomans attempted to reassert control while the mamlock attempted to continue their centuries long rule but some ottoman troops had been sent by the Empire to ask the remaining French one of the faction included an Albanian Commander by the name of Muhammad Ali after a drawn out civil war between the three factions Muhammad Ali was appointed as the ottoman Governor or Wally of Egypt and recognized as Pasha Muhammad Ali implemented extensive agricultural reforms transforming Egypt into a major cotton producer this shift was partly inspired by the global demand for cotton especially from industrial countries like Britain he modernized the Egyptian Army introducing new training conscription and weaponry partly based on European models Muhammad Ali also reformed the administrative system to centralize power and improve efficiency reducing the power of traditional Elites and the influence of the Ottoman Empire over Egypt efforts were made to establish educational institutions including schools and Technical institutes to support his modernization programs infrastructure improvements such as the construction of canals and Roads facilitated economic growth Muhammad Ali sought to expand his territory engaging in military campaigns in the Sudan Syria and the Arabian Peninsula his successful conquest of the hijaz and Sudan extended Egypt’s influence significantly his expansionist policies led to conflict with the Ottoman Empire and European powers notably in the Greek Greek war of independence and the Egyptian ottoman War the latter saw Egyptian forces Advance deep into ottoman territory on the path to Istanbul itself before European powers intervened to maintain the balance of power in the region Muhammad Ali’s Ambitions in the Levant and control over the Eastern Mediterranean trade routes alarmed Britain and France leading to increased European intervention in Egyptian Affairs the convention of London in 1840 forced Muhammad Deli to withdraw from most of his territorial gains in exchange for hereditary rule over Egypt and Sudan marking the beginning of the dynasty that would rule Egypt until the mid1 1950s his Reign ended in 1848 after Contracting tuberculosis but Egypt was soon raised to a new rank the Kate the title kiv was a rank introduced by the Ottoman Empire A step above paser and granted to the Viceroy of Egypt it’s signified a higher degree of autonomy while still acknowledging the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan the title was first bestowed upon isma Pasha a grandson of Muhammad Ali in 1867 by the ottoman Sultan abdulaziz during his Reign the construction of the Suez Canal by French engineer Ferdinand leps that began in 1859 further increased European interest and involvement in Egypt particularly that of France and Britain who bought in into the project by 1875 its completion benefited Egypt very little and cost thousands of Egyptian laborers their lives as well as putting the government into extreme debt in 1881 an army Revolt broke out against the cadan foreign intervention but in 1882 Britain invaded Egypt under the pretext of stabilizing the country amidst the Nationalist uprisings marking the start of British occupation but even greater revolt were Brewing to the south in Sudan the Revolt was led by Muhammad Ahmed who proclaimed himself the Mii the prophesied Redeemer of Islam in 1881 he called for a Jihad against the Egyptian government criticizing its corruption and the influence of foreigners the start of the Mii Revolt the Mii and his followers known as Mists quickly gained support among Sudanese factions discontented with Egyptian rule They seized vast territories including the significant capture of carum in 1885 where the British Egyptian Governor General Charles Gordon was killed the Revolt significantly weakened Egyptian control over Sudan the British concerned about the stability of the region and the safety of the sez Canal intervened militarily General Herbert Kitchener LED British and Egyptian forces to recapture Sudan culminating in the the decisive battle of Andaman in 1898 the Mii state was defeated and Sudan came under direct British Egyptian rule called Anglo Egyptian Sudan which lasted until Sudan’s Independence in 1956 back in Egypt the British soon viewed the kiv as increasingly hostile and he was deposed for his Pro ottoman positions after the start of World War I to the West the Ottomans still had nominal control of the rest of the North African Coast through the Regency of alers Ottoman Tunisia and ottoman tripolitania what was known to Europe as the barbery coast it was from here that corses and Pirates launched raids throughout the Mediterranean and along the West African Coast in 1830 France invaded Algeria with a desire to expand French territory and suppress piracy in the Mediterranean by 1837 the French had solidified their control over Coastal Algeria and over the following decades they expanded their control Inland fully annexing the territory and ending ottoman influence there it became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European settlers whose descendants became known as the pioir Tunisia under the rule of the hus Dynasty maintained a degree of autonomy as an ottoman vasle state but by the mid 19th century tunisia’s strategic location and econ economic potential attracted European interest particularly from France and Britain the Bay of Tunisia attempted modernization and reforms through the introduction of the 1861 Constitution but these efforts led to increased debt and economic dependence on European powers in 1881 France established a protectorate over Tunisia through the Treaty of BAU effectively bringing it under French control and significantly reducing ottoman influence over in East Africa slavery remained more common particularly under the Omani Empire the Omani Empire’s involvement along the Swahili Coast is a story of gradual expansion with significant periods of influence starting in the 17th century taking over from Portuguese heemy but the most notable period of Omani Resurgence and consolidation of control in the region occurred during the 19th century under the rule of side bin Sultan who became Sultan of of Oman in 1804 in the early 19th century side shifted his Focus towards the island of Zanzibar off the coast which became increasingly important due to its strategic location for trade particularly in spices and slaves and its potential for Agricultural Development In 1832 side officially moved his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar making it the center of his empire under the Sultan’s rule the influence of the Omani Empire extended over the Swahili Coast including parts of what are today Kenya and Tanzania and further into the interior regions after Sultan saad’s death in 1856 his empire was divided between two of his sons to wiy bin sad became the Sultan of Oman and Majid bin sad became the Sultan of Zanzibar but it was under their father’s Reign that Omani influence in East Africa reached its Zenith with Zanzibar becoming a wealthy trading Hub and the cultural and economic center of the Swahili Coast the continued slave trade provoked European abolitionists including the Scottish physician missionary and Explorer David Livingston Livingston was one of the first Europeans to undertake a transcontinental journey across Africa after initial Explorations in southern Africa he undertook an expedition across the continent from luander on the Atlantic coast Coast to kimman on the Indian Ocean near the mouth of the zambesi river exploring much of interior Africa previously unknown to Europeans while searching for the source of the Nile Livingston is credited with the discovery of numerous geographical features most famously Victoria Falls In 1855 which he named after Queen Victoria his detailed observations also added substantially to Western knowledge of African geography Flora FAA and the social organization of the African societies he encountered Livingston promoted the three seas Christianity Commerce and civilization and was a fervent opponent of the slave trade he helped raise awareness in Britain and around the world to its atrocities and in 1873 under pressure from Britain the Zanzibar slave market was officially closed and slavery was abolished by the end of the century so far we’ve looked at Central West Northern and Eastern Africa but it was the South which had the most complex and unique interactions with Europeans the Dutch VOC had established Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope in the mid 1600s and their descendants became known as BS The Colony remained Dutch controlled until the Napoleonic Wars when the British seized it at the Battle of blauberg with the Dutch giving up its claims in 1814 there were increased tensions between the Dutch and English from the start but once the British abolished slavery in their empire in the 1830s it sparked a mass Exodus called the Great Trek as many bore migrants called four trekers migrated northward via Wagon Train but moving further Inland brought them into conflict with a formidable African Kingdom this kingdom was founded in 1816 by King Shaka Zulu who reigned from its Inception until 1828 as the the leader of the Zulu Kingdom he transformed a relatively small group into a formidable and expansive Empire through a combination of military Innovation strategic prowess and ruthlessness Shaka revolutionized Zulu Warfare by popularizing the short stabbing spear the eir in place of the traditional throwing spear emphasizing close combat Effectiveness although some Scholars claimed this change predated Shaka he also reorganized the Army into more disciplined and efficient units and regiments called imp PE which were based on age groups but not lineage breaking down traditional social structures to ensure loyalty to him personally through a series of military campaigns Shaka significantly expanded the territory under Zulu control absorbing or displacing many neighboring groups his expansionist policies and Military conquests led to the creation of a centralized state with a strong monarchy Shaka fought against various groups and Kingdoms in the region the wars and displacements caused by shaka’s expansion contributed to the EK leading to widespread upheaval the formation of new societies and migrations across southern Africa this period reshaped the demographic and political landscape with effects reaching as far as present day Zimbabwe and Malawi Shaka was assassinated by his half brothers dingan and amang ganar in 182 28 amidst growing dissatisfaction with his rule especially following the death of his mother nandi his death led to succession struggles with dingani eventually becoming King as the BS expanded further northward in search of new lands they came into conflict with the endell in a series of encounters during the early to mid 19th century the endell another Bantu group were originally part of the Zulu Kingdom but migrated North under the leadership of of mzilikazi founding a new kingdom in what is now Zimbabwe the most significant of these conflicts were the battles in 1837 and later conflicts in the 1840s the wars with the Zulu culminated in the Battle of blood River where a four treer Commando group led by Andre pretorius decisively defeated a large force of Zulu warriors this battle was a turning point in the great Tre leading to the establishment of the Natalia Republic by the Wars although it was later annexed by the British but their other established B republics the orange free state and transval became officially recognized and remained throughout the 1800s the koan who lived in the area well before even the Banu speakers also resisted the B seizing their grazing land But as time went on the indigenous populations were slowly resettled on reservations though European presence significantly increased inreased during the 1800s it was nothing compared to what would occur during the final sliver of the century as Africa went from this to this just a few years later this was the Scramble for Africa before the scramble European presence in Africa was mostly limited to Coastal trading posts engaged in Commerce including gold Ivory spices and slaves interior exploration was limited due to geographical barriers diseases like malaria and resistance from African societies improvements in navigation built on the charts by David Livingston and the Portuguese Sera Pinto steam ships to master the African waterways advances in medicine notably quinine for malaria and weaponry like the Maxim gun gave Europeans a significant advantage over local populations facilitating deeper penetration into the African interior by this time there was intense National rivalries among European powers particularly between the UK France Germany and Belgium which drove a competitive urge to acquire territories to enhance National Prestige and power the small Kingdom of Belgium under King Leopold II was the first to take advantage Henry Morton Stanley an Explorer and journalist was secretly sent by leopole to Central Africa to form treaties with numerous Chiefs along the Congo River by 1882 he had enough land to form the basis of the Congo free state privately owned by King Leopold himself this gave him access to vast amounts of ivory palm oil and especially rubber while work conditions on plantations were always harsh they were particularly brutal under King Leopold forc labor atrocious punishments and mass killings were common sleeping sickness and small poox also destroyed entire communities serving as the instrument of Leopold’s control over this vast African territory the force pque a military and police force tasked with securing the state’s economic interests particularly in rubber and ivory was responsible for most of the atrocities it comprised an officer core mainly of Europeans and relied on Africans as soldiers and mercenaries they were Infamous for their brutal methods of enforcing labor and quelling dissent among the congales population including the use of violence and mutilation the shikat a bull whip was the least of a worker’s concern as dismemberments were common with severed hands and feet being used as trophies family members were forced to kill each other as entire Villages were burned cannibalism was officially outlawed but it was allowed in certain cases among the soldiers with one Belgian officer calling it horrible but exceedingly useful and hygienic in just over 20 years the estimated population of 16 million was reduced by half leading to International pressure to intervene the British casement commission led the investigations in 1904 and by 1908 King Leopold was relinquished of the Congo free state and it came under the control of the government as the Belgian Congo in the end the camera turned out to be the only witness Leopold couldn’t bribe nearby the French also established themselves at brazaville creating the smaller French Congo spurred by King Leopold’s intervention in the Congo German Chancellor Otto von bismar convened the Berlin Conference in 1884 where European powers divided up the rest of the African continent among themselves in an effort to avoid war with one another during the next couple of decades Africa was either annexed or indirectly ruled ruled by the Europeans one piece at a time their goal of avoiding confrontation with each other a success from their base in Sagal the French had conquered most of West Africa during the 1880s and 1890s against powerful states such as the tuul Empire leading to the establishment of French Sudan modern-day Mali the kingdom of dhomi in present day Benin was conquered in 1894 following several military Expeditions fren French control was established over the area of modern Guinea by the late 1890s the French declared a protectorate over Co Divo in 1843 but actual control over the interior was only established in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Upper Volta present day Burkina Faso and niga were gradually brought under French control with significant resistance from local leaders by the early 1900s this was a Federation of eight col called French West Africa from their base in the French Congo in central Africa the French also created a Federation of four colonies called French equatorial Africa this region was also reportedly administered with similar atrocities as the Belgian free state with mutilations executions and human burnings although on a smaller scale the Berlin Conference helped Europeans avoid direct conflict with each other for over a decade but France is Ambitions were to create an empire from west to east from the Atlantic to the Red Sea while for the British they dreamed of an Empire from north to south and it was at this intersection in 1898 at foda in Sudan that the British and French met and it seemed War would be unavoidable but the British army backed up by the Egyptians outnumbered the French almost 10 to1 and after a standoff the French backed down their dreams of Empire relegated to the West in North Africa apart from Algeria and Tunisia France also had claims to Morocco with the tacit approval of other European powers including Britain but Germany under Kaiser vilhelm twice undermined France’s Authority in the first and second Moroccan crisis putting European powers on the brink of War conflict was averted through diplomatic means but it further worsened relations between France and Germany in 1912 Sultan abdelhafid signed the Treaty of Fez establishing a French protectorate over Morocco this treaty marked the official beginning of French colonial rule although Spanish control over certain northern and southern regions was also recognized like the French the Germans also had a presence in West and central Africa in today’s Togo and Cameroon they were more established in German Southwest Africa present day Namibia where they subdued the native herero in the herero wars which led to mass genocide in German East Africa the region of tanganika today’s Tanzania the Germans quailed a Revolt by native Muslims and Indigenous Africans called the Magi Rebellion just to their North were the British protectorates of British East Africa and Uganda the British also removed the sultanate on the island of Zanzibar in as little as 38 minutes in the Anglo zanar bar War to date this was to be the shortest recorded war in all of history the United Kingdom retained the most colonies on Africa by this point holding onethird of the continent apart from the aforementioned Egypt Sudan and East Africa they held colonies in what was collectively called British West Africa but their most valuable and Troublesome Ventures would come in the South before the scramble this region was still home to the Zulu Kingdom the two bore republics and the British Cape Colony diamonds were discovered further Inland in 1867 but the discovery of diamonds on the farm of Nicholas and dedric deir near the present day Kimberly initiated a fullscale Diamond Rush Prospectors flooded the area and several large diamonds were found leading to the establishment of the kimbery mine the wealth generated by the diamond mines and the Strategic importance of the region led to increased British interest and influence in the interior of southern Africa leading to further tensions the diamond mining industry quickly became dominated by powerful individuals like cesil rhs who founded deer’s Consolidated mines in 1888 effectively gaining control over the diamond production in Kimberly and establishing a monopoly that would influence the global Diamond market for decades to come roads dreamed of a massive project the Cape to Cairo Railway linking South Africa to Egypt in reference to the Colossus of Roads one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World the concept was sazed as the roads Colossus depicting the entrepreneur as a giant holding a telegraph line standing over Africa from Cairo to Cape to avoid conflict the British attempted to form a confederation with the BS modeled on that of the English and French provinces of the new nation of Canada but the BS refused in 18 77 the British officially annexed the transval despite having previously acknowledged its independence it was met with little opposition as the neighboring Zulu remained a threat to the BS and financial mismanagement left transval on the verge of bankruptsy if they were to remain independent with the British in control they expanded further to minimize the Zulu presence it was around this time that the British dealt the final blow to the corser after several conflicts with the bonu people the Corsa after the Zulu were the major ethnic group in South Africa they engaged in a series of nine different Wars spanning a century against both the B and British Empire after the ninth War and the death of Chief sanday the corser lands fell into British hands the British invaded zulul land in January 1879 under the pretext of a dispute over the succession to the Zulu Throne along Ong with British demands that were deliberately impossible for the Zulu King keto to meet the Anglo Zulu War is renowned for the early Zulu victory at the Battle of is andana where the Zulu forces surrounded and decisively defeated the British army the defeat was so disastrous that the British lost more officers here than at the Battle of watero against Napoleon despite the setback the British ultimately prevailed culminating in the capture of King Kwo and the an F ation of the Zulu Kingdom after the threat was over the transval BS inspired that the British might not be as Invincible as they once seemed declared their independence and resisted British forces in the bore war or transval Rebellion the British significantly underestimated the fighting capabilities motivation and resilience of the Rebel Fighters the BS were skilled marksmen familiar with the terrain and utilized Guerilla tactics effectively against British forces the bore victory at the Battle of majba Hill in February 1881 led to the signing of a peace treaty and the Petoria convention this agreement granted the transval self-government under British suty marking a rare defeat for the British in their colonial conquests now with German West Africa on one side and encroachment from the transval on the other the British government needed to prevent these groups from interrupting the land Cor oror between the British colonies in the South and North various tuana leaders the major ethnic group in the area including Chief K III of the bangat appealed to the British for protection against both the bore encroachment and internal conflicts in response to these concerns and to safeguard their strategic interests the British declared betu analand a protectorate in 1885 modern day Botswana British Administration here was Rel ly light as it was meant more as a buffer State rather than for settlement and development but just a few years later the discovery of gold in the vitv round Basin in transval led to one of the largest gold rushes in history and the founding of Johannesburg which grew rapidly as a result of the influx of Prospectors and miners called iteland the itel Landers mainly British resented their lack of political rights and representation in the transval under cesil roads who became prime minister of Cape colony in 1890 and later British governments there was a push for greater British influence and control in southern Africa aiming to unite the region under British rule the eyelander Grievances was to be their pretext for war the second B war was a much larger and more brutal conflict than the first involving the British Empire against the two bu republics the South African Republic or transval and the orange free state it began with bore offensives into British territories leading to early bore successes at L Smith Kimberly and maiking but this time the British responded with a large-scale military buildup by February 1900 they had taken Bloom Fontaine the capital of Orange Free State and by June Petoria fell the capital of the transval but Guerilla Warfare continued for another 2 years under Lou boa the British response was quite brutal with the relocation of over 100,000 BS to what became the world’s first concentration camps where between 26 to 28,000 perished mostly women and children there were also camps for black Africans which were kept in even worse condition the war finally concluded In 1902 resulting in British Victory and the annexation of both republics into the British Empire the war had devastating effects on the bore civilian population and marked the beginning of British dominance in southern Africa laying the groundwork for the union of South Africa in 1910 which merged the British Cape colony and Nal with the two buor republics to form a self-governing Dominion similar to Canada and Australia at the time to appease the BS for their loss the British only allowed voting rights to the white minority which made up around 20% of the population this played the groundwork for the formal aparte system introduced during the 1940s separate from the union remaining autonomous protectorates of Britain were basutoland and swand present day lutu and eswatini under the leadership of King mushes I first the Basu people effectively resisted attempts by both the B and the British to conquer their territory in the early to mid 19th century but became a British protectorate in 1868 at the request of the king swazer land inhabited by the swazi people was primarily valuable for its mineral resources and as a buffer State between the British bores and the Portuguese in mosambique to the north similar to King mushes where the swazi Monarch engaged in diplomacy to play European powers against each other seeking protection while maintaining a level of sovereignty swaziland’s economic value did not necessitate full annexation and its role as a buffer was sufficiently served by making it a protectorate in 1902 after the second B War further north the British under CLE roads British South Africa company also established themselves in northern and southern rodesia present day Zambia and Zimbabwe the British central Africa protectorate was established in 1891 which encompassed the area of present day Malawi the protectorate was renamed nasand in 1907 7 while not one of the big four Italy’s foray inter African colonization began in Earnest in the last two decades of the 19th century driven by a desire for fresh economic opportunities and to address their poverty and overpopulation problems Italy’s first significant Colonial acquisition was in the Horn of Africa where it purchased the Bay of asab from there they expanded Inland in military campaigns against the neighboring Ethiopian Empire King menelik II faced a war on two fronts as the mest uprising to the West seeped into Ethiopia so a treaty was made with the Italians and they officially established the colony of Eritrea in 1890 but the Italians failed in their colonial attempts in Ethiopia itself as king menelik and his army decisively defeated the invading Italian and Eritrean forces along with Liberia these were the only two African states to Main main their independence Italy also established a foothold in parts of what is now Somalia signing treaties with local Sultans in the 1880s and 1890s to gain control of the beneda coast the Italian Somalia colony was gradually expanded through further agreements and military action in North Africa Italy invaded Libya in 191 and by 1912 through the Treaty of losan the Ottomans formerly seeded it to ital Italy ending over three centuries of Ottoman presence in the region PA’s Britannica which translates to British peace refers to the period of relative peace in the 19th and early 20th centuries roughly 1815 to 1914 facilitated by the British Empire’s Global dominance and Naval Supremacy during this era Britain acted as a global policeman enforcing free trade and addressing international disputes through its powerful Royal Navy which helped maintain open and secure sea routs critical for Commerce this period saw significant economic globalization technological progress and the spread of British political and cultural influences worldwide although it was also marked by Colonial expansion and competition with other Imperial Powers while this phase of imperialism was a brutal period for the native populations of Africa there were also some positive consequences like improved infrastructure and efforts to control disease but the period of new imperialism will still forever be known for its exploitation of natural resources and human labor cultural suppression and new systems of racial hierarchy and segregation which would last well into the 20th century altering the life of millions in the midst of these colossal shifts the decline of once Mighty Empires like the Ottomans signaled a changing order the weakening of the sick man of Europe was a foreshadow shadowing for those empires of the past as imperialist ambition and competition also cast a shadow over the Ching in the Far East the next stop on our journey in this episode we turn our Focus to East Asia to the Ching Empire in China and Tokugawa shogunate in Japan and what would come to replace them check out our last Mega documentary where we go over these regions during their height but from 1800 on W both would face significant challenges domestically the Ching rule over China had become peaceful and prosperous especially under Emperors Ki and chenlong though the devastating White Lotus rebellion was quelled in the early 1800s under Emperor jaring it was but the first sign that not all was well within the celestial Empire a population surge outpaced agricultural production and Corruption became more rampant in court causing greater in deficiencies in responding to any challenges even throughout the Dynasty’s height there were still ethnic tensions between the Manchu ruling minority and the majority Han Chinese population by the early 1800s China’s military and technological capabilities had fallen behind and their failure to modernize would be their Doom Ching rulers had allowed the Western powers to trade only at the Port of Canton but the British had a massive trade deficit with China primarily due to the high demand for Chinese tea silk and Porcelain which had to be paid for with silver George McCartney failed in opening up China in 1793 and William amher governor general of India attempted once again in 1816 but he too refused to cow and was refused entry to Beijing so the British took another approach as they were addicted to Chinese tea they decided to start trading with China something even more addicting from the fields of Bengal on the subcontinent the British shipped out their special trade good opium soon with silver bullion flowing back into their coffers the British merchants became Rich while the Chinese became addicted opium had been used in small amounts for medicinal purposes but had been banned since 1729 a form blended with tobacco into a substance called madic as opium addiction became more widespread through British Imports it began to have severe social impacts more concerning for the emperor was the outpouring of silver bullion which was Central to the Ching economy in response the government led by Emperor daang decided to take strong measures against opium in 1839 he appointed ly zesu as the Imperial commissioner tasked with eradicating the Opium problem commissioner Lynn cracked down on users and then local dealers but with little success so he targeted The Source itself he wrote an appeal to Queen Victoria directly but his letter was mysteriously lost and never reached her royal hands as All Imports still had to come through the port A desperate commissioner Lynn then blockaded Canton trapping British merchants and seizing over 20,000 chests of opium in June the supply was publicly destroyed at a nearby Beach tensions continued to escalate once a Chinese villager was found dead killed during a brawl with two British Sailors in present day Hong Kong commissioner Lynn commanded the culprits to be handed over for Chinese justice but the British refused so Chinese junk set up a food sales embargo until they complied after initial skirmishes near the mouth of the Pearl River a British expeditionary Force arrived in June 1840 they sailed along the Chinese Shoreline and arrived at the chusan islands just off the mainland negotiations with the chusan officials were fruitless as they had no association with commissioner Lynn and refused British demands by the next morning the Battle of Juan was underway with the British capturing the import Harbor of dinghai from here the British split their forces sending ships northwards to begin negotiations at the capital while the rest sailed back to the Pearl River to start a new campaign waiting there was their newest and largest iron warship the Nemesis it first saw action at the Battle of chenpi making short work of the Chinese junks with its rocket fire with this Victory the British claimed Hong Kong commissioner chishan Lin jesu’s replacement entered into an agreement with the British a formal truce which would reopen trade at Canton British troops at juusan were also evacuated back to Hong Kong but the Furious Ching Emperor refused to acknowledge the agreement and the British remained blocked off from Canton so Her Majesty’s Fleet moved north towards the port capturing the Chinese forts at the Battle of the Bogue and the Battle of first bar by March 1841 the British had successfully captured Canton and hoisted the Union Jack over the city another truce was called and the British gave up control of the city but news soon leaked that the emperor had ordered Canton officials to destroy all British troops reclaim Hong Kong and drive the foreigners out of China once and for all they readded their artillery in secret and during a night in late May the Ching launched a surprise attack on the British the Second Battle of Canton saw the Ching put up more of a fight but the result was the same another British Victory led to another truce where the British were paid a large Indemnity Canton itself was spared and a conflict with local civilian militias helped convince the British to accept a large payment to withdraw their troops to Hong Kong when the news was presented to the Ching Emperor it was embellished and framed as a victory leaving the emperor unaware of the looming danger but this still was not the end of the war after a change of leadership the British again traveled North along the shoreline to put further pressure on Beijing on the way they scored another victory in August at the Battle of heroy by October the British scored further victories in central China retaking chusan and stopping at chinai before resupplying for the winter in Spring 1842 the British continued taking more ports and by the summer began sailing up the yansi towards nanji the Ching mounted a last defense under a group of Mongol and Manchu banam men at Jen Jang but the city ultimately fell with many soldiers and their families committing suicide instead of being captured continuing up the yany the British blocked off the Grand Canal disrupting grain shipment and what was once the vital link between the North and South at ning the Ching called it quits and in 1842 a treaty was signed included were significant concessions to Britain including the session of Hong Kong opening of additional ports for trade and a large Indemnity of 21 million silver Tales worst of all for the Chinese the opium trade continued the loss cemented the beginning of what would later be called the century of humiliation meanwhile more Western Powers negotiated their own treaties with the Ching granting them access to more ports while while the British continued in their trade of opium over the next decade but in October 1856 Chinese officials barded the British registered ship Arrow arresting its crew under accusations of piracy and smuggling though the prisoners were released the Chinese refused to apologize the British claimed this was a violation of the Treaty of naning and once again skirmishes broke out the start of the second Opium War by late 1857 the British had again captured Canton France had joined the war earlier in the year motivated partly by the execution of a French missionary in China while the United States and Russia joined as well but played lesser roles the Allies captured several taku forts near tiangen in May 1858 in June the Ching sued for peace and the Treaty of tinson was signed by China and the Western Powers which included provision for the legalization of the opium trade opening of additional ports and the establishment of foreign embassies inside Beijing but the Ching Emperor hesitated to ratify the treaty and obstructed the establishment of the foreign embassies the taku fors were again reinforced with Chinese artillery and even repelled a British attack in 1859 but after suppressing the Indian Rebellion the British reinforced their own troops and an anglo-french Force launched another attack on the taku fors in 1860 and captured tiangen with Beijing in their sights they continued their March West as the emperor fled the capital there was some discussion among British officials to destroy the Forbidden City Center of the entire Ching Empire but it was ruled out instead the old Summer Palace outside the city was looted and destroyed in October and said to have burned for 3 days and three nights the officially surrendered with the convention of pay King where the Treaty of tinson was formally ratified the terms included the cowon peninsula across from Hong Kong to be seeded to Britain payment of indemnities the opening of additional ports and the legalization of the opium trade outer mansuria was also seeded to the Russians Western influence trade and missionary activities greatly expanded throughout China iron ically one of the Ching’s most significant internal challenges also originated from Western influence in Canton a young school teacher named Hong Shuan was first exposed to Christian teachings around 1836 when he obtained a set of pamplets from a Protestant missionary named Edwin Stevens these pamphlets included portions of the Bible and other Christian texts translated into Chinese by leang far China’s first Protestant evangelist Hong was deeply troubled after failing the Imperial Civil Service examinations multiple times which were crucial for securing a government position and social status in Ching China in 1837 following another examination failure Hong fil and experienced a series of Visions over the course of several days in these Visions he saw himself in the Heavenly realm fighting evil spirits and being charged by a heavenly father an elder brother whom he later identified as God and Jesus Christ to cleanse the world of demons and restore the worship of the true God he came to believe that he was the younger brother of Jesus Christ destined to establish God’s Kingdom on Earth he founded the god- worshiping Society a syncretic form of Christianity which included elements of Daoism and traditional Chinese beliefs the population surge had left many peasants as landless laborers while Ching corruption provided less and less government services leading to his rapid recruitment of followers especially among the disaffected and impoverished they were drawn by his promise of social reform land redistribution and salvation in 1850 local officials attempted to suppress the religious movement in the southern province of Gangi but this Unleashed more resistance and unrest and the start of the typing Rebellion soon after Hong and his followers motivated by a mixture of religious deal peasant unrest and opposition to the Ching Dynasty declared the creation of the typing Heavenly Kingdom in January 1851 the typing forces moved North from Gangi capturing major cities including naning which they made their capital in 1853 the capture of nanging was a significant Victory giving the typing a substantial power base the Manu men were all killed first and the Manu women and children burned alive out outside the city to fortify their position in the Southeast the taiping sent expeditions north towards Beijing which ended in failure and West along the yansi where they saw more success in 1856 after the typing broke aqing Siege on their Capital there was a power struggle and attempted coup among Hong’s Army commanders leaving all dead but one the chaos cost the typing most of their popular support and began the decline of the heavenly Kingdom the Ching Dynasty though weakened by internal corruption and in the midst of the second Opium War with Western Powers began to muster strength and mount counter offensives they were supported by loyalist forces and foreign mercenaries such as the ever Victorious Army led by Charles Gordon relying on local decentralized militias the Ching effectively pushed back into typing territory and with the aid of British and French military advisers besieged naning and the city fell in July effectively marking the end of the typing Rebellion Hong Shuan died during The Siege from an illness and his remaining followers were either captured or killed the suppression of the typing Rebellion resulted in massive loss of life with estimates ranging from 20 million to 30 million deaths mostly civilians making it one of the deadliest conflicts in human history around the same time other rebellions under the Ching Authority and drained Imperial coffers like the peasant uprisings in the north and uprisings by ethnic minorities in the South and Northwest by the mid 1800s the Ching Dynasty had restored its control over China but at what cost though the Ching endured a difficult period the constant war and Rebellion exposed deep vulnerabilities in the imperial system it was clear China was in need of reform China had had its own industrial revolution of sorts during the Song Dynasty and had its own age of exploration during the early Ming but centuries of isolation had left the nation stagnant in the iching one of the oldest Chinese Classics it is written that the superior man makes himself strong from here was born a set of reforms to save the Ching from their tail spin the guiding principle was East as the essence West for practical use reflecting a pragmatic approach to modernization that aimed to strengthen China without undermining its cultural identity the self-strengthening movement began under Jang gufan a military General that was instrumental in suppressing the typing rebellion and Prince Gong who served as Prince Regent for the Toni Emperor from 1861 to 1865 their initial Focus was on Military modernization with the establishment of arsenals and shipyards to manufacture modern weapons and ships following China’s defeat in the Opium Wars the second phase began around 1872 led by Statesman Lee Hong Jong focusing more on industry Commerce and agriculture the Ching supervised private Enterprises involving shipping Mining and telegraphs one of the great military achievements of the movement was the creation and growth of the bayang fleet which came to be the biggest in all of Asia by 1890 and top top 10 in the entire world but while the self-strengthening movement led to some successes it was insufficient to fully transform Chinese Society or defend itself from the interference of foreign powers from the 1880s onwards the Ching’s tenuous grasp on its expansive Empire vanished Russian expansion saw it encroach into the Northwest while the British and French incursions into Burma and Vietnam ended vassalage to the Ching Tibet one of the central areas of the great game also became autonomous though still nominally part of the Empire Japan had Imperial Ambitions in the east as well which we will get to later in this video the self-strengthening movement ultimately did not address fundamental issues such as Land Reform civil service reform or the modernization of the entire educational system and China still remained an agrarian economy it was clear more radical changes were needed including in ideology by 1897 Germany also entered the fry demanding the session of Shandong province in retaliation for the murder of two of its missionaries prompting other Europeans into a Scramble for China much akin to the Scramble for Africa in response Kang yoi a Confucian scholar but with more radical ideas convinced emperor guanghu that more dramatic change was needed during the 100 days reform from June to September 1898 the emperor issued edicts for cultural political and educational change but the Intensive reforms were just a bit too much for more conservative elements in the Ching Court one of these was the empress da jersi the emperor’s aunt and the dominant power behind the Chinese government though initially receptive to both the self-strengthening movement and even the 100 days reform she grew wary that Western IDE ology was a direct threat to the dynastic fabric of China and ultimately her own position later in 1898 she staged a coup executing the reformers and placing the guangshu emperor under house arrest until his death it seemed China would take the same path as Africa carved up and partitioned as European powers established their own spheres of influence along Chinese Shores but in 1899 the US Secretary of State John Haye proposed the open door policy it was thought the Ching’s collapse was imminent but instead of fighting each other to lay claims over the Chinese market of 400 million people this policy called for equal trade opportunities between Western powers and to maintain the Ching’s legitimacy it was a non-binding agreement but served to lessen tensions between the European powers but though imperialist Ambitions were tempered for now it was too little too too late in northern China near the Yellow River a secret society gathered the Society of the righteous and harmonious fist because of their physical training and martial arts similar to taiqi they were known to English speakers as boxers after droughts and economic hardship there was a rising anti- forign sentiment and opposition Among The Peasants to the spread of Western and Japanese influence the start of what became known as the Boxer Rebellion began in the Shandong Province and the North China plane when the boxers began by attacking Chinese Christians and missionaries while gradually gaining support from peasants disillusioned with Ching governance and the impact of foreign treaties the boxers activities escalated from local skirmishes to coordinated attacks against foreign Nationals and Chinese Christians they destroyed Railways Telegraph lines and churches which symbolized foreign control Ro in a pivotal shift the empress daet sishi the Ching Regent offered support to the boxers reversing her initial stance against them in June the Ching government declared war on the foreign powers aligning officially with the boxers as they marched into Beijing believing their Spirit was invulnerable to Western Weaponry the boxers anqing Imperial troops besieged the Beijing legation quarter where many foreign diplomats citizens and a significant ific number of Chinese Christians sought Refuge The Siege lasted for approximately 55 days and became the focal point of international attention highlighting the severity of the crisis in China an International Coalition consisting of Japan Russia Britain France the United States Germany Italy and Austria Hungary formed the eight Nation Alliance to relieve The Siege and protect their Nationals the alliance launched a military exped ition that quickly moved towards Beijing it faced sporadic resistance but benefited from Superior military technology and coordination in August 1900 the alliance forces captured the capital lifting the siege of the legations and bringing immediate relief but the presence and actions of the alliance forces which included looting and acts of Retribution further exacerbated anti- forign sentiments among the Chinese populace in 190 1 the Ching Dynasty signed the boxer protocol with the foreign powers agreeing to severe penalties that included the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxer Rebellion payment of indemnities and the right for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing by the turn of the century Chinese Society looked quite different than just a generation earlier European presence and influence was felt all along the ports and major river deltas in Central and Southern China Confucian ideals and traditional Chinese values waned Empress da jishi acknowledging reform was necessary implemented a series of changes to modernize China the Civil Service examinations were abolished and replaced with a western styled education and the establishment of schools for women legislative assemblies were implemented at the provincial level and by 1910 elections were held for a National Assembly women also became more liberated and sought out new positions in the factories and cotton Mills the practice of footbinding which had spread to about half the female population by the mid 1800s was actively discouraged by the government during the close of the century in 1906 Chio Jin a feminist and revolutionary returned to China from Japan where she had joined other revolutionaries to overthrow the Ching once back on the mainland she founded a feminist magazine in Shanghai and established a girl school in shaing secretly training her students in the martial arts and preparing them for a revolutionary movement but in 1907 Cho Jinn was involved in a failed Uprising against the Ching government she was captured tortured for information and subsequently executed by beheading at the age of 31 she is sometimes called the Chinese Joan of Arc one of the groups she joined was the tumang H founded by this man sonat sen born in Canton in 1866 sonat senen spent his early schooling years in Hawaii but returned to China in 1883 where he went on to study medicine and converted to Christianity in 1896 he founded the revive China Society a revolutionary group which sought to fund groups to overthrow the Manu and reclaim China for the hand he then United many other anti- Ching factions and reformers into the tum mangu the Revolutionary Alliance it was based on the three principles of the people nationalism democracy and livelihood smallscale revolts from many different groups were often quickly suppressed but it wasn’t until 1911 that all conditions became favorable the Ching sought to nationalize and sell its Railway projects to foreign bankers which was met with stiff resistance especially in Sichuan Mass protests formed and the Ching mobilized its Army from Hub to suppress protesters but during the Army’s absence a bomb accidentally exploded in a revolutionary Warehouse which alerted the government to their plan and revealed a list identifying the revolutionaries including those in the military with their backs against the wall fearing arrest and execution revolutionaries mutinied and launched an armed revolt against the Ching government setting up their own military government as the Revolution spread to different provinces but as s yaten was in the United States at this time there was an overall lack of leadership the Ching appointed Yuan shakai an esteemed semi-retired General to suppress the revolution but he began instead by opening negotiations with the rebels they offered him a presidential role in the new Chinese State and seeing the Turning tide Yuan shakai abandoned the Ching by December 1911 a total of 15 provinces had seceded from the Ching Empire various provisional governments were established with the most significant one being in naning which elected son yatsen as its provisional president in December 1911 by this point the Ching was on its last legs the empress daer had died in 1908 a day after the guangshu emperor leaving the 2-year-old Pui on the throne by the time of the 1911 Revolution he was the ripe age of five facing widespread defections and diminishing power the Ching Court began negotiations with the revolutionaries and on February 12th 1912 Pui abdicated marking the official end of the Ching Dynasty which had ruled China for 276 years the Republic of China was officially established with sanat senen as its provisional president before handing over the presidency to Yuan shakai signaling the formal end of over 2,000 years of Imperial rule in China Japan was also on the verge of a major transformation by the early 1800s the tokigawa Shogun 8 had ruled over Japan from their Capital at Edo for a peaceful and prosperous 200 years though the Shogun 8 implemented soku an isolationist policy that banned foreigners an urban culture emerged alongside a thriving manufacturing economy despite political stability the shogunate faced economic difficulties due to a rigid class structure corruption and financial mismanagement these issues were compounded by the tempo famines in the 1830s and a later series of earthquakes leading to Peasant uprisings and discontent among the lower Samurai the most critical event of this period was in 1853 with the arrival of commodore Matthew Perry from the United States he brought with him a letter from American president Millard Filmore asking for the two countries to open up relations Perry’s mission was to open Japan to American Trade through diplomacy or Force if necessary his arrival with technologically advanced steamships was a shock to the Japanese more conservative elements believed opening up would expose Japanese Society to more immorality others were Keen to see where where a relationship would lead although in the end it was gunboat diplomacy that won the day the year following his initial visit Commodore Perry returned to Japanese Waters this time commanding an imposing Fleet of eight Black Ships aiming to showcase the overwhelming might of the United States Navy this was in fact a threat he would not depart without securing a treaty to further negotiations The Americans presented the Japanese with a miniature steam locomotive whiskey firearms and other various gifts in exchange they received bronze ornaments silk porcelain and a collection of seashells for Perry himself both sides displayed cultural performances with the Americans demonstrating technological innovations and the Japanese performing a sumo wrestling show to which Perry was reportedly unimpressed a month of tense negotiations ensued but the shogun’s representatives finally presented Perry with the Treaty of peace and Amity though Perry rejected some of its terms it paved the way for formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States the agreement was celebrated with a kabuki play from the Japanese and a Minstrel show from the Americans within just 5 years of the initial treaty Japan had embarked on a new diplomatic path signing treaties with several other Western Nations marking a significant shift in its International posture many tazama Dao those outside Lords who were marginalized from most Affairs in Edo resented the new policies a political movement called Sono jooy emerged calling to expel the Western barbarians overthrow the shogunate and restore the emperor it grew strongest in the regions furthest from Edo the Western domains of satsa joosu and to tensions mounted in 1862 when a British Merchant was killed by the satsa Regent in the namam mumi incident justified by kirisu Gomen the right given to Samurai to strike or kill anyone of lower class who disrespected or Dishonored them the British demanded compensation but were instead fired upon from kushu they responded by bombarding the port in 1863 and the shogunate reluctantly paid reparations nearby Over The Straits of shimono ski the chu also fired on foreign Traders and were retaliated against by a coalition of Dutch British French and Americans despite being Rivals satsa and choshu mediated by the TOA domain entered into the satcho alliance together with the goal of deposing the Shogun and elevating the emperor in 1866 a new Shogun was chosen tokuga yoshinobu and he began initiating reforms with the help of Western Powers when it was clear the reforms would fail the tosa offered the Shogun a compromise if he resigned a Shogun he could preside over a new governing Council of Dao yoshinobu took them up on the offer and formally stepped down on November 9th 1867 but the more radical satsa and choshu faction opposed the Tokugawa retaining any sort of power so in early January 186 8 marched into the imperial capital of Kyoto and influenced the young Emperor Magi to assert his authority for nearly 700 years the emperor’s role remained largely ceremonial but that was all about to change the next day the emperor issued a declaration that stripped yoshinobu of all his power and land this became known as the Magi restoration and the foundation of the Empire of Japan with Imperial power restored Yosh noou vehemently opposed this and later in January repealed his resignation and sent forces towards Kyoto forces loyal to the tokigawa shogunate faced off against the pro-imperial satcho alliance near Kyoto at the Battle of Toba Fushimi the start of what would be the bin War the Imperial forces were better equipped and more motivated and the shogunate troops were defeated the loss significantly weakened the shogunate’s position and led to yoshinobu retreating to Edo Castle Imperial forces Advanced towards Edo and the shogunate surrendered without a fight in April 1868 this peaceful surrender was negotiated to avoid destruction of the city Tokugawa yoshinobu the last Shogun was placed under confinement and the City of Edo was renamed Tokyo becoming the new imperial capital the remnants of the shogunate’s forces and their allies regrouped in Northern h continuing the resistance against the new Magi government so Imperial forces marched on a northern campaign scoring victories at the Battle of hokuetsu and the Battle of bonari pass the Imperial forces eventually defeated the Northern Alliance in the Battle of ASU the last significant stronghold of the Tokugawa loyalists was in hakodate the largest city on the Northern island of Hokkaido the holdouts including a number of French military advisers fortified the city and fought the final major engagement of the war after a protracted Siege the shogunate forces surrended in May 1869 marking the end of the bin War and solidifying the power of the Magi government the emperor moved to Tokyo and in contrast to the Ching the new government immediately embarked on a series of reforms to modernize Japan along Western lines the promise of modernization was made through the charter oath in 18 68 which declared the establishment of deliberative assemblies involvement of all classes in state affairs the abolition of outdated customs and the pursuit of knowledge throughout the world to strengthen the foundations of Imperial rule in December 1871 the iwakura mission commenced a Japanese diplomatic Journey around the world led by iwakura tomomi aiming to renegotiate the unequal treaties with Western powers and to study modern industrial a educational and Military systems abroad also in 1871 the Emancipation edict abolished hereditary Privileges and gave people equal legal status breaking down the rigid social hierarchies of the Edo period and aligning Japan more closely with the egalitarian ideals emerging in Western Nations the burakumin the hereditary slave class also became legally free although social discrimination continued the hand system or feudal domain system was abolished as well and replaced with centrally controlled prefectures land was seized from the Dao in exchange for government bonds and it was given directly to those who farmed it in exchange for a land tax with the new funds Japan was able to modernize at a rapid Pace without a Reliance on foreign investments they were able to develop infrastructure such as railroads telegraphs and ports and the the establishment of modern Industries for textiles and ship building government built up and sponsored business and industry and once it was profitable it was transferred to private ownership this incentivized more conservative businessmen to undertake new challenges with the feudal system abolished there was no more need for any vestages of the old system the 1873 H Jo edict led to the deconstruction of Japanese castles in just a few years over 100 out of Japan’s 170 Edo period castles were dismantled it wasn’t until the end of the century that there grew an interest in preserving the historic value of these great fortresses and many were rebuilt during the 20th century as replicas with the Dao and castles left in the past all that remained was the old warrior class the samurai the Dao Samurai relationship was replaced with a national conscripted Army modeled after Western military structures particularly those of France and Germany with their economic base eroded and their social status diminished many Samurai were forced to find new ways to make a living some turned to farming which was often unsuccessful due to lack of experience others entered the burgeoning commercial administrative or industrial sectors where they had to compete on equal footing with those they formerly ruled the Samurai’s right to wear swords and enjoy certain class privileges were also eventually abolished the 1876 hio edict specifically prohibited their wearing of swords in public and their traditional samurai hairstyle which was a symbolic blow to their status and identity as a warrior class the dissatisfaction among the samurai manifested in several uprisings the most famous being the satsa rebellion of 1877 led by by saigo takamori the Rebellion proved to be the last gasp for the samurai class but it ended in defeat further solidifying the demise of the Samurai’s traditional role in Japanese Society there was no room for this symbol of feudalism in the new Japanese empire just like in Europe there was a rise in new political parties some embraced a more Western system with power maintained in a representative Parliament other sought the full authority of the emperor in the end a more balanced approach was agreed upon with power shared by the Prime Minister legislature and Judiciary but with ultimate Authority given to the emperor the emperor was still viewed as Divine because of his ancestry and had the right to dismiss his government officials he also was solely in command of the new Imperial Army and Navy the Magi constitution of 1889 confirmed the empire of Japan as a parliamentary semic constitutional monarchy the following year the Magi government promoted State Shinto which involved the emperor’s Divinity and a reorganization of religious practices to emphasize Shintoism distancing the state from Buddhism which had been closely linked with the shogunate this structure allowed for the modernization and westernization of Japan’s political system while maintaining traditional aspects of Japanese governance under the Imperial figure the Magi government also issued the Imperial rescript on education in 1890 the primary goal of the rescript was to instill a sense of moral duty and National loyalty among the Japanese people it emphasized the confusion virtues such as filial piety loyalty to the state and Devotion to the emperor the rescript was read at important school events and ceremonies and a copy of it often elaborately framed was hung in every school classroom across Japan it became a central document in Japan’s education system guiding the moral education of generations of students this period also marked a dramatic transformation in culture as Japan sought to learn from an incorporate Western ideas while also striving to maintain its unique cultural identity the adoption of Western architectural Styles particularly for public and government buildings was prevalent this included the construction of brick and stone buildings in Styles ranging from neoclassical to Barack like the Tokyo Station and the bank of Japan building the introduction of new materials such as concrete and steel allowed for larger structures than traditional wood constructions permitted allowing the building of the first skyscrapers in Japan some Architects sought to blend eastern and western Styles creating a fusion that reflected Japan’s modern but distinct identity for instance the rokuan was designed in a style that combined Western architectural elements with Japanese spatial Arrangements the introduction of the western novel influen Japanese literature leading to new genres such as the modern novel and romantic poetry writers like natam SOI and Mario guy were significant figures who studied abroad and Incorporated Western literary techniques and themes into their Works literature became a medium for debating modernity and Japan’s future many Works addressed issues such as individualism democracy and the role of tradition the art World in Japan split into two main schools yoga or western style painting and nonga Japanese style yoga artists adopted Western techniques and subjects using oil paints and perspective drawing nonga artists meanwhile sought to maintain traditional Japanese Tech techniques using ink mineral pigments and gold leaf but often Incorporated themes and styles influenced by Western Art the Magi government actively promoted art through the establishment of art schools and exhibitions the Magi period also saw the flourishing of crafts and decorative Arts with traditional crafts such as Ceramics Lac aware and textiles incorporating Western technology and Aesthetics to appeal both to domestic and international markets exchange went both ways as Japanese Styles had a significant and well documented influence on Western artists a phenomenon often referred to as japon artists like Claude Mane Alfred Stevens Edgar dear and many others created stunning Japanese inspired art in the realist impressionist and post-impressionist styles the style affected not just painting but also the decorative Arts architecture and even fashion in the west with rapid industrialization and a modern political system society and education Japan was still missing just one thing from its Western counterparts the wealth and power that came through their colonies Japan’s next mission was to expand they began close to their Shores with the hermit Kingdom of joson throughout the first half of the 1800s the central joson government faced significant issues with corruption factional infighting and ineffective governance these problems combined with natural disasters and famines led to widespread suffering and periodic peasant rebellions in 1864 King gojong took the throne at the age of 12 but his father hungan dungun Grand Eternal Prince took the Regency and initiated a series of reforms to strengthen Royal Authority and to purify the government Administration the josor kingdom faced increasing pressure from Western Nations to open up for trade and diplomatic relations similar to what had occurred in China and Japan but the dungun was known for his stringent policies to keep Korea isolated from foreign influences to maintain the traditional Korean social structure but once King go Jong became of Age The Dun was removed from Power this period saw the initial steps towards modernization and opening up to the outside world similar to Japan’s experience with Perry Korea was forced to sign the ganga treaty with Japan in 1876 which marked the beginning of Korea’s forced opening to International Trade soon the kingdom became the center of the power struggle between the ching and Japan in 1894 the dong haak peasant Rebellion erupted in the rural regions of Josan both Ching China and Japan sent troops to Korea under the pretext of helping to suppress it as permitted by previous treaties but despite initial agreements to withdraw troops simultaneously Japan decided to establish a more substantial foothold leading to a breakdown in negotiations the start of the Sino Japanese war the war officially began with the naval battle of pundo on July 25th 1894 where the Japanese Naval forces defeated a Chinese ship escorting troop transports following their Naval Victory Japanese forces quickly landed on the peninsula taking control of soul and installing a pro- Japanese government which then nullified Korea’s vassel status with China the new Japanese military machine truly seemed Unstoppable the next significant blow came as Japanese forces defeated the Chinese Army in pongyang confirming Japanese control over the entire Korean peninsula in September the naval Battle of the yalu river resulted in a decisive Japanese Victory allowing Japan to gain control of the Yellow Sea and begin operations in mansuria the bayang fleet the greatest of the Ching’s modernized navies was soundly defeated and near the point of total Destruction by November Japanese Ground Forces captured the Strategic Port Arthur though the subsequent Massacre of civilians and surrendered troops tarnish Japan’s International reputation after the capture of Port Arthur the next strategic move was to hit the Ching Naval Base on the Shandong Peninsula at Wei Highway regarded as virtually impregnable the Japanese coincided their attack with the Chinese New Year and combined their attack by both land and sea the remnants of the bayang fleet were annihilated leaving Japan in total Naval control with both the lindong and Shandong peninsulas and Beijing in Striking Distance by this point most major battles had ended but the Japanese continued to advance into mansuria from Korea and Port Arthur and launched an invasion to the pungu islands to capture Taiwan with its military severely weakened and its Navy virtually destroyed the Ching sued for peace the Treaty of shimonoseki was signed on April 17th 1895 China recognized the independence of Korea seeded Taiwan and the pangu islands to Japan and agreed to pay a large Indemnity Japan also gained additional trading rights and territories in mainland China they had also gained the important laung Peninsula the location of Port Arthur but Western Powers forced Japan to return it with the weakening of China King gojong cemented his State’s independence with the establishment of the Korean Empire in 1897 this was alongside the gangmu reforms which abolished the class system and modernized the military infrastructure and industry but as China’s influence waned Japan had to deal with the growing presence of another more powerful foe when Japan was forced to return Port Arthur to China it was later least to the Russian Navy it was valuable to the Russians as it was their only warm water port on the Pacific and able to be used year round Russia’s Imperial Ambitions in the Far East was exemp ified by the construction of the seemingly interminable Trans Siberian Railway linking European Russia to the Far East Russia’s goals were to claim manua and the northern half of Korea and after diplomatic efforts to resolve these issues with Japan broke down both sides prepared for war in February 1904 Japan launched a surprise strike on the Russian Pacific Fleet stationed at Port Arthur following the initial attack Japanese forces imposed a blockade on the port aiming to neutralize Russia’s Naval power in the Pacific concurrent with the siege Japanese forces landed in Korea and manua rapidly advancing towards Russian positions The Siege lasted for several months with heavy casualties on both sides despite Fierce Russian resistance The Fortress at Port artha fell to the Japanese in January 1905 in manua significant ific land battles occurred including the battle of the yalu river and the Battle of leoy Yang both of which ended in Japanese victories but failed to decisively defeat the Russian forces but the first decisive blow in manua came in late winter 1905 at the Battle of mton one of the largest land battles of the war this engagement involved over half a million troops the Japanese victory at mton was a critical blow to Russia despite this Emperor Nicholas II believed the Russian Navy could still earn some strategic victories and win the war but by this point Russia did not have a sufficiently powerful navy in the Pacific capable of challenging Japan alone the nearest and most viable force was stationed in the Baltic Sea literally on the other side of the world the Baltic Fleet embarked on a journey that would take it from the Baltic Sea around Europe down the west coast of Africa across the Indian Ocean and through the South China Sea to reach the Pacific The Voyage covered approximately 18,000 nautical miles or 33,000 km and took more than 7 months starting in October 1904 and arriving in the tsushima straight in May 1905 for a final decisive engagement though the Russians had more battleships the Japanese destroyers and torpedo boats under Admiral Togo heiro were far faster newer and used their maneuverability to their advantage the Russian Admiral was knocked unconscious during the initial action and within just a day the Russian fleet was defeated this battle of tsushima effectively ended Russia’s Naval presence in East Asia and was a stunning demonstration of Japanese Maritime capability mediated by US president Theodore Roosevelt the Treaty of Portsmouth was signed in September 1905 the treaty recognized Japan’s Paramount interests in Korea and seeded Russia’s lease on Port Arthur and the Leung Peninsula to Japan it also granted Japan rights in Southern manua and the balance of power in East Asia significantly shifted now favoring Japan it also sparked unrest in Russia contributing to the 1905 Russian Revolution the Korean Empire became a protectorate of Japan and King go Jong was was forced to abdicate in 1907 held as a prisoner until his death in August 1910 Korea was fully annexed into the Japanese empire the United States Japan’s new ally were the first to recognize the annexation in exchange for Japanese recognition of the American claims to the Philippines and for Japan to respect the open door policy with China but both Powers remained wary of each other Japan had proven itself as a the new imperialist power on the world stage transforming itself from an isolationist feudal society into a modern industrialist Nation all in just a few decades just in time for the first world war this iconic image has become synonymous with the start of the Great War it was to become the deadliest conflict in Europe since the 30 years war in the mid 1600s the seeds that though were planted decades prior during the 1800s and you can find out all about it in this video from earlier in our series after the unification of Italy and Germany Europe had been relatively peaceful as it became more concerned with its imperialist aspirations overseas alliances and agreements kept Europeans from each other’s throats as disputes were sold diplomatically but still garnered resentment and antagonism with no major clashes in decades European arsenals were able to build up to a massive scale the Russian army became the biggest followed by France and Germany with bigger armies the Armed Forces garnered greater influence in the state Administration and its policies the culture of militarism lastly the rise of socialism during the latter half of the century also created Discord for the ruling classes fearing a revolution or other political instability a push for war would significantly weaken the growing threat of socialism and divide it further into pro-war and pacifist factions the rise of nationalism that had brought about numerous revolutions reforming government and the creation of new nation States during the long 19th century was also still alive and well ethnic minority still remained within larger Empires Ireland was still merged into the United Kingdom while the poles were still part of the Russian Empire apart from austrians Austria Hungary was full of hungarians slovaks checks and others all vying for more autonomy nearby the Boran States had broken free of the Ottomans and Serbia had become a focal point of Slavic nationalism many serbians hoped to see the Slavic territories of Austria Hungary including Bosnia and herina unified with Serbia Bosnia was South Slavic but multi-religious comprised of bosniacs primarily Muslim Bosnian serbs primarily Christian Orthodox and the Catholic Bosnian Cowarts but Austria had annexed Bosnia in 1908 to act as a buffer region between Austria and Serbia it led to the Bosnian crisis which we went over during this episode and destroyed any good relations between Austria Hungary and the slaves including Russia but by 19114 it seemed like if a war would occur it would only be a small scale conflict between Austria Hungary and Serbia but that all changed in the summer of 1914 old France Joseph now well into his 80s had been the reigning Austrian Emperor for over six decades The presumptive Heir was Arch duuk France Ferdinand the emperor’s nephew France Ferdinand and his wife Sophie Duchess of hurg were in Saro capital of Bosnia Herzegovina to inspect the Imperial armed forces the visit scheduled in late June coincided with vidon the Feast of St Vitus an important day in Serbian history commemorating the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 against the Ottomans this choice of date for his visit was seen as provocative by Serbian nationalists given the significant historical and emotional importance of vidovdan in Serbian culture as the arch duuke and his wife traveled in their M through Saro one of the conspirators nelo chabanov threw a grenade in their Direction but it exploded behind them injuring occupants of the following car instead of the archdukes after a reception at Town Hall the motate added a visit to the hospital to meet those wounded from the earlier attack on their way there the driver took a wrong turn and in an unbelievable turn of Fate coincidentally stopped the car right in front of gillo prip another conspirator seizing the opportunity princip stepped forward and shot France Ferdinand and Sophie at close range both died within a short time after the shooting the Assassins were made up of a group of primarily Bosnian serbs part of a revolutionary student group called young Bosnia made up of mostly intellectual males much like other contemporary movements like young Ireland and young Italy they sought a union with Serbia and a wider South Slavic Union or Yugoslav State they worked with a secret nationalist military group called The Black Hand Who provided the Assassins with the weapons with the arch duuke now dead the austrians had cause for war although they were wary of the involvement of Russia which had positioned itself as the protector of Slavic peoples throughout the borans so they asked their own allies Germany for backing the German Empire unified less than 50 years had managed to surpass Britain in industry and grew increasingly militaristic it began expanding its Navy challenging British Naval Supremacy and interfering with France’s Authority during the Moroccan crisis Kaiser vilhelm reigning since 1888 oversaw Germany’s transition into a colonial Empire with territories and protectorates as far as the Pacific when the austrians came to him for support after the assassination he was all too eager to help Kaiser vilhelm guaranteed unconditional German support through what became known as the blank check but the Germans insisted on speed to quickly dismantle the serbs before the Russians could get involved the austrians instead deliberated throughout July before offering Serbia an ultimatum on the 23rd though the term were harsh Serbia responded to the ultimatum accepting most but not all of Austria hungary’s demands Serbia began mobilizing its Army the same day anticipating a possible military response from Austria Hungary on July 28th after being unsatisfied with Serbia’s response Austria indeed declared war Russia had been tied to Serbia through the pans Slavic movement and their Orthodox Christian faith under Zar Nicholas II the Russian Empire had been the last absolute monarchy in Europe but social unrest during the 1905 Revolution led to the establishment of the state Juma although its power was still severely limited despite lagging behind in industrialization Russia’s Army was the largest in Europe and prepared for possible War Russia then mobilized its Army in response but Austria’s Ally Germany threatened the Russians if they didn’t cease the Russians ignored the ultimatum and by August 1st Germany had declared war on Russia and less than a week later France Joseph followed suit dating back to the duang tank Russia had been allies with France mostly as a measure to contain Germany between them in France the rise of a prosperous middle class LED to what was called the beautiful era under center right president Raymond pener France’s alliance with Russia became less defensive and more focused on retaking the Lost territories of alus Lorraine but the Germans were aware of this and had already prepared an offensive strategy back in 1905 the schan plan the schan Plan called for a minimal troop deployment against Russia in the east as the majority of the German Army would invade France in the west this would be a rapid Invasion not across their common border but through the flat terrain of Belgium and the Netherlands to attack France from the Northeast after France fell they would redeploy all forces East against Russia despite Russia being the first to mobilize the schan plan required an attack on both of its neighbors so by August 3rd Germany had declared war on France as well allied with Russia and France was the United Kingdom King Edward iith continued the Golden Era seen under his mother Queen Victoria after his death in 1910 his son George V took the throne because Victoria’s children married into different royal families she was called the grandmother of Europe as her grandchildren now controlled some of the most powerful Nations on the continent George V of Britain Nicholas II of Russia and Kaiser vilhelm II of Germany were all cousins perhaps if the queen still lived cooler head would Prevail the United Kingdom while part of the triple untar with Russia and France wished to avoid conflict and offered mediation but feared the possibility of a German conquest of France leaving them isolated using the German violation of Belgian neutrality as a rallying call the British declared war on Germany on August 4th the diplomacy that had been used over the last half century couldn’t save Europe on this occasion it was time for the Great War though only occurring a month prior the assassination in Saro was a distant memory apart from the Crimean War the European Wars of the post-napoleonic era had been few and short counted in months rather than years and there was no reason to expect this to be different certainly a speedy offensive was the basis for Germany’s entire military strategy if everything went according to the lean plan Germany would have achieved a total Victory by Christmas despite the heroic resistance of the Belgian Army The Invasion began with success as the Germans captured leage on August 16th and Brussels just Days Later a small British Force quickly crossed the channel to support Belgium on August 23rd at the Battle of mons the British army fought a successful action against a larger German Force before retreating meanwhile while the French launched their own mobilization and deployment effort called plan 17 this strategy was aimed at defending the franco-german border and retaking alus line but the French misjudged the German defenses on the border and suffered defeats at the battles of Malo and Lorraine and fell victim to offensives in the north along with another French defeat at the Aden Forest these battles are collectively called the battle of the Frontiers a victory for Germany in response the French redirected their efforts northward toward Belgium the Germans aimed to encircle Paris by sweeping Westward but resistance in Belgium and northern France confined them to the east of the capital by early September with the Germans nearing Paris the French government relocated to Bordeaux but taking advantage of a German error a predominantly French Force Under General Joseph jofra halted and then repelled the German Advance at the first battle of the man a short distance from the capital this crucial battle saved Paris and kept France in the war and allowed the French government to return to the capital the battle resulted in approximately half a million casualties and led to the start of what became synonymous with the first world war trench warfare this was a unique time where the strength of arms had become quite powerful but without the mobility this meant that the defensive position had the edge so for protection both sides dug in to maintain shelter these trenches became the enduring Grim setting for hundreds of thousands of soldiers over the next 3 years as the initial hopes for a quick Victory turned into a protracted nightmarish conflict unprecedented in history on the Eastern front where Warfare remained much more mobile the Russians invaded Eastern Germany diverting some of vilhelms Western arm to deal with the threat but the quick Russian mobilization left it without enough support and heavy arms and they were pushed back at the battles of tannenburg in August and at the majuan Lakes which ejected Russia from Germany the Russians other Advance towards Austrian Poland was more successful as they defeated the austrians at the Battle of Galicia meanwhile Austria had started its campaign against the other initial player in the war Serbia they invaded in August but were repeatedly repelled and though they captured Belgrade a Serbian counter offensive expelled the austrians giving the Slavic State a huge morale boost in Spring 1915 the third piece of the Triple Alliance Italy broke off to join France Russia and the UK together now commonly known as the Allies Italy’s alliance with Austria Hungary and Germany had only been intended for defensive purposes not offensive invasions negotiations were made in secret with the Allied powers to give Italy the italian-speaking regions of the austro Hungarian Empire after the war but though the Triple Alliance faded away the Germans had asked another power for assistance enter the Ottomans Enver paser the minister of war was one of the principal architects of the Ottoman Empire’s entry into World War I he was a fervent Nationalist and believed that aligning with Germany and Austria Hungary would help revive ottoman power and secure territorial gains Sultan Meed V agreed out of economic necessity calling for Jihad against the allies and the Ottomans joined what became known as the Central Powers by mid 1915 the Germans regrouped and sent troops to Aid Austria against the Russians recapturing most of Galicia and pushing deep into Russian held territory including parts of Poland and the Baltic states as the Russians retreated Russian casualties stood at over 1 million and the Great Bear went into hiber nation in the borans Bulgaria agreed to join the Central Powers as the fourth member they had territorial Ambitions in the borans after losing territory to Serbia Greece and Romania during the second borcan war in 1913 territory in which many bulgarians still lived now sandwiched between their enemies the serbians were conquered within a month and the remnants of their army fled to Greece Serbia was then divided between Austria Hungary and Bulgaria with Russia successfully pushed back on the Eastern Front Germany then turned back West by this point lines of trenches reached from the English Channel to Switzerland maintaining a stalemate the areas between the Allied and German trenches were referred to as no man’s land it was a Barren and dangerous territory leaving soldiers completely vulnerable to Heavy Artillery and machine gun fire those on the offensive would be at a significant disadvantage and casualties remain severe even in successful Crossings in the search for new ways to break the deadlock the Germans introduced over 150 tons of poison gas to the battlefield in 195 a violation of international law despite this it was soon also used by the Allies while it failed to change the Dynamics of trench warfare it became the most feared weapon on the battlefield due to the painful death in its Vapor but safety couldn’t even be found in the trenches themselves deplorable conditions led to the spread of disease and infections which also caused Much Death lice Rats the dismembered the dead they all shared the same tight quarters the Battle of Verdon lasting over 9 months in 1916 was estimated to have cost both the French and Germans over 700,000 lives with some estimates amounting 900,000 making it one of the most deadly battles in human history the eventual French Victory showed the determination of the French army despite losing more soldiers the battle of the S also in 1916 was even worse as an Allied British French army finally went on the offense though it was short than Verdan casualties reached almost half a million for the Germans while the British troops suffered over 400,000 and the French 200,000 it became the single deadliest battle in the war though it remained inconclusive it forced German troops away from the Battle of Verdon allowing the French a defensive Victory there there were also new surprises on land sea and even air on land 1916 saw the introduction of the first rudimentary armored fighting Vehicles these were the first tanks the British Mark 1 was the first tank to be used in combat but it wasn’t until the more maneuverable markv and Mark 5 that tanks became more of a factor at Sea battles were largely small scale though Germany had early Naval success harassing British Merchant and Troop ships in the Indian Ocean it became clear at the Battle of dogger bank that the British Navy still reigned Supreme Germany soon shifted its Naval strategy to focus on submarine warfare the first victim of these German undersea boats or uots was the British merchant ship gliter in October 1914 by February 1915 Germany declared the waters around the British Isles a war zone where even neutral ships were at risk a significant event occurred in May 1915 when the British passenger lineer Lusitania was sunk by a German uboat off the coast of Ireland resulting in over a thousand civilian deaths including 128 Americans the United States attempting to distance itself from the politics of the old world and with a large multiethnic population with ties to both the allies and Central Powers had been neutral until this point but this incident began to shift American public opinion towards the Allies the only major major sea Battle of the war the Battle of Jutland took place in early summer 1916 the German Fleet attempted to lure a large British Fleet into a trap but a series of accidents and intercepted messages thwarted their plans in a chaotic encounter both sides claimed Victory with the Germans losing fewer men and ships but the British maintaining control of the North Sea this was also the first major war where the skies themselves became battle grounds Zeppelins were large airships used by the Germans as bombers they repeatedly bombed Britain with the most devastating attack occurring in Autumn 1916 when tens of thousands of bombs screamed out of the air to hit London as small reconnaissance planes began encountering each other they started to be outfitted with synchronized machine guns and developed into the first fighter planes the German Ace Manfred Von rck hofen became famous for shooting down 79 British aircraft before being killed in action earning him the name of Red Baron taken from his aristocratic background and the visual impact of his red aircraft as fighter planes improved Zeppelins became vulnerable leading to the development of heavy bombers which saw use by 1918 back on the Eastern Front Russia took almost a year to regroup after their Last Retreat under General bruer off the Russians marched on Austria Hungary in summer 1916 in one of the most successful Allied offensives of the war it inflicted heavy losses on the austr Hungarian forces and took pressure off the French and British on the Western Front and the Italians fighting Austria in the South encouraged by the success of the brusela offensive and the weakening of the austrians Romania joined the war on the side of the Allies in August opening a new front their goal was the annexation of Transylvania a region with a significant ethnic Romanian population that was then part of the austr Hungarian Empire by the end of 1916 another blow came for Austria after a reign of almost 68 years Emperor France Joseph died at the age of 86 after developing pneumonia next in line for the throne was the emperor’s Grand nephew Carl I a devout Catholic and well aware of his Empire’s fragmentation Emperor Carl made secret arrangements with the Allies to make peace and end the war but the Allies had promised the Italian region of the Empire to Italy after the war and Carl was unwilling to give them up so talks began to stagnate while we’ve spent most of the time looking at the European theaters of War we have to remember this was Global and had many theaters it was still a time of Empires and colonies bringing most of the world into the fold the Ottomans though largely kicked out of Europe still held most of the Middle East opening another theater of war looking for a solution to the deadlock the British and French initiated another campaign in the east in galipoli to knock out the Ottomans from the war it would alleviate pressure and allow supplies to the Russians from the Black Sea as well as securing the sewers Canal The Invasion Force launched in 195 15 but after 8 months the Ottomans proved Victorious and the Allies withdrew it is considered a great victory for the declining Empire and brought about the prominence of General Mustafa Kamal atat Turk later to become the first president of the Republic of Turkey apart from galipoli the Middle Eastern theater saw other major campaigns involving ottoman territory the Caucasus campaign started with Russian offensives into ottoman territory from the Caucasus leading to a significant Turkish defeat at the Battle of sarikamish Russian forces then launched successful offensives over the next two years capturing key positions in eastern Anatolia with the goal of capturing Constantinople and settling Northern Anatolia with cacs nearby in neutral Persia Russian and ottoman forces VI for control occupying the north the British became more involved here aiming to secure oil supplies and strategic positions further in the heart of the Middle East were two other major campaigns the Mesopotamian campaign began with the British landing and Rapid taking of Barra to secure their oil supplies in nearby Persia the majority of British forces here were from the Raj in India Baghdad became the new Target and initial advances were successful but the campaign faced a significant setback during the siege of K alamara where British forces were besieged and eventually surrendered following this disastrous setback later called the worst defeat of the Allies the British reorganized and launched A Renewed offensive capturing C Again by early 1917 and then Baghdad soon after the Sinai and Palestine campaign to the West began with ottoman attempts to seize the sewers Canal but they were repelled by British forces in 1915 and 1916 the British under General archal Murray and later General Edmund Allenby then Advanced across the Sinai Peninsula securing victories at Romani and magaba in 1917 British forces moved North into Palestine capturing key positions through battles at Gaza and taking Jerusalem by the end of the year the Final Phase involved major Allied offensives as they marched further up the Levant culminating in the decisive battle of midd which led to the collapse of Ottoman defenses and the capture of Damascus by 1918 the Ottomans were surrounded and worse lost control of their Arab territories with the backing of Britain Arab vassals of the Ottomans led by Hussein IBN Ali and supported by British officer T Lawrence revolted by successfully disrupting ottoman supply lines their goal was to establish a unified Arab state from Aleppo in the north to Aiden in the South which the British promised to recognize Lawrence earned International Fame and is now more commonly known as Lawrence of Arabia the sin and Palestine campaign ended in Allied Victory contributing significantly to the ottoman Empire’s eventual collapse Africa newly carved up by the scramble also became a theater of war early on the German colonies in Africa became targets Togo and Cameroon fell quick ly but Tanzania saw prolonged resistance led by Paul Von Leta vbec who conducted an effective Guerilla campaign for years until the war’s end the new British Dominion of South Africa also conquered an Annex German Southwest Africa by 1915 by the end of the war Germany had effectively lost all control on the continent Africans were also used as laborers and Soldiers with the French recruiting almost 200,000 from French West Africa to fight in the trenches of the Western Front over in the East Japan’s Magi era had ended in 1912 and Emperor Tao took over from his father the Empire of Japan entered the war due to an alliance with Britain meant to prevent Russian expansion in the East Japan also had a strong interest in acquiring German territories in China and the Pacific they had already acquired Taiwan the Korean Peninsula and the Strategic for Arthur and look to expand their empire further in September 1914 Japanese forces besieged and captured German chinga in Northeast China after 2 months of fighting the Japanese Navy also took over German islands in the Pacific including the Marianas Carolines and Marshall Islands 1917 was a tough year for the Allies on the Western Front roer Nel replaced Joseph jofra as commander of the French army his Nel offensive was made to decisively break through the German lines with a focused attack on their defenses on the N River all within 48 hours and with less than 10,000 casualties while the British forces were successful in their mission to capture The High Ground and redirect German troops including the Canadian victory at VII Ridge the French attack at the end failed despite initial high hopes the offensive dragged on for weeks until late spring resulting in heavy French casualties around 180,000 and little territorial gain to show for it leading to widespread mutinies within the French army Nel was replaced with General Petain who returned to a defensive position in late summer the British Le offensive at passendale resulted in massive casualties with minimal strategic gains the battle fought in terrible conditions symbolized the futility and High human cost of trench warfare on the Italian front there was more trouble for the Allies in October the Battle of caporetto saw the austr Hungarian and German forces achieve a decisive victory over Italy forcing a significant Retreat and causing heavy Italian losses this defeat shook Italian morale and stability but the worst blow would come for the Allies in the east Russian armies were numerous but not as armed nor as efficiently supplied as the Germans and they had been pushed back on the Eastern front by the midpoint of the war up to 8 million Russian soldiers had been killed wounded or taken as prisoners of War over the years Zan Nicholas II stripped the legislative powers of the Duma reasserting autocratic control as a consequence favor fell back on the landed gentry and conservative elements sign significantly reducing the representation of the working class peasants and minorities after the start of the war Nicholas left the capital to lead his armies in battle leaving his german-born wife Serena Alexandra to take care of issues at home she had come under the influence of a stanic a Wanderer or Pilgrim from a small Siberian Village this was a Christian Mystic Gregory Rasputin Alexandra and Rasputin had met in 1906 and became close as he claimed to be a Healer and the only one able to stop the bleeding of her hemophiliac son Alexis after a severe seizure in 1912 Alexis began to recover after following Rasputin’s advice reinforcing the Imperial family’s faith in him despite his crude Behavior unkempt appearance and scandalous lifestyle Rasputin remained influential Terina Alexandra as a German born princess naturally became a figure of hatred at the start of the Great War by 1916 there was widespread agreement in the capital that change was essential ranging from a palace coup to Revolution in December 196 three members of the Imperial family plotted to murder Rasputin Legend has it that poison had no effect on this holy man and he even survived a shot through the chest but later all top es seemed to show a single shot through the skull was all that was needed after a cold winter workers in St Petersburg which was renamed to petrograd to sound less German began striking in large numbers protesting against poor working conditions low wages and food shortages women were fed up of waiting in the interminable bread lines and on International women’s day they initiated a mass strike and demonstration demanding bread and peace this protest Drew in workers from other factories and sectors escalating the unrest Nicholas still away from St Petersburg ordered senior generals to march on the capital to restore order but it was too late the Mutiny had spread and the military defected to join the protesters once Nicholas returned his generals convinced him that the only way for the Empire to continue was if he abdicated in favor of his brother miky however Grand Duke miky witnessing the anti-imperial sentiment in petrograd declined the crown marking the end of 300 years of Romano rule the Romano still had support among the elites so to remove them from the equation Nicholas and his family were captured and exiled the Duma the Legislative Assembly proclaimed itself the provisional government in the meantime the vast majority of Russians hoped for a speedy end to the war against Germany but the provisional government was determined to continue the war driven by national pride and obligations to the Allies an attempt to boost morale with a major summer offensive ended disastrously falling apart within just a few days and the Central Powers regaining territory on the Eastern front as the Russians retreated leading to further political instability and Mutiny as a result the provisional government lost legitimacy and was unable to govern effectively with no Emperor and an ineffective provisional government Authority fell on the petrograd Soviet a Soviet was an informal Council of local workers representing factories workshops and military units Soviets were initially set up to organize strikes manage supplies and coordinate activities among workers one of the parties in the Soviet was the Russian Social Democratic labor party or rsdlp which had split earlier in the century one faction the Bolsheviks advocated for immediate and direct action from a disciplined party or Vanguard to lead a socialist Revolution the menic faction favored a more democratic and broad-based party with gradual reforms and were more willing to work with the Bourgeois classes the primary leader and ideologue of the Bolshevik faction was a man by the name of Vladimir ulanov he became known to into history as Lenin Lenin had been living in Exile in Switzerland but once the Zar was toppled the Germans provided him safe passage back home hoping his return would destabilize the Russian government and take them out of the war Lenin was greeted enthusiastically when he arrived in petrograd in 1917 his first time in Russia in over a decade Leon Trotsky another prominent revolutionary arrived back in Russia month later aligning himself with the Bolshevik he was elected chairman of the petrograd Soviet and became a key leader in the movement the provisional government had established a formal Russian Republic by September but it did little for their cause as Bolshevik membership dramatically increased Lenin prepared for an armed Insurrection on the night of November 6 or October 24th in the Julian calendar the Bolsheviks began their uprising they took control of strategic locations in petrograd including Bridges the telegraph office and the railway stations by evening of the next day they had surrounded The Winter Palace the seat of the government the palace was stormed and with the help of the red guards and loyal troops the Bolsheviks took power with relatively little resistance arresting the remaining members of the government the short-lived Republic had fallen and in its place was the Russian Soviet federative Socialist Republic or Russian sfsr formerly the world’s first socialist State Lenin established the Council of people’s commissars as the highest executive body with himself as chairman and Trotsky in charge of Foreign Affairs and policy in March 1918 the Bolshevik party officially changed its name to the Russian Communist party as they sought to distinguish themselves from other socialist and Social Democratic factions and emphasized ing their goal of achieving a classless stateless society the same month in keeping with his promise of Peace Lenin forly withdrew Russia from the world war signed with the Central Powers the Treaty of bre lovk seeded substantial Russian territory including the Baltic states and parts of Poland and bellarus to Germany the transcaucasus to the Ottomans and recognized the independence of Finland and Ukraine the Bolsheviks agreed to the harsh condition in order to prioritize internal issues under the treaty Russia lost territories holding over a third of its population and the vast majority of its coal Fields but borders meant little to Lenin who believed a global proletarian Revolution was imminent particularly in Germany and that the terms of the treaty would eventually be nullified to further distance themselves from the war the capital was moved from petrograd formerly St Petersburg to Moscow but Lenin still had enemies and soon Russia was overcome by Civil War the withdrawal of Russia freed up large numbers of German troops from the Eastern Front to deal with the stalemate in the west and the scales tipped in favor of the Central Powers at Sea the unrestricted German submarine warfare was sinking over 400 Allied and neutral ships per month a quarter of all Merchant vessels leaving British ports never returned this tactic aimed to starve the Allies into submission by the end of the year but the British countered this Threat by organizing Merchant ships into convoys which proved more effective the convoy system combined with armed escorts significantly reduced the number of ships sunk the Allies also took aggressive measures against the German Subs laying vast numbers of mines in the English Channel and North Sea American German relations were already damaged over their discriminate submarine warfare and Germany wanted to stay a step ahead of the Americans in case they entered the war Germany solicited America’s Southern neighbor Mexico to join the Central Powers Alliance offering them their former territories of Texas Arizona and New Mexico after the war this secret negotiation the ziman telegram was intercepted and decrypted by Britain it proved to be the final incentive needed for the American an and soon after in April the United States declared war on Germany Eric ludendorf commanding the German armies needed to strike quickly before the arrival of American troops now outnumbering the Allies the Germans launched a swift spring offensive launching a series of attacks on different parts of the front and succeeded as few others had done in three long years of war during the offensive the Germans unveiled their secret weapon soon Paris was being hit directly the French assumed they were attacks from Zeppelins but the skies remained clear some assumed they were bombs planted by spies but upon closer inspection these appeared to be artillery shells 120 km or 75 M from the capital was the cause of the panic with a barrel of 34 m in length unable to shoot 40 km or 20 5 miles into the stratosphere the Paris gun was responsible for hundreds of injuries and deaths as the shells could reach the city center including targets that were previously considered out of range it caused widespread confusion and panic but it remained more of a psychological weapon than a tactically effective one due to its size and immobility but the offensive stagnated a supply line to food and ammunition broke down and after critical reverses the allies stabilized the front once again American contingents began trickling in by summer throughout late 1917 and early 1918 they continued to arrive and undergo training in France General persing focused on building up his forces and ensuring they were adequately trained before being deployed to the front lines African-American soldiers also represented the United States but due to segregation the few who saw action were instead integrated with the French army like the 369th Infantry Regiment commonly referred to as the Harlem Hell Fighters the majority though were in non-combat roles as laborers and support Personnel like musicians these military bands brought a new kind of music to Europe Jazz would be the sound that defined the next decade after the arrival of American troops and under the Unified allly command of French General Ferdinand forch the Allies made extremely effective use of tanks in the Second Battle of the man and the Germans had no answer by late Summer reinvigorated by the arrival of American troops and with British troops having returned from other fronts of the war fosch returned the favor to the Germans starting the 100 days offensive the Germans were pushed back at the Battle of Amun and were driven back for good in the East Allied troops in Greece Advance North with the Serbian forces reclaiming the region and forcing Bulgaria to seek an Armistice in the Middle East the British had taken Damascus by October as the Arab Revolt continued disrupting ottoman forces in Mesopotamia as the British neared mosul the Ottomans finally sued for peace despite the Armistice the British continued on to occupy the city a few days later that same month on the Italian in front the Kingdom of Italy pushed the austrians back to the north it triggered the Nationalist movement of the Empire as the hungarians in Budapest the Czechs in Prague and the slaves in Zagreb all declared independence and the austr Hungarian Empire was dissolved by the end of the month the austrians were out of the war and only Germany remained they initially handled the early Allied push during the 100 days offensive but after the arrival of of American troops the Allies soon broke through the Hindenberg line the Pinnacle of German defensive engineering a demoralized ludendorf seeing No Way Out knew this was the end generals Hindenberg and ludendorf recommended seeking an Armistice and the newly appointed Chancellor Max von Barden opened negotiations with President Wilson in early October but as negotiations began Germany was experiencing significant inter Eternal unrest on October 29th 1918 Sailors stationed at Keel refused orders to engage in a final potentially suicidal battle against the British royal Navy the Mutiny quickly spread to other Naval bases and to the general population sparking widespread unrest and demonstrations against the war and the Kaiser inspired by the Russian Revolution workers and soldiers councils were formed across Germany these councils aimed to take control of local governments and military units the councils demanded an end to the war the abdication of the Kaiser and significant social and political reforms Social Democratic Party leaders along with moderate political and Military figures realized that the Kaiser’s abdication was necessary to prevent further Chaos on November 9th under intense pressure Chancellor Max von Barden announced the abdication of Kaiser vilhelm II and handed over chancellorship to SPD leader Friedrich Ebert on the same day Philip shyman another mspd leader proclaimed the German Republic From a Balcony of the rag building in Berlin preempting a similar Proclamation by the more radical socialist KL lick later that day a provisional government known as the Council of people’s Representatives was formed consisting of members from the mspd and the uspd a more radical group friederick Eber became the head of this government vilhelm had not only lost the war but his entire Empire and spent the rest of his days in Exile in the [Music] Netherlands Germany and the Allies officially signed the Armistice in a railroad Carriage on November 11th just after 500 a.m. with a document stating that hostilities would see 6 hours later and so it was at the 11th Hour of the 11th day of the 11th month that bugle Melodies pierced the air and celebrations enveloped the continent as demanded Germany endured the economic effects of a continued Allied blockade until a formal peace treaty was signed renounced the advantageous treaty with Russia and confirmed the deposition of the Kaiser and the dissolution of the Empire the terms were so much harsher than expected that during negotiations General endorf advocated for even continuing the war no war up to that point in history had brought such a high cost in human life the dead are usually estimated at around 20 million total with another over 20 million wounded including civilians Germany Russia and France were hit hardest leading to a Lost Generation of young men adding to the devastation an influenza pandemic broke out in the Autumn of 1918 causing widespread death among troops and civilians alike during the war the Ottomans suspected Christian communities might collaborate with the Invaders leading to the massacre and displacement of hundreds of thousands of Armenians in what is now known as The Armenian Genocide by the end of the war estimates of Armenian death standed anywhere from half a million to 1.5 million further atrocities were committed against Greeks and Assyrians also with deaths in the hundreds of thousands as they were displaced beyond the Anatolian borders over the next few months the Allies met at the Paris peace conference to finalize the terms for the end of the war American President Wilson wished to implement his 14 points his vision for a fair and enduring peace he believed that harsh treatment of Germany would lead to resentment and possibly sew the seeds for future conflicts his points instead emphasized self determination for all nations free trade and disarmament and his only goal was to move past the era of militarism and absolutism but British Prime Minister David Lloyd George was newly elected on a platform of Vengeance against Germany French prime minister George clemo especially wanted harsh punishment as his country had borne the brunt of the German attacks Italy was also at this conference but didn’t play a major role and Russia could not attend because of their own crisis the new German government was excluded from the conference until the end when they were presented a draft of the Treaty of Versa as a done deal the Germans were quite unhappy with the treaty especially article 231 which forced Germany to accept sole blame for the war under duress they signed the treaty on June 28 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors the same room where the German Empire had been proclaimed in 1871 in a victory over France which now seem so distant despite initial hopes the actual Treaty of vessi diverged significantly from the 14 points leaving many Germans feeling betrayed Wilson compromised on his plan but pushed through a new international system for peace the Forerunner of the UN this assemblage was called the League of Nations based in Geneva because of its neutrality the league was similar to the concert of Europe assembled after the Napoleonic Wars but sought to maintain a balance of power throughout the entire world despite the American president being its architect Congress decided to remain isolationist and the United States never joined weakening The credibility of the organization in the end Germany’s national Frontiers were restored with some exceptions France regained alus Lorraine in the west while much of the East was seeded to a newly independent po land the Rin land was demilitarized and occupied by the Allies including the highly industrialized saw which became a distinct political entity from Germany for over a decade German overseas territories were formerly seeded to the Allied Nations as mandates German Sailors scuttled their ships so they would not be transferred to the Allies while their land Army was to be permanently reduced they were not allowed an Air Force War reparation were eventually settled at 132 billion gold marks today over 500 billion us with the final symbolic payment made in 2010 many Americans felt the treaty was too punitive and the reparations much too high French General fch on the other hand believed the treaty was not harsh enough just enough to brew a deep resment in Germany he prophetically remarked this is not a peace it is a Armistice for 20 years World War II started 20 years and 64 days later after the war the map of Europe changed significantly from parts of Germany and Russia Poland once again became an independent nation Austria Hungary disintegrated succeeded by the separate nations of Austria a republic Hungary a constitutional monarchy and a new nation Czechoslovakia Italy also also formerly gained both Italian and German speaking territory from Austria Hungary while Romania gained Transylvania Austrian Emperor France Joseph had died during the war and his Habsburg Heir was later dethroned and exiled and enlarge Serbia became the kingdom of Yugoslavia the union of serbs croats and slovin in the Middle East the Ottoman Empire was also in its final days its Center in Anatolia would eventually become the Republic of Turkey in Arabia the Saudis stayed out of the Arab Revolt setting them up to become the strongest Arab Kingdom on the peninsula and the beginning of a campaign for unification further north Iraq Palestine and trans Jordan became British mandates and France were mandated Lebanon and Syria mandates were similar to Colonial administrations but they were intended to develop the territory to benefit the native population as they were deemed not able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modern world many Arabs felt betrayed by British and French promises made during the war the partitioning of the map was made with little regard for cultural differences and it was turmoil that became the most abundant fuel in the region with effect still felt today the fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire is a pivotal period in Middle Eastern history Imperial German Holdings in Africa were formerly transferred to France Britain and its dominions while in the Pacific Japan picked up German territory as well though they were forced to return the Shandong Peninsula back to China their territorial gains contributed to the Empire of Japan’s growing influence in the asia-pacific region and set the stage for its future expansionist policies the United States emerged from the war as a new Global power the US dollar found a new place on the world stage for trade but politically for the most part the country retreated back into isolationism the 1920s was a decade of optimism and cultural change giving it the nickname of the Roaring 20s this was a time of jazz and movies speakes and Flappers Who challenged the traditional look and role of women embodying youth fashion and financial Independence Henry Ford’s assembl line systems spread to other Industries leading to a rise in productivity providing Americans with more Automobiles and new household appliances like vacuums and refrigerators with more Leisure Time Americans were able to listen to the radio or head out to the baseball game movies became the most significant Leisure product with the American film industry thriving in Hollywood the location hit the trifecta as it was blessed with good weather year round land was still cheap and spacious and it provided a rich diversity of Landscapes the 18th Amendment and the Volstead Act which enforced prohibition led to the illegal production and distribution of alcohol commonly referred to as bootlegging what they do with all these gra well my father buys them to make great je organized crime groups seized this opportunity to supply the demand for alcohol establishing extensive bootlegging operations the competition for control of the illegal alcohol market led to Violent turf wars between rival gangs Mobsters like Al Capone in Chicago and other Infamous gangsters used bribery and intimidation to corrupt law enforcement and political figures ensuring the protection of their illegal activities President Harding died during his term and was succeeded by his Vice President Calvin kulage who remained in power for the rest of the decade the economic boom led to overconfidence easy credit and heavy gambling on the markets by the end of October 1929 the stock market experienced a crash leading to the Great Depression it resulted in an enormous loss of market value with the Dow Jones falling nearly 89% from its peak in 1929 to its low in 1932 Europe was soon dragged into a similar depression as US Banks recalled loans under the new president Herbert Hoover the crisis worsened as Congress passed more protectionist measures which significantly reduced International Trade Hoover’s measures such as spending on infrastructure projects like the Hoover Dam were more effective but still insufficient to prevent widespread suffering after one term America decided to take a new more hopeful path electing Franklin Roosevelt in 193 3 with almost 90% of the electoral vote in stark contrast to Hoover’s L aair philosophy Roosevelt’s New Deal expanded Public Works and infrastructure implemented economic reforms and created millions of new jobs it is credited for America’s recovery despite being paralyzed from the waste down by polio his presidency would go on to become one of the most successful in US history back over in Europe the social and political fabric of the United Kingdom was forever changed in 1917 due to extreme anti-german sentiment King George V changed the name of the royal house from sax cobber and goar to Windsor women kept the country running while the men were off at War and by 1917 women were also serving in the armed forces the tide had turned in favor of women’s suffrage and in 1918 women were granted the right to vote and allowed to become members of parliament soldiers who were lucky enough to return from the war were greeted by mass unemployment and low wages leading to strikes the conservative government couldn’t deal with the crisis and was voted out in the next election giving Britain its first labor government in 1924 under Ramsey McDonald British Soviet relations were normalized under this government but a suspicious letter from Russia made it seem that the Bolsheviks would use the labor party as a springboard for the Communists to radicalize the British workers Into Revolution the letter is generally accepted Now by historians to have been a forgery but it helped the conservatives retake Parliament by the end of the year but workers still struggled especially in the mining industry after going on strike the trades Union Congress called a general strike in solidarity around 3 million workers responded and Britain became paralyzed as transport and Industry shut down but the government was prepared calling on volunteers from the middle class to maintain essential services like food distribution and driving the buses the general strike was called off over a week later leaving the miners to continue the strike by themselves but after months without progress the miners were broken and forced to accept lower wages es with the new territories gained after the end of the War the British Empire reached its Zenith even its dominions of South Africa and Australia were given mandates of their own over former German territory along with Canada and New Zealand most dominions gained greater autonomy and recognition as independent states within the British Commonwealth Ireland still part of the UK continued taking steps toward self-governance in 1916 the Easter Rising became a bold But ultimately unsuccessful Rebellion against British rule by Irish nationalists while the pivotal Insurrection failed it led to increased support for Independence after World War I the Irish war of independence followed featuring a Guerilla campaign by the Irish Republican Army or IRA against British forces culminating in the anglo-irish treaty and partition of Ireland this created the Irish free state a self-governing Dominion with Northern Ireland opting to remain part of the UK the signing of the treaty led to the Irish Civil War which erupted as anti-treaty factions continued to fight for a fully independent Irish Republic but this ended in Victory for the prot treaty side the Civil War left deep scars on Irish society and while it left Ireland as a Dominion of the crown steps toward Independence would continue over the next two decades the Great Depression hit Britain while it was still in economic difficulty and exacerbated the rise in unemployment despite this culture blossomed like through the Bloomsbury group a loose Association of English writers intellectuals philosophers and artists fiction writer Virginia wolf and her sister Vanessa Bell a post-impressionist painter were part of this Collective along with a certain economist John mayard ke in 1936 ke published general theory on employment where he disagreed with the prevailing notion that during depressions the free market should be left alone to work itself out this came from the idea that overproduction caused depressions but Keen argued it was instead a decline in demand as a remedy he suggested governments stimulate the economy by creating jobs that would improve infrastructure or other public work even if it meant a deficit though Keynesian economics wasn’t implemented by Britain during the Depression deficit spending became more popular in the following decades although it remained controversial by the mid 1930s Britain was on the road to recovery the French third Republic bore the brunt of the German offensives during the war losing almost 4 and a half% of its total population added to this were millions of wounded veterans and a sense of Despair the flow of War reparations from Germany played a crucial role in strengthening French finances supporting a vast reconstruction program in the destroyed areas and funding the construction of the magal line along the German border when Germany began missing payments French and Belgian troops occupied the German ruer Valley in 1923 seizing their industrial assets in 1926 former president raymon penare of the curite national block was asked to return as prime minister with extreme Powers he restructured the tax system strengthened the bank of France and stabilized the Frank his tenure is often credited with saving the third Republic from potential economic collapse and setting the stage for a period of relative prosperity in the late 1920s the Great Depression was delayed in France but it hit full force in 1932 despite the economic downturn France remained a cultural Hub as modernist art continued to flourish Andre Breton became the leader of the surrealism movement it sought to explore the unconscious mind our dreams and the irrational influenced by the writings of Sigman Freud it aimed to liberate thought from rational constraints often using dreamlike imagery Fantastical elements and unexpected juer positions probably the most famous surrealist painting is from Salvador Dary the Persistence of memory but Max Ernst also became a notable figure the liberal atmosphere of Paris attracted foreign writers like Ernest Hemingway and F Scott Fitzgerald the city also gained a cuttingedge reputation for its night life following a desire for luxury and modernity another movement was officially introduced in 1925 a the international exhibition of modern decorative and Industrial arts in Paris taken from the exposed title Kmart Deco characterized by bold geometric shapes Rich colors and lavish ornamentation Art Deco influenced architecture interior design fashion and graphic arts it quickly spread internationally symbolizing elegance and sophistication in the rapidly modernizing world like with the Empire State Building and Chrysler Building in New York but as the Great Depression chugged along the style came out of favor replaced by the more mass-produced and lighter modern buildings over in Russia the Bolsheviks faced a multitude of enemies ready to take down their Communist Regime supporters of the Old Guard aristocrats the boura class and other socialist parties formed a loose Coalition called the white Army in the East Alex alander kchek named himself supreme commander of Russia in a coup and led the white forces from Siberia but he was captured and executed in early 1920 General Nikolai yudenich LED campaigns in the Northwest against the former capital of St Petersburg but these failed fairly early on the greatest threat to the bulvik came from the south led by General Anton denkin and later pea Wrangle in response to the threat Lenin implemented a policy of War communism which nationalized all industry rationed food and mandated requisition of grain surpluses the romanovs the former royal family were still in Exile but had support among the elites on a night in mid July 1917 in a village in the urals the Romano family and their attendants under orders from the eural Soviet were led into the basement and executed by firing squad and bayonets their bodies were destroyed to prevent identification and their deaths were covered up for years reacting to assassination attempt against Lenin his secret police the Checker rounded up whoever were deemed class enemies including the clergy and bouris executing or exiling them to labor camps with estimates ranging from 50 to 200,000 deaths this Red Terror was modeled after the reign of terror that took place during the French Revolution ution Bolshevik counter offensives had managed to push back the white armies on all three fronts by late 1920 there were other factions in the Civil War including intervention from the Allies but they withdrew support for the whites once the tide began to turn opposing both the red and white armies were the mnist sometimes called the black Army these were Ukrainian anarchists who attempted to set up their own stateless self-regulate society and while they sometimes cooperated with the Red Army against the whites the Bolsheviks turned on them once the bigger threat was dealt with though secure in power Lenin still faced opposition among peasants and workers which led to widespread unrest during a famine where over 5 million perished acknowledging the failure of harsh requisition policies Lenin implemented the New Economic Policy which allowed peasants to keep Surplus production and lifted the market back revitalizing rural trade it was a mixed economy allowing private ownership of small and medium-sized businesses while the government kept control of the heavy industry Banks and foreign trade by 1922 the NEP had saved the Russian economy and the famine was over though the Soviets had largely subdued the white armies there was still the issue of regaining Russia’s former territories after the russan Russian Revolution and Treaty of bre lovk many regions of the former Empire had declared independence and some gained greater autonomy after the defeat of Germany like Poland Ukraine and bellarus but the Polish having not had a state of their own since the late 1700s wanted to expand from more favorable borders while the Russians wanted to use Poland as their bridge to Germany and a potentially fully communist Europe the Polish push Eastward brought them into conf ICT with the Russians Westward reconquest leading to war after initial polish advances they managed to capture Kiev by May 1920 but Soviet counter offensives pushed the Polish Army back all the way to Warsaw at their Last Stand known as The Miracle on the Vistula polish forces successfully defended waro against the advancing Red Army and in the end Ukraine and bellarus were partitioned between both Nations the Soviets had less success in the Baltic as they attempted to reintegrate Estonia lvia Lithuania and Finland but with foreign aid they repelled the invasions and maintained their independence in the Caucasus the Red Army also invaded the new republics of Georgia Armenia the first Armenian State since the Middle Ages and aaban the first secular Democratic Republic in the Muslim World in 192 22 Russia formed a closer Union with these Soviet Socialist republics this was the Soviet Union within a couple of years most European countries recognized the USSR and foreign trade reemerged like the rest of Europe Russia developed its own modern artistic style constructivism was an artistic and Architectural philosophy that rejected the idea of autonomous art it favored art with a social purpose emphasizing abstract geometric forms and modern materials it aimed to break down the barriers between the elite and the masses making art a collective experience rather than an exclusive one the Russian Civil War along with the struggles of consolidating and maintaining power had taken its toll on Lenin in 1922 he suffered a stroke after a partial recovery he suffered a second and third stroke leaving him incapacitated before his death in January 1924 Trotsky founder of the Red Army and part of the pollit bureau the collective presidency of the state was seen as the likely successor to Lenin but was challenged by another man Joseph Stalin had also been a member of the poit bureau but he only started garnering influence in 1922 when he was appointed as general secretary he used this position to appoint thousands of his his own supporters as officials Lenin returned from his first stroke to find Stalin had created an informal alliance with two other members of The pollit Bureau a triumvir at or troa with Lev carev and Gregory zinoviev the three wish to consolidate power and marginalize all rivals especially Leon Trotsky widely seen as a detached intellectual Trotsky was a Critic of Lenin’s New Economic Policy viewing it as too capitalist and was a proponent of permanent proletarian Revolution across the globe established in 1919 the Comm turn aimed to promote this goal and coordinate communist movements worldwide but once it was clear revolution in Germany wasn’t in the cards Stalin began to prioritize the defense and consolidation of the Soviet Union over immediate Global socialism Lenin began the processes to ensure Trotsky succession only to suffer his second stroke while incapacitated Lenin dictated his Testament a document that included critical evaluations of leading Communist party members including Joseph Stalin Lenin suggested that Stalin be removed from his position as general secretary due to his authoritarian Tendencies but Stalin used his position to isolate Lenin from other party members and restricted visitation and Lenin’s Testament was suppressed after Lenin’s death Stalin was strong enough to outmaneuver Trotsky and both his allies in the troa and by 1926 all three were removed from the polit bureau and expelled from the Communist party the following year the old Bolsheviks were defeated and it was Stalin who would lead the USSR into a new era after the war Germany lay broken and ruined with up to 2.8 million total deaths there was food as many in the food and agricultural industry were transferred to the military though the Kaiser was expelled the German Revolution was still not over the mspd the more moderate socialists had Consolidated power but they encountered opposition from their Rivals the Spartacus League led by Carl lick and Rosa Luxembourg was a radical Marxist group that split from the uspd in 1918 to form the KPD or Communist Party of Germany the spartacists aimed for a proletarian Revolution similar to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and attempted to overthrow the mspd Le provisional government to establish a socialist republic their Uprising was centered in Berlin but the government led by Friedrich Ebert called upon the frore paramilitary units composed of War veterans and irregular militias to suppress the Revolt the uprising was crushed within a few days and its leaders lick and Luxembourg were captured and executed later elections for the National Assembly were held the first in which women could vote this elected assembly convened in the town of viar to avoid the unrest in Berlin and began the process of creating the viar Constitution this constitution established a democratic framework for Germany throughout 1919 Germany continued to experience significant social unrest including strikes by workers demanding better conditions and political reforms various regions including Bavaria and the ruer experienced their own uprisings and attempts to establish socialist governments but Ebert officially elected as president backed by the central government and the frore suppressed the far-left movements the viar Republic reluctantly accepted the treaty of Versa but this event left a dangerous Legacy fueling a conspiracy theory that the German Army was not defeated but stabbed in the back by liberals socialists and Jews in March 1920 a coup attempt This Time by the right led by wolf ganap and the frore aimed to overthrow the viar Republic and establish an autocratic government the coup failed due to a general strike but further radicalized the nation the the situation became even more dire in 1923 as the French and belgians occupied the ruer valley Germany’s industrial Heartland German Workers in the region responded with passive resistance including strikes and non-cooperation with the occupying forces the government promised to continue paying the workers wages and compensate businesses but this led to inflation but by the end of 1923 hyperinflation reached its peak with prices rising exponentially at the height of the crisis the German Mark became virtually worthless and the economic chaos severely impacted the German population leading to widespread poverty and social unrest but from 1924 Germany made a stunning recovery sometimes called the Golden Age or Golden Years thanks to the Diplomatic skills of foreign minister Gustaf stresman inflation was curbed by in producing a new currency the reiches mark the doors’s plan in 1924 and the young plan in 1929 were arranged to lessen the burden on German reparations and extended the payment period And The locano Pact in 1925 confirmed the post toward German borders allowing the new Republic to be admitted into the League of Nations a year later a significant step in its reintegration into the International Community Paul Von hinder Berg was elected president in 1925 largely because of his status as a war hero and a unifying figure for conservatives initially he aimed to uphold the Constitution and stabilize the Republic but remained deeply conservative and held monarchical sympathies favoring the restoration of the old order over the Democratic principles of the viima Republic enabling a shift towards authoritarianism during the 1930s the post-war period also saw the flourishing of new forms of modernist art originating in Zurich Switzerland Dada was a reaction against the horrors of the Great War and the perceived absurdity of the modern world it embraced chaos irrationality and anti-bourgeois sentiments often through absurd and provocative art performances and writings in a sense it was more of an anti-art movement building on the abstract art from earlier in the century in 1919 the stat lias bow house a German Art School emerged first in viar founded by architect Walter gropus the bow housee aim to unify art craft and Technology focusing on functionalism and the integration of art into everyday life it emphasized clean lines geometric forms and the use of modern materials it aimed to unify the visual arts promoting rational and minimalistic Design and went on to influence later modernist architecture though Germany was stabilized during the viar Golden Age The Great Depression halted progress Germany was once again in dire crisis as businesses boarded up and unemployment soar the economic downturn was the second in just a few years and in response to the failures of liberal democracy the radical and extremist parties awoke from their Slumber a story you can check out later in this series after the end of the Great War Europe lay transformed forever but it also had unforeseen and far-reaching consequences the growing nationalism in different parts of the world brought about a growing desire for sovereignty in India nationalism ramped up after the SEO rebellion of the mid 1800s and the British response which you can check out in our previous episode like in Europe nationalists in British India were often of the educated middle classes and preferred reform to outright Revolution Bal gangar tilu or lockmania was one of the first advocates for sarage or self-rule a more decentralized and communal rule by Indians British colonial authorities dubbed him the father of Indian unrest kapal Krishna golay was another leader although more moderate attempting reform by work within the existing government structure as the British were unwilling to provide anything more than superficial change a group of Indian nationalists met in Bombay and formed the Indian National Congress or Inc these were mainly High cast Indians educated in the western style while they did agree with many of Britain’s policies against some of India’s traditional practices they also fought for more governance and economic power for all Indians regardless of relig or economic status in 1905 the British vicroy Lord Ken partitioned the Muslim majority Bengal region for administrative purposes but also to effectively divide and weaken the Nationalist movement on religious grounds the partition sparked widespread protests and marked the beginning of the seshi movement which advocated for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of indian-made products handloom weaving spinning and other traditional crafts were revived as most Inc leaders were Hindu the all India Muslim League was established in 1906 to represent the interests of the Muslim population by 1907 the Inc had only garnered small concessions from the British and generally wanted more governance within the British Empire but a more radical extremist group split from the Inc moderates wanting to expel the British completely the movement was a success and the partition was eventually repealed in 1911 a few years later a lawyer returned to India after living in South Africa since 1893 his name was Mohandas Gandhi and he quickly became a leading figure in the Inc after studying in London Gandhi faced discrimination in South Africa famously being thrown off a train for refusing to move from a first class compartment reserved for whites this incident was a turning point in his life making him aware of the racial injustices faced by Indians he founded the Nal Indian Congress to fight discrimination against the Indian Community at this time his activism initially focused on improving the status of Indians often to the exclusion of black Africans it was there that Gandhi developed and refined the concept of Sati agraha or truth Force which advocated for non-violent resistance to Injustice this philosophy became the Cornerstone of his later work with the Inc he implemented the Sati agrar as a rallying call to unite Hindus and Muslims against the British supporting their own anti-british movements he believed the British didn’t have the numbers to rule by force and that they only succeeded thus far through cooperation by the end of the year Britain passed the 1919 government of India act in response to Growing nationalist demands and India significant contributions during World War I the reform benefited millions of Indians but it also pushed many members of the Inc to become more friendly to the idea of full Independence in the perceived threat from nationalists the British implemented the rollat ACT emergency measures which allowed indefinite detainment and imprisonment without trial protests against the ACT were most prominent in the Punjab which resulted in the massacre of over 1,500 non violent protesters at the hands of the British India Army Gandhi launched his next movement in 1920 the non-cooperation movement encouraging Indians to withdraw from British institutions return honors and titles and boycott British goods in resistance to British textile Imports he began making his own simple clothing with the spinning wheel the spinning wheel became a symbol of resistance and brought women to the Forefront the movement saw widespread participation but a violent incident unfolded in 1922 at Chi chor where protesters retaliated against policemen killing around 23 of them and three civilians due to the violence the movement was soon called off by Gandhi in 1927 the British government appointed the Simon commission to report on the political situation but it faced significant opposition as it had no Indian members the slogan Simon go back became popular during protests against the Commission in 1930 in response to the raising of the salt tax and prohibition of Indians collecting their own salt Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience movement with the famous Salt March to Gandhi on the Arabian Sea where he broke the British laws by making salt from seawater Gandhi was arrested once again the movement saw widespread participation and civil disobedience including non-payment of taxes and boycott of British goods the dallat or Untouchables he coined as harons children of God he campaigned to improve their conditions in 1933 and was arrested yet again in total Gandhi was arrested at least seven times since he returned not including his run-ins with the authorities in South Africa by the 1930s a newer face would emerge in the Inc this was javah Halal neru son of a prominent leader of the National Congress under his father moelo the Inc issued the neru report an attempt by Indian leaders to draft a constitution for India as a Dominion within the British Commonwealth offering it more Independence while still remaining within the Empire but the report was rejected by the Muslim League and other groups highlighting the growing divide between different sections of Indian Society javah Halal envisioned a new phase where Independence would be based on both Western and Indian values emerging of tradition and religion with progressivism and secularism over time the Muslim League became less represented and they advocated for a separate Muslim Nation to be formed called the land of the Pure or Pakistan but it would be over a decade still before this came to pass while tensions remained High the Middle East remained more complicated the Ottomans had gone through the 1800s in a state of decline they attempted to modernize through the tanzimat or reorganization a period of extensive reforms implemented from 1839 but the Ottomans were also struck by nationalist movements from the diverse groups within their empire to lessen the Nationalist further the Ottomans promoted the idea that all subjects of the empire regardless of ethnicity or religion should have equal rights and responsibilities a political ideology called ottomanism it encouraged the notion of a common ottoman citizenship to replace the traditional milet system which categorized people by religion despite its inclusive ideals ottomanism faced significant challenges from nationalist movements within various ethnic groups such as the Greeks serbs Armenians and Arabs who sought Independence or greater autonomy in 1876 the young Ottomans a secret society of intellectuals and writers wanted more aggressive reform than the tanzimat they overthrew the sultan and pushed through the first constitution making the Ottoman Empire a constitutional monarchy with a legislative assembly Abdul hammed was made Sultan but after just 2 years he suspended Parliament and reestablished authoritarian rule the this lasted until the early 1900s until a more radical group called the Committee of Union and progress a faction of a newer reformist group called The Young Turks took power The Young Turks started off as a more modern pan ottoman Movement Like The Young Ottomans but eventually became less concerned with religion as a unifying factor and began favoring Turkish nationalism with heavy support from Military Officers they forced the sultan to restore the constitution in what became known as the Young Turk Revolution a string of assassinations forced Abdul hammed to abdicate by 1909 and his brother Meed I took the throne as Monarch through the political instability Rebellion sprang up and those in the borans fought for their independence with the territorial decline of the Empire The Young Turks began to view themselves in more nationalistic terms as well and strove for a state in Anatolia for ethnic Turks the f final nail in the coffin for the Empire came with World War I as discussed last episode the Ottomans had joined the Central Powers and were besieged by Allied Forces during a series of three campaigns in the Caucasus Mesopotamia and Sinai and Palestine during the latter British intelligence officer TE Lawrence who came to be known as Lawrence of Arabia encouraged Arab nationalist sentiment against the Ottomans leading to the Arab revolt in 1916 the kingdom of hes declared independence allying with the British against the Ottomans with the promise for a unified Arab state after the war the Ottomans couldn’t handle the Allied offensives and by the end of the war the once Mighty Empire was minimized to the Anatolian Peninsula once the war ended the ottoman Empire’s former territories in the Middle East were occupied and planned to be redistributed among the Allied Powers Greek forces occupied ismir in 1919 sparking outrage and galvanized Turkish Spirit once again this was represented by war hero Mustafa Kamal Kamal commanded the ottoman forces that repelled the Allied invasion during the gulp Campaign which we went over last episode he later left the ottoman Army and now Turkish nationalists banded behind him in a war of independence to create a new state he spent the summer amassing support and uniting various nationalist groups opposed to the occupation and ottoman compliance Mustafa Kamal established the Grand National Assembly in ankora as a rival government to the ottoman sultanate in Istanbul this assembly took over the leadership of the independent movement in summer 1920 the Treaty of SRA confirmed the disintegration of the Empire with Provisions for the mandate system it planned to partition the Empire among the Powers granting significant portions of its territory to Greece Italy France and Britain and recognizing Armenia and Kurdistan as independent regions but Mustafa Kamal stripped the signatories of authority and went to war Turkish forces resisted French and Armenian advances in the South by early 1921 agreements were reached and French forces withdrew from cicia in the East the treaty of alexandr and the Treaty of KHS settled conflicts with Armenia and secured turkey’s Eastern borders the war to the West with the Greeks was of most consequence under is met inonu Turkish forces repelled Greek advances at the battles of inonu in January and March 1921 while Turkish forces under Mustafa kamal’s command halted the Greek Advance at the Battle of sakaria that summer the final and decisive offensive by Turkish forces culminated in the recapture of ismir on September 9th 1922 securing the peninsula the Grand National Assembly abolished the ottoman sultanate soon after ending centuries of Ottoman rule in July 1923 the Allies had to renegotiate and sign the Treaty of laan recognizing the sovereignty of the new Turkish State and establishing its modern borders at the end of October Mustafa Kamal had Turk was declared the first president of the Republic of Turkey marking the official establishment of the new Turkish State a secular Republic Mustafa Kamal now known as Ataturk or far Turk implemented a set of reforms based on European models a strong sense of Turkish nationalism was promoted through education language reform and cultural initiatives the old Ottoman titles of nobility like Bay or Pasa were abolished and citizens were required to choose hereditary surnames the Hat law required the abandonment of the traditional Fez in favor of western style hats symbolizing a break from the ottoman past Arabic script used for writing Turkish was replaced with a modified Latin alphabet making literacy more accessible and aligning turkey more closely with the West the state established and operated various Enterprises in key sectors such as trans Transportation Banking and Manufacturing to drive Economic Development efforts were made to industrialize the country through the establishment of factories infrastructure projects and the promotion of local Industries land reforms aim to modernize agriculture redistribute land and improve productivity secularism was a Cornerstone of atat Turk’s reforms ensuring the separation of religion from state affairs and promoting a secular national identity the succession of the caliphate dating back to Muhammad which the Ottomans had claimed from the abids in the 1500s was abolished law was based on the Swiss civil code which replaced the Islamic Sharia law modernizing family law and granting women equal rights in marriage divorce and inheritance women were granted the right to vote and stand for election in 1934 and reforms were introduced to promote gender equality in education and the workforce religious influence on public life was minimized with measures such as the closure of religious courts and dervish lodges and the prohibition of religious attire in public institutions by ataturk’s death in 1938 the Ottoman Empire had been replaced by the new modern Turkish Nation just to the east was Iran a nation that stayed neutral during the Great War since 1789 9 it continued to be ruled by the kajar dynasty who established their Capital at Teran in a more easily defended mountainous region throughout the 19th century Iran suffered significant territorial losses to Russia in the Caucasus region the kajar rulers later faced increasing interference from the British who sought to extend their influence in Iran as part of the great game by the early 1900s growing dissatisfaction with corruption and foreign infuence led to the Constitutional Revolution intellectuals merchants and clerics demanded reform and in 1906 the kajar Sha was forced to accept a constitution leading to the establishment of the Magus or Parliament and a constitutional monarchy but the discovery of oil reserves further strengthened foreign presence with profits being siphon to British investors Iran declared neutrality during World War I but the country became a Battleground for ottoman Russian and British forces causing significant social and economic disruption in 1921 resak Khan a military officer led a coup against the weak kajar government and by 1925 he had Consolidated power and was crowned rashar establishing the parvi dynasty rashar quickly implemented a series of modernization and secularization reforms including the development of infrastructure structure centralization of government Authority and the reduction of clerical power he introduced western style legal codes changed the traditional dress code and encouraged the adoption of Western customs and education in 1935 he forly had the name of the nation changed from Persia requesting All Foreign delegates to refer to it as Iran though formerly a constitutional monarchy rasa’s rule ended up being an authoritarian military dictator stship as he bypassed Parliament and suppressed political descent and ethnic minorities over to the West in the land between the rivers Mesopotamia had been under ottoman rule since the 1600s divided into three main provinces mosul Baghdad and Barra the region was ethnically and religiously diverse including Arabs Assyrians and Kurds in the northern mountains by the end of the war British forces had occupied most of the region ending centuries of Ottoman control when the League of Nations established the mandate system to administer former ottoman territories they allocated the Mandate of Mesopotamia to Britain but widespread dissatisfaction with British rule led to the Iraqi Revolt of 1920 involving various tribes and communities the Revolt was suppressed by British forces but it highlighted the need for changes in governance and the mandate for Mesopotamia was scrapped in favor of the creation of the kingdom of Iraq which still remained heavily under British influence to gain local support and stabilize the region the British installed fisel iban Hussein as the king of Iraq in 1921 the British and the new Iraqi government signed the Anglo Iraqi treaty in 1922 establishing a constitutional monarchy under fisel and outlining the terms of British influence and Military presence in the new Iraqi Kingdom but throughout the 1920s nationalist sentiments continued to grow among Iraqis demanding full independence from British control further negotiations led to new agreements in 1926 and 1927 progressively reducing British control and Paving the way for Independence 1932 was momentous as on October 3rd Iraq was officially granted Independence and admitted to the League of Nations ending the British mandate this marked the establishment of the kingdom of Iraq as a fully sovereign state under King fisel I 1 fisel had been part of the House of hashemite and had been instrumental in the Arab Revolt during World War I but there had been major anti-imperial movements dating back to the 1700s especially in the Rolling Sands of Arabia the Ottomans had nominal control of the Arabian Peninsula but struggled to maintain control over the interior which was still governed by different Arab societies the most prominent of these was led by the house of Saud established in the 18th century by Muhammad bin Saud this would become the royal family that would form Saudi Arabia the first Saudi state was founded in 1744 in Alliance with the religious leader Muhammad iban Abdul wahab he advocated for a puritanical form of Islam now known as wahabism it called for a return to the pure and original practices of Islam rejecting What was seen as Corruptions and Innovations this state was centered in derria but it grew too large and alarmed the Ottomans once the holy cities of Mecca and Medina were captured ottoman Sultan mmud II ordered Muhammad Ali paser in Egypt to suppress the Saudi rebellion and restore ottoman control and by 1818 the first Saudi state was dissolved but not even a decade later the house of Saud reestablished control in 1824 forming the second Saudi state with Riad as its capital this state called the Emirate of Ned was Far weaker and never captured the hijas region it struggled from internal conflicts and rival tribes leading to Civil War and its collapse in 1891 In 1902 abdulaziz ibin sa began his own campaign campaign over the next three decades to unify the Arabian Peninsula he started by recapturing Riad while annexing the rich Oasis of alhassa from the Ottomans by 1913 during World War I ibin sad remained neutral in the hashimite Le Arab Revolt as they Consolidated power they crushed the hail former vassals who brought about the end of the second Saudi state in 1891 by 1921 this gave IM sod control over the central area as well called The NED by late 1925 he had conquered the kingdom of hijas including the holy cities of Mecca and Medina from the hashemites giving him hegemony over the majority of the peninsula in September 1932 IAD unified the kingdom of Ned and the kingdom of hijas into the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia the culmination of the third and longest lasting Saudi state the alliance between the house of Saud and the wahhabi religious establishment continued to be a central aspect of Saudi governance and wahabism was established as the dominant form of Islam in the Kingdom influencing both religious and political life I inad centralized power established a national government and began to modernize the administrative structure of the country Saudi Arabia’s early economy was primarily based on agriculture trade and pilgrimage revenues to Mecca and Medina but everything changed in 1938 after a year of drilling damam number 7 struck oil in March marking the beginning of Saudi Arabia’s transformation into a global economic power north of the Arabian Peninsula was mandated to the French the mandates of Syria and Lebanon which were subsequently divided up based on demographics but of more consequence though was the region of the Southern Levant the land of Palestine by the late 19th century the weakening of the Ottoman Empire and Rising nationalism led to increased European interest in the region this took form in the rise of the Zionist movement which sought to establish a Jewish homeland in Zion or Jerusalem initial Zionist movements were spiritual or cultural in nature encouraging Jews to settle agricultural communities in Palestine as a precursor to the coming of the Messiah the lovers of Zion was a movement that emerged in Eastern Europe in the late 19th century largely in response to pams and anti-semitic violence particularly in the Russian Empire lovers of Zion played a significant role in the first alar the first major wave of Jewish immigration to Palestine from 1881 to 1903 by the turn of the century Theodore Herzel a Jewish austr Hungarian journalist organized the first Zionist Congress in barel Switzerland this Congress marked the formal launch of the Zionist movement and established the world Zionist organization to coordinate efforts towards creating a Jewish State unlike earlier forms of Zionism that were more culturally or religiously oriented herzl’s Vision was explicitly political he aimed to achieve the establishment of a Jewish State through diplomatic and political means recognizing the need for negoti iation and was open to Solutions in the interim for example he explored the possibility of establishing a temporary refuge for Jews in other regions such as Uganda still controlled by the British and even Argentina which was vast with fertile land and a relatively small population but these proposals were ultimately rejected by the majority of the Zionist movement after the kishinev pram of 1903 the second alah brought thousands more Jews to Palestine between 1904 and 1914 this wave saw the rise of a more left-wing form of Zionism which emphasized the importance of Jewish labor and the establishment of a socialist society in Palestine creating agricultural settlements like kibot and moshavim in 1917 a letter from the British foreign secretary Arthur balur to Lord Rothschild a leader of the British Jewish community expressed the British government’s support for the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine this Bal for Declaration was seen as a significant victory for the Zionist movement providing political legitimacy and encouragement for Jewish immigration to Palestine Britain would be able to facilitate more immigration as they soon were mandated to the region after the war following the Declaration Jewish immigration to Palestine increased particularly during the the third aliar from 1919 to 1923 and fourth aliar from 1924 to 1928 but there was one major problem during World War I the British had made various promises to Arab leaders to gain their support against the Ottoman Empire promising the hashimite king of hijas an independent Arab state but the exact region was deliberately left ambiguous it was interpreted by the Arabs to include most of the Arabian penins and the Levant from Aleppo in the north to Aiden in the South but the British reneged on their promise and signed a secret treaty with France to divide up these former ottoman lands between themselves these borders were slightly changed and finalized after the mandate system and Turkish war of independence but they became the basis for the modern Middle East mandatory Palestine was a strategic geopolitical location as it was between the Suez Canal and the oil Rich area of the Middle East and it also allowed them to support and facilitate Jewish immigration at the end of the War the British attempted to rectify the situation with the hashemites by supporting Hussein’s rule in the hijas and the establishment of his sons as rulers in newly created states with Iraq under fil and the creation of trans Jordan under the leadership of Abdullah the Arab population in Palestine opposed the balur Declaration fearing that the establishment of a Jewish National home would lead to their displacement and loss of political control the result was increased tension between Jews and Arabs protests and violent clashes the first major outbreak of violence occurred during the nebbi Musa Festival in 1920 in Jerusalem further violence erupted in Jaffa in 1921 after a confrontation between two rival Jewish socialist groups was joined by the local Arab population Arab leaders and communities organized to oppose the balfor Declaration and Jewish immigration the Arab High committee under prominent leaders like Grand Muti Amin al-husseini emerged as a political force advocating for Arab rights the Zionist movement organized through the Jewish agency which coordinated immigration land purchases and settlement activities lobbying the British government and International Community but the broader promise of an independent and unified Arab state was not honored leading to Lasting tensions and disputes in the region nearby the Kate of Egypt had been occupied by the British from 1882 although it remained nominally under ottoman sovereignty during this period the British focused on modernizing Egypt’s infrastructure particularly the sewers Canal often at the benefit of British interests more than the local population as the occup ation and Rise of violent incidents increased there was a rise in Egyptian nationalist movements demanding greater autonomy and independence from British control Egypt’s strategic importance increased during World War I the British declared martial law an imposed conscription leading to increased resentment among Egyptians abas II kiv of Egypt became closer with the Ottomans and instead supported the Central Powers but while out of the country he was deposed by the British and they abolished the cavate proclaiming the sultanate of Egypt fully severing ties to the Ottomans after the war many Egyptians believed that the British protectorate was just a temporary wartime measure and that Egypt would be fully independent afterwards but despite Egyptian contributions to the allies and the destabilization it caused this wasn’t the case Saad zagor emerged as a prominent nationalist leader and head of the waft party which became the main political force advocating for complete Independence and parlamentary democracy the British ordered his Exile but this resulted in the Nationwide 1919 Egyptian revolution though the British suppressed it it was costly and negotiations began in 1922 Britain unilaterally recognized Egypt’s Independence Britain still retained control over key areas such as defense Foreign Affairs Sudan to the South and the protection of foreign interests and minorities Egypt Sultan became king fua the first of the New Kingdom of Egypt a new constitution was promulgated in 1923 establishing a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system it aimed to balance the powers of the king and the elected Parliament the waft party won a majority in the 19 24 parliamentary elections and zaglul became prime minister but tensions between the waft and the monarchy as well as British interference led to political instability in 1924 sir Lee stack the British governor general of Sudan and commander of the Egyptian Army was assassinated by Egyptian nationalists this led to a British ultimatum and the resignation of zaglul as prime minister zaglul died sooner after leaving a power vacuum one which would become filled in the following decades in 1928 in the Su Canal Zone a school teacher and Islamic scholar Hassan albana founded what would become known as the Muslim Brotherhood the Brotherhood aimed to revive Islamic teachings and Implement Sharia as the basis for personal conduct and societal governance the Brotherhood focused on establishing schools mosques hospitals and welfare services to address social issues and promote Islamic values while initially avoiding direct political involvement the Brotherhood gradually became more politically active advocating for the end of British colonial rule and the establishment of an Islamic State by the late 1930s and early 1940s it had established branches throughout the Middle East King faruko 10th King of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty succeeded his father in 19 36 and oversaw the implementation of the Anglo Egyptian treaty negotiated earlier to resolve some of the issues of British control it provided for the withdrawal of British troops from most of Egypt except the sewer Canal Zone and acknowledged Egypt sovereignty while maintaining British influence in defense and Foreign Affairs it was a step towards full Independence but it would take decades more to come to fruition alongside nationalism another ideology was slowly spreading that of Marxism initially its spread outside of Europe was sluggish as it didn’t yet resonate with agrarian workers or those under colonial rule but after the formal establishment of the first socialist state in 1917 Lenin altered an expanded Marxist theory in 1920 after the failure of revolution in Europe Lenin began to Target non-western regions of the world allying with the new anti-imperial movements taking shape Lenin devised a strategy to Ally with the lower classes and Unite with the middle classes and Bourgeois in order to first get rid of the imperialist powers and create their own National liberal democracy only then would the working class be in a position for proletarian Revolution against the bisi to spread his ideology to the working classes outside of Europe he used agents of the Communist International or comington its primary goal was to promote and support a global Revolution and to coordinate the activities of communist parties worldwide the Comm turn supported anti-colonial movements and Liberation struggles in Asia Africa and Latin America by the mid 1920s most Asian States had a Marxist party the one that would become the most consequential was in the Far East we had last left China after the fall of the ching and birth of the Republic the Republic of China was officially established with Yuan shakai a former Ching General succeeding S yaten as president in 1912 despite the establishment of the Republic China still remained fragmented Yuan shakai and his bayang government attempted to consolidate power and in 1915 he declared himself Emperor signaling a rebirth of the Chinese Empire but his actions led to widespread opposition sanat Sen’s party now called the quman Tang or nationalist party launched a second revolution in 1913 but it was poorly planned and failed with many of its leaders including s yaten fleeing to Japan following yuan’s death in 1916 China entered a period of political fragmentation and Chaos known as the warlord era officers in his beang army and Regional Warlords wielded significant power leading to continuous conflict during this time in response to the Republic’s instability and failure to modernize a group of intellectuals from ping University promoted a new form of progressive thought called the new culture movement it aimed to leave confusion ideals in the past and make Chinese Society more egalitarian and Democratic founded in 1915 the new youth was an influential magazine that became the primary platform for new culture movement intellectuals to disseminate their ideas it published essays critiques and literary works advocating for reform and modernization it became popular with the urban middle class and young intellectuals but never resonated with the majority of the Chinese population who remained Rural and were more concerned with their daily routine marriages became less Bound by Duty and roles and the concept of family and filial piety was criticized women began taking work positions alongside other men though these Trends grew tradition still remained the status quo for even most of the urban middle class the new culture movement also borrowed heavily from Western Art with artists and writers making work depicting the everchanging culture and embracing it from this came further cultural and political change this began on May 4th 1919 with student protests in tianamen square in Beijing against the Treaty of verai which awarded the German held territories in China to Japan rather than to China the May 4th movement marked a national Awakening and turning point in Chinese history as the new culture movement soon split with some shifting their focus from cultural and intellectual reform to more immediate political and nationalistic goals power was still decentralized after Yuan shikai’s death but in the vacuum ssen returned from Japan seeking to unify the country and continue the Revolutionary cause as the imperialist powers didn’t want to see China become unified against them the kmt had to seek out assistance from the Soviet Union the Chinese Communist party or CCP was founded in July 1921 in Shanghai influenced by the success of the Russian reevolu ution and Marxist leninist ideology the CCP initially faced significant challenges operating underground and struggling to gain Mass support at the urging of Comm turn agents the CCP sought out an alliance with the nationalists part of Lenin’s strategy sunat Sen’s goals were foremost to reunite China and drive out the imperialist forces coinciding with the CCP so in 1923 an alliance between the two parties was made they trained an army and in 1926 they marched out to unify China and end the rule of the Warlords this was known as the northern Expedition s yaten had died in 1925 but was succeeded by Chang Kai Sheek he was much more hostile to leftists and in 1927 Chang kek launched a purge against the Communists in Shanghai leading to a civil war between the kmt and the CCP many fled into the city some like a young maong fled to the hills the CCP attempted to Stage uprisings including the Autumn Harvest Uprising led by Mao but these were largely unsuccessful the CCP retreated to rural areas to reorganize and build support Mao believed if a socialist Revolution was to come to China as it had in Russia it needed to be based more on the peasantry and Farmers than on the factory workers a revolution from the country not the city Mao himself was from the countryside and attempted to organize rural Villages for revolution during the northern Expedition by 1928 the kmt had successfully unified most of China establishing a government at naning marking the beginning of the nanging decade Chang kek then aimed to crush the CCP for good he drove most party leaders out of Shanghai by 1931 as they fled to join Mao in his rural base the CCP stronghold was established in Southeastern China the Juni Soviet it implemented land reforms and built a base of support among the peasantry the kmt initiated a series of encirclement campaigns but were repeatedly repelled by the CCP on the fifth campaign the nationalists Chang tactics aiming to wear down the Communists advancing and fortifying with blockhouses slowly tightening their position but in the face of defeat the CCP embarked on the Long March a strategic Retreat from the Juni Soviet to travel to yangan in shanii Province they trekked on foot for over 9,000 kilm or 5.6 th000 Mi traversing some of China’s most challenging terrain including mountains swamps and rivers which caused many deaths due to harsh environmental conditions and disease out of the up to 100,000 who began the journey including Ma’s Red Army support personnel and their families the CCP arrived at their destination with only 7 to 8,000 remaining surely it seemed the CCP was all but squashed despite the heavy losses the successful completion of the Long March became a simp symb of the resilience and determination of the Communist forces the arduous Journey solidified Ma’s leadership within the CCP and it served as a powerful propaganda tool inspiring future recruits and consolidating the party’s base but Chang kek still maintained governance from naning he began a program based on sanat Sen’s three stages of Revolution which first called for establishing control and eliminating warlordism after that there was to be a period of what he called political tutelage political tutelage was to be an intermediary point between authoritarianism and democracy where the populace was to be educated to create the necessary condition suitable for a western style government the last phase was implementing full Democratic governance based on a constitutional framework but under political tutelage the kmt government pursued a centralized authoritarian form of governance suppressing free expression opposition and descent as the Communists were still seen as a threat despite the lack of freedoms there was still progress the government focused on modernizing infrastructure including Railways roads and Public Works to support economic development in 1934 CH kek and his wife suing launched the new life movement aimed to promote confusion values social discipline and moral Improvement it sought to counter both the influence of Western individualism and communism offering the best from east and west but this program met with failure as traditional Confucianism failed to meet anyone’s needs during this time Chang became too Western for the Common Man and too authoritarian for the urban middle classes soon after by the 1930s and in the wake of global econ economic distress from the Great Depression Chang kek had to deal with an even more pressing problem coming from the East the new Empire of Japan was thriving with its modernization efforts under Emperor Magi and the Magi Constitution once he died Japan entered the Tao period named after Emperor Tao who reigned from 1912 to 1926 the TA show period saw a shift towards a more parliamentary style of government the diet Japan’s byic Camal legislature gained greater influence over National policy and political parties played a more prominent role in governance the power of the Prime Minister and the cabinet increased relative to the emperor in 1918 Hara tekashi leader of the sayuki party became prime minister marking the first time a commoner and Christian held the position but his moderate positions put him in the cross head of ultranationalists and he was assassinated in 1921 by a railroad worker one of the reasons for a rise in Japanese nationalism was their treatment at the Paris peace conference after World War I Japan proposed an amendment to the Covenant of the League of Nations that would affirm the principle of racial equality this proposal was motivated by Japan’s desire for equal treatment on the world stage and to counteract racial discrimination against Japanese Nationals abroad Bo despite a majority of Nations voting in favor including France and Italy woodro Wilson rejected the proposal as it was strongly opposed by the United States and the British dominions where Racial equality would thwart the status quo back at home public opinion of America had soured as the Japanese having modeled themselves after the West realized they would never be viewed as equals the Japanese were later forced to return to territory on the Shandong Province back to China an important region they took from the Germans during the war the move further escalated nationalist sentiment in September 1923 the great Kanto earthquake struck the Tokyo and Yokohama areas of Japan causing widespread destruction and resulting in the deaths of approximately 140,000 people the earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 7.9 triggered deast stating fires landslides and a tsunami profoundly impacting Japanese society and infrastructure Decades of progress had been wiped out but the Japanese retained their unity and determination they would rebuild in 1925 the general election law was enacted granting Universal male suffrage to all men aged 25 and older significantly expanding the electorate this reform marked a major step towards democratization although women were still excluded from voting Japanese culture became a hodg podge of creativity from all ideological spheres the I novel or shisho setsu was a shra of Japanese literature with an autobiographical nature and introspective style this genre often blurred the line between fiction and reality as authors Drew heavily from their own personal experiences emotions and inner lives to craft their narratives often considered the master of the I novel shigi now’s works such as at kinosaki and a dark nights passing are seminal examples of the genre Japan experienced an economic boom after World War I benefiting from increased industrial production and exports rivaling Western Powers who had been at the Forefront for over a 100 years one of the main drivers of this economic success was the financial click or zart the zaibatsu refers to family controlled corporate conglomerates that dominated the Japanese economy from the mag period zatsu conglomerates banned multiple Industries like banking manufacturing mining shipping and trade this diversification helped them mitigate risks and capitalize on various economic opportunities some major zatsu included Mitsubishi mitsui tumomo and Yuda the zaibatsu wielded considerable political power influencing government policies and decisions their leaders often held key positions in government advisory councils and other influential bodies as Banking and Industry boomed more peasants left the countryside to move to the cities for work leading to a surge in the urban poor during the 1920s Japan’s foreign policy has been dubbed shidahara diplomacy an approach primarily associated with foreign minister shidahara kijo shidahara diplomacy was based on a commitment to International cooperation peaceful resolution of conflicts and adherence to International agreements shidahara supported Japan’s participation in the Washington Naval conference which aimed to prevent Naval arms races and promote stability in the Pacific region the conference resulted in the five power treaty which limited Naval capacity I ities among major Powers including Japan in 1928 Japan signed the Kell O’Brien pact which condemned War as a means of resolving international disputes and promoted peaceful diplomacy though shidahara diplomacy maintained peace it faced significant opposition from militarists and nationalists within Japan who favored a more aggressive and expansionist foreign policy industrialists who had profited from Japan’s imperialism depended on the raw materials and resources found abroad these groups criticized shidahara diplomacy as weak and detrial to Japan’s national interests The Tao era ended with the death of Emperor Tao in 1926 and the subsequent rise of heroo or Emperor shower marking the beginning of the shower period with the onset of the Great Depression Japan’s more moderate policies had fallen by the wayside leading to the decline of support for shidahara diplomatic approach ultranationalists industrialists and Military Officers took the Reigns advocating for a break with the United States and Britain and more aggressive expansionism Tao democracy instead of a stepping stone towards liberalism was fleeting as its fragile Democratic gains were quickly undone by the Resurgence of authoritarian and militaristic forces the final stop on our global Journey this episode will be Latin America where nationalism took a slightly different form Latin America was mostly free of colonial governance after the wars of Independence which you can check out here their economy relied mostly on agricultural exports rather than industry in the vast pastures of Argentina cattle were raised to produce beef while the Caribbean relied on sugar cane Central America would come to be known for its banana production and its Nations colloquially called banana republics during the early 1900s the US imposed its International economic power on Latin America through what was called Dollar Diplomacy this policy was particularly prominent during the administration of President William Howard Taft and continued in various forms in the 1920s it aimed to promote American Commercial interests stabilize Latin American economies and reduce European influence in the Western Hemisphere during World War I European investment dropped and American businesses and Banks increased their Investments a series of American Military interventions and occupations took place in Cuba the Dominican Republic Haiti Honduras and Nicaragua to protect American interests and Investments and would prop up friendly local dictators like fheno Batista of Cuba or Vicente Gomez of Venezuela collectively these eventually became known as the banana Wars similar to Asia and the Middle East the growing influence of the US in Latin American economies and politics sparked nationalist movements that resisted American control and sought to reclaim national resources and industries the Great Depression of the 1930 severely impacted global trade and Latin American countries heavily reliant on exports to the US by this point faced significant economic hardship as American Investments decreased sharply in response to the economic and political turmoil President Franklin D Roosevelt introduced The Good Neighbor policy in the 1930s which aimed to improve relations with Latin American countries through non-intervention and mutual respect the military was recalled and for the first time in decades Latin America was free of American occupation the depression forced Latin American government ments to diversify their industry at the turn of the century Argentina experienced significant economic growth driven by agricultural exports particularly beef and wheat foreign investment mainly from Britain played a crucial role in developing infrastructure such as Railways and ports the country enjoyed relative political stability under the oligarchic rule of the conservative National autonomist party which dominated politics through a restricted El Al system the radical Civic Union or UCR a liberal party led by eito iroan emerged as a significant Force advocating for Democratic reforms and greater political participation the science Pena law of 1912 introduced Universal male suffrage and the secret ballot and the result was the ucr’s Electoral victory in 1916 ioan became the first popularly elected president ioan’s first terms are efforts to address social inequalities and improve working conditions though his reforms were limited by resistance from conservatives and large land owners the Great Depression severely affected Argentina’s export-driven economy leading to economic hardship and social unrest in 1930 during his second term ioan was overthrown in a military coup led by General Jose Felix uru and the national Easter this coup marked the end of the era of political reform and the beginning of a period of conservative military regime the start of the infamous decade from 1930 to 1943 Argentina was marred by political instability electoral fraud economic difficulties and social unrest the instability ended with yet another military coup on June 4th 1943 led by the United officers group a nationalist faction within the military among the coup leaders was Colonel Juan Domingo Pon who soon Rose to power as a left-wing populist Pon Ascent to power marked the end of the conservative era and the beginning of a new political movement focused on labor rights and social justice just to the north was Brazil the Brazilian Empire had dissolved with the deposition of Emperor Pedro II after a reign of 58 years this led to the creation of of the Old Republic Brazil’s first Republican government though nominally it was a constitutional democracy power was centralized in the hands of local Coronel powerful landowners and political influencers the state became an oligarchic Republic dominated by the coffe growing Elites of sa Paulo and the Dairy Farmers of minus Sherice known as the coffee with milk Politics the economy was heavily dependent on coffee exports which accounted for a significant portion of Brazil’s Revenue the rubber industry based in the Amazon basin declined sharply due to competition from Southeast Asian rubber plantations which were more efficient and coste effective while World War I disrupted coffee exports prompting Brazil to diversify its economy as well industrialization began to take root particularly in textiles and Manufacturing urbanization and the growth of the workingclass led to increased social tensions and demands for labor rights a political and economic crisis led to the revolution of 1930 which resulted in the overthrow of President Washington Luis Julio Vargas a populist leader and lawyer emerged as the new president the Vargas era lasted over 15 years this was Brazil’s second Republic during this time Vargas implemented significant social and economic reforms including labor laws social welfare programs and efforts to industrialize the economy aiming to modernize Brazil and reduce its dependence on coffee exports a new constitution was adopted in 1934 and Vargas maintained his power by balancing various political factions while suppressing both radical left and right-wing groups in 1937 in the face of growing communist movement M ments and the instability caused by the Great Depression Vargas staged a coup on his own government extended his term and established the estad novo or third Brazilian Republic a dictatorial regime he dissolved the Congress suspended the Constitution and ruled by decree this authoritarian government suppressed political opposition censored the media and used propaganda to maintain control amid growing demands for Democratic reforms Vargas was forced to resign in 1945 leading to the fourth Brazilian Republic and the reestablishment of democratic governance and elections over in Mexico we had gone over the PO forato and Mexican Revolution in a previous episode of this Mega documentary by the 1920s the center-left laborist party began to consolidate power under Alvaro oon and later plutarco Elias kayes who played crucial role roles in stabilizing the country and implementing constitutional reforms a violent conflict the Cristo War erupted in 1926 between the Mexican Government and Catholic insurgents opposed to the secularization policies of the K government which aimed to minimize Church influence in public life the rebels known as cheros were predominantly peasants and devout Catholics who took up arms to defend their religious rights the government responded with brutal repression including Mass executions and the destruction of villages suspected of supporting the Christ Aros in total around 100,000 perished not including civilians among the deceased was former president obon who had been reelected to take office by the end of the year but was seen as a continuation of K secularization policies it ended with a mediated agreement that eased some of the restrictions on the church but left in during tensions several Cho leaders were later canonized by the Catholic church for defending their freedom of religion in 1929 after oon was assassinated K founded the national revolutionary party or PNR a Centrist catch all party which would dominate Mexican politics for decades in 1934 General cardinas was elected president and began one of the most transformative periods in modern Mexican history championing labor rights better wages and working conditions and the right to strike he redistributed 44 million acres of land to the peasantry establishing aidos communal land Holdings this reform aimed to address the deepr rooted issues of land inequality and Rural poverty by 1938 cardinas nationalized the oil industry expropriating foreign British and American oil companies this move move was in response to the company’s refusing to comply with Mexican labor laws President Roosevelt honored his Good Neighbor policy and did not intervene although American oil companies were eventually compensated the nationalization led to the creation of PMX a state-owned oil company this move was highly popular among Mexicans and is considered a milstone in asserting National sovereignty over natural resources cardinas also National ized the railroads another key industry to improve infrastructure and reduce foreign control over critical National Assets cultural initiatives that celebrated Mexico’s indigenous Heritage were also supported fostering a sense of national identity and pride cardinas reorganized the PNR into the party of the Mexican Revolution later to be renamed the institutional revolutionary party Latin American culture and art from the early 19 1900s until the 1930s was marked by a dynamic interplay of indigenous Traditions European influences and modernist Innovations this period saw the rise of cultural movements like indigenismo and muralism indigenismo helped revive interest in and respect for indigenous cultures and traditions contributing to a richer and more inclusive national identity in many Latin American countries muralism aimed to create accessible public art that conveyed social and political messages often with a focus on revolutionary themes and the struggles of the working class large-scale murals adorned public buildings and depicted scenes from Mexican history indigenous culture and social struggles as nationalism and socialism grew as a response to imperialism we will head back to Europe where the seat of discontent and unresolved tensions quietly took root next episode The fin Al of our Mega documentary World War II Europe the 1930s after World War I it was supposed to be the end of History the end of Wars it should have been the Triumph of liberal democracy over authoritarianism but the Clock Was ticking and the thread holding the world together was about to snap economic hardship led to a loss of faith in government with the tragic loss of a generation leaders began urging a return to tradition for women to return to the home and have children the spread of Communism instead of easing economic tensions spawned fear in the middle and upper classes as they instead look to strong men to take the helm as a Bull workk against it by the end of the decade the only major Nations to remain Democratic were the United Kingdom and France the others Germany Italy Spain and Eastern Europe had all fallen into dictatorship soon totalitarianism emerged garnering even more power than authoritarian regimes this was exemplified in three major States after World War I Italy faced severe economic problems including high unemployment inflation and a burden of War debts though Italy was part of The Winning Side laying claim to former austr Hungarian territories its government was weak and fragmented with frequent changes in leadership and ineffective Coalition governments there was widespread dissatisfaction with the liberal political system and the war had left Italian Society deeply divided socialists and Communists gained support among the workingclass and peasants while conservative and nationalist groups feared a socialist revolution in 1919 Bonito musolini a former socialist journalist who became became more radicalized during World War I founded the Italian fasis of combat which later became the national fascist party the party’s platform combined nationalism militarism and antisocial ISM the term fascism has its roots in the Italian word fascismo which itself is derived from the Latin word fasis in ancient Rome the fasis were a bundle of rods typically surrounding an axe symbolizing the authority of the magistrates it displayed unity and strength through the combination of individual rods into a single unbreakable bundle musolini organized the black shirts or Squad Rey paramilitary groups to use violence and intimidation against socialists Communists and trade unions the black shirts carried out violent attacks strikes and demonstrations to create a sense of chaos and disorder melini made strategic Alliance with conservative politicians the military and the monarchy positioning himself as a defender of Law and Order in October 1922 melini and his followers organized the march on Rome a mass demonstration intended to intimidate the government into giving them power thousands of fascists converged on Rome demanding that melini be appointed prime minister King Victor Emanuel III fearing Civil War and believing that musolini could rest store order refused to declare martial law and instead invited melini to form a government and on October 31st musolini was appointed prime minister of Italy over the next few years musolini gradually dismantled Democratic institutions and established a dictatorship he passed laws that gave him extensive Powers suppressed political opposition and controlled the media by the mid 1920s musolini had established a regime under the fascist party declaring himself uch the leader and eliminated all political opposition musalini deemed his State totalitarian seeking to control nearly every aspect of public and private life totalitarian regimes often employed extensive surveillance propaganda and state Terror to achieve this level of control but despite their efforts old Italian institutions remain separate like the Catholic church and the monarchy which held control over the military just to the north of Italy totalitarianism became much more total at the end of World War I Kaiser vilhelm II was exiled and the German Empire dissolved in its place the newly established Vima Republic faced significant challenges including political instability economic crisis and a lack of popular support one of those who had fought in the Great War was an Austrian with superb oratory skills Adolf Hitler still enlisted in the Army he was sent to gather intelligence on an obscure political organization based in Munich the German Workers Party or dap it was still a fringe group with limited membership primarily composed of disgruntled World War I veterans radical nationalists and anti-communists but Hitler came to agree with a lot of the Nationalist and anti-marxist rhetoric he later joined the party and by 1921 Rose the ranks and took control renaming it the National Socialist German Workers Party or nsdap from the German pronunciation of the first part of their name we get the term na Hitler turned the old dap from a small Debate Club into a political movement the term National Socialist was meant to broaden their appeal especially among the working classes but instead of marxist socialism to unify workers national socialism instead emphasized Unity among all racially pure Germans transcending class differences for the sake of national unity in just two years membership went from the hundreds to the tens of thousands taking cues from musolini and fascist Italy Hitler adopted their Roman salute which we now associate with the Nazis despite claims that the salute originated in ancient Rome there is sparse evidence for this and its prominence in the fascist movement is mostly attributed to Gabriel Danio an Italian poet and Aristocrat Hitler also attempted to mirror melini’s coup the march on Rome with his own governmental Takeover in 1923 around 2,000 Nazis descended on the city center of Munich with the goal of taking the city as a base to launch a march on the viar government but the coup called The Beer Hall P failed and Hitler was arrested Ed soon after during his imprisonment Hitler wrote mine camp or my struggle outlining his political ideology which included extreme nationalism anti-Semitism anti-communism and the desire for leban Ram living space for the German people he also came to the conclusion that the Nazi party would have to come to power by legal means not by overthrowing the government in a coup although the coup failed and Hitler was imprisoned it brought significant national attention to the Nazi party and its leader upon his release he reorganized the party and by 1929 it was expanded all over Germany the Nazi party propagated the idea that the viar Republic was a Jewish Republic blaming Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I and subsequent economic and social troubles this fact was exploited to suggest that Jews had disproportionate influence over the viar government furthermore the fear of bolshevism exacerbated by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the spartacist uprising in Germany led to the Nazi portrayal of the Republic as weak and unable to protect Germany from a Communist Revolution Nazi propaganda fused anti-Semitism and anti-communism into the concept of judeo bolshevism suggesting a conspiracy between Jews and Communists to destroy Germany Hitler frequently linked Jews and Communists in his speeches and writings resonating with many Germans disillusioned with the viar Republic similar to the black shirts in Italy the Nazis relied on their own paramilitary Wing the SA or brown shirts that used violence and intimidation against political opponents in the July 1932 elections the Nazis became the largest party in the r stack but they did not have an outright majority political instability continued with frequent changes in government and no party able to secure a stable majority key conservative leaders including former Chancellor Von papen and president Paul Von Hindenberg believed they could control Hitler and use his popularity to stabilize the government despite initial reluctance Hindenberg appointed Hitler as Chancellor on January 30th 1933 and so Hitler and the Nazi party became head of government using the Democratic viar framework without a coup with the Nazis in power this was the start of the third German Empire the Third Reich the rice stack fire on February 27th 1933 allegedly said by a lone Dutch communist was blamed on the entire Communist party and used by Hitler to push for the rice stack fire decree which suspended civil liberties and allowed for the arrest of political opponents after the r stack passed the enabling Act on March 23rd 1933 Adolf Hitler was granted dictatorial Powers allowing him to enact laws without parliamentary approval this act effectively dismantled the Democratic structure of the viima Republic and is often considered the start of Nazi Germany the Nazis quickly moved to eliminate political opposition Banning political parties dissolving trade unions and arresting or killing opponents in June 1934 during the night of the Long Knives Hitler ordered The Purge of the sa leadership and other potential Rivals consolidating his control over the military and the Nazi party following president hindenburg’s death in August 1934 Hitler combined the roles of Chancellor and president assuming the title of fura and becoming the Undisputed leader of Germany with the Parliamentary state old Hitler established a totalitarian regime entirely under Nazi control Joseph Geral as minister of propaganda orchestrated a massive campaign to glorify Hitler and promote Nazi ideology the regime controlled all media including newspapers radio film and literature ensuring a uniform message Across the Nation the Gusto secret State Police and the SS originally Hitler’s personal bodyguards played crucial roles in maintaining control through surveillance intimidation and elimination of descent the SS led by Heinrich himler became a powerful organization overseeing the police concentration camps and security forces political opponents including Communists socialists and trade unionists were brutally suppressed and the Concentration Camp system expanded to imprison and eliminate those who opposed the regime Hitler’s image was cultivated as the infallible leader and savior of Germany with loyalty to him being a central aspect of Nazi ideology and His Image only presentes in public life the 1936 Olympics were held in Berlin in August these games became highly political serving as a propaganda tool for Hitler and the Nazi regime to showcase the supposed superiority of the Arian race and the strength of Nazi Germany the event was marked by grandiose displays of Nazi symbolism and extensive use of modern technology for broadcasting making it the first Olympics to be televised the Germans did win the total medal count but despite the Rim’s intentions the game but the hosting of both the summer and earlier Winter Games in 1936 restored Germany’s Pride on the world stage the regime sought to indoctrinate the population from a young age the education system was overhauled to emphasize racial Purity nationalism and loyalty to Hitler youth organizations such as the Hitler Youth and the league of German girls were used to inculcate these values in the younger generation though women were allowed to work in certain Fields like nursing or social work they were expected to primarily be bearers of children and housekeepers the regime imposed strict controls on culture including art Music Theater and film to ensure they aligned with Nazi values viar Germany was the center of the European modern artistic movements like the bow house but modernist and avanguard art were condemned as degenerate from July to November 1937 the degenerate art exhibition was organized as part of a broader campaign to vilify and eliminate modern art that did not align with Nazi ideology and aesthetic values Modern Art movements such as expressionism dorismar were condemned as reflective of a morally Decay Society the exhibition orchestrated by Joseph Geral the minister of propaganda featured artworks confiscated from German museums and private collections the display was deliberately chaotic with paintings and sculptures accompanied by derogatory graffiti and labels mocking the artists and their work the exhibition attracted over 2 million visitors generating significant public interest and inadvertently exposing many to Modern Art For the First Time following the exhibition many of the artworks were destroyed sold abroad or hidden away as the Nazis continued their campaign of cultural repression the Nazis instead promoted a conservative and classical aesthetic that celebrated traditional Germanic values and German nationalism they promoted traditional techniques and subjects that were easily understandable and depicted in a clear literal manner approved subjects included Landscapes portraits depictions of the German peasantry soldiers and glorification of the Aryan race this concept of the Aryan race was a central tenet of Nazi ideology combining pseudoscientific racial theories with mythological and historical references to create a narrative of racial superiority the idea of the Aryan race emerged from 19th century linguistic and anthropological studies over time these linguistic theories were distorted into racial theories with the Aran being portrayed as the original Superior race that spread civilization across Europe and Asia this pseudo scientific idea was increasingly linked to the belief in the racial superiority of Europeans particularly Northern Europeans the fish movement in Germany and Austria emerged near the turn of the century embracing the idea of Aryan racial superiority this movement combined nationalism racial Purity and a romanticized view of ancient Germanic culture the Aryan myth became Central to felish ideology with the belief that the Germanic peoples were the purest descendants of the Aryan race this ideology often included anti-semitic and anti-slavery on Norse and Germanic mythology to build their racial ideology using figures like Thor and Odin as well as the heroic sagas of the Norse gods and warriors to exemplify Aryan virtues of strength bravery and Purity the medieval tonic Knights and other Germanic warriors were romanticized as precursors to the Nazi movement symbolizing a pure and Noble Aryan past the swastika an ancient symbol used in various cultures including Hinduism and and Buddhism was adopted by the Nazis as the emblem of the Aryan race and the Nazi party though used in the west as a symbol of good luck one of the first significant uses linking the swastika with anti-Semitism is attributed to the Gman and Ordon a German Nationalist and anti-semitic secret society founded in 1912 an offshoot of the Gman nordon was the occultist Tula Society named after a mythical Northern realm which continued using the swastika as a nationalist symbol this Society was more political and sponsored the German Workers Party which eventually became the Nazis the swastika was officially adopted by the Nazi party in 1920 with a design featuring a black swastika within a white circle on a red background the Nazis also appropriated runes and other symbols from Germanic and nor Traditions to evoke a sense of ancient Aryan Heritage and power massive Public Works project such as the construction of the autoban and Military rearmament programs were implemented to reduce unemployment and prepare for conflict while the Nazis allowed private ownership and profit making they exerted significant control over the economy industrialists and businesses were expected to align with State goals particularly in the rearmament effort the nurburg laws of 1935 institutionalized racial discrimination against Jews stripping them of citizenship and prohibiting marriage and sexual relations between Jews and non-jews these were in part based on discriminatory laws in the United States at the time but ended up far beyond their American precedence Jews were increasingly marginalized persecuted coerced to immigrate and eventually imprisoned or targeted for extermination the laws eventually expanded to other groups and soon the regime persecuted other undesirables including Romani people afro Germans disabled individuals political dissidents homosexuals and others these groups fac discrimination forc sterilization imprisonment and Death on November 7th 1938 a young polish jew shot and fatally wounded a German Diplomat in Paris the Nazi regime used their diplomat’s death as a pretext to incite a violent prgram against Jews on the night of November 9th 1938 Nazi paramilitary forces both the sa and SS and German civilians attacked Jewish homes businesses synagogues and institutions in a coordinated and widespread assault over 200 synagogues were destroyed and thousands of Jewish owned shops and homes were ransacked and looted the name Christal KN or Knight of broken glass refers to the shards of broken glass that littered the streets from the smashed Windows cemeteries schools and hospitals were also targeted and vandalized around 30,000 Jewish men were arrested and sent to concentration camps where many were subjected to brutal treatment in the aftermath the remaining Jews in Germany faced increasing pressure to immigrate as the country entered a new and more violent era of anti-Semitism and persecution alongside fascist Italy and Nazi Germany was another totalitarian state although this took a different form the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was the only legal party and all political power was concentrated in its hands the party controlled the government the military and all aspects of society Stalin the Soviet leader developed a cult of personality presenting himself as the infallible head of state and the embodiment of Soviet strength and unity His Image was omnipresent and he was portrayed as a genius and savior of the nation the state controlled all aspects of the economy through Central planning the first 5-year plan in 1928 and second 5year plan in 1933 aimed to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union and collectivize agriculture industrial goods and oil production increased substantially but private Farms were eliminated replaced with Collective and State Farms this process was accompanied by significant violence and resulted in widespread famine particularly the Hol domore in Ukraine where 3.5 to 5 million perished from the policies the nkvd the people’s commissariat for internal affairs played a central role in maintaining State Terror and enforcing Stalin’s policies it conducted Mass surveillance arbitrary arrests and execution during the Great Purge up to 1.2 million people including party members military leaders intellectuals and ordinary citizens were executed or sent to the gulag labor camps in Siberia the purges aimed to eliminate potential Rivals and denters and consolidate Stalin’s power the old Bolsheviks were the first to go along with Trotsky supporters Trotsky himself was assassinated in his Mexico City home during Exile in 1940 many European intellectuals artists and left-wing sympathizers who had previously admired the Soviet experiment became disillusioned as reports of the purges reached the West given the priorities of the 5-year plans and the drive for rapid industrialization there was a strong emphasis on science technology engineering and mathematics education technical skills were crucial for building building the industrial base and advancing military capabilities though easy access to education led to more social Mobility the stalinist era remained oppressive over in Japan the 1920s had remained moderate during the era of Tao diplomacy but Japan’s parliamentary system was characterized by frequent changes in government between the two main parties the moderate Center left Mino and the moderate center right Rick Ken seuk Kai this fragmentation made it difficult for civilian leaders to effectively address the country’s problems and weaken public confidence in Democratic institutions corruption scandals and perceived incompetence further eroded trust in the civilian government the global economic downturn of the Great Depression in 1929 severely affected Japan’s economy exports plummeted an unemployment soord leading to widespread social unrest and dissatisfaction with the government’s ability to manage the crisis many farmers and Rural communities faced extreme poverty and hardship exacerbating social tensions and making radical Solutions more appealing prime minister inukai suoi managed to slash prices in order to restore export levels but more Japanese became disillusioned and Ultra nationalists were galvanized on May 15th 1932 a group of young naval officers assassinated the Prime Minister advocating for a more aggressive foreign policy and greater military control over the government a string of assassinations ensued targeting those promoters of shidahara diplomacy a policy promoting peace and pacifism during the 1920s the powerful industrial conglomerates or zatsu had close ties with the military and provided them with significant economic and political support facilit ating Japan’s rise in militarism the Japanese military enjoyed a degree of autonomy from civilian control with the Army and Navy ministers having direct access to the next Emperor heroo this Independence allowed military leaders to pursue their own agendas a strong sense of nationalism and belief in Japan’s Destiny as a leading Asian power fueled militaristic Ambitions military leaders industrialists and nationalists believed that Japan needed to expand its territory to secure resources and living space particularly in East Asia this expansionist Vision was seen as essential for Japan’s survival and prosperity though much of Southeast Asia was still the domain of the British French Dutch and Americans there was widespread resentment towards Western countries the perceived unequal treaties and rejection of the racial equality Clause at the end of World War I along with subsequent racial discrimination against Japanese immigrants fueled a desire to assert Japan’s power and Independence in the Pacific back in Europe the relative pece of the 1920s was about to change melini’s regime sought to recreate the glory of the Roman Empire through territorial expansion this was a policy of spatio Vitali or living space Italy aimed to avenge its previous defeat at the Battle of ad in 1896 and strengthen its position in East Africa by linking its existing colonies in Eritrea and somal land a skirmish between Italian and Ethiopian forces at the wwal Oasis in December 1934 provided musolini with a pretext for Invasion on October 3rd 1935 Italian forces under General Emilio debono crossed from Eritrea into Ethiopia facing Little Resistance and captured key towns musolini intensified the campaign with modern military tactics including tanks aircraft and chemical weapons violating International conventions demonstrating the weakness of the League of Nations Britain and France were weary from the last war and were strained by administering former Ottoman and German territories and did not intervene by early 1936 Italian forces had Advanced deep into ethiop iian territory and on May 5th they entered the capital Emperor Hil salasi fled into Exile and Italy declared Victory annexing Ethiopia and integrating it into Italian East Africa along with erria and Italian somal land the occupation was marked by brutal reprisals and ongoing resistance from Ethiopian Guerilla Fighters called the arbec KN in Germany Hitler looked to the East and saw the greatest enemy to his Aran Master race he saw millions of slaves living on vast reaches of land if he could conquer this land Hitler envisioned establishing German settler colonies in the East where ethnic Germans would live on large Estates managed in a feudal likee system maintained as an expanded Reich the regions identified for expansion were primarily in Eastern Europe particularly the vast agriculturally Rich lands of the Soviet Union Poland and other Slavic count Ries were also targeted despite Hitler’s power within his State Germany itself remained weakened by the restrictions of the Treaty of Versa but Hitler took measures to dismantle it bit by bit in October 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the League of Nations and the disarmament conference rejecting the post-war International order in March 1935 Hitler reintroduced conscription openly defying the Treaty of Versa the size of the German Army was expanded beyond the 100,000 troop limit the Cs marine and the LT vafer the Navy and Air Force were rebuilt in March 1936 German troops reoccupied the Rhineland violating the treaty’s demilitarization Clause the Bold move alarmed France but was met with Little Resistance from Britain further emboldening Hitler Britain was dealing with domes IC issues of its own after leading his country during the Great War King George V after a reign of over 25 years was dead he was succeeded by his son who became Edward VII Edward’s desire to marry Walla Simpson an American divorce a with two living ex-husbands led to a constitutional crisis the British government church and public opinion were largely against the marriage Edward had to choose between the marriage and the throne and shockingly he abdicated his position to marry Simpson becoming the first British monarch to voluntarily relinquished the crown his younger brother Albert ascended the throne as King George V 6 Edward’s later tour of Nazi Germany and photos with Hitler led to rumors that he was a Nazi sympathizer King George’s Ascension helped stabilize the monarchy after the abdication crisis he was seen as a modest and dedicated Monarch in stark contrast to his brother the period saw Stanley Baldwin as prime minister until 1937 followed by Neville Chamberlin Neville Chamberlin’s government is still particularly known for its policy of appeasement towards Hitler’s Germany this policy aimed to avoid war through diplomatic concessions hoping for peace or at least gain time in order to better rearm and prepare for a war Hitler was quick to take advantage of this perceived weakness the March West ended for now as Hitler sought allies of his own and he looked to Annex his own Homeland Austria after the dissolution of the Empire after World War I Austria was established as a republic there remain deep divisions between social Democrats and conservatives in 1932 angelbert Dolphus of the Christian social party became Chancellor and after a brief Civil War the social Democrats were suppressed and banned dolus then established the Federal state of Austria a one- party ostra fascist regime under the Fatherland front ostra fascists differed from the Nazis in that they promoted Austrian nationalism Catholicism and the preservation of Austrian Independence in the face of the predominantly Protestant Germany unlike their Nazi neighbors the austrians were not concerned with racial ideology ology and fully aligned with the Catholic church but Austria had Nazis too hoping to seed their independence to Germany in July 1934 dolas was assassinated during an attempted coup by these Austrian Nazis the coup failed but underscored their growing influence Kurt shush Nik succeeded dolas as Chancellor and continued ostra fascist policies but faced increasing pressure from Nazi Germany musolini who sought to maintain Austria as an independent buffer State between Italy and Germany initially opposed Hitler’s moves to anex Austria musolini initially viewed Hitler with some skepticism but recognized the potential for a powerful Alliance over time melini’s stance softened partly due to increasing International isolation and the realization that Italy and Germany could benefit from closer cooperation the first demonstration of Germany and it ital’s Cooperative strength was in the aid of another authoritarian in Spain Spain had remained a monarchy until 1931 when it formed a republic but it had been politically unstable and economically troubled for years leading to deep polarization between left-wing factions advocating for reforms and right-wing groups seeking to maintain traditional structures a military coup against the democratically elected second Spanish Republic led by General Francisco Franco and other nationalist officers aimed to overthrow the leftist government the coup’s partial success resulted in a fullscale civil war between the Republicans who supported the government and the nationalists who backed the coup the conflict quickly Drew International involvement with the Republicans receiving limited support from the Soviet Union but Britain and France fearing a greater war did not intervene many leftists from outside Spain came to to help the Republicans like the international brigades and foreign volunteers including George Orwell who went on to write animal farm and 1984 both Hitler and musolini supported Francisco Franco’s nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War further aligning their interests Hitler and musolini provided troops tanks and aircraft which played a crucial role in the Nationalist advances the Battle of Madrid the Battle of harama and the battle of the Ebro are intense fighting with both sides committing atrocities against civilians the bombing of gika by German and Italian aircraft became a symbol of the war’s brutality the Civil War was a perfect test for Hitler’s new Panza tanks and Luft vaer but more than this it showed Britain and France’s reluctance to confront him as the war progressed leftist infighting and inexperience gave the nationalists the upper hand Barcelona fell in January and Madrid in March effectively ending the war Francisco Franco declared Victory on April 1st 1939 as the Republican government fled Franco then established his own dictatorship and ruled Spain for nearly 40 years despite overtures from Germany and Italy for an alliance the Civil War had taken its toll and Franco was focused on rebuilding and reliant on Western a on October 25th 1936 Italy and Germany made their Alliance official with the Rome Berlin AIS agreement the term axis began as an informal alignment of ideology rather than an official Alliance describing the relationship between Rome and Berlin as the axis around which European politics would revolve when musolini visited Germany a year later he was thoroughly impressed by Nazi military parades and Industrial output both nations would later enter a more formal alliance called The Pact of Steel Germany and Japan also entered an agreement pledging to oppose the spread of Communism Italy joined this pact as well further solidifying the alliance between the three nations by 1938 the Austrian Nazi party supported by Hitler agitated for ancho the joining of Germany and Austria in an attempt to counter the growing Nazi influence shush announced a plebis it on Austrian Independence to be held on March 13th 1938 but under immense pressure from Hitler including threats of invasion shush Nik canceled the plebis it and resigned on March 11th the next day German troops marched into Austria without facing resistance and many austrians welcomed them Austria was then officially annexed into Nazi Germany and renamed orar a new NAA controlled plebis was held in April overwhelmingly approving the anlu the next Target in Hitler’s path was a country with a substantial German minority Czechoslovakia had established itself as a parliamentary democracy with tomash massri as its first president becoming known for its Democratic institutions and relatively Progressive policies the new country inherited a substantial amount of the former Austrian Empire’s industrial base particularly in the Czech lands they also inherited its ethnic diversity including a substantial minority of Germans living in the Sudan land the Sudan German party advocated for greater autonomy for the German minority and maintained close ties with Nazi Germany in 1938 Hitler intensified his demands for the Sudan land leading to International pressure on Czechoslovakia from Britain and France who sought to avoid avoid Another War the Munich conference in late September saw Britain France Germany and Italy agree to allow Germany to Annex the territory Hitler promised this would be the end of his territorial Ambitions Czechoslovakia was excluded from the negotiations following the Munich agreement German troops occupied the Sudan land in October 1938 seizing vital industrial and defensive infrastructure without military resistance the remaining land was briefly reconstituted into a second Republic but the country’s political and territorial integrity was severely weakened and Slovak nationalist leaders sought to break away from Czechoslovakia Hitler now convinced of the weakness of the western Powers went after even non-german territories in March 1939 Nazi Germany invaded the Czech lands partially annexing and occupying the regions as the protector of bohemia and Moravia Slovakia declared independence but was forced to Ally with Nazi Germany as a client State the Treaty of Versa had established the free city of Danzig as a semi-autonomous citystate under the protection of the League of Nations it was not part of Germany or Poland but was primarily inhabited by ethnic Germans who favored reunification with Germany this was Hitler’s next Target Poland was granted certain rights in the city including the use of the port and control over the Customs as Danzig was an important economic hub for Polish trade in 1939 Hitler intensified diplomatic pressure on Poland to allow the return of Danzig to Germany he also demanded the construction of an extr territorial Highway and Railway through the Polish Corridor to connect East Prussia with the rest of Germany Poland backed by guarantees from Britain and France refused Hitler’s demands recognizing that conceding to these demands would severely weaken its sovereignty and security despite an intense Mutual lack of trust England and France turned to the only Power capable of preventing German hostility towards Poland Stalin and the Soviet Union but the Soviets were making deals of their own on August 23rd 1939 Germany and the Soviet Union signed the molotto ribbon trop pact a non-aggression treaty that included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence this pact cleared the way for Germany to act aggressively toward Poland without fear of Soviet intervention and on September 1st 1939 Germany invaded Poland Britain and France could no longer stay silent days later they declared war on Germany the star part of World War II while these initial moves were occurring in Europe in the East conflict had begun much earlier in seeking to address its economic woes and secure resources for its burgeoning population Japan looked to the Asian mainland the first significant move came in 1931 with the invasion of resourcer Manchuria in northeastern China the pretext for the invasion was the mton incident a staged event where Japanese soldiers blew up a section of the South mansurian Railway and blamed Chinese dissidents using this fabricated excuse the Japanese quaning Army swiftly occupied manua facing minimal resistance by 1932 Japan had established the puppet state of manchukuo installing the last Ching Emperor Pui as its figurehead ruler this move was met with International condemnation particularly from the Le of Nations which deemed Japan’s actions illegal but Japan simply withdrew from the league in 1933 signaling its commitment to an expansionist agenda meanwhile within the Republic of China Chang kek and the kmt nationalists were too preoccupied with the Communist threat to deal with Japanese encroachment Chang Kai Sheek was kidnapped by Chinese Warlords in 1936 and convinced to instead negotiate with the Communists in in order to deal with the more pressing Japanese threat once again the nationalists and Communists formed a united front against a common foe in 1937 tensions between Japan and China escalated at the Marco Polo Bridge incident near Beijing and erupted into a massive invasion of China and the start of the second C Japanese war the Japanese moved quickly capturing the old capital of Beijing one of the earliest and most significant battles was the Battle of Shanghai where Fierce Urban combat resulted in heavy casualties before the city fell to the japanes the fall of nanging in December 1937 the capital led to the infamous nanging Massacre where Japanese troops committed widespread atrocities including Mass executions and sexual violence resulting in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed soldiers despite initial Japanese victories the war soon became a protracted and grueling conflict Chang kek and the Nationalist government retreated to the interior establishing a new capital in chungqing and continuing to resist meanwhile Mao and the Communist armies mobilized local populations and conducted Guerilla raids against Japanese forces Japan’s aggressive expansionism continued into the early 1940s they sought to create the the greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere a concept promoting Japanese leadership over a block of Asian Nations free from Western influence this Vision involved not only the conquest of China but also the annexation of Southeast Asian territories rich in natural resources such as Rubber and Tin from Malaya and oil from the Dutch East Indies but this region was still under the influence of European and American Powers would Japan be up to the challenge in Europe Germany was on the March Germany’s invasion of Poland in 1939 involved a combination of Rapid coordinated air and ground assaults this was the blitz Greek strategy or lightning War German forces attacked from multiple directions from the north east Prussia the West Germany and the South Slovakia which had allied with Germany this multi prault over overwhelmed polish defenses in the east in accordance with their pact with the Germans the Soviet Union took control of their own sphere of influence apart from Eastern Poland the Soviet Union launched a large-scale invasion of Finland in November the start of the winter War despite the overwhelming size of the Soviet Force Finnish troops utilized their knowledge of the terrain and the harsh winter conditions to employ effective Guerilla tactics and defensive strategies notably on the fortified manaheim line The Finnish forces under the leadership of field Marshall Gustav manaheim managed to achieve significant victories against Soviet forces sometimes up to five times as large the Soviets initially unprepared for the severe winter with temperatures reaching minus 43° C faced logistical challenges and low morale but by February they had reorganized and reinforced their troops la launching a renewed offensive that eventually breached the finnished defenses on the carelian ismos facing the threat of total occupation Finland entered into peace negotiations Finland had to seed approximately 11% of its territory but it maintained its independence by 1940 the Soviets had moved into the Baltic states and Eastern Romania and suffered no push back from the Germans due to their pact on April 9th 1940 Germany launched operation vubon the invasion of Denmark and Norway Denmark capitulated almost immediately offering minimal resistance the invasion of Norway was more challenging involving Fierce fighting between German forces and Norwegian British and French troops despite the Allied attempts to defend Norway Germany succeeded in occupying key ports and cities by June 1940 Sweden remained neutral during the war but allowed the transit of German troops through Swedish territory to Norway as well as continuing trade with Germany including the export of crucial iron ore which was vital for the German war industry but they also aided and negotiated with the Allies playing a delicate Balancing Act in May Germany finally looked West to take care of France and Britain as France had built the defensive majino line the Germans bypassed it by attacking from the low countries the British and French expecting a repeat of the first world war once again dug trenches and once again prepared for the Menace of gas attacks but the time of static war was long dead lightning war was the order of the day on the day of the invasion May 10th Luxembourg fell quickly while German paratroopers and ground units overwhelmed the Dutch defenses and they surrendered soon after the bombing of Rotterdam this Drew in the British and French forces to take up a defensive position on the river dial in Belgium but while the Allies were engaged there the main German thrust Army group a targeted another area entirely the lightly guarded Arden region it was hilly and heavily forested the French never thought heavily armored units could make it through quickly but for the Germans it bypassed both the Mao line to the South and the Allies to the north Army group a then broke through the French lines and executed a rapid Advance Westward toward the English Channel this effectively cut off the Allied armies from the rest of France with the Allied Forces trapped the British government executed a plan to evacuate the British French and Belgian soldiers from the port of dunker though over 300,000 soldiers were successfully evacuated it was a Hasty Affair and most equipment was left behind for German hands after the Dunkirk evacuation the Germans shifted their focus Southward the French army demoralized and disorganized was unable to mount a significant defense against the advancing German forces the French government declared Paris an open City to avoid its destruction and German forces entered Paris on June 14th without resistance in just 3 days France sought an Armistice at Hitler’s insistence it was signed in compen in the same Railway Carriage where the 198 Armistice had been signed the country was divided into a German occupied Zone in the North and the vishy regime a puppet authoritarian government in the South led by French World War I hero Marshall Philip peten Pen’s government dismantled the Democratic institutions of the French third Republic and established an authoritarian Arian regime peten assumed extensive powers and promoted a conservative nationalistic agenda under the slogan work family Fatherland in less than a year the Swift Blitz Greg attacks gave Hitler control of both Central and Western Europe now all that stood between Hitler and victory was the lonely island of Britain Winston Churchill became prime minister of the United Kingdom in May succeeding Neville Chamberlain who had lost the confidence of parliament due to his handling of the war an amphibious invasion was planned Operation Sea Lion in preparation for the assault the Luft vafa targeted shipping convoys and ports in the channel attempting to lure out the Royal Air Force but the RAF maintained its defensive posture avoiding heavy losses the German shifted to a new phase called eagle attack intensifying bombings on RAF airfields and Communications networks despite significant damage to airfields the RAF under Hugh daing managed to keep most of its airfields operational and continue to defend effectively thanks to the resilience of its Pilots ground Crews and the use of a new early warning device this was chain home a coastal radar system to mislead the Germans and others about the effectiveness of their radar Network the British circulated alternative EXP explanations for their success one such story was that British Pilots were consuming large quantities of carrots to improve their night vision diverting attention from the role of radar in detecting enemy aircraft the myth about eating carrots to help your vision persisted well after the war despite this the RAF was stretched thin and was at its Breaking Point guring ordered his bombers to begin night raides as well to put the nail in the coffin but on a night in mid- August a group of bombers went Wayward and hit London the first strike on a non-military Target the if hit back soon after striking Berlin in a rage Hitler ordered further attacks on London and other cities the blitz on London began in early September targeting both civilian areas and Industrial sites hoping to break civilian morale but all it did was give the weary I crucial time to recuperate by October 1940 it became clear that the Luft vaer had failed to achieve air superiority the Battle of Britain would die down and the focus of operation shifted to Nightly bombing raids continuing the blitz on London and other cities though tens of thousands of civilians were killed and millions of residences destroyed British morale did not break as Hitler had hoped by May 1941 the Luft vafer had largely abandoned its campaign against Britain as they prepared for another invasion in the East the Battle of Britain marked the first major defeat for Hitler’s military forces demonstrating that Germany could be resisted more than this it ensured that Britain remained a base for future Allied operations in Europe but Britain knew it couldn’t hold on to Europe alone and there was just one country left that could make the difference the United States had made a miraculous turnaround after the Great Depression thanks to the efforts of President Roosevelt who had just been reelected for a third term he and Churchill had written correspondence and became friends over their shared experiences in their respective navies though the American public remained firm in their neutrality the government shipped supplies to Britain over the Atlantic by May 1941 under the Lend leas act Roosevelt was supplying Britain China and later other Allied nations with food oil and military equipment at no charge but this became quite dangerous as the Germans used OTS to create a blockade around the aisles to starve Britain into submission though the Germans were instructed not to Target American ships some were struck accidentally lucky for Hitler public opinion in the United States still preferred neutrality for now musolini and the Italians aimed to expand their influence elsewhere in the Mediterranean Africa and the balans the Mediterranean had been dominated by Britain as a gateway to the Suz canal and their territories in Asia but melini’s claims of M nostrom or our sea meant the British had to be driven out Italy needed to keep their supply lines to Libya while the British needed Theirs to Egypt initial skirmishes remain inconclusive but that soon changed after a night in November 1940 the British launched an air raid at Tanto severely crippling several Italian battleships and weakening melini’s Naval power in March at the Battle of Cape matapan off the coast of Greece the Royal Navy sunk several more ships and the Italian Navy would cease to be a problem but Hitler decided to send men to Aid the Italians they had unsuccessfully been trying to capture the island of Malta a British colony and key to controlling the central Mediterranean the island endured intense bombing by the German and Italian Air Forces but despite being heavily damaged it held out due to resupply efforts and the resilience of its Defenders it remained a vital base for disrupting axis supply lines to North Africa this was crucial as the Italians had opened a new campaign in the region in September 1940 Italian forces launched an invasion into Egypt hoping to seize the British controlled sewers Canal they made it to Sidi bani a small coastal town in December the British launched operation Compass a counter offensive to push back the Italians commanded by General Richard aonor British and Commonwealth forces swiftly defeated the Italians capturing key positions like bardia and T by February 1941 the British had Advanced deep into Libya taking Benghazi and capturing tens of thousands of Italian troops to support the faltering Italian forces Hitler sent the Africa core led by General Owen rumel to North Africa in February rumel quickly regained the initiative launching a series of counterattacks and retaking much of the territory lost to the British as the British were driven back to the border of Egypt the Africa core cut off an Australian Le Garrison in the Libyan Port of T Brook rumel laid Siege to the city as the Garrison took up defensive positions underground and in caves earning them the moniker of the Rats of T Brook it came to be taken as a badge of Pride they held out for over 7 months before being relieved by the British in the east African campaign Italian forces initially gained ground but a determined Allied country offensive including troops from South Africa India and East African colonies recaptured key territories in Eritrea and Ethiopia leading to the restoration of Emperor Hy salasi the Italians also initiated attacks in the borans they had already annexed Albania in 1939 and in October 1940 musolini launched an invasion of Greece from his puppet state The Invasion quickly stalled and the Greek army mounted a successful counter offensive pushing the Italians back into Albania frustrated by Italy’s failure and concerned about the Strategic implications Hitler decided to intervene Yugoslavia had initially attempted to remain neutral but a coup in March brought a pro-british government to power in response Germany along with Italian and Hungarian forces invaded Yugoslavia and quickly dismembered the country partitioning it among the Axis powers and their allies following the invasion of Yugoslavia German forces turned their attention to Greece despite Fierce resistance from Greek and British Commonwealth forces Athens also fell creit was invaded in May through a massive Airborne assault and the region was secured for the axis now the Germans turned their focus back to the east to fulfill Hitler’s ultimate goal of the destruction of the Soviet Union he aimed to conquer vast territories in the East to secure land and resources for the German people despite still being allies on paper the fer viewed the Soviet Union as a Bastian of judeo bolshevism and a major ideological enemy believing that the destruction of the Soviet state would eliminate the threat of Communism and solidify Nazi dominance in Europe This operation was originally named Operation Otto after the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire but Hitler praised yet another according to Legend Frederick Barbarosa one of the great leaders of medieval Europe did not die on his journey to the Crusades but was instead sleeping in a hidden Cavern and would one day awaken to restore Germany to Greatness Hitler invoked the legend and symbolism associated with the emperor to inspire and legitimize his grand plan so the invasion was named after him operation barbar Rosser aimed for a rapid and decisive Victory the Red Army was bigger and a prolonged War would only make things harder for the Germans though scheduled for the spring the operation had to be postponed because of the troubles in the borans but Hitler had no doubts the giant would fall as long as they were hit quickly over its course operation Barbarosa saw the deployment of around 3.8 million military personnel and over 3,000 tanks and a aircraft it was to be the largest Invasion force in history the Luft vaa began with extensive bombing raids on Soviet airfields destroying much of the Soviet Air Force on the ground and providing air superiority for all advancing units the invasion was divided into three main thrusts Army group South mve towards Ukraine aiming to capture Kiev and secure the rich Agricultural and Industrial regions Army Group North Advanced towards Leningrad now sent Petersburg to capture the city and secure the northern flank an army group Center targeted Moscow aiming for a quick and decisive blow to the Soviet leadership and infrastructure the initial stages of the invasion saw rapid advances by German forces using Blitz Greek tactics to encircle and Destroy large Soviet formations the Luft varer attacked simultaneously and quick dominated the skies Stalin responded by issuing a scorched Earth policy instructing Soviets and Farmers to destroy any infrastructure or resources that could be useful to the Germans as well as calling for total mobilization for the war effort key cities such as Minsk and smolin were captured by Army group Center setting them up to march on Moscow but instead of continuing towards the capital Hitler ordered them to Aid Army group South in Ukraine first in Ukraine German armies were greeted as liberators freed from Soviet oppression Army group South then continued towards the crimine peninsula and laid Siege to sevastopol aided by their massive 80 cm Railway gun the heavy Gustav within a few months Crimea 2 was theirs in the meantime Army Group North had reached Leningrad The Siege was one of the longest and most devast stating in history enduring for 872 days the city faced severe shortages of food and fuel there was immense suffering and deaths of an estimated 1 million civilians from starvation exposure and shelling despite the dire conditions Leningrad Defenders and residents showed remarkable resilience maintaining the city’s defense against German and Finnish fighters by October 1941 Army group Center was closing in on Moscow but logistical issues stretched supply lines thin the Autumn rains caused what the Russians called Rasputia the season of Bad roads relying on a swift Advance the Germans were sucked into a muddy Quagmire and it delayed their Advance just enough for another Soviet Ally to come to their aid winter had come early transport Vehicles stalled in freezing temperatures and some officers wanted wanted to wait until spring to resume the attack but in December the Soviets received reinforcements primarily consisting of well-trained and well equipped divisions from the Soviet Far East and Siberia they launched a major counter offensive pushing the Germans back from the outskirts of Moscow and the advance was halted but the question remained whether this was enough to win the Eastern Front perhaps Hitler needed more allies by mid 1941 Hitler was already allied with Italy and a number of Balan States but the most consequential Ally Came From The Far East in 1940 the Empire of Japan joined the Axis powers Through The tripartite Pact this Alliance further emboldened Japan’s militaristic Ambitions in the Pacific the same year they occupied Northern French Indochina to cut off supplies to Chinese forces this move alarmed the United United States and other Western Powers as it signaled Japan’s intent for Domination in 1941 Japan’s expansion reached a critical juncture the US imposed economic sanctions and an oil embargo aiming to curb its aggression facing a crippling shortage of resources Japanese leaders decided to strike against Western Colonial powers in Southeast Asia and the Pacific to secure the necessary supplies this was done under the guise of liberating southeast Asia from Western imperialism Japan planned a quick strike hoping to eliminate American presence and forc them to acknowledge Japanese hegemony in the Pacific on December 7th 1941 Japan struck launching a surprise attack on the US Naval Base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii it was planned for 8:00 a.m. on a Sunday just as the Americans were either relaxing or enjoying the Sun but soon soon that same Sun turned blood red waves of Japanese aircraft including bombers torpedo planes and Fighters descended upon the unsuspecting base within the span of 2 hours they Unleashed devastating blows on American battleships destroyers and aircraft over 2,400 Americans were killed including a small number of civilians the attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States fully into World War II soon after the US declaration of war on Japan Hitler claiming Roosevelt was controlled by the Eternal Jew declared war on the United States by the end of 1941 Britain was alone no longer but United with the Soviet Union and United States as the Allies but still on the front foot a series of Rapid Japanese conquests across the Pacific followed they soon seized Hong Kong the Philippines British Burma and Malaya Singapore the Dutch East Indies and numerous Pacific Islands establishing a vast Empire stretching from the uan islands in the north to New Guinea in the South American General Douglas MacArthur stationed in the Philippines was ordered to evacuate but he vowed to return in Japan prime minister hiedi Tojo celebrated as the emperor looked on but their attack on the US Pacific Fleet wasn’t as crippling as they had hoped ships were bombed or sunk in the shallow Waters of the harbor and were retrievable and their aircraft carriers the USS Enterprise Lexington and Saratoga were all absent during the attack and remained unscathed soon the Stars once scattered and distant would converge to eclipse the sun over the course of the war the German home front was marked by extensive mobilization in an increasingly oppressive regime but Hitler knew domestic morale was Paramount if he was to avoid the mistakes of the first world war he relied on his Blitz Greg strategy to strike quickly so less ammunition needed to be produced this kept production of consumer goods high once he occupied a new territory he would use those materials instead of those from the home front as the war continued Hitler continued to build his Nazi New Order his vision for a restructured Europe under the dominance of Nazi Germany built on a foundation of racial hierarchy and totalitarian control his concept of laams real or living space was coming together as Germany had now acquired vast territories in Eastern Europe to provide land and resources for the German population the general plan a a secret Nazi plan detailed the resettlement of millions of Germans in these conquered territories with the ultimate goal of germanize the region and securing its resources the New Order also involved the extensive use of foreign labor to support the German war effort and economy millions of civilians from occupied countries were forcibly conscripted into labor working in harsh and often brutal conditions in German Industries farms and infrastructure projects these foreign workers were essential to maintaining Germany’s production level while the German men were fighting on the front lines in Eastern Europe the Nazi occupation was particularly brutal the implementation of General plan a involved Mass expulsions executions and the destruction of entire communities to make way for German settlers the hunger plan aimed to starve millions of slaves by redirecting Food Supplies to Germany causing widespread famine and suffering the einat’s group and mobile killing units followed the German Army’s Advance Eastward conducting mass shootings of Jews Communists and other targeted groups Jews were rounded up and forced to live in urban ghettos in the major cities until they could figure out how to be dealt with at the van conference in January 1942 the Germans formalized the final solution the plan to systematically annihilate the Jewish population of Europe Heinrich himler commander of the SS thought bullets became too costly and too slow to use so they turned to gas this was part of one of the most horrific aspects of the Nazi New Order the Holocaust the systematic genocide of 6 million Jews and millions of others including Romani people disabled individuals political dissidents and other minority groups deemed undesirable by the regime six extermination camps were set up in Poland alongside work camps where Jews from all over Europe were sent men went to the work camps and worked to death while the old the women and children straight to the gas Chambers despite the severe repression an active resistance movement emerged in Poland the home Army was the largest resistance organization conducting sabotage intelligence gathering and Guerilla Warfare against the Germans the war ghetto was established in November 1940 it was one of the largest ghettos in Nazi occupied Europe with more than 400,000 Jews crammed into a small area of the city many residents were deported to extermination camps in response to the mass deportations and the horrific conditions resistance groups formed within the ghetto the two primary groups were the Jewish combat organization and the Jewish military Union their most significant Act of resistance occurred in April 1943 the day before the Jewish holiday of Passover as the Germans launched a final operation to liquidate the ghetto Jewish Fighters launched a coordinated attack against the German forces using homemade weapons smuggled firearms and Molotov cocktails despite being vastly outnumbered and outgunned the Jewish Fighters employed Guerilla tactics utilized the ghetto underground bunkers and tunnels the German forces responded with overwhelming Force systematically destroying buildings and set the ghetto on fire the uprising officially ended after a month on May 16th when the Germans declared Victory and blew up the great synagogue of warsa as a symbolic act by this time much of the ghetto was in Ruins and the remaining Fighters and residents were either killed or captured the Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia was brutal in its own right Japan aimed to extract the Region’s Rich natural resources like rubber oil and rice to support its war effort this involved reorganizing occupied territories for maximum production and forcing millions of locals into labor politically Japan established military governments to enforce strict control replacing Colonial administrations and promoting the idea of the greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere to gain local support culturally Japan attempted to impose its language and traditions using schools and media for propaganda while suppressing local Customs the occupation saw numerous Japanese war crimes and atrocities including massacres summary executions and the forced conscription of women as comfort women for Japanese troops Force labor on the Burma Thailand Railway resulted in tens of thousands of deaths due to malnutrition disease and mistreatment despite these harsh conditions resistance movements emerged across southeast Asia engaging in Guerilla Warfare sabotage and covert operations in the Philippines the hukbalahap guerillas fought against the Japanese while in Malaya The malan People’s anti-japanese Army played a significant role resistance movements often United diverse ethnic and political grp groups such as the cooperation between communist and nationalist factions in the Vietnamese resistance led by the vietman initially Japan’s early victories in Southeast Asia and the Pacific bolstered National confidence the government led by prime minister hiedi Tojo employed extensive propaganda to foster a sense of unity and purpose among the populace the government instituted strict rationing of food Fuel and other Essentials to support the military and the public was encouraged to conserve resources and contribute to war efforts through campaigns such as metal collection drives in the Soviet Union the battle on the home front was known as The Great Patriotic War when Germany launched operation Barbarosa in June 1941 the Soviet Union suffered significant territorial losses and massive actuations with millions of citizens and key Industrial Enterprises relocated to the east this led to the centralization of the Soviet War economy overseen by the state defense committee which redirected all resources toward military production factories were dismantled and reassembled beyond the Ural Mountains ensuring continued production despite the proximity of the front lines during the war industrial output increased remarkably under the Soviet labor force which included women children and the elderly despite the these efforts Soviet civilians faced severe rationing and scarcity of food clothing and essential supplies housing and infrastructure were destroyed by bombing raids and battles forcing many to live in inadequate and overcrowded conditions to maintain morale and Foster a sense of patriotism the Soviet government launched extensive propaganda campaigns posters films radio broadcasts and newspapers highlighted Soviet heroism and unity against the fascist Invaders the stanite movement was promoted to encourage extraordinary productivity among workers while cultural mobilization saw writers artists and musicians contributing to the war effort through their work following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 which prompted the US entry into the war the nation swiftly transformed its economy to meet the demands of a global conflict the federal government played a crucial role in directing the war effort agencies such as the war production board and the office of War mobilization coordinated the conversion of peacetime Industries to wartime production this shift led to an unprecedented increase in industrial output with the US producing more war materials than any other Allied Nation the labor force expanded to meet the demands of wartime production millions of men enlisted in the armed forces leading to labor shortages that were filled by women and minority workers over a million black Americans and other minorities left the rural South to industrial cities in the north although they continued to face discrimination and segregation the double V campaign sought Victory against fascism abroad and racism at home highlighting the ongoing struggle for civil rights women to entered the workforce in large numbers taking on roles in factories shipyards and offices the iconic figure of Rosie the Riveter symbolized the vital contributions of female workers the government introduced rationing programs for food gasoline Rubber and other essential materials to ensure that enough resources were available for the military Victory Gardens were promoted as patriotic duties while scrap driv supplemented the supply of materials war bonds were sold to finance the war effort and prop Ganda campaigns encouraged Americans to invest in these bonds to support the troops in the west of the country over 100,000 Japanese Americans the majority born in the United States were imprisoned in what were called interment camps despite the Loyalty of many Japanese Americans to the United States this policy driven by wartime hysteria remains a dark chapter in US history though the claims were that the Japanese could have been wor working for the axis Italian and German Americans were not given the same treatment the rationale was that it was simply easier to trust those of Italian or German Heritage but America did have Nazi sympathizers the Bund was a pro-nazi organization founded in 1936 promoting Nazi ideology including anti-Semitism and supported Adolf Hitler’s regime in Germany one of their most infamous events was a r at Madison Square Garden in New York City on February 20th 1939 which attracted around 20,000 participants and featured anti-semitic speeches and propaganda following the United States entry into the war the US government cracked down on the Bund and it went into decline in the realm of Science and Technology a letter from physicists Albert Einstein and Leo silar to President Roosevelt warned about the potential for Germany to develop a devast daating new weapon in response the Manhattan Project a top secret initiative was forly established in 1942 and brought together some of the greatest scientific minds and the result would be nuclear though the Americans entered the war it was not as desperate a situation as in 1917 and victory for Germany was still very much in the cards though it looked dire for the Allies they finally brought about a series series of crucial victories which shifted the momentum of the war by mid 1943 the Allies had gained the upper hand in the battle of the Atlantic as sustained Allied offensives against ubot bases and production facilities further weakened the German submarine Fleet in the North African campaign neither side could overpower the other an exasperated Churchill then visited Egypt and gave Regional command to Harold Alexander and command of the eighth Army to General Bernard Montgomery a few months later in October the British and Germans clashed once more at L alamen this time the Allies were aided by the arrival of new Sherman tanks sent from the United States Montgomery then chased rumel through Libya as the German Commander retreated to Tunisia this was the Allies first major victory that broke the stalemate marking a turning point in North Africa following this the first mass of American troops entered the war their first mission was Operation Torch this was a major Allied amphibious assault involving Landings in French North Africa in early to mid November General Dwight D Eisenhower was appointed as the supreme commander of the Allied Forces for the operation though French North Africa was nominally under control of the vishi regime the soldiers including many Moroccans and algerians fought alongside the Allies the successful Landings combined with subsequent advances trapped axis forces in a Piner movement between the Allied Forces advancing from the west and the British eth army pushing from the East leading to the eventual surrender of axis forces in Tunisia in May 1943 thereby ending the North African campaign meanwhile on the Eastern Front Hitler shifted Focus to the South sending an army to secure the oil fields of the Caucasus and another to capture Stalingrad an important industrial city housing factories that produced military equipment Stalingrad was also a key position to secure the northern flank of the advancing German armies moving towards the Caucasus from August 23rd 1942 the Battle of Stalingrad was one of the deadliest and most crucial battles of the war it quickly devolved into intense Urban Warfare with Soviet forces employing a strategy of Close Quarters combat to counter the German Superior Firepower but the Germans captured key positions in the city and reached the vulga the vulga river was essential for moving oil from the Caucasus to other parts of the Soviet Union despite severe losses the Soviets managed to keep pockets of resistance within the city while Soviet General jukov amassed an Army on the other side of the vulga the turning point came with a massive Soviet counter offensive launched in November 1942 which aimed to encircle the German Army by attacking the weaker Romanian Hungarian and Italian forces on the flanks this successful maneuver trapped General paulus and approximately 300,000 German and axis troops inside Stalingrad the encircled German forces were ordered by Hitler to hold their ground but in the face of harsh winter conditions dwindling Supply and Relentless Soviet attacks the situation had become desperate General Paulis surrendered on January 31st and the remaining German forces capitulated on February 2nd the Battle of Stalingrad is sometimes regarded as the deadliest battle in all human history with estimates of up to 3 million casualties total this defeat marked the first major loss for the German Army and significantly weakened their forces on the Eastern Front this momentum was further solidified by the Battle of KK in July and August 1943 the largest tank battle in history the Soviets relied on their t-34s the backbone of their Armed Forces but the Germans upgraded their own Panza tanks introducing the panther a counter to the Soviet tanks and the tiger one capable of destroying any Allied tank at long range but despite the extensive Firepower this battle would not be won through strength but intelligence the British had shared decrypted German Enigma codes with the Soviets and they were well aware of the German plans the Red Army constructed extensive defensive lines including multiple layers of minefields anti-tank ditches barbed wire trenches and fortified bunkers after withstanding the German assault the Soviet counter offensive established air superiority and picked off the German tanks the Soviet victory at K thwarted the last major German offensive on the Eastern Front following the attack on Pearl Harbor Japan sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the Pacific thereby securing its dominance in the region the Japanese aimed to lure American aircraft carriers into a trap and Destroy them thereby solidifying their control over the Pacific US Navy cryptanalysts have had broken Japanese Naval codes and were aware of the planned attack on the island of Midway allowing Admiral Chester Nimitz to prepare an ambush the battle primarily involved aircraft launched from carriers the US had three against Japan’s four on June 4th Japanese aircraft bombarded Midway Island but American planes launched from their carriers found and attacked the Japanese Fleet American dive bombers in a a series of well-coordinated strikes managed to hit and syn three Japanese carriers in quick succession the fourth carrier was later found and destroyed Japanese Pilots ran out of fuel and only the ocean was there to greet them the Battle of Midway was a decisive victory for the United States the Japanese carrier fleet was depleted and Japanese expansion in the Pacific was halted Shifting the balance of Naval power to the allies this was Japan’s first major defeat and stalled their expansion the Allies primarily made up of US Marines then went on the offensive their first Target was guad canal in the Solomon Island where a Japanese Airbase posed a direct threat to the US Australia and New Zealand the Marines landed on August 7th 1942 capturing the Airfield that was still under construction control of the Airfield was fiercely contested with several major battles and repeated Japanese offensives to retake it both sides fa challenges in maintaining supply lines and reinforcing their troops both sides also had to deal with crippling disease but the allies with better Logistics and air superiority gradually gained the upper hand the successful Allied campaign at guadal Canal marked the beginning of a series of of offensive operations that pushed Japanese forces back across the Pacific the Battle of Midway and the guad canal campaign were critical turning points in the Pacific War the Teran Conference held from November 28th to December 1st 1943 was the first Major meeting between the big three Allied Leaders Roosevelt Churchill and Stalin it took place in the Iranian capital and focused on coordinating the military strategy against the Axis powers the primary military objective was to plan the opening of a second front in Western Europe which led to the agreement on Operation Overlord the Allied invasion of Normandy Additionally the leaders discussed the future of Easter Europe with Stalin emphasizing Soviet security concerns and seeking recognition of Soviet influence in the region particularly Poland the conference also laid the groundwork to establish an international organization to replace the failed League of Nations and maintain peace and security after the war following the defeat of axis forces in North Africa the Allies turned their attention to Italy there were two major routes to Invasion either through Sardinia or through Sicily the Allies decided to go up through Sicily they tricked the Germans dumping the corpse of a homeless man off the shore disguised as a Royal Marines officer with papers claiming the Invasion would instead be through Sardinia but that the Allies would fake an attack on Sicily the invasion of Sicily itself codenamed operation husky began in July because of the deception the island was easily captured by the next month opening the Mediterranean for Allied Shipping and Paving the way for the invasion of Mainland Italy the fall of Sicily led to a crisis in Italy Bonito musolini was deposed and arrested Marshall Petro bolio assumed power and began secret negotiations with the Allies in September the British eth army under General Montgomery crossed the straight of MSA and landed in Calabria followed by the main Landings at saleno in September Italy officially surrendered to the Allies but German forces quickly moved to disarm Italian troops and take control of key positions continuing the fight against the Allies despite Fierce German resistance reinforcements and Naval gunfire support helped secure the beach head concurrent with The saleno Landings British forces conducted operation slapstick landing at the Port of Tanto in southern Italy and encountering Little Resistance the German defensive line known as the Gustav line ran across Italy and included the stronghold at Monte Casino the Allies launched several assaults on Monte Casino between January and Main 1944 facing intense German resistance the town and the historic Benedictine Monastery were heavily bombed and destroyed during the battle but in May polish and other Allied troops succeeded in capturing the hilltop breaking through the Gustav line concurrently to bypass the Gustav line the Allies conducted an amphibious landing at anzio just south of Rome on January 22nd initially The Landings were successful but the subsequent Advanced sters German forces launched strong counterattacks leading to a protracted and bloody struggle the Allies eventually broke out of the anzio beach head in May following the Breakthrough at Monte casino and anio Allied Forces Advanced towards Rome which was liberated on June 4th 1944 after the fall of Rome the Allies continued their Advance northward encountering strong German defensive positions along the gothic line despite harsh conditions and fierce resistance they pushed through and captured Florence and bolognia by 1945 the Allies had achieved victory in Italy musolini was shot and killed by Italian partisans and his corpse strung upside down in Milan in planning for the invasion of Nazi occupied Europe the Western allies led by the United States the United Kingdom and Canada developed a strategy to open a western front to relieve pressure on the Soviet Union and push towards Germany Churchill and Roosevelt met and agreed on a time and place the code name for the operation would be Overlord it would eventually be set for summer 1944 the Germans had built a series of fortifications along the shoreline covering the beaches with mines barbed wire an artillery Hitler had anticipated an invasion on the European Mainland but could do little without knowing where or when the Ally settled on one of two locations the shortest distance from Britain pad Cal or the beaches of Normandy as pad Cal was the most obvious choice Normandy was chosen as The Invasion point the British came up with ingenious devices to swiftly break through the German fortifications including machines to destroy mines and barbed wire create firm pathing clearing ditches and building makeshift Bridges to deceive the Germans the Allies built up a completely fake army unit in Kent just across from pad cal part of a deceptive planning operation called bodyguard American Dwight Eisenhower was given the Supreme command of the Allied Forces for The Invasion after a short postponement the first Allied plane flew over Normandy on June 6th 1944 soon Allied ships emerged from the night Mists as well around 156,000 Allied troops landed on five beaches Utah Omaha gold Juno and sword despite rough weather and fierce resistance particularly at Omaha Beach the Allies established Beach heads and began their Advance Inland by the end of June over 850,000 had landed at Normandy in desperation Hitler struck back by attacking civilian sites in Britain with a new weapon this was the first of a new series of cruise missiles fittingly called Vengeance the first of these was a flying bomb called the Vengeance weapon one or V1 they had to be fired from the shorelines in northern France buzzing into London and exploding in unpredictable locations situated on the shorelines these were soon dismantled after the Allied invasion but on the heels of the V1 was the much more potent V2 capable of reaching Britain from much further away these remained a problem until the Allies pushed the German lines back enough until they were out of range that summer the Americans Head West to secure chair Borg in the meantime British and Canadians launched a series of operations to capture the city of KH though the British were repeatedly repelled they eventually took the city by the end of July but stiff German resistance meant they couldn’t continue any further luckily the intense battle served as a distraction and allowed American troops to execute their breakout in the west operation Cobra soon the Americans found out and encircled the Germans in a pocket near the town of FILA an estimated 10,000 German soldiers were killed and 40 to 50,000 captured and the Allies had won Normandy in the meantime in southern France another Landing was conducted operation Dragon the operation began with an amphibious assault on the French Riviera The Landings involved a combined force of American free French and British troops supported by Naval and air bombardments the German forces in the region were caught off guard and quickly overwhelmed the Allies encountered relatively light resistance enabling a rapid Advance Inland Marse and tulon were liberated by the end of August with French forces playing a significant role in these operations by summer 1944 the Allies in the north reached Paris German forces in the city had their hands busy with the French Resistance and Paris was liberated quickly as the Germans disobeyed Hitler’s orders and surrendered The Liberation of France paved the way for the establishment of the provisional government of the French Republic led by General Charles deal it restored French sovereignty and laid the foundation for post-war reconstruction and the Fourth Republic the elderly Philip peten hero of the first world war who turned Nazi collaborationist was tried for treason and spent the rest of his days imprisoned back in the East the German sense of inevit able Victory had eroded after Stalingrad Hitler wasn’t the same and some even noticed differences in his appearance due to a stark decline in both physical and mental health some even believed he had been replaced with a lookalike Dr Theodore Morel Hitler’s personal physician documented many of Hitler’s symptoms which were seemingly consistent with Parkinson’s disease Morel prescribed dozens of medication to Hitler throughout the war in including methamphetamine barbituates opiates and cocaine ey drops Joseph gal’s Declaration of Total War called for the full mobilization of all resources and the population to support the war effort under Albert spar’s Direction Germany’s war production peaked despite the growing strain from Allied bombing campaigns from 1943 onwards the Allied strategic bombing campaigns brought severe destruction to German cities leading to significant civilian casualties and displacement cities like Hamburg Berlin and Dron were targeted to disrupt industrial production Transportation networks and civilian morale though the Germans updated their radar networks during the war the bombers launched bursts of aluminum strips to jam their radar but it wasn’t long before the Germans counted it and there was stalemate once more American bombers like the B17 Flying Fortress were more accurate than the British night bombers so preferred to attack strategic German infrastructure but the British with less accurate bombers resorted to a strategy of carpet bombing both the British and Americans conducted a particularly devastating bombing at Dron that winter over 1,200 bombers dropped incendiary bombs that created a firestorm destroying much of the city and killing an estimated 25 to 35,000 people the bombings left German cities in Ruins and displaced Millions but for all the Death nothing was accomplished and it gave the Germans a new rallying call against the enemy but not everyone stood by the fura many high-ranking officers in the German military including members of the general staff were disillusioned with his leadership they believed that his refusal to listen to military advice and his insistence on holding untenable positions were leading Germany to ruin they believed that removing Hitler was necessary to restore Germany’s Honor on July 20th 1944 during a meeting at the wol slair headquarters in East Prussia Claus Von Stenberg an army officer placed a bomb in a briefcase near Hitler the bomb exploded but due to a heavy oak table Hitler was shielded from the full force of the blast he survived with minor injuries Not only was the furer still alive he used the event to justify purges and tighten his grip on the military and government rumel The Desert Fox became implicated and forced to commit suicide meanwhile Allied Forces liberated much of Belgium and Luxembourg in the late summer and fall of 1944 but the liberation of Western Europe continued with operation Market Garden in September and ambitious plan to capture bridges in the Netherlands and create a pathway into Germany from the north by passing the German defensive line and finishing the war by Christmas although it failed to achieve its ultimate goal of a swift entry into Germany the Allies gained some strategic territory in the Netherlands which helped facilitate subsequent operations in the region in December 1944 Germany launched a counter offensive in the Aden intending to split the Allied lines to to capture the vital Port of antp and encircle and Destroy several Allied armies the Allies were taken completely off guard the initial German assault achieved significant success penetrating deep into the Allied lines and creating a large outward protrusion or bulge in the front line this bulge extended Westward through the Arden forest and into Belgium giving the battle its name initially it seemed like Hitler’s gamble would pay off but as the weather improved the Allies were able to bring their air superiority to bear attacking supply lines enemy troops and armored units supply lines were already overextended and the Germans didn’t have enough fuel to sustain the offensive the Germans failed to achieve their strategic objectives and were pushed back but this battle which lasted until January 1945 was the largest and bloodiest battle fought by the United States in this war on the Eastern Front the Soviet Union had turned the tide against the Germans at the battles of Stalingrad and K by the end of the year the Soviets executed the neocar paean offensive to retake Ukraine and other Eastern European territories as the Germans retreated they to scorched the Earth destroying railroads Bridges and other infrastructure to hamper the Soviet advance but by November the Soviets recaptured Kiev pushing the Germans out of Ukraine and towards Romania and Poland Stalin was able to turn his attention towards the north where Leningrad was still under blockade and the population starving after a Siege of 2 and a/2 years Leningrad former capital of Russia was finally liberated soon after the Soviets had also retaken Crimea in June 1944 Stalin launched operation Ron named after pea Barron a Russian general during the Napoleonic Wars like Stalin he was also of Georgian origin with the Germans now fighting on two fronts against three formidable foes the Germans began losing ground in the east at a record Pace German Army group Center was destroyed and the Soviets recaptured much of bellarus and parts of Poland pushing Westward to the Vistula River by late summer as the Red Army rolled on they uncovered the first ghastly SES of the Nazi extermination camps in Poland there is evidence the Allies had knowledge of the Holocaust prior to this but the full scale could not have been known nearby in wara the Polish resistants attempted to liberate the city from the German occupation despite being nearby the Soviet Red Army did not provide assistance the Polish home Army was anti-communist so for Stalin it was better to let enemy clash with Enemy by October the Germans regrouped and defeated the Polish home Army destroying the city and mass murdering up to 200,000 civilians during the wait the Red Army shifted their goals North capturing the Baltic states and South to spread communism to the balans here lay the axis allies of Romania Bulgaria and the States from the partitioned Yugoslavia Romania was the first to fall as the Red Army captured Bucharest and secured its oil production next red armies marched on Bulgaria and Yugoslavia as German troops in Greece retreated to avoid being surrounded by late 1944 the Soviets had moved into most of the Baltic states the balans and Poland creating their communist buffer State between them and Germany in the Pacific the Japanese still reigned supreme but after Midway and guadal Canal the tide shifted the Allied strategy in the Pacific known as island hopping aimed to bypass heavily fortified Japanese positions and capture strategically important Islands the strategy aimed to isolate and bypass heavily fortified Japanese positions facilitating the Allies Advance toward the Philippines and ultimately Japan operation cartwheel launched in mid1 194 3 with the primary goal of neutralizing the significant Japanese base on New Britain Island near Papua New Guinea the operation consisted of two main phases the seizure of the central Solomons including new Georgia and Bugan Ville and advances in New Guinea soon the majority of the Marshall Islands were also captured the next Island Hop was to the maranas at the Battle of sapan in summer 194 4 the Americans aimed to secure the Mariana Islands as a base to launch bombing raids straight at the Japanese Homeland the location was also crucial in blocking Japan from their colonies in Southeast Asia the Japanese High command recognized the American Invasion as a direct threat to the Japanese Homeland and launched a counter offensive this culminated in a major Fleet engagement at the Battle of the Philippine Sea in which the Imperial Navy hoped to destroy a significant portion of US aircraft carriers this encounter resulted in a decisive and lopsided victory for the United States allowing the Allies to capture the Mariana soon after with the near tootal destruction of their carriers the Japanese could no longer conduct large-scale air operations instead of moving on to the next Island Taiwan the Americans decided on liberating the Philippines from Japan first after all General MacArthur had made his promise to return 3 years earlier in late October 1944 American troops landed on Le in the East and quickly secured the island but the Japanese attempted a Counterattack resulting in one of the largest naval battles in history the battle resulted in the near complete destruction of the Imperial Japanese Navy as an effective fighting force these losses were Irreplaceable for Japan which struggled with depleted resources and Industrial capacity this battle also marked the first organized use of the Divine win special attack unit or kamakazi these were Japanese volunteers who brought back the old sense of Japanese honor pledging to die in a blaze of glory in order to help the empire in a desperate gamble to stop the Fearsome US Navy kamakazi units would fly their aircraft into American warships causing a great explosion kamakazi attacks also occurred on land as the Japanese strapped bonds to themselves and launched their bodies underneath American tanks the Battle of L would last another 2 months before the Americans secured the entire Island soon American troops landed on the main island and marched towards the capital of Manila the Japanese remained in the city and fought to the death once a beautiful city the the historic Capital was reduced to Rubble while over 100,000 civilians were killed it Remains the largest urban battle fought by the United States the battle for the Philippines was one but the cost was high Japan was now in Allied sites but how would they invade the yelta Conference held in February 1945 in crier was a crucial meeting between Roosevelt Churchill and Stalin as the war neared its end Britain and the United States were encroaching from the West while the Soviets from the East and it was clear Germany had no recourse the focus shifted from strategy to post-war reconstruction and the political reorganization of Europe the leaders agreed to divide Germany into occupation zones controlled by the United States the United Kingdom the Soviet Union and France with Berlin also divided into different sectors discussions about the political future of Eastern Europe were extensive as the Americans again championed a nation’s self-determination while the Soviets wanted more territory within their sphere of influence Roosevelt also asked Stalin for military assistance against the Japanese in the east in exchange for territories on the coast and railroad rights in manua the structure and function of a new organization was developed which would later become the United Nations but Roosevelt would not live to see it back in Western Europe the Allies had assembled on the Rind with a ticket to Germany Hitler had ordered all the bridges to be destroyed using the Rin as his last natural defense but as American armies explored the South they were astonished to find the ludendorf bridge still intact as the demolition failed to destroy the bridge completely seizing the moment American troops quickly moved to cross the bridge over the Ry the bridge finally collapsed on March 17th but by then the Allies had established a strong position across the river American General George Patton also conducted a quick nighttime Crossing in the south facing minimal resistance it came just a day before the British Crossing reportedly to take some of the luster from it as intense rivalries brewed between Montgomery and American generals Montgomery’s Crossing was further north from the Netherlands where the rhyme was much wider so the famous king of set peace operations prepared a meticulous three army assault including bombers paratroopers and artillery the Germans fought back ferociously knocking gliders out of the air but the crossing enabled the 21st Army group to push into the ruer industrial Heartland of Germany back in the East the Soviet Steamroller continued their capture of Poland and then split its forces one group raced West towards Berlin while another went South towards Hungary and another rolled into East Prussia to the north as they blitzed across Poland they uncovered and liberated the awit extermination camp bringing to light the full extent of the Holocaust as the Red Army crossed into Germany it created mass panic and with good cause as they moved West the Soviets committed atrocities of their own including the target of civilians and refugees and the shipment of Germans back to the Soviet Union to work in labor camps to the South the Red Army had easily taken Hungary and was moving north towards Vienna the Austrian Capital prior to annexation Germany was now thoroughly surrounded and the final offensive against Berlin was about to begin instead of a straight Dash towards the capital the Allies could not afford the losses a direct attack would bring and con cated on capturing strategic locations in western and southern Germany such as the ruer industrial region as the Americans advance to the South the Canadian first Army part of Montgomery’s British Army group launched operations to liberate the remaining areas of the Netherlands in the north and west as the news tightened Hitler became increasingly more erratic and confined to the funker beneath the Reich chancell as Berlin braced for its inevitable fall the allies found themselves mourning the loss of a towering figure while sitting for a portrait President Franklin Roosevelt suffered from a terrible headache he was carried to his bedroom and doctors were immediately summoned but the immense stress and workload of leading the nation through the war took a significant toll on his health President Roosevelt had suffered a stroke and passed away on the afternoon of April 12th his over 12 years in office is Testament to why he is widely regarded as one of the greatest American Presidents but the death of the leader of one of the three major Allied Powers gave Hitler a small sense of hope but by mid April the Soviets had destroyed it the Berlin suburbs were attacked from the south by General Ki while Zuko’s Army in the East started shelling the city on April 20th Hitler’s birthday Stalin deliberately encouraged competition between the two Marshals suggesting that the first to reach Berlin would receive the most Glory it only took 5 days for them to encircle the city as the Western armies continued pushing East the Americans and Soviets finally met at the river Elba it was a momentous occasion as soldiers from very different worlds celebrated a moment of warmth and solidarity If Only They knew as they clasped hands in unity that the very German ground beneath their boots would soon become the fault line of a divided World German forces including remnants of the Army and the SS along with local militias and Hitler Youth units mounted A desperate defense combat was brutal a soldiers fought from house to house and Street to Street the German Defenders were vastly outnumbered and outgunned the rice stack building was captured by Soviet troops and the red flag hoisted for all to see Adolf Hitler confined to the fur bunker beneath the chancell was helpless on April 30th 1945 as Soviet troops closed in Hitler knowing the end was near committed suicide he’s unwavering final statement denouncing International jury Eva Brawn his longtime mistress and wife of just a day died alongside him with their dog Blondie a German Shepherd propag Ganda Minister Geral committed suicide with his wife Magda after poisoning their six children Magda so praised the fura that all her children had names that began with the letter H Germany surrendered unconditionally on May 7th 1945 at Supreme Allied Commander Eisenhower’s headquarters in France marking the end of the war in Europe to satisfy the Soviet demand for a more formal surrender process a second surrender ceremony was held in Berlin a day later hostility ceased as of midnight on May 8th which became victory in Europe day upon the announcement of Germany surrender celebrations erupted in Allied countries people took to the streets in cities across the United States the United Kingdom and other Allied Nations celebrating the end of the war in Europe and the defeat of Nazi Germany now was the time to rebuild back in Asia the war still raged on on the Southeast Asian mainland the Allies including British Indian Chinese and American forces launched several counter offensives from 1943 to 1945 during the Burma campaign earlier in the war the Japanese had captured rangon severing the Burma Road a vital Supply route to the Chinese forced to retreat to India Allied Forces regrouped under General William slim planning counter offensives and Guerilla operations early Allied attempts to recapture coastal areas in the iraan region failed but subsequent campaigns in 1944 achieved progress Special Forces including the chindits and american-led Chinese troops conducted disruptive missions behind Japanese lines the Turning Point came with the battles of impal and Co during the Spring and Summer where Allied Forces broke a Japanese Siege halting their Advance into India and weakening their hold on Burma in late 1944 the Allies launched operations to recapture Northern and Central Burma and later the capital of rangon in the South by March 1945 William Slim’s forces captured Mandalay securing Central Burma Chinese forces recaptured the Northeast but were halted by the monsoons as the British continued south crossing the irawadi river and approaching rangon by May there they were joined by other Imperial British troops including giras and Indian Fighters but as they entered Rangoon they discovered the Japanese had abandoned it they retook the city with Little Resistance the successful Burma campaign restored control over the region and reestablished vital supply routes the next stop was a planned offensive on Malaya but the war in the Pacific would change Allied plans in the Pacific surrounded and blocked off from raw materials it was now Japan itself that was under threat iojima became strategically important for both the United States and Japan the island hosted two Japanese airfields and a third was under construction on February 19th 1945 US Marines landed on its beaches but they were heavily fortified with the Japanese employing a network of bunkers hidden artillery and extensive tunnels the Japanese strategy involved allowing the Americans to land with minimal opposition and then engage them with well-prepared defensive positions but the Americans kept fighting across all kinds of barriers both Japanese and natural one of the most iconic moments of the battle occurred on February 23rd when US Marines raised the American flag on Mount cachi the highest point on the island this event was captured in a famous photograph and became a symbol of American perseverance and victory it was again recreated using a bigger flag despite the symbolic Victory fighting continued for several more weeks the Japanese Defenders used the Island’s network of caves and tunnels to launch counterattacks and ambush es But ultimately failed to resist the Americans the capture of iojima provided the US with a base for fighter escorts and an emergency landing site for bombers attacking Japan before an inevitable Invasion but out of the 21,000 Japanese soldiers only 216 were taken prisoner it was clear that Japanese were willing to defend their territory to the last man this made the Americans rethink the potential costs of an invasion of the Japanese home Islands they decided to use a tactic scene on the Western Front in Europe strategic bombing Japan had been out of range of American bombers but an upgrade to the B17 Flying Fortress was introduced just in time this was the b29 Super Fortress it was used sparsely in 1944 and wasn’t very effective until the Americans switched to incendiary bombs the raid on Tokyo on March 9th resulted in one of the deadliest and most destructive bombings in history as the wooden domiciles in the Japanese Capital erupted in flame this raid called operation meeting house is considered the single most destructive bombing raid in history with an estimated 100,000 civilians killed and over a million more left homeless the raids on Osaka occurring a few days later also caused extensive damage and further weakened Japan’s ability to continue the war but as the American bombers had no escorts and needed to fly at low altitude they were easily countered by Japanese Fighters though they had secured iojima it was clear the Strategic bombing campaign wouldn’t work the Americans resigned themselves to the one thing they had hoped to avoid a fullscale Invasion Okinawa was the largest of the ryuku islands and provided a strategic location for the Allies to launch a planned invasion of the Japanese home Islands capturing Okinawa would give the Allies a base for air operations and a staging area for troops and supplies after a week of bombardment US forces began landing on the beaches of okanawa on April 1st or L day the initial Landings were met with surprisingly light resistance as Japanese forces had withdrawn to the interior of the island to prepare for a more tenacious defense the Japanese strategy under the command of General mitsuru USI Jima involved a deep defense in the southern part of the island this included a network of caves tunnels and fortified positions designed to inflict maximum casualties on the attacking forces the battle saw some of the fiercest fighting of the Pacific War the Japanese once again launched extensive kamakazi attacks against the Allied Fleet supporting The Invasion causing significant damage to ships and resulted in considerable loss of life among Allied Sailors despite Fierce resistance US forces gradually Advanced capturing key positions and inflicting heavy casualties on the Japanese Defenders the battle concluded with the capture of the Southern portion of Okinawa and the defeat of the remaining Japanese forces by June 22nd General mitsuru USI Jima committed suicide the battle of Okinawa became the deadliest battle in the Pacific with over 50,000 Allied casualties and over 100,000 for the Japanese the Allies now had the daunting task of invading the Japanese Homeland but despite suffering heavy losses and facing defeat Japan showed no signs of surrendering intelligence reports suggested that Japan Was preparing for a massive defense including mobilizing civilians it was estimated that an invasion could cost hundreds of thousands of lives vice president Harry S Truman was sworn in as the 33rd president of the United States the same day as Roosevelt’s death and took on the responsibility of leading the country through the final stages of the war doing so meant making difficult decisions faced with the prospect of a costly invasion of Japan and seeking to force a quick end to the war President Truman decided to use the fruits of the Top Secret Manhattan Project initiative this was the program to develop atomic bombs harnessing the power unleashed when an atom was split under the leadership of J Robert Oppenheimer and general lesie Groves and with contributions from the UK and Canada the project had achieved significant scientific breakthroughs by mid 1945 two types of bombs were successfully created faced with the prospect effect of a costly invasion of Japan and seeking to force a quick end to the war President Truman decided to use the new weapon a final ultimatum for unconditional surrender was ignored by the Japanese and a week later on August 6th 1945 the first atomic bomb nicknamed little boy a uranium bomb was dropped on Hiroshima an estimated 70,000 to 880,000 people died instantly tens of thousands more Di within the following days and weeks Truman issued another ultimatum for Japan to surrender but there was radio silence on August 9th the second atomic bomb fat man a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki though it fell far from its Target it was much more powerful than little boy and resulted in approximately 40,000 to 75,000 immediate deaths the Americans again threatened continued bombings and to make matters worse the Japanese had to deal with an old enemy on August 9th the Soviets launched a multipronged defensive into manchukuo inner Mongolia and Northern Korea the invasion was part of the Allied strategy to defeat Japan and fulfill the promises made at the yelta conference where the Soviet Union agreed to enter the war against Japan the Japanese quanton Army was significantly weakened by the transfer of many units to to other fronts and lacked its earlier strength the combined shock of the atomic bombings and the rapid Soviet Advance into mansuria shattered the Japanese military’s confidence in their ability to continue the war the Japanese High command realized that their strategic situation had become untenable Japanese leadership including Emperor heroo faced intense pressure to find a way to end the war on August 14th 1945 after intense discussions and debates within the Japanese government Emperor heroo intervened to urge acceptance of the Allies terms for unconditional surrender Japan forly surrendered on August 15th 1945 which became known as victory over Japan or VJ Day heroo announced Japan’s unconditional surrender in a radio broadcast the first time the Japanese people had heard his voice the formal surrender ceremony took place on September 2nd aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo bay where representatives of the Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender officially ending World War II despite the end of the war the Soviets continued their Advance capturing as much territory as they could the Soviet Red Army swiftly occupied Japanese controlled mansuria dismantled Japanese military and Industrial infr structure and shipped assets back to the Soviet Union the Soviets eventually withdrew and the Chinese Communist forces took control of the region bolstering their position in the Chinese Civil War which we will get to in our final Mega documentary Korea annexed by Japan back in 1910 was also occupied by Soviet forces north of the 38th parallel this line was agreed upon with the United States which occupied the southern part of Korea the division laid the groundwork for the establishment of two separate states later to become North and South Korea World War II resulted in staggering casualties and immense human suffering across the globe it Remains the deadliest war in human history with up to 85 million wiped out the majority of these were civilians anywhere from 50 to 55 million Dead with 20 to 27 million total deaths the Soviet Union suffered the most out of any other power Poland between both the Nazis and Soviets lost around 177% of its population roughly one in six after the war millions of ethnic Germans who had settled in Eastern Europe particularly in Poland Czechoslovakia Hungary Romania and the Baltic states were forcibly expelled as part of the effort to redraw National boundaries the pots Dam Conference of 1945 sanctioned these population transfers and approximately 12 to 14 million ethnic Germans were displaced many faced harsh conditions during their journey and resettlement with significant numbers dying from malnutrition disease and violence those who survived were resettled in post-war Germany often in dire circumstances similarly Japanese settlers and colonists were expelled from territories Japan had occupied during the war including Korea Taiwan mansuria and various Pacific Islands a significant consequence of the second world war was the accelerated decolonization in British and French colonies enormous Financial strain on Britain and France left them heavily indebted and struggling with reconstruction costs and it was clear they no longer had the ability to maintain overseas colonies many colonized people served in Allied Forces gaining military experience and a broader perspective on global politics which fueled nationalist aspirations for self-determination the pots Dam Conference held from July 17th to August 2nd 1945 in Germany included President Truman who had succeeded Roosevelt Churchill later replaced by Clement Atley after the UK general election and Stalin this conference took place after Germany fell fell but before the Japanese surrender the leaders confirmed the division of Germany and Berlin and agreed on the demilitarization densification and democratization of Germany as well as the reparations to be paid but beneath the smiles was an underlying sense of animosity as Truman had revealed to Stalin that America had developed a terrifying new weapon Stalin on the other hand was determined to secure Soviet interests in Eastern Europe and in sure that the Soviet Union would not face future threats from Germany or the West the conference highlighted the growing divide between the Soviet Union and the Western allies setting the stage for another type of War which would dominate global politics for the next several decades but for now the Allies had achieved their Victory and the world was at peace but for how long for

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

Affiliate Disclosure: This blog may contain affiliate links, which means I may earn a small commission if you click on the link and make a purchase. This comes at no additional cost to you. I only recommend products or services that I believe will add value to my readers. Your support helps keep this blog running and allows me to continue providing you with quality content. Thank you for your support!