Richard Sorce’s Music Theory for the Music Professional aims to equip musicians with a comprehensive understanding of music’s fundamental elements and compositional tools. The text systematically explores concepts from basic pitch representation and rhythm to advanced topics like harmony, scales, melody, and structure, drawing comparisons between common-practice and popular genres. It emphasizes analyzing existing music to understand theoretical principles, rather than prescribing rules for composition. The book includes numerous musical examples, self-tests, and exercises to reinforce learning, ultimately intending to enhance performance, creativity, and appreciation of music across various styles.

Fundamentals of Music Theory

Based on the provided excerpts, the fundamentals of music theory encompass a wide range of interconnected concepts. These fundamentals provide the bedrock for understanding the structure, function, and creation of music in Western practice. The text assumes a basic prior knowledge of music theory, but Chapter 1 serves as a review of essential concepts.

Here’s a discussion of some key areas within music theory fundamentals as presented in the sources:

• Rhythm: Rhythm, derived from the Greek word for “flow,” is the element of music that deals with duration and is considered a basic and important aspect of musical structure. It operates on micro (small), meso (middle), and macro (large) time segments. Understanding rhythm involves concepts such as tempo (speed of music), pulse (the underlying beat), meter (the grouping of beats), and time signatures (indicating the meter). The sources also mention subdivisions of the beat into duplets and triplets, as well as more complex groupings. The effect of dots and double dots on note and rest values is also fundamental to rhythmic understanding. Concepts like anacrusis (pickup notes) and syncopation (accenting off-beats) are also important rhythmic considerations.
• Pitch Representation: Pitches, which define the highness or lowness of a sound based on vibrations per second, are represented by the first seven letters of the alphabet (A-G) in Western practice. These pitches are displayed on a staff consisting of five lines and four spaces. Clef signs (treble, bass, alto, tenor, and the movable C clef) are placed at the beginning of the staff to determine the location of specific pitches. Ledger lines extend the staff to accommodate pitches outside the normal range. Sharps, flats, and naturals alter the pitch of a note. The distance between pitches is measured in half steps and whole steps, and notes that sound the same but are spelled differently are enharmonic.
• Scales, Keys, and Modes: A scale is a series of pitches in ascending or descending order. The text discusses various scale structures, including the major scale and minor scales (natural, harmonic, and melodic), outlining that the major and minor scale systems have been predominantly used in the last few hundred years. The whole-step/half-step patterns define these scales. Relative minor scales are derived from the sixth degree of the major scale. Keys establish a tonal center based on these scales, and key signatures indicate the sharps or flats present in a key. The circle of fifths visually represents the relationships between keys. Modes are different variations of the diatonic scale, with distinct whole-step/half-step patterns, dating back to antiquity and still used in contemporary styles. The ability to understand the relationships among keys is a fundamental step in conceptualizing music.
• Intervals: An interval is the distance between two pitches, occurring melodically (horizontally) or harmonically (vertically, also called dyads). Interval distance is calculated numerically, counting both the lower and upper pitches. The quality of an interval (major, minor, perfect, augmented, diminished) is often determined by considering the major key of the lower note. Within a major scale, 2nds, 3rds, 6ths, and 7ths are major intervals, while unisons, 4ths, 5ths, and octaves are perfect intervals. Intervals can be altered by half or whole steps, resulting in minor, diminished, or augmented qualities. Certain intervals are considered consonant (stable, not requiring resolution), while others are dissonant (unstable, often implying a need for resolution).
• Chords: A triad is a harmonic structure of three different notes, each belonging to a different letter class, typically consisting of a root, a third, and a fifth. Triads have four qualities: major, minor, diminished, and augmented, determined by the quality of the intervals between the notes (major or minor thirds). Primary triads are built on the tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V) degrees of the scale, while secondary triads are built on the supertonic (ii), mediant (iii), submediant (vi), and leading tone (vii°). Seventh chords are formed by adding another third above the triad, resulting in a four-note chord. Understanding the qualities and functions of triads and seventh chords within different scales and keys is crucial for harmonic analysis and composition.
• Voice Leading: Voice leading refers to the linear (horizontal) movement of individual melodic lines (voices) within a vertical context of intervals and chords. It involves considering the pitch tendency of individual scale degrees, their relative stability, and how they progress to other pitches. Principles of good voice leading aim for smooth connections between chords, often utilizing contrary motion (voices moving in opposite directions) and oblique motion (one voice stationary while others move). Limiting leaps in individual voices and avoiding certain parallel intervals (like perfect fifths and octaves) are also important considerations.
• Harmonic Progression: Harmonic progression describes the way chords move from one to the next, creating tension and resolution within a musical work at micro, meso, and macro levels. Chords, like individual notes, have tendencies and affinities within tonal contexts. Concepts like chord substitution (replacing one chord with another of similar function) and understanding root movement by specific intervals (e.g., descending fifths in circle progressions) are important aspects of harmonic progression. Identifying structural harmonies (essential for the framework) and embellishing harmonies (adding color and interest) is also a key skill.

These fundamental concepts, as outlined in the initial chapters of the source, provide the necessary groundwork for understanding more advanced topics in music theory, such as chromatic harmony, modulation, and musical form, which are explored in later chapters. A thorough understanding of these fundamentals is crucial for any aspiring professional musician to improve performance, creative endeavors, and overall comprehension of music.

Fundamentals of Harmony and Chords

Based on the provided excerpts, harmony refers to the simultaneous sounding of two or more notes. The study of harmony encompasses the vertical aspects of music, including chords and the relationships between them. It also involves the forward progressive thrust of music resulting from two or more melodic lines moving simultaneously. Harmonic progression, or harmonic movement, describes the way chords move from one to the next, creating tension and resolution at micro, meso, and macro levels within a musical work.

Chords are fundamental to harmony. The term “chord” applies to the simultaneous sounding of three or more pitches. However, a dyad, or two-note harmonic interval, is sometimes also referred to as a chord. Chords constructed of stacked thirds are known as tertian harmony.

Here are different types and aspects of chords discussed in the sources:

• Triads: A triad is a harmonic structure of three different notes, typically consisting of a root, a third, and a fifth. Triads have four qualities: major, minor, diminished (indicated by a degree sign °), and augmented (indicated by a plus sign +). The quality is determined by the intervals between the notes (major or minor thirds). In tonal music analysis, Roman numerals are used to identify triads built on different scale degrees. Upper-case Roman numerals denote major triads (e.g., I, IV, V), lower-case denote minor triads (e.g., ii, iii, vi), lower-case with a degree sign denote diminished triads (e.g., vii°), and upper-case with a plus sign denote augmented triads (e.g., III+). Primary triads are built on the tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V) degrees. Secondary triads are built on the supertonic (ii), mediant (iii), submediant (vi), and leading tone (vii°).
• Seventh Chords: Seventh chords are formed by adding another third above a triad, resulting in a four-note chord. The quality of the seventh chord depends on the quality of the triad and the added seventh interval (major, minor, diminished). The sources mention various seventh chord types such as dominant seventh chords, minor seventh chords, major seventh chords, minor-minor seventh chords, half-diminished seventh chords (viiø7), and fully diminished seventh chords (viiο7). Dominant seventh chords often have a dominant function.
• Upper-Partial Chords: Continuing the process of tertian stacking beyond seventh chords leads to ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords. These are also referred to as upper-partial harmonies. These chords contain root, third, fifth, seventh, ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth scale degrees, although not all factors are always necessary. These chords can be diatonic or hybrid (resulting from pitch alteration).
• Secundal, Quartal, and Quintal Harmony: Besides tertian harmony, other systems of harmonic construction exist. Secundal harmony involves chords built in seconds. There are four types of three-note secundal chords: major-major, major-minor, minor-major, and minor-minor. Multinote secundal chords contain more than three different pitches, and those in close voicing are called clusters. Quartal harmony involves chords built in fourths. There are three types: perfect-perfect, perfect-augmented, and augmented-perfect. Quintal harmony involves chords built in fifths. A quintal chord becomes dissonant upon the addition of a third factor.

Harmonic Progression and Movement:

• Chord progression is a general term for chord-to-chord movement. The movement of one chord to another is a matter of personal choice by the composer, but it is often guided by chordal tendencies and the desired level of tension and resolution.
• Circle progression is a chord progression in which the root relationship is a descending fifth.
• Chord movement can be described as progressive (indicating forward motion and often resolution) or retrogressive (indicating backward motion and often increased tension) based on the root movement by specific intervals.
• Chord substitution is the alternate choice of one chord for another, often based on pitch similarities. Substitution can occur by extension of a lower or higher third.

Voice Leading:

• Voice leading is the linear (horizontal) movement of individual melodic lines (voices) within a vertical context of intervals and chords. It considers the pitch tendency of individual scale degrees and aims for smooth connections between chords. Principles of good voice leading include contrary motion (voices moving in opposite directions), oblique motion (one voice stationary), limiting leaps in individual voices, and avoiding parallel perfect fifths and octaves.

Harmonic Function:

• Structural harmonies appear at strategic points in the melody and provide a sense of tonality. Embellishing harmonies are not essential to the tonal establishment and do not provide the primary structural components.
• Chords, like individual notes, possess tendencies and affinities within tonal contexts.

Chromatic Harmony:

• Chromaticism involves the use of notes outside the diatonic scale of the prevailing key.
• Borrowed chords (BCs) are taken from the parallel key of the prevailing music.
• Change-of-quality (CQ) chords are nondiatonic, nonembellishing chords that are not derived from the parallel key.
• Secondary dominants (e.g., V/V) and secondary leading-tone chords (e.g., vii°/V) are chromatic chords that tonicize a diatonic chord other than the tonic.
• The Neapolitan chord (N6) is a chromatic chord, typically a major triad built on the lowered second degree of the scale.
• Augmented sixth chords (German, French, Italian) are chromatic chords containing an augmented sixth interval that resolves outward by half step.

Harmonic Relationships:

• Chord movement can occur through stepwise, mediant, and tritone relationships, which are less conventional than movement by fourths and fifths.
• Planing is the movement of chords in whole or half steps while maintaining a particular voicing. Parallelism maintains chord voicing but is not restricted to whole and half step movement.

Harmonizing a Melody:

• Harmonizing a melody involves selecting appropriate harmonic content to accompany it. This process requires understanding the melody’s style, period, tempo, and intended instrument or voice. Identifying stressed melody notes can help determine suitable structural harmonies, often the tonic (I or i) and dominant (V) chords. Contrary motion between the bass and soprano is often desirable.

Tension and Resolution:

• Harmonic progression is essentially the control of tension and resolution. Consonant intervals and chords tend to be stable, while dissonant intervals and chords often imply a need for resolution.

This overview provides a comprehensive discussion of harmony and chords based on the fundamentals presented in the provided excerpts. The sources delve deeper into each of these concepts in subsequent chapters.

Melody and Musical Structure: An Overview

Melody and Structure

The sources provide a detailed overview of both melody and musical structure, highlighting their components, characteristics, and interrelationships.

Melody

• A melody is defined as a succession of pitches in a linearly and temporally controlled parameter. It normally consists of pitched sounds arranged into units.
• The perception of melody is influenced by cultural conventions, but its quantitative aspects can still be discussed.
• A melody is built upon a hierarchy of units:
• Cells are the tersest groups of notes. An example shows cells with different intervallic modifications.
• Motives are the shortest complete fragments, self-contained melodic ideas that usually occur at least twice and can be modified. It’s not always easy to identify a motive without tracing its occurrences. Examples of motives and their relation to phrases are provided.
• Phrases are units of melodic material comparable to clauses in a sentence. A phrase can sound complete or incomplete and can consist of cells, motives, or both. Cadences, points of arrival achieved by harmonic, melodic, or rhythmic variation, usually delineate phrases. Less significant points of delineation are known as caesuras. Phrases often appear in pairs as antecedent and consequent.
• Melodies appear in various shapes and lengths, often resulting from the culture and epoch of their composition. They can be:
• Derived from conventional scales, modes, and composer-created pitch sequences.
• Terse, moderate, or protracted in length.
• Have wide or compact range (distance between lowest and highest notes) and wide or compact tessitura (location of the majority of notes).
• Involve primarily stepwise (scalar) motion, skipping motion, or primarily leaping motion.
• Diatonic or chromatic.
• Primarily ascending, descending, or level in direction.
• Undulating (wavelike), sawtooth in design, or pointillistic (sparse texture, brief phrases, with angular and widely scattered melodic lines).
• Rhythmically active or calm.
• Combinations of these types.
• Melodic development involves manipulating and developing an initial idea (cell, motive, or phrase) to extend the melodic line. Techniques include:
• Transposition (restatement at a different pitch level).
• Inversion (reversal of melodic intervals).
• Retrograde (statement in reverse order).
• Retrograde inversion (reversal of melody and melodic intervals).
• Augmentation (proportional increase in durational values).
• Diminution (proportional decrease in durational values).
• Interpolation (addition of new melodic material within a motive).
• The accurate identification of melodic components depends on the context. A “wonderful” melody might be difficult to convey autonomously because the performer often relies on other supporting elements. The perception of a group of sounds as a melody depends on fulfilling certain human needs.

Musical Structure

• Musical structure begins with the single note, which possesses characteristics like pitch, duration, intensity, and timbre that can be incorporated into the work’s development.
• Every element of musical notation relates to the structural character of a work, including pitch, time values, chords, rhythm, tempo, texture, dynamics, cells, motives, phrases, periods, and sections. The study of music intrinsically mandates the study of structure.
• Understanding musical structure involves recognizing the relationships among various elements, their similarities or dissimilarities, the repetition or nonrepetition of elements at the micro, meso, and macro levels, and the factors contributing to continuity, cohesiveness, and logic.
• Structural elements exist at different levels:
• Micro level: Includes syntactical components like notes, rests, time values, intervals, chords, and rhythm, as well as signs like ties, slurs, fermatas, repeat signs, and tempo and intensity directives.
• Meso level: Examined in the context of harmonic movement in phrases.
• Macro level: Involves the achievement of the harmonic goal of a section, movement, or entire work.
• Cadences function like punctuation marks in sentences, helping to delineate structural divisions. They contribute to the sense of closure of melodic or thematic segments. Various types of cadences exist.
• Phrases can be combined to form larger structures:
• Periods consist of at least two phrases, often an antecedent and a consequent, evoking a sense of completeness. Types of periods include symmetrical, parallel, double, asymmetrical, and contrasting. The final cadence of a period typically provides resolution.
• Phrase groups consist of at least two similar phrases where no phrase ends with a conclusive cadence.
• Phrase chains consist of three or more dissimilar phrases, none of which ends with a conclusive cadence.
• Two fundamental structures prevalent in Western music are binary and ternary.
• Binary structure is a fundamental foundation for more complex forms. Rounded binary structure is also mentioned.
• Ternary structure satisfies a human condition related to familiarity, defined by the Statement, Departure, Return (SDR) principle.
• Popular song structure typically includes verse, chorus, and bridge.
• Even in improvisation, awareness of structural development is crucial for success.
• The human ear and psyche are determining factors in the conceptual, perceptual, and developmental aspects of music, mandating continuity and coherence in musical structure.

In essence, melody provides the linear progression of musical ideas, built from smaller units into larger phrases, while structure provides the framework and organization for these ideas, grouping phrases into periods and larger sections to create a sense of unity, contrast, and overall form. The interplay between melodic content and structural design is fundamental to the creation and understanding of music.

Understanding Musical Form: An Analysis

Musical form analysis, as suggested by the sources, involves understanding the organization of a musical work at various levels, from the smallest units like notes to larger sections and entire movements. The study of music intrinsically mandates the study of structure.

Key aspects of musical form analysis based on the sources include:

• Identifying structural elements: This involves recognizing and analyzing components such as notes, rests, time values, intervals, chords, rhythm, tempo, texture, dynamics, cells, motives, phrases, periods, and sections. Even a single note, with its characteristics of pitch, duration, intensity, and timbre, can be a structural element.
• Understanding relationships: Form analysis requires recognizing the relationships among these various elements, including their similarities or dissimilarities, and the repetition or nonrepetition of elements at the micro, meso, and macro levels.
• Analyzing melodic structure: Melody is built upon a hierarchy of units: cells (the tersest groups of notes), motives (the shortest complete fragments), and phrases (units comparable to clauses). Identifying how these melodic units are constructed and developed is crucial for understanding form. Melodic development techniques like transposition, inversion, retrograde, retrograde inversion, augmentation, and diminution contribute to the shaping of musical form.
• Recognizing cadences: Cadences, points of arrival delineated by harmonic, melodic, or rhythmic variation, function like punctuation marks, helping to delineate structural divisions and contribute to the sense of closure of melodic or thematic segments.
• Analyzing phrase structure: Phrases can be combined to form larger structures like periods (at least two phrases, often antecedent and consequent, with a sense of completeness) and phrase groups or phrase chains. Understanding the types of periods (symmetrical, parallel, double, asymmetrical, contrasting) and how phrases relate to each other is essential for form analysis.
• Identifying basic formal types: The sources highlight binary and ternary structures as fundamental forms in Western music. Binary structure provides a basic foundation, while ternary structure follows the Statement, Departure, Return (SDR) principle. In popular music, common structures involve verse, chorus, and bridge.
• Considering harmonic progression: The way chords progress (at the micro level), the harmonic movement in phrases (at the meso level), and the achievement of the harmonic goal (at the macro level) are compelling forces in sustaining tension and resolution, thus impacting musical form. Identifying structural harmonies is important.
• Understanding modulation: The process of changing the key of a musical work (modulation) is a significant aspect of form in many compositions. Analyzing the types of modulation (common-chord, chromatic, enharmonic) and their placement helps in understanding the structural design.
• Considering the role of the ear and psyche: The human ear’s need for continuity and coherence shapes musical events and structural organization. The perception of musical structure is influenced by these factors.
• Analyzing structure in improvisation: Even in improvisation, an awareness of structural development is crucial.

Therefore, musical form analysis, according to the sources, is a multifaceted process involving the identification of structural units at different levels, understanding their relationships, and recognizing how these elements contribute to the overall shape and coherence of a musical composition. It considers melodic organization, harmonic movement, cadential punctuation, phrase and period structures, fundamental formal types, and the impact of key changes, all within the context of human perception and the need for musical logic.

Common Practice Music: Foundations and Influence

Drawing on the information provided in the sources, let’s discuss common practice music.

Definition and Historical Context:

Common practice music encompasses musical works written approximately between 1650 and 1875. This period, which includes the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic eras [84, note 1], provided the fundamental principles and practices that have significantly influenced the course of Western music and continue to do so. The majority of discussions and examples in the source material are drawn from this era.

Influence on Later Music:

One of the principal themes observed is that Western music has changed minimally throughout the past several hundred years. The book aims to demonstrate that there is no vast difference between the syntaxes of traditional (common practice) practice and popular music. The elements and syntax of music have remained essentially the same for many centuries. Every element of syntax available in 1700 is still used today; what has changed is the style in which these syntactical elements are employed. The methods and procedures established during the common practice period, when vertical harmony was first introduced, have been the basis for nearly all Western composition in various styles, including Baroque, Classical, Romantic, Impressionist, contemporary, popular, jazz, and rock.

Similarities with Popular Music:

A comparison reveals little, if any, difference in fundamental musical syntax between common practice and popular styles. The structural harmonic content that contributes most to establishing and reinforcing the key center has remained largely unchanged, with the tonic-dominant relationship being prevalent. While chromatic embellishment appears more frequently in popular works, much of it can be traced to common-practice syntax and technique, as seen in the example of tritone substitution, which shows similarities to the Neapolitan chord used in common practice. Similarly, the functional augmented 6th chord in popular music often appears as a half-step embellishment above the dominant, mirroring common practice. Even the uses of voice leading in both styles are quite similar, although modern application might appear less rigid. Suspensions in popular music can also appear in the same manner as in the common-practice genre, though the preparation step may sometimes be absent.

Characteristics and Practices:

• Harmony: Harmonic relationship is a primary structural element in the development of common practice music. The tonic-dominant relationship is a unifying force.
• Voice Leading: The study of voice leading, often presented in chorale style (SATB) that was brought to its most developed stage by J.S. Bach, is essential for understanding music composition, regardless of style. The principles extend beyond chorale style to linear and vertical contexts.
• Melody: Melodies in common practice music, like in other styles, consist of pitched sounds arranged into units like cells, motives, and phrases.
• Structure: Basic structural terms like cell, motive, phrase, period, cadence, section, and movement are prevalent in nearly every style of Western music, with much of this terminology emanating from the common-practice period.
• Cadences: Cadences serve to delineate structural divisions.
• Diatonicism and Chromaticism: While many successful common practice works are primarily diatonic, music has generally evolved chromatically since this period.

Nuances and Differences:

While the fundamental syntax is similar, common practice music is sometimes considered more rigid than jazz, though performers still had the ability to convey personal ideas within the established syntax. Traditional common practice permitted less freedom in the movement of individual voices compared to more modern usage. Modern harmonic structures can exhibit a greater level of dissonance and more complex tertian harmony than typically found in common practice.

In conclusion, common practice music represents a foundational period in Western music history, establishing principles of harmony, voice leading, melody, and structure that continue to resonate in various genres today, including popular music. While musical styles have evolved, the underlying syntactical elements largely have their roots in the common practice era. Understanding common practice is crucial for any aspiring musician as it provides the theoretical background that serves as a foundation for all musical genres.

Harmony and Rhythm Fundamentals: A Study Guide

Quiz

1. Define pitch and explain how it is represented in musical notation.
2. Describe the function of a clef in musical notation and name the four clefs in current use.
3. Explain the difference between simple and compound meter, and provide an example of each time signature.
4. Define nonharmonic tones and list three common types of nonharmonic tones discussed in the text.
5. Describe the construction of a major scale, including the whole and half step pattern.
6. What is a triad, and what are the four qualities of triads discussed in the text?
7. Explain the function of Roman numerals in harmonic analysis within a major key.
8. Define a seventh chord and list the three qualities of seventh intervals mentioned in the text.
9. Explain the concept of tonicization and how secondary dominant chords function within a key.
10. Define modulation in music and describe the difference between modulation and tonicization.

Answer Key

1. Pitch is the highness or lowness of a sound, based on the number of vibrations per second. In musical notation, pitches are represented by note symbols placed on, above, or below a staff.
2. A clef sign determines the location of a particular pitch on the musical staff. The four clefs in current use are the treble (G) clef, bass (F) clef, alto (C) clef, and tenor (C) clef.
3. Simple meter has beats that are divided into two equal parts, while compound meter has beats that are divided into three equal parts. An example of simple meter is 4/4, and an example of compound meter is 6/8.
4. Nonharmonic tones are pitches that are not part of the underlying chord at a given moment. Three common types are passing tones (stepwise motion between chord tones), neighboring tones (stepwise motion away from and back to a chord tone), and appoggiaturas (approached by leap, resolved by step).
5. A major scale consists of a specific pattern of whole and half steps: whole, whole, half, whole, whole, whole, half. For example, the C major scale is C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C.
6. A triad is a harmonic structure consisting of three pitches, each belonging to a different letter class, typically formed by stacking two intervals of a third. The four qualities are major, minor, diminished, and augmented.
7. In harmonic analysis of a major key, Roman numerals represent chords built on each scale degree. Upper-case numerals indicate major triads, lower-case indicate minor triads, lower-case with a degree sign indicate diminished triads, and upper-case with a plus sign indicate augmented triads.
8. A seventh chord is a chord consisting of a triad with an added seventh interval above the root. The three qualities of seventh intervals mentioned are major seventh, minor seventh, and diminished seventh.
9. Tonicization is the momentary emphasis of a key center without fully establishing a new key. Secondary dominant chords are dominant chords (V or V7) built on scale degrees other than the tonic, used to create a temporary pull towards the chord they precede.
10. Modulation is a change of key center within a musical work that is firmly established. Tonicization is a temporary emphasis on a chord other than the tonic, while modulation involves a more permanent shift to a new tonal center.

Essay Format Questions

1. Discuss the interconnectedness of rhythm and melody as fundamental elements in musical structure, providing specific examples of how rhythmic patterns can influence the perception and character of a melodic line.
2. Trace the evolution of harmonic language from the basic triad to more complex seventh and extended chords, explaining how these developments expanded the expressive possibilities in Western music.
3. Analyze the functions and resolutions of diminished chords (vii°, vii°7, viiø7) within tonal harmony, detailing their role in creating tension and directing harmonic motion towards points of stability.
4. Compare and contrast the concepts of modulation and key regionalization, discussing the techniques composers employ to create a sense of a new tonal area and the factors that determine whether a true modulation has occurred.
5. Explore the various types and functions of nonharmonic tones in melodic and harmonic contexts, explaining how they contribute to musical interest, embellishment, and the creation of melodic contour.

Glossary of Key Terms

• Accidental: A symbol (sharp, flat, natural) that alters the pitch of a note.
• Alto Clef (C Clef): A clef that places middle C on the third line of the staff.
• Anacrusis: One or more unstressed notes at the beginning of a musical phrase that lead into the downbeat.
• Appoggiatura: A nonharmonic tone approached by a leap and resolved by a step, often occurring on a strong beat.
• Augmented Triad: A triad consisting of a root, a major third, and an augmented fifth.
• Bass Clef (F Clef): A clef that places F below middle C on the fourth line of the staff.
• Beat: The basic rhythmic unit in music, often felt as a pulse.
• Borrowed Chord: A chord from a parallel key (major or minor with the same tonic) used in the current key.
• Cadence: A harmonic or melodic point of rest or closure at the end of a musical phrase, section, or piece.
• Chromaticism: The use of notes outside the diatonic scale of the prevailing key.
• Clef: A musical symbol placed at the beginning of a staff to indicate the pitches of the lines and spaces.
• Common Time: Another term for 4/4 time signature.
• Compound Meter: A meter in which the beat is divisible by three.
• Consonance: Intervals or chords that sound stable and agreeable.
• Diatonic: Notes, intervals, or chords that belong to the prevailing key.
• Diminished Triad: A triad consisting of a root, a minor third, and a diminished fifth.
• Dissonance: Intervals or chords that sound unstable and create tension, often requiring resolution.
• Dominant: The fifth degree of a scale. Also refers to the chord built on the fifth degree.
• Enharmonic: Two different spellings of the same pitch (e.g., C# and Db).
• Grand Staff: A combination of the treble and bass staves, commonly used for piano music.
• Half Step: The smallest interval in Western music, the distance between two adjacent keys on a piano keyboard (including black keys).
• Harmonic Minor Scale: A minor scale with a raised seventh degree.
• Key: The tonal center of a piece of music, identified by a tonic pitch and a characteristic scale.
• Ledger Lines: Short lines added above or below the staff to extend its range.
• Major Scale: A diatonic scale with the pattern whole-whole-half-whole-whole-whole-half steps.
• Major Triad: A triad consisting of a root, a major third, and a perfect fifth.
• Measure: A segment of music contained between two bar lines.
• Melody: A sequence of single notes that is musically satisfying.
• Meter: The organization of musical time into regular patterns of stressed and unstressed beats.
• Minor Scale: A diatonic scale with several variations; the natural minor has the pattern whole-half-whole-whole-half-whole-whole steps.
• Minor Triad: A triad consisting of a root, a minor third, and a perfect fifth.
• Modulation: The process of changing from one key to another in a musical composition.
• Motive: A short, recurring musical idea.
• Natural Minor Scale: A minor scale with the pattern whole-half-whole-whole-half-whole-whole steps.
• Nonharmonic Tone: A note that is not a member of the chord occurring at a particular moment.
• Passing Tone: A nonharmonic tone that moves stepwise between two chord tones.
• Pedal Tone: A sustained note, typically in the bass, over which harmonies change.
• Phrase: A musical unit that forms a complete musical thought, often ending with a cadence.
• Pitch: The highness or lowness of a sound.
• Relative Minor: The minor key that shares the same key signature as a major key; its tonic is the sixth degree of the major scale.
• Rest: A symbol indicating a period of silence in music.
• Retardation: A nonharmonic tone that is held over from a consonant chord and resolves upward by step to another consonant chord.
• Rhythm: The organization of musical sounds and silences in time.
• Scale: A series of pitches arranged in ascending or descending order.
• Secondary Dominant: A dominant chord (V or V7) that functions to tonicize a chord other than the tonic.
• Seventh Chord: A chord consisting of a triad plus a seventh interval above the root.
• Sharp: An accidental (#) that raises a note by a half step.
• Simple Meter: A meter in which the beat is divisible by two.
• Staff: A set of five horizontal lines and four spaces on which musical notes are written.
• Subdominant: The fourth degree of a scale. Also refers to the chord built on the fourth degree.
• Submediant: The sixth degree of a scale. Also refers to the chord built on the sixth degree.
• Supertonic: The second degree of a scale. Also refers to the chord built on the second degree.
• Suspension: A nonharmonic tone that is held over from a consonant chord and resolves downward by step to another consonant chord.
• Tempo: The speed at which music is performed.
• Tenor Clef (C Clef): A clef that places middle C on the fourth line of the staff.
• Tetrachord: A series of four notes with a specific pattern of whole and half steps.
• Tonic: The first and most stable degree of a scale; the tonal center of a key. Also refers to the chord built on the first degree.
• Tonicization: The momentary emphasis of a key center by the use of secondary dominants or leading-tone chords.
• Treble Clef (G Clef): A clef that places G above middle C on the second line of the staff.
• Triad: A three-note chord consisting of a root, a third, and a fifth.
• Whole Step: An interval consisting of two half steps, the distance between two white keys on a piano keyboard with one black key in between.

Briefing Document: Music Theory Concepts

This briefing document summarizes key concepts from the provided text, focusing on fundamental elements of music theory including pitch, rhythm, scales, harmony (triads, seventh chords), melodic construction, musical structure, chromaticism (secondary dominants, diminished chords, Neapolitan and augmented sixth chords), extended harmony (ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords), harmonic movement, and modulation.

I. Fundamentals of Pitch Notation and Rhythm:

• Musical Alphabet and Pitch: The Western musical alphabet consists of A-B-C-D-E-F-G, each representing a pitch, which is the “highness or lowness of a sound, based on the number of vibrations per second.”
• Staff and Clefs: Pitches are placed on a five-line staff with four spaces. Ledger lines extend the staff. A clef sign determines the location of specific pitches. The four main clefs are treble (G), bass (F), alto (C on the third line), and tenor (C on the fourth line). The grand staff combines the treble and bass clefs.
• Note Values and Rhythm: Rhythm encompasses all elements of duration in music and is considered the “most basic and important element in the structure of music.” Note heads, stems, and flags represent different note values. Eighth notes and shorter durations can be beamed or flagged.
• Meter: Meter refers to the grouping of beats in a measure, indicated by a time signature. Simple meters have beats divisible by two, while compound meters have beats divisible by three (often felt as groupings of three within a larger beat unit). For example, “in the literal interpretation of 6/8, for example, six beats occur in each measure and the eighth note receives one beat. However, at fast tempi it is common to group sets of three beats into beat units. In 6/8, then, beats 1, 2, and 3 are combined to form the first beat unit, and beats 4, 5, and 6 form the second beat unit. Thus, 6/8 is interpreted in ‘two’ (compound duple meter).”
• Tempo and Pulse: These terms relate to the speed and underlying beat of the music, respectively.
• The Half-Beat Concept: A beat can be divided into two equal halves, a “down” and an “up” part, representing a binary event in the temporal organization of music. “For any of these methods a beat consists of only two parts—the ‘down’ part of the beat and the ‘up’ part; thus, a beat is a binary event.”
• Syncopation and Anacrusis: Syncopation involves the displacement of the normal accent, while an anacrusis is a pickup note or notes before the first strong beat of a phrase.

II. Scales, Keys, and Modes:

• Scales: A scale is a series of pitches in ascending or descending order, usually within an alphabetical distance of three letters between successive pitches. Major and minor scales are predominant.
• Major and Minor Scales: The text outlines the whole and half step patterns for major, natural minor (1 – ½ – 1 – 1 – ½ – 1 – 1), harmonic minor (1 – ½ – 1 – 1 – ½ – 1½ – ½), and melodic minor (1 – ½ – 1 – 1 – 1 – 1 – ½).
• Relative Minor: Every major scale has a relative minor that begins on the sixth degree of the major scale and shares the same key signature.
• Other Scales: The text briefly mentions the blues scale (major scale with lowered third and seventh, often with a raised fourth), diminished scale (alternating whole and half steps), whole-tone scale, and pentatonic scale.
• Tetrachords: Major scales can be divided into two tetrachords (four-note groups) which are crucial in understanding key relationships and key signatures. The second tetrachord of a major scale is the first tetrachord of the major scale a perfect fifth above.
• Key Signatures: Sharps or flats at the beginning of the staff indicate the key of the music, defining which notes are consistently raised or lowered.
• Enharmonic Equivalents: Different note names that represent the same pitch (e.g., E# and F natural).

III. Intervals:

• Determining Intervals: Intervals are the distance between two pitches. They are calculated by considering the alphabetical distance and then the specific number of half steps. “When determining an interval, it is helpful to calculate the distance between the notes by considering the major key of the lower note.”
• Interval Qualities: Intervals can be major, minor, perfect, augmented, or diminished, depending on their size in half steps relative to the major scale of the lower note.

IV. Triads:

• Definition: A triad is a “harmonic structure consisting of three pitches each belonging to a different letter class.” It is typically formed by stacking two intervallic thirds. The notes are the root, third, and fifth.
• Triad Qualities: There are four types of triads:
• Major: Root, major third, perfect fifth.
• Minor: Root, minor third, perfect fifth. “If the first 3rd (which is a major 3rd) of a major triad is decreased by a half step, thus resulting in a minor 3rd, the triad becomes minor.”
• Diminished: Root, minor third, diminished fifth. “If the second 3rd is also decreased, thereby creating another minor 3rd, the triad is smaller still, hence resulting in a diminished triad.”
• Augmented: Root, major third, augmented fifth. “Reverting back to the major triad, if the second 3rd is increased by a half step, thereby creating two major 3rds, the resultant triad is larger in intervallic distance than the major triad and hence is augmented.”
• Numerical Designation (Roman Numerals): Roman numerals are used in analysis to represent triads built on each scale degree. Upper-case indicates major, lower-case indicates minor, lower-case with a degree sign (°) indicates diminished, and upper-case with a plus sign (+) indicates augmented.
• Primary and Secondary Triads: Primary triads are built on the tonic (I), subdominant (IV), and dominant (V). Secondary triads are built on the supertonic (ii), mediant (iii), submediant (vi), and leading tone (vii°).
• Inversions and Spacing: The order of the notes in a triad (root position, first inversion, second inversion) and their spacing affect the sound.
• Chord Symbols in Popular Music: Letters and symbols (e.g., Cmaj, Dmin, G7) are used to indicate chords in popular music.

V. Seventh Chords:

• Definition: A seventh chord consists of a triad with an added seventh above the root.
• Types of Seventh Chords: The quality of the triad and the quality of the seventh determine the type of seventh chord (e.g., major seventh, minor seventh, dominant seventh, half-diminished seventh, fully diminished seventh). “Essentially, three qualities of 7th intervals above a given root are possible: a major seventh interval… a minor seventh interval… and a diminished seventh interval…”
• Numerical Designation (Arabic Numerals): Arabic numerals are added to the Roman numerals to indicate inversions of seventh chords (e.g., V⁷ in root position, V⁶⁵ in first inversion, V⁴³ in second inversion, V² in third inversion).
• Dominant and Nondominant Seventh Chords: Dominant seventh chords (typically V⁷) have a specific function leading to the tonic. Nondominant seventh chords occur on other scale degrees.
• Tritone Interval: The interval between the third and seventh of a dominant seventh chord (and other seventh chords) creates dissonance and a strong tendency to resolve. “The interval that creates the dominant character is the tritone.”

VI. Pitch Tendency and Voice Leading:

• Pitch Tendency: Notes within a scale have a natural tendency to move towards other notes, particularly towards the tonic. “Upon hearing a major scale played from tonic… the first and last note, and especially the last, reinforce the gravitational pull and the final repose of the other notes; the tonic provides the resolution of the entire scalar sequence.” The leading tone has a strong upward tendency, while the seventh of a dominant chord has a strong downward tendency.
• Resolution of Dominant Seventh Chords: Specific voice-leading guidelines exist for resolving dominant seventh chords to the tonic chord to create smooth and effective voice leading.
• Resolution of Leading-Tone Diminished Chords: Leading-tone diminished chords also have specific resolution tendencies, usually moving to the tonic chord.

VII. Chord Relationships and Substitution:

• Chord Relationships: Chords can be related if they share common tones or if one chord can imply another. For example, the B diminished triad contains notes found in the D minor and G dominant seventh chords.
• Chord Substitution: Composers can substitute one chord for another if they share a similar function or contain common tones. This adds variety and interest to harmonic progressions.

VIII. Musical Function and Progression:

• Three Levels of Musical Function: These are not explicitly defined in the excerpts but relate to the role of chords in creating tension, stability, and direction within a musical piece.
• Chord Selection: Composers choose chords based on factors such as melodic contour, desired harmonic color, and the overall structure of the piece. “How does a composer decide on chord selection? The gravitational tendencies of chords is a result of their ____________.” (The answer would be “constituent pitches” or similar based on the context of pitch tendency).
• Progressive and Retrogressive Movement: These terms describe the direction of root movement in chord progressions based on intervals like descending fifths/ascending fourths (progressive) and ascending fifths/descending fourths (retrogressive).

IX. Nonharmonic Tones:

• Definition: Nonharmonic tones are pitches that do not belong to the underlying chord. They are used to create melodic interest and embellishment. “Describe nonharmonic tones in general. Mention several determining factors in the assessment of whether or not a tone is nonharmonic. A note or tone cannot be labeled as harmonic or nonharmonic unless it is supported by or is in a ____________.” (The answer would be “chord”).
• Types of Nonharmonic Tones: The text lists and briefly describes nine types:
• Passing Tone (PT): Moves stepwise between two chord tones.
• Neighboring Tone (NT): Steps away from and back to a chord tone.
• Appoggiatura (APP): Approached by leap and resolves stepwise. “‘Leaning,’ and this nonharmonic tone is characterized by its tendency to lean toward the note of resolution. The appoggiatura is normally approached by leap… and resolves by step.”
• Escape Tone (ET): Approached stepwise and resolves by leap in the opposite direction.
• Suspension (SUS): Prepared by being held over from a previous chord tone, creating dissonance, and then resolving downward stepwise.
• Retardation (RET): Similar to a suspension but resolves upward stepwise.
• Anticipation (ANT): Appears before the chord tone it anticipates.
• Free Tone (FT): Not approached or left by step.
• Pedal Tone: A sustained or repeated note, usually in the bass, while harmonies above change.
• Organ Point: Similar to a pedal tone but can occur in any voice.
• Cambiata (Changing Tones): A pattern of two nonharmonic tones moving stepwise and then by a skip.

X. Melody:

• Definition: Melody is a linear succession of pitches that create a musical idea.
• Melodic Components: The hierarchy of melodic construction includes cells (the smallest identifiable musical idea), motives (the “shortest complete fragment” that recurs and can be modified), and phrases (larger musical units often delineated by cadences). “A motive is defined as the shortest complete fragment.”
• Phrases and Cadences: Phrases often come in antecedent-consequent pairs. Cadences are “points of arrival in the flow of the music, achieved by harmonic, melodic, or rhythmic variation.”
• Sequence: A melodic pattern repeated at different pitch levels.
• Thematic Development: Melodies can be developed through techniques like repetition, variation, and augmentation.

XI. Musical Structure:

• Micro, Meso, and Macro Levels: These terms refer to the small-scale (motives, phrases), medium-scale (sections), and large-scale (movements, entire pieces) structural levels of music.
• Cadences: Different types of cadences (perfect authentic, imperfect authentic, semicadence, plagal, deceptive, Phrygian, Landini) create varying degrees of closure. “Which cadence provides the highest degree of closure? Perfect authentic cadence.”
• Musical Forms: The text mentions binary (two-part), rounded binary, and ternary (three-part) structures.
• Modulation: A change of key center within a musical work.

XII. Chromaticism and Altered Chords:

• Secondary Dominants: Chromatic chords that function as dominant chords leading to diatonic chords other than the tonic. “To facilitate an understanding of the derivation of a secondary dominant, one should consider the resolution of the secondary dominant as tonicizing the resultant chord of resolution. The term tonicize means to suggest a new key center without actually establishing one.” They are labeled as V/X (dominant of X).
• Diminished Chords: Possess a strong tendency for motion due to the tritone interval(s) they contain. They can function as leading-tone chords to various diatonic chords. “Diminished-chord structures are perhaps the most active and unstable elements in the harmonic vocabulary.”
• Neapolitan Chord (N⁶): A major triad built on the lowered second degree of a major or minor scale, typically appearing in first inversion.
• Augmented Sixth Chords (Italian 6th, French 6th, German 6th): Chromatic chords containing an augmented sixth interval, with a strong tendency to resolve to a dominant chord. The different types have distinct intervallic structures. “The augmented 6th interval in the augmented 6th chord resolves ____________.” (The answer is “outward by a half step”).

XIII. Extended Harmony (Ninth, Eleventh, and Thirteenth Chords):

• Construction: These chords are formed by adding further tertian intervals above the seventh.
• Qualities and Usage: Different qualities of ninths, elevenths, and thirteenths exist, with varying degrees of common usage. Altered upper partials (sharpened or flattened) create additional chord possibilities. “Upper-partial chords that utilize altered scale degrees are referred to as ____________ types.” (The answer is “altered”).
• Chord Symbols: Specific symbols are used to denote these extended chords.
• Embedded Harmonic Structures: Extended chords can contain implied triads or seventh chords within their upper partials.

XIV. Harmonic Movement:

• Stepwise, Mediant, and Symmetrical Movement: These describe different types of root movement between chords.
• Planing and Parallelism: Techniques involving the parallel movement of voices or harmonic structures.

XV. Modulation:

• Definition: A “change of key center.” This is distinct from tonicization (suggesting a key) and key regionalization (prolonging a non-tonic key).
• Types of Modulation: The text discusses common-chord (diatonic), chromatic, and enharmonic modulation.
• Pivot Chords: Chords common to both the original and the new key used as a link in modulation.
• Augmented Sixths as Pivots: Augmented sixth chords can be respelled enharmonically to function as dominant seventh chords, facilitating modulation to different keys.

XVI. Tension and Resolution:

• Consonance and Dissonance: These concepts relate to the stability and instability of musical sounds, affecting the perception of tension and resolution.
• Secundal, Quartal, and Quintal Harmony: Alternatives to traditional tertian harmony, built on intervals of seconds, fourths, and fifths, respectively, often creating different types of tension.

XVII. Remote Key Relationships:

• Diminished Seventh Chords and Modulation: Fully diminished seventh chords have a unique ability to modulate to remote keys due to their symmetrical structure and multiple enharmonic spellings. “The Dο7 spelling can be altered to accommodate any inclusive pitch as a leading tone, and, also, any pitch altered enharmonically.”
• Implied Roots: Through enharmonic respelling and considering intervallic relationships, remotely related implied roots can be discovered, leading to unexpected harmonic connections.

This briefing document provides a foundational overview of the music theory concepts presented in the source material. Further detailed study of the examples and exercises would be necessary for a complete understanding of each topic.

Fundamentals of Pitch and Notation

1. What is the fundamental definition of pitch in Western music, and how are pitches visually represented on a musical staff? Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of a sound, determined by the frequency of vibrations per second. In Western music, pitches are represented by note symbols placed on, above, or below a staff, which consists of five horizontal lines and four spaces. The musical alphabet (A-G) is used to name these pitches. Ledger lines are used to extend the range of the staff.
2. Explain the purpose and function of clef signs on a musical staff, and describe the four main clefs currently in use. A clef sign is placed at the beginning of a musical staff to determine the specific pitches represented by the lines and spaces. The four clefs in current use are: the treble (or G) clef, which locates the pitch G on the second line from the bottom; the bass (or F) clef, which locates F on the fourth line from the bottom; the alto (or C) clef, which places middle C on the third line; and the tenor (or C) clef, which places middle C on the fourth line. The C clef is movable. The grand staff combines the treble and bass staves, typically used for piano music.
3. How do sharps, flats, double sharps, double flats, and natural signs alter the pitch of a note? These symbols, known as accidentals, are placed before a notehead to alter its pitch. A sharp (#) raises the pitch of a note by a half step, while a flat (♭) lowers it by a half step. A double sharp (## or x) raises the pitch by a whole step, and a double flat (♭♭) lowers it by a whole step. A natural sign (♮) cancels the effect of a previously applied sharp or flat, returning the note to its original pitch.

Rhythm and Meter

1. Define rhythm in music, and explain its fundamental importance. What are some basic elements of musical duration discussed in the chapter? Rhythm, derived from the Greek word for “flow,” is the broad term encompassing all elements of musical duration. It is arguably the most basic and important element of music, as music is conceived, perceived, and experienced in time. The chapter examines the “micro” portion of rhythm, including concepts like beat, tempo (the speed of the pulse), meter (the grouping of beats), and pulse (the underlying steady beat).
2. Distinguish between simple and compound meter. How are time signatures used to indicate these different types of meter? Simple meter features beats that are normally divided into two equal parts (e.g., quarter note divides into two eighth notes). Common time signatures in simple meter include 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. Compound meter features beats that are normally divided into three equal parts (e.g., a dotted quarter note divides into three eighth notes). Time signatures in compound meter often appear with an upper number of 6, 9, or 12 (e.g., 6/8, 9/8, 12/8), where the upper number indicates the number of divisions per measure, and the lower number indicates the note value of one division.
3. Explain the concept of the “half-beat” and its significance in understanding rhythm. What is the binary nature of a beat? The “half-beat” concept, as proposed by Tobias Matthay, highlights the binary nature of a single beat. A complete beat can be divided into two equal halves: the “down” part and the “up” part. This binary understanding is fundamental to how we count and feel rhythmic subdivisions within a beat, whether done verbally, by tapping, with a metronome, or through a conductor’s gestures.

Harmony: Triads and Seventh Chords

1. Define a triad and describe its basic structure. What are the four qualities of triads, and how are they determined? A triad is a harmonic structure consisting of three different pitches, each belonging to a different letter class, typically stacked in intervals of a third. The lowest note is the root, the second is the third, and the highest is the fifth. The four triad qualities are major, minor, diminished, and augmented. These qualities are determined by the specific intervals (major or minor thirds) between the root, third, and fifth of the triad.
2. What is a seventh chord, and how does it differ from a triad? Describe the basic types of seventh chords that can be formed on the degrees of a major scale. A seventh chord is a harmonic structure consisting of four pitches stacked in intervals of a third. It includes a root, a third, a fifth, and a seventh above the root. Unlike a triad, it has an additional seventh factor. On the degrees of a major scale, various types of seventh chords can be formed, including major seventh (I7, IV7), minor seventh (ii7, iii7, vi7), dominant seventh (V7), and half-diminished seventh (viiø7). The specific quality of each seventh chord is determined by the qualities of the constituent thirds and the overall interval of the seventh from the root.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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