This podcast features Dr. Francesca Bcka, an expert in neurocognitive psychology, systematic neuroscience, and Islamic psychology, discussing the European Enlightenment’s portrayal of Islam. Bcka contrasts the overwhelmingly negative medieval Christian perspective with the more varied Enlightenment views, highlighting figures like Goethe, who showed a genuine interest in Islam, and Hegel, whose approach was more systematic and historical. She examines orientalist scholarship’s intertwining with colonialism, emphasizing its role in shaping Western perceptions of Islam and its continued influence. Bcka also critiques the Western misconception of a closed “door of ijtihad” in Islamic jurisprudence and recommends several books offering alternative perspectives on the topic. Finally, she stresses the importance of understanding these historical perspectives to better engage with contemporary issues surrounding Islam in the West.

The Enlightenment & Orientalism: A Study Guide

Quiz

Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.

1. According to Dr. Franchester Bcka, why is the term “Enlightenment” potentially misleading for Muslims?
2. How did the Enlightenment’s view of Islam differ from that of the Middle Ages?
3. What are the two main problematic lines in B. d’Herbelot’s entry on Muhammad in his Bibliotheque Orientale?
4. How did Ludovico Maracci’s introduction to his Latin translation of the Quran characterize Islam?
5. What was unique about Goethe’s approach to and appreciation for Islam during the Enlightenment?
6. What were some significant actions that suggest Goethe’s private affinity for Islam?
7. How did Hegel’s approach to Islam differ from Goethe’s?
8. How did the study of the Orient and Islam become intertwined with colonialism during the Enlightenment and beyond?
9. What does the concept of istihad mean, and what is the myth of its “closing” in Islamic thought?
10. According to the discussion, what are two crucial books that can help Muslims understand the continuing influence of the Enlightenment and Orientalism today?

Quiz Answer Key

1. The term “Enlightenment” can be misleading because it evokes positive imagery of light, which might suggest a similarity with Islamic concepts of knowledge as light. However, the Enlightenment’s “light” is a hyper-focused form of reasoning that rejects religion.
2. The Enlightenment saw a shift from the medieval period’s purely negative and mythical views of Islam. Some Enlightenment thinkers began to look at Islam directly, acknowledging that it had merits or, in some cases, was more rational than Christianity.
3. First, d’Herbelot did not analyze Islam objectively, claiming the falsehood of the doctrine. Second, he used Western schemes to understand Islam without adopting indigenous terminology or ways of understanding, which greatly damaged the understanding of Islamic traditions.
4. Maracci’s introduction positioned Islam as embracing superstitions and being more readily embraced by idolators than the Christian faith. His intent was to distance his translation from Christian heresy and please the Inquisition.
5. Goethe’s approach was a deep engagement with Islam that went beyond intellectual curiosity. He learned Arabic, sought to understand the Quran, and was even privately practicing some Islamic rituals.
6. Goethe’s private letters detail his effort to live as a Muslim, his careful recording of Ramadan’s beginning and ending, his Arabic language study, and the fact he kept a Quran on his nightstand. These actions suggest a personal adoption of the Islamic faith.
7. Hegel focused on the historical reality of Islam and what Muslim societies had accomplished and perceived Islam as an incomplete historical phenomenon, whereas Goethe focused on the Quran itself and viewed the prophet as truthful rather than an imposter.
8. The study of the Orient was closely tied to colonialism, as Western academics often helped justify colonial endeavors by creating a narrative of the Orient as savage, disorganized, and needing the West’s guidance. Academia was the first servant of colonialism in this context.
9. Istihad means independent legal reasoning in Islamic law. The myth of its “closing” is a Western invention; the concept of tajdid or renewal of the faith within the prophetic traditions shows how Muslims are always engaging with new contexts through reason.
10. The two books are Muslims in Western Imagination by Sophia Rose Arjana, which discusses the process of monsterification of Muslims in the Western imagination, and The New Orientalism: Postmodern Representations of Islam from Foucault to Baudrillard by Ian Almond, which demonstrates the Orientalist thinking persists in contemporary thinkers in the West.

Essay Questions

Instructions: Respond to the following questions in an essay format.

1. Analyze the diverse and often contradictory views of Islam during the Enlightenment period. How did these views represent a shift from the Middle Ages, and what factors influenced these different perspectives?
2. Compare and contrast the approaches to Islam taken by Goethe and Hegel. How did their differing worldviews affect their interpretations of Islamic faith and history?
3. Discuss how the European Enlightenment contributed to the rise of orientalism. How did Orientalist ideas intertwine with colonialism? Provide examples.
4. How has the legacy of the Enlightenment and Orientalism continued to shape Western perceptions of Islam today? Consider the influence of these ideas in contemporary academic, political, and cultural spheres.
5. Explore the concept of “ambiguity” in Islamic thought, as presented by Thomas Bauer. How does this perspective challenge Western notions of clarity and certainty, and what implications does this have for understanding the nature of Islam?

Glossary of Key Terms

Enlightenment: An 18th-century European intellectual movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority.

Orientalism: A Western style of thought that creates a binary between an imagined “East” or “Orient” and “West” and often uses stereotypes to justify colonial practices.

Bibliothèque Orientale: A significant encyclopedic work by Barthélemy d’Herbelot (published in 1697) that attempted to document Arab, Turkish, and Persian sources but included biased analysis of the Islamic religion.

Istihad: In Islamic jurisprudence, the process of independent legal reasoning or using one’s intellect to solve problems of religious law.

Tajdid: In Islamic thought, the concept of renewing or renovating the faith, with the understanding that a renewer of the faith will come each century.

Positivism: A philosophical system that emphasizes the role of empirical data in understanding phenomena, which has influenced the way science is practiced.

Wonder: A state of awe, admiration, and curiosity regarding the beauty and mystery of the world, often associated with the spiritual aspects of life.

Monsterification: A process by which people from other cultures or religions are constructed to be monstrous and outside of the realm of acceptable humanity.

Ambiguity: The quality of being open to more than one interpretation; an idea that different perspectives, although they appear mutually exclusive, can be integrated on a deeper level.

Deconstructionism: A school of thought which suggests that meanings are not fixed and that they come from cultural context and the ways texts are interpreted; the text is not a fixed entity, but has an openness to interpretation.

Enlightenment, Orientalism, and Islam

Okay, here is a detailed briefing document summarizing the key themes and ideas from the provided text, with quotes included.

Briefing Document: The European Enlightenment and Islam

Introduction:

This document summarizes a discussion between the host of “Blogging Theology” and Dr. Francesca B, a scholar with expertise in neurocognitive psychology, systematic neuroscience, and Islamic psychology. The conversation explores the European Enlightenment, its perception of Islam, and the legacy of these views on contemporary Western and Islamic thought.

Key Themes and Ideas:

1. The Deceptive Nature of “Enlightenment” from an Islamic Perspective:

• The term “Enlightenment” (and its equivalents in European languages) carries connotations of “light,” which might initially seem analogous to the concept of knowledge (“knowledge is a light,” according to Imam Malik).
• However, the “light” of the Enlightenment is a “torch” that illuminates a specific type of reasoning, focused on rationalism and positivism. This approach tends to dismiss religion and spirituality as “superstitions.”
• This “hyperfocused thought… when applied to the study of Islam gave really birth to orientalism.”

1. Shifting Western Perceptions of Islam:

• The medieval period was characterized by profoundly inaccurate and myth-based views of Islam, often portraying it negatively. “The views of Islam is the worst thing ever…completely based on myth and era.”
• The Enlightenment saw a paradigm shift, with some writers attempting to understand Islam based on its actual teachings, moving away from medieval myths. There was a shift from “almost unanimously negative view of the medieval High Christian period…breaking into the so-called reason rationality.”
• However, despite this shift, early Enlightenment scholars (like d’Herbelot) still approached Islam with biases, claiming “the falsehood of this Doctrine,” and using Western frameworks instead of indigenous terminology, “without adopting indigenous terminology and Indigenous ways of understanding.”

1. Early Orientalist Approaches and Bias:

• Even figures attempting scholarly engagement, such as Ludovico Maracci (one of the first translators of the Quran into Latin) framed his work with bias. In his introduction to the translation he states “that Superstition contains everything that is credible and probable regarding the Christian religion … therefore modern idolators more readily Embrace sarasin law than the Evangelical law.”
• This illustrates a tendency to see Islam through a Christian lens, labeling it “superstition” or “idolatory.”

1. Contrasting Figures: Goethe vs. Hegel

• Goethe:A unique figure in the Enlightenment, Goethe had a deep appreciation for Islam, learning Arabic, and studying the Quran.
• He was “an extraordianary figure” who, “at a young age…wrote a poem in appreciation of the prophet sallallahu alaih wasallam”
• He “exerted himself to live as a Muslim.” and “when he died, it is reported he had a Quran on his nightstand.”
• Goethe saw the Quran as “something really uh unexplainable with words and it is an eternal guide because of its action.”
• He openly stated, “I never considered him an impostor I always consider what he said to be truth” – a form of shahada (declaration of faith).
• Hegel:Hegel, another key figure, approached Islam as a historical phenomenon rather than a religion. He stated that Islam is a “complete abandonment”.
• He was more interested in Muslim kingdoms and societies, less so with the religious aspects.
• He viewed Islam as having a tendency towards “fanatism” and as an incomplete faith.
• Unlike Goethe, Hegel “completely ignores the figure of the prophet.”

1. Orientalism and Colonialism:

• The study of Islam in the Enlightenment was intertwined with colonialism. Academia became “the first servant of colonialism.”
• Early Enlightenment thinkers like Brian perpetuated racist stereotypes, viewing Arabs as “soldiers without a captain, their citizens without a law.” These stereotypes became embedded in colonial narratives.
• Authors like Rudyard Kipling portrayed colonized people as “half devil and half child,” justifying colonial rule as a “white man’s burden.”

1. Orientalist Art and Literature:

• Orientalist paintings often presented a distorted view of the Muslim world, focusing on “erotic” and “bored” subjects, reinforcing stereotypes. “Orientalism painting becomes a way to sell like let’s say art which is more like erotic than actually related to what they were seeing in the Muslim world.”
• The “1001 Nights” (Arabian Nights) became a key text in shaping European perceptions of the “harem” as a place of boredom and pleasure, although not accurate at all.

1. The Myth of “Closing the Doors of Ijtihad”:

• The idea of a definitive closing of the doors of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) is a Western construct not supported by Islamic texts. “There is no inid babad, which would be the Arabic term for that in Arabic manuscripts.”
• The concept of tajdid (renewal) in Islam, promises a “renewer of the faith” every century. This negates the idea that legal interpretations are fixed.

1. The Importance of “Ambiguity”:

• Thomas Bauer’s work, “A Culture of Ambiguity,” highlights Islam’s tolerance for diverse interpretations and practices.
• Islam, according to Bauer, favors “multifold openness” unless there is a reason to close them.
• Western modernity’s desire for “clarity” and “one right answer” is contrasted with Islam’s more nuanced, tolerant approach.

1. Contemporary Implications:

• The legacies of the Enlightenment and Orientalism continue to affect contemporary Western perceptions of Islam.
• Books like “Muslims in Western Imagination” by Sophia Rose Arjana, and “The New Orientalism” by Ian Almond, demonstrate how historical biases persist in current discourse and even the work of contemporary theorists like Zizek.
• The “monsterification” of Muslims in the Western imagination connects to modern forms of dehumanization.

Recommendations/Discussion Points:

• Critically analyze Enlightenment texts, avoiding a naive acceptance of their claims to objectivity.
• Understand the historical context and biases behind Western interpretations of Islam.
• Recognize the enduring impact of orientalist stereotypes in both Western and Muslim societies.
• Reclaim and promote the richness and complexity of Islamic intellectual traditions, including its tolerance for multiple interpretations.
• Consider the epistemology of the Enlightenment vs the epistemology of Islam.
• Be aware of the ways that the European Enlightenment continues to affect the way the West treats Muslims, people of color, and so on and how these implicit biases should be exposed and overcome.

Conclusion:

The discussion highlights the need to critically examine the complex relationship between the European Enlightenment and Islam. The Enlightenment, while claiming to promote reason and progress, also laid the foundation for many biases and distortions that continue to shape our understanding of Islam today. By understanding this history, Muslims and non-Muslims can work toward a more informed and respectful engagement with each other.

Enlightenment and Islam: A Critical Perspective

Frequently Asked Questions About the European Enlightenment and Islam

1. What is the European Enlightenment from an Islamic perspective?
2. The term “Enlightenment” can be misleading for Muslims. While it evokes positive connotations of light and knowledge, similar to Islamic concepts, the Enlightenment’s “light” is a specific type of reasoning. This reasoning prioritizes a hyper-focused, positivist, scientific analysis, dismissing prior religious thought as superstition. It views reason as the sole source of truth, leading to a rejection of traditional religious frameworks and a reinterpretation of other worldviews, including Islam, through a Western lens.
3. How did the Enlightenment’s view of Islam differ from the medieval Christian view?
4. During the medieval period, Western perceptions of Islam were overwhelmingly negative, filled with myths and inaccuracies, with figures like Prophet Muhammad being portrayed as a false prophet. The Enlightenment, while still often biased, marked a shift towards examining Islamic texts and doctrines directly. However, this was often done through Western philosophical and cultural frameworks, misinterpreting core beliefs and practices by applying Western categories rather than understanding them on their own terms. Though some figures emerged with a more positive view, a general problem persisted of not engaging on Islam’s terms, but rather imposing Western agendas.
5. Who were some of the key figures in the Enlightenment who attempted to understand Islam more accurately?
6. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is a prime example of someone who attempted to understand Islam on its own terms. He displayed deep interest in the Islamic faith, learning Arabic and immersing himself in the Quran. He wrote poems expressing appreciation for Prophet Muhammad and reportedly kept a Quran by his bedside. His approach was driven by a genuine interest in Islam as a world heritage and his intellectual honesty led him to respect and even live out Islam’s tenets privately.
7. How did other Enlightenment figures, like Hegel, approach Islam compared to Goethe?
8. While both Hegel and Goethe engaged with Islam, they had vastly different approaches. Hegel was primarily interested in the historical and societal aspects of Islam, while largely ignoring the religious and theological dimension and labeling its core beliefs as “incomplete”. He viewed it through a historical framework, interpreting Muslim societies as driven by fanaticism and applying a systemization framework, whereas Goethe’s engagement was much more deeply spiritual and focused on the Quran, which he saw as something that defies written descriptions and a continuing guide, as well as the figure of the Prophet, whom he considered as truly a prophet and never an imposter.
9. How did Orientalism shape Western perceptions of Islam, and how was it connected to colonialism?
10. Orientalism is the practice of studying and representing the East, often through a Western lens that portrays it as exotic, inferior, and in need of Western guidance or control. This was heavily tied to colonialism as academics began to serve imperial ambitions by framing Muslim societies as needing to be ‘civilized’, or under direct control due to their supposed backwardness. Orientalist paintings, for instance, often depicted Muslims as passive, exotic, and eroticized, distorting reality to fit Western stereotypes and justify colonial rule, in addition to also contributing to a general sense of disengagement of the world, that was then followed by the ‘enlightened’.
11. What are some persistent myths about Islam that originated during or were perpetuated by the Enlightenment?
12. One pervasive myth is that the “doors of ijtihad” (independent reasoning) were closed long ago in Islam, suggesting a rigid, static legal system that is incapable of adapting to contemporary issues. This idea is actually completely foreign to Islamic intellectual history and a creation of the Western imagination. This false narrative is used to portray Islamic thought as backward and stagnant, although actual Islamic history has seen regular tajdid (renovation) or renewal of the faith, not stagnation.
13. What does the concept of “ambiguity” mean in Islamic thought, as explored by Thomas Bauer?
14. Bauer’s idea of a “culture of ambiguity” highlights Islam’s historical tolerance for multiple, sometimes conflicting, interpretations of scripture and Islamic law. This is a very different approach than a typical Western desire for clarity, certainty, and a single correct answer, a perspective the West has imposed on other systems of thought. This multiplicity doesn’t indicate weakness but reflects an openness to diverse perspectives within a broad framework of faith and practice.
15. Are there any positive aspects of the Enlightenment that Muslims can incorporate, or should it be considered primarily a European phenomenon?
16. While the Enlightenment provided an important foundation for modern Western society, it is fundamentally at odds with the Islamic worldview, particularly in its epistemology, which was a hyper-rational, scientific mode of knowing and thus incapable of engaging with aspects of Islamic understanding of the world. The very idea of “reforming” Islam in the manner of the Enlightenment ignores the core values and intellectual traditions of Islam. However, understanding the roots of the Enlightenment and its impact can help Muslims to critically engage with contemporary Western thought and challenge persistent stereotypes about Islam, whilst also being mindful about adopting Western views which aren’t in accordance with the Islamic framework.

Western Perceptions of Islam: A Historical Overview

Okay, here’s a detailed timeline and cast of characters based on the provided text:

Timeline of Main Events & Ideas

• Pre-Enlightenment (Medieval Period):
• Western views of Islam are primarily based on myth, error, and negative stereotypes. These views are propagated through repeated tropes, often with little to no basis in actual Islamic teachings. Examples include myths of Muhammad worshipping three gods.
• Islam is perceived in a completely negative light.
• Late 17th Century:
• 1697: Barthélemy d’Herbelot publishes Bibliothèque Orientale, a significant work referencing Arab, Turkish, and Persian sources. Although it shows a move towards primary sources, it still portrays Islamic figures through a Western, critical lens (e.g., calling Muhammad a “false prophet”).
• Early 18th Century:
• Ludovico Marracci translates the Quran into Latin. His introduction, written to distance himself from the text and avoid issues with the Inquisition, claims that Islamic law is based on superstition, credible matters, and natural laws, but rejects mysteries of faith, and thereby is inferior to Christianity.
• Some Enlightenment thinkers start to see Islam as more rational than Christianity. Islam starts to be included as one of humanity’s great achievements, and in “wonder cabinets” (rooms of curiosities).
• 18th Century – Late 18th Century / Early 19th Century:
• Voltaire writes a play about the Prophet Muhammad which is considered by many to be extremely negative and was not translated into German by Goethe due to it’s content.
• Second half of 18th century through early 19th century: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe develops a profound interest in Islam. He writes a poem in appreciation of the Prophet at the age of 20, practices some Islamic rituals, learns Arabic, and dedicates his final work to the Quran. He engages with the Quran as a literary and philosophical text. He sees the Prophet Muhammad as not an impostor, but as a truthful man.
• Late 18th Century/Early 19th Century:
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel develops his systematic philosophy of history, considering Islam as a historical phenomenon but not as a religion of particular interest. Hegel views Islam as an incomplete philosophy and highlights elements of “fanaticism.”
• He focuses on the historical impact of Muslim kingdoms and societies, rather than the religious teachings. He sees the religion as an historical event and not a timeless guide, and disregards the prophet.
• 19th Century Onward (Colonialism and Orientalism):
• Academia becomes increasingly intertwined with colonial agendas, with scholars and intellectuals such as Brian portraying the Arabs as a fallen civilization, which is used as an excuse to colonise them.
• Orientalist art emerges, often sexualizing and misrepresenting Muslim culture, depicting it as a place of boredom, inactivity, and eroticism. Popular prints show Muslims as collections of different costumes, further stripping away the respect and authority that was earlier granted in portraits such as those by Bellini.
• The concept of “closing the doors of ijtihad” is formulated in the West and not found in the sources of that time, often incorrectly attributing it to specific historical Islamic figures and incorrectly using the word Ijtihad itself.
• Colonialism and Orientalism becomes deeply entrenched. Authors such as Rudyard Kipling write about the white man’s burden, with racist undertones depicting the colonized as half devil and half child, thus dehumanising them.
• Napoleon enters Egypt declaring himself as a real Muslim in an attempt to gain allies for his army during the Egyptian campaign. He gives specific reasons why he is to be seen as a better Muslim than local Muslims.
• Modern Era
• The effects of Enlightenment thinking still impact the perception of Islam, often as a consequence of the orientalist tradition, and is evident in political and social life.
• Contemporary authors reframe and deconstruct orientalist representations, aiming to show their effect in the modern world.
• Muslims begin engaging with orientalist tropes, deconstructing them, and reclaiming their history.

Cast of Characters

• Dr. Franchesca Bck: The interviewee. She has a master’s degree in neurocognitive psychology, a PhD in systematic neuroscience, and a diploma in Islamic psychology. She works on Muslim identity in Italy, is the author of “The Italian Islam Manifesto,” and is the director of the Ibn Rushd Islamic Studies Institute.
• Paul: The interviewer of the podcast Blogging Theology.
• Barthélemy d’Herbelot: (1625-1695) A French Orientalist and author of the Bibliothèque Orientale, a notable encyclopedic work on the Middle East, although still from a heavily westernized perspective, despite the use of primary sources.
• Ludovico Marracci: (1612-1700) An Italian Catholic priest and translator of the Quran into Latin. He distances himself from the Quran in his introduction to the text due to the ongoing Inquisition.
• Voltaire: (1694-1778) A French Enlightenment writer and dramatist, known for his controversial opinions on Islam, particularly in his play about the Prophet.
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: (1749-1832) A German poet, writer, and intellectual. He had a deep appreciation for Islam, studied Arabic, learned the Quran, wrote poetry praising Muhammad, and privately adhered to some Islamic practices. He viewed the Quran as something unexplainable with words and an eternal guide.
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: (1770-1831) A German philosopher whose ideas about Islam focused on the historical impact of Muslim societies and a systematic, negative view of Islam. He dismissed the religious and philosophical value of Islam, and described it as fanatic, destructive and harsh. He largely ignored the figure of the prophet.
• Rudyard Kipling: (1865-1936) An English author known for his colonial and racist views on the colonized people of the East, notably the poem “The White Man’s Burden.”
• Napoleon Bonaparte: (1769-1821) A French military and political leader who attempted to portray himself as a true Muslim in Egypt for strategic purposes. He argued he was a better Muslim than locals due to the actions taken by the French against the Pope.
• Victor Hugo (1802-1885) A French poet and author, who wrote several poems on the Prophet Muhammad, however, these poems are flawed in their psychological characterisations of Islam.
• Thomas Bauer: A German scholar and author of “A Culture of Ambiguity,” who uses the term “ambiguity” to describe the multi-layered nature of Islamic thought. He challenges the Western obsession with uniformity and certainty.
• Sophia Rose Arjana: An academic and author of “Muslims in the Western Imagination” she analyses the process of ‘monsterfication’ of Muslims in the Western imagination, leading up to the dehumanization of Muslims in contemporary life.
• Ian Almond: An academic and author of “The New Orientalists”, who details how contemporary western thinkers still present a fundamentally orientalist understanding of Islam.
• Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) A French postmodernist, philosopher and intellectual who’s work is analysed by Ian Almond as being fundamentally orientalist despite not mentioning it explicitly.
• Slavoj Zizek (1949-Current) A Slovenian philosopher and psychoanalyst, whose work is also shown to be orientalist by Ian Almond.

Let me know if you need any further clarification or details!

Enlightenment, Orientalism, and Islam

The European Enlightenment was a period of intellectual and philosophical development that had a significant impact on how the West viewed Islam [1, 2]. Here’s a breakdown of key aspects, according to the sources:

What the Enlightenment Was

• The Enlightenment is often associated with “light,” but it represents a specific type of reasoning, prioritizing analysis and science, often at the expense of religion or “superstitions” [1, 2].
• This hyper-focused approach to understanding the world led to the development of orientalism when applied to the study of Islam [2].
• The Enlightenment saw a paradigm shift from the medieval period’s almost entirely negative view of Islam [2].
• During the medieval period, Western perceptions of Islam were largely based on myths and misinformation [2].
• Enlightenment thinkers began to engage with what Islam actually taught, although this was not a uniform trend [2].

Early Enlightenment Views on Islam

• Some of the first steps in the Enlightenment included attempts to understand Islam through primary sources [3].
• For example, the Bibliothèque Orientale of B. d’Herbelot (1697) used Arab, Turkish, and Persian sources directly [3].
• However, this work still showed bias, with d’Herbelot claiming that Muslims attributed praises to Muhammad that were similar to those given to Jesus Christ by heretics, while denying Muhammad’s divinity [3].
• Ludovico Marracci, one of the first translators of the Quran into Latin, also showed bias in his introduction, arguing that Islam was more readily embraced than Christianity because it was not as mysterious [3].
• Despite this, some Enlightenment authors praised Islam for being more rational than Christianity [3].
• There were diverse views, and some figures like Voltaire wrote negatively about the Prophet Muhammad [4].

Figures Who Sought to Understand Islam

• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is presented as a significant figure who attempted to understand Islam on its own terms [4].
• At a young age, Goethe wrote a poem in appreciation of the Prophet Muhammad [4].
• He exerted himself to live as a Muslim, learned Arabic, and had a Quran on his nightstand when he died [4, 5].
• Goethe’s approach to Islam was through the encyclopedias published during the Enlightenment, as he did not have access to Arabic manuscripts, except the Quran [5].
• Goethe’s private writings reveal an adherence to Islam, which was not widely known or published [6].
• Goethe saw the Quran as an “eternal guide,” and he considered the Prophet Muhammad to be truthful rather than an impostor [7].
• Gerta viewed the world with wonder, whereas Hegel viewed it as a system [8].

Other Notable Figures

• Hegel, while a major figure in European philosophy, approached Islam differently than Goethe [7, 8].
• He focused on the historical reality of Islam, rather than its religious aspects [7].
• Hegel repeated the idea of “fanaticism” in his works when characterizing Muslim societies [7, 9].
• Hegel largely ignored the figure of the Prophet Muhammad [7].
• Napoleon also engaged with Islam in a unique way, declaring himself to be a “real Muslim” when entering Egypt [10].
• Napoleon’s actions were a political move to gain support, and also involved bringing orientalist scholars to Egypt [9].
• Victor Hugo wrote poems about the Prophet Muhammad, which were a mix of accurate historical details and horrible psychological characterizations [9].

The Connection Between Enlightenment and Colonialism

• The Enlightenment’s academic approach became a tool of colonialism [11].
• Early Enlightenment figures like d’Herbelot presented Arabs as people who had fallen from a civilized state, a narrative that has roots in the Zionist movement [11].
• Figures such as Rudyard Kipling, with his poem “The White Man’s Burden,” portrayed colonized people as “half devil and half child,” justifying the need for Western civilization [11].
• Orientalist paintings often depicted Muslims in a way that was both erotic and inactive, reinforcing stereotypes [12].

The Myth of the Closed Doors of Ijtihad

• The idea that Islam closed the doors of ijtihad (independent legal reasoning) is a Western concept not found in historical Islamic texts [13, 14].
• The Islamic concept of tajdid (renewal) every century contradicts the idea that the doors of ijtihad are closed [14].
• Orientalists and Islamic Studies scholars have taken the word ijtihad out of context, applying a negative connotation to the systemization of Islamic knowledge by figures such as al-Shafi’i and al-Ghazali [14].

Ambiguity in Islam

• Thomas Bauer’s Culture of Ambiguity explores how Islam historically has tolerated multiple interpretations and understandings [15].
• Bauer’s work suggests that Islam leaves issues open unless there is a clear reason to close them [15].
• Islam has historically accommodated a variety of mutually incompatible viewpoints, at different levels of understanding [15].
• This tolerance for ambiguity is in contrast to the Western preference for clarity and certainty [16].

Critiques and Contemporary Relevance

• The legacy of the Enlightenment and orientalism continues to affect how Islam is viewed in the West [17].
• Books such as Muslims in Western Imagination by Sophia Rose Arjana highlight the process of “monsterification” of Muslims in Western thought and its connection to dehumanization [17, 18].
• The New Orientalism by Ian Almond shows how contemporary Western thinkers continue to hold orientalist views of Islam [18].
• It is important for Muslims to understand the roots of the Enlightenment and orientalism to combat current biases and dehumanization [18].

In conclusion, the European Enlightenment was a complex period with diverse views on Islam, but it also laid the groundwork for orientalist perspectives that still persist today [2, 18]. While some figures like Goethe sought to understand Islam on its own terms, others perpetuated stereotypes and biases [4, 7]. The legacy of the Enlightenment remains relevant for Muslims today, who need to be aware of the historical roots of these perspectives [17].

Goethe and Islam: A Private Faith

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe is presented in the sources as a unique figure within the European Enlightenment who attempted to understand Islam on its own terms, rather than through the lens of orientalist stereotypes [1, 2]. Here’s a detailed look at his perspective:

Early Appreciation and Engagement:

• At a young age, around 20 years old, Goethe wrote a poem in appreciation of the Prophet Muhammad [2].
• He demonstrated a deep personal engagement with Islam, even exerting himself to live as a Muslim [2].
• Goethe learned Arabic and practiced his handwriting in the language, showing a genuine love for the language and culture [2, 3].
• He had a copy of the Quran on his nightstand when he died, indicating a sustained personal connection with the faith [3].

Private Adherence to Islam:

• Goethe’s private letters and diaries, which have been preserved, contain explicit expressions of his adherence to Islam [4].
• He recorded the beginning and ending of Ramadan in his diary, which suggests a personal practice of Islamic rituals [4].
• These personal writings were not widely published, and his private spiritual interests have been somewhat overlooked in the public perception of Goethe [3].
• Goethe’s personal archive contains fragments that are quite explicit about his adherence to Islam [4].

Approach to Studying Islam:

• Goethe’s access to Islamic texts was limited, and he primarily relied on encyclopedias published during the Enlightenment and the Quran itself [3].
• He did not have access to Arabic manuscripts and lived outside the main intellectual centers of the time [3].
• Despite these limitations, he made efforts to understand Islamic concepts and arguments, even making schemes to understand various viewpoints [3].
• Goethe viewed the Quran as an “eternal guide” [5]. He considered the Prophet Muhammad to be truthful and not an impostor [5].
• He also saw Islam as a way to experience “wonder” in the world, unlike Hegel, who viewed it as a system [6].

Goethe’s Understanding of Islam Contrasted with Others:

• Goethe differed significantly from contemporaries like Hegel, who focused more on the historical and social aspects of Islam rather than its religious and spiritual dimensions [5].
• Hegel was not very interested in the religion, viewing it as incomplete, and focused on historical realities like Muslim kingdoms [5].
• Unlike Hegel, Goethe did not ignore the figure of the Prophet Muhammad. In fact, he explicitly stated that he considered Muhammad’s words to be the truth [5].
• Goethe’s approach was also distinct from those who held strong orientalist biases, seeking to understand Islam on its own terms without imposing Western categories [2].
• Goethe’s perspective was more about “unconditional abandonment,” while Hegel’s was “complete abandonment,” and while they might sound the same, they had different approaches to Islam [5].

Impact and Legacy:

• Despite Goethe’s significant personal engagement with Islam, his views were not widely known or acknowledged [4].
• His writings were interpreted in ways that did not recognize his deep interest in and adherence to Islam [3].
• Goethe’s private life and beliefs about Islam are still not widely known or acknowledged [3, 4].

In summary, Goethe’s perspective on Islam was marked by a sincere effort to understand the faith on its own terms, a deep personal engagement, and a spiritual connection with Islamic teachings and the Prophet Muhammad. He stands out as an exception among many of his contemporaries during the Enlightenment, who often approached Islam with bias or misunderstanding. His private writings and actions suggest an adherence to Islam that is often overlooked in mainstream discussions of his life and work [2-4].

Hegel, Goethe, and Islam: A Comparative Study

Hegel’s philosophy, as presented in the sources, offers a contrasting perspective to that of Goethe regarding Islam and the world in general. Here’s a detailed look at key aspects of his philosophy:

1. Emphasis on System and Reason:

• Hegel viewed the world as a system that could be understood through reason and analysis [1].
• He believed that history follows a logical progression and can be understood as a series of interconnected events. This contrasts with Goethe’s view that emphasized wonder and awe [1].
• Hegel’s philosophy is characterized by a systematic approach, where everything fits into an overarching framework of historical development [2].
• Unlike Goethe, who found “wonder” in the world, Hegel aimed to remove it, seeing the world as a system that could be rationally understood [1].

2. View of Islam:

• Hegel’s primary interest in Islam was its historical and social aspects rather than its religious or spiritual dimensions [2].
• He focused on the actions of Muslim kingdoms and societies, rather than the theological aspects of the religion [2].
• Hegel considered the religion of Islam to be “incomplete” and not particularly interesting [2].
• He used the term “fanaticism” to describe certain aspects of Islam [2]. This term was also used by Voltaire.
• Hegel did not focus on the figure of the Prophet Muhammad, viewing him simply as a founder figure rather than a spiritual leader [2]. This contrasts sharply with Goethe’s view of Muhammad as a truthful and important figure [2].

3. Comparison with Goethe:

• While both Hegel and Goethe discussed similar themes regarding Islam, their approaches differed significantly [2].
• Hegel focused on the historical and societal impact of Islam, whereas Goethe was deeply interested in the Quran and the spiritual aspects of the faith [2].
• Hegel’s view of Islam was more detached and analytical, whereas Goethe’s was personal and deeply appreciative [2].
• While both used terms like “abandonment” to describe Islam, their understanding of it was different [2]. Hegel saw it as “complete abandonment” while Goethe’s was more of an “unconditional abandonment” [2].

4. Legacy and Influence:

• Hegel’s philosophy significantly impacted European thought in the 19th century and beyond [1].
• Despite not being widely followed today, his ideas remain influential in discussions about the modern world [3].
• Karl Marx, famously, took up Hegel’s thought and turned it upside down, leading to the development of Marxism [3].
• Hegel is considered difficult to read, leading to a situation where many can claim to be Hegelian without fully understanding his work [3].
• Hegel’s philosophy is still very relevant to modern discussions of consumer capitalism and the nature of existence [3].

5. Critiques and Considerations

• Hegel’s views are critiqued in the sources for ignoring the spiritual aspects of Islam and not being very interested in the religion itself, unlike Goethe [2].
• Hegel is criticized for characterizing Islam in negative terms, such as using the word “fanaticism”, reflecting an orientalist perspective [2].

In summary, Hegel’s philosophy emphasizes a systematic understanding of the world and history, and his view of Islam was primarily focused on its historical and social manifestations. He stands in contrast to Goethe, who approached Islam with a deep personal appreciation and spiritual interest. Hegel’s legacy includes a significant influence on subsequent European thought, including the development of Marxism. However, his philosophy, including his view on Islam, is critiqued in the sources for its lack of spiritual depth and its potentially orientalist undertones.

Islamic Ambiguity: Openness and Plurality in Islamic

The concept of “ambiguity” in Islam, as discussed in the sources, particularly in reference to the work of German scholar Thomas Bauer, is presented as a key aspect of Islamic intellectual and religious tradition. It contrasts sharply with the Western, and particularly Enlightenment, emphasis on clarity and certainty. Here’s a breakdown of Islamic ambiguity, as presented in the sources:

1. Definition of Ambiguity

• In the context of Islam, “ambiguity” as discussed in the sources, should not be understood as a negative or unclear concept. Rather, it refers to a “multifold openness” [1].
• This openness allows for multiple interpretations and understandings, which are considered valid as long as they connect back to a sound basis, such as established legal or interpretative precedents [1].

2. Contrast with Western Thought

• The Western mindset, especially since the Enlightenment, tends to favor clear, definitive, and univocal answers, often seeking one right interpretation or understanding [2].
• This need for certainty is in contrast to the Islamic tradition, which has historically tolerated various, sometimes mutually incompatible, ways of understanding [1].

3. Manifestations of Ambiguity in Islamic Thought

• Quranic interpretation: The existence of multiple accepted readings of the Quran demonstrates this openness, with scholars allowing different interpretations as long as they are supported by valid reasoning and methodology [1].
• Legal reasoning (ijtihad): While the West has often misunderstood ijtihad, thinking that its doors have been closed, the sources suggest that this is a misconception. Ijtihad is one of the ways in which jurists can work, emphasizing the possibility for renewal and flexibility in Islamic law [3]. The idea of tajdid, or renovation, promised by the Prophet Muhammad, also supports this idea of continuous engagement with and reinterpretation of the faith [3].
• Halal/Haram Dichotomy: The principle that everything is permissible unless there is a valid reason to prove it is forbidden reflects the general attitude of openness and acceptance of different understandings within Islam [1].

4. The Impact of Western Thought on Muslims

• The Western preference for clarity and certainty has, to some extent, influenced some Muslims, leading to a focus on rigid interpretations and a neglect of the historical openness and ambiguity of Islamic tradition [2].
• Some Muslims now seek singular, definitive interpretations of religious texts, neglecting the possibility that the same texts can mean different things in different contexts, which is a more traditional approach [2].
• There is a tendency among some Muslims to focus on minute details, such as the exact measurements of clothing, while neglecting the broader, more open aspects of the faith [2].

5. The Value of Ambiguity

• The concept of ambiguity can be seen as a middle path between the extremes of rigid certainty and postmodern relativism [2]. It allows for a balance between the need for structure and the acceptance of complexity and variety.
• By focusing on the openness of Islamic thought and tradition, Muslims can develop a deeper love, attachment, and understanding of their faith [2]. This approach emphasizes the process of intellectual and spiritual engagement over the imposition of rigid, fixed interpretations.

6. Critiques of Western Impositions

• The idea that Islamic law and thought need to be reformed in line with Enlightenment principles is an external imposition and is not in line with Islamic epistemology [4, 5]. This is because the epistemology of Islam is not compatible with that of the Enlightenment [5].

In summary, Islamic ambiguity, as presented in the sources, is not a deficiency but a strength that allows for a rich and diverse understanding of the faith. It provides an alternative to the Western obsession with clarity and certainty, offering a more nuanced approach to religious, intellectual, and legal matters. By understanding and embracing this ambiguity, Muslims can draw on a deeper engagement with Islamic tradition.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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