Month: April 2025

  • The Simple Science of Effective Fat Burning

    The Simple Science of Effective Fat Burning

    The provided text explains that body fat accumulation is primarily due to excess energy intake, not specifically dietary fat, and the body stores this excess as fat efficiently. Insulin, a hormone, is essential for fat storage, and consistently high insulin levels, often triggered by frequent consumption of carbohydrates, can lead to insulin resistance and hinder fat burning. Adopting a lifestyle more aligned with our ancestors, including consuming whole, unprocessed foods and engaging in regular movement with occasional high-intensity bursts, can help regulate insulin and promote fat utilization. This ancestral approach emphasizes eating fewer meals and prioritizing nutrient-dense, minimally processed foods, shifting away from the modern prevalence of refined carbohydrates, sugars, and processed items. Managing stress and ensuring adequate electrolyte intake, particularly when making dietary changes, are also highlighted as important aspects of overall metabolic health and fat burning.

    Study Guide: The Easiest Way to Burn Fat

    Key Concepts

    • Energy Storage: Excess energy from food, regardless of the source (carbs, fat, protein), is stored in the body as fat.
    • Insulin’s Role: Insulin is a crucial hormone for storing fat. Without insulin, the body cannot effectively store fat, even with high blood glucose levels (as seen in Type 1 diabetes). Insulin acts as a “key” to allow glucose to enter cells for energy use or storage.
    • Natural vs. Unnatural Eating Patterns: Natural patterns, based on ancestral hunter-gatherer diets, likely involved fewer, less frequent meals. Modern eating patterns often involve frequent meals and snacks, leading to constant insulin release.
    • Insulin Resistance: Chronically elevated insulin levels can lead to insulin resistance, where cells become less responsive to insulin. This results in higher baseline insulin levels and metabolic issues.
    • Fat Burning and Insulin: High insulin levels block the body’s ability to burn stored fat. To burn fat, insulin levels need to decrease.
    • Carbohydrates and Insulin: Carbohydrates have the most significant impact on raising blood sugar and, consequently, insulin levels, compared to protein and fat.
    • Fat Adaptation: Reducing carbohydrate intake allows the body to become “fat-adapted,” meaning it can efficiently use fat for fuel. This leads to more stable energy levels and reduced hunger.
    • Ancestral Diet as a Reference: The dietary patterns of early humans (Homo sapiens) are a relevant reference point due to the high degree of genetic similarity and the long evolutionary history adapted to those food sources.
    • Modern Processed Foods: Foods high in white flour, sugar, and seed oils are considered “non-foods” as they lack essential nutrients and disrupt metabolic balance.
    • The Triad of Health: Optimal health involves three interconnected aspects: eating better (nutrition), moving better (physical activity), and thinking better (stress management).
    • Types of Movement: Ancestral movement likely involved significant low-intensity aerobic activity (walking) and brief periods of high-intensity interval training (sprinting). Chronic stress, in contrast, can negatively impact digestion and overall health.
    • Electrolyte Balance: As insulin levels drop during dietary changes (like reducing carbs), the body may excrete more electrolytes, potentially leading to temporary symptoms.

    Quiz

    1. Explain why the statement “eating fat makes you fat” is inaccurate according to the source.
    2. Describe the role of insulin in fat storage and how this is illustrated by the example of Type 1 diabetes.
    3. Contrast the likely eating patterns of our hunter-gatherer ancestors with typical modern eating habits.
    4. Explain how frequent blood sugar spikes and consistently high insulin levels can lead to insulin resistance.
    5. Why does the source suggest that reducing carbohydrate intake is key to promoting fat burning?
    6. What does it mean to be “fat-adapted,” and what are the benefits of this metabolic state?
    7. Why are the eating habits of early humans considered a relevant reference point for modern diets?
    8. According to the source, what are the primary components of “non-foods” that negatively impact metabolic health?
    9. Briefly describe the three components of the “Triad of Health” as presented in the source.
    10. Explain why electrolyte supplementation might be necessary when transitioning to a lower-carbohydrate diet or during fasting.

    Quiz Answer Key

    1. The statement is inaccurate because fat itself is a natural fuel for the body. Weight gain occurs due to excess energy from any type of food (carbs, fat, or protein) that is not used by the body and is subsequently stored as fat.
    2. Insulin is a hormone that enables the body to store fat. It acts as a key that allows glucose from the bloodstream to enter cells, where excess energy can be converted and stored as fat. In Type 1 diabetes, the body cannot produce insulin, so even with high blood sugar, fat storage is severely impaired, leading to weight loss and potential starvation.
    3. Hunter-gatherer ancestors likely had fewer meals per day, possibly one or two large meals with periods of fasting in between, driven by the availability of hunted or gathered food. Modern eating habits often involve multiple meals and snacks throughout the day, leading to more frequent blood sugar and insulin spikes.
    4. Frequent consumption of food, especially carbohydrates, leads to repeated spikes in blood sugar and insulin release. Over time, this chronic overstimulation causes cells to become less responsive to insulin, resulting in higher baseline insulin levels and a state of insulin resistance.
    5. Carbohydrates have the most significant impact on raising blood sugar levels, which in turn triggers a substantial insulin response. Because insulin blocks fat burning, reducing carbohydrate intake lowers insulin levels, allowing the body to access and burn stored fat for energy.
    6. Being “fat-adapted” means that the body has become efficient at using fat as its primary fuel source due to a lower and more stable carbohydrate intake. The benefits include more stable energy levels, reduced hunger and cravings, and the ability to readily burn stored body fat.
    7. The eating habits of early humans are a relevant reference point because their DNA is over 99.9% identical to modern human DNA. This means we have the same enzymes designed to digest and utilize the types of foods they consumed for hundreds of thousands of years before the introduction of modern processed foods.
    8. The primary components of “non-foods” that negatively impact metabolic health are white flour, sugar, and seed oils. These ingredients lack essential nutrients, cause rapid blood sugar spikes, disrupt metabolic balance, and contribute to overeating.
    9. The Triad of Health consists of three interconnected aspects for achieving optimal health: “eat better,” which focuses on consuming nutrient-dense whole foods; “move better,” emphasizing regular physical activity; and “think better,” addressing emotional well-being and stress reduction.
    10. When transitioning to a lower-carbohydrate diet or during fasting, insulin levels decrease. High insulin levels tend to cause the body to retain sodium and electrolytes. As insulin drops, the kidneys may excrete more of these electrolytes before the body re-establishes balance, potentially leading to symptoms like fatigue or lightheadedness.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Discuss the evolutionary perspective presented in the source regarding human dietary needs and the implications for modern eating habits.
    2. Analyze the relationship between insulin, carbohydrate intake, and fat storage/burning as explained in the source.
    3. Evaluate the concept of “natural” versus “unnatural” eating patterns and their potential impact on metabolic health, drawing upon the information provided.
    4. Critically assess the source’s recommendations for dietary and lifestyle changes to promote fat burning and overall health, considering the rationale behind each suggestion.
    5. Explore the concept of insulin resistance as described in the text, including its causes, consequences, and the proposed strategies for reversing it.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels by allowing glucose to enter cells for energy or storage. It is also a key hormone in fat storage.
    • Glucose: A simple sugar that is the primary source of energy for the body. It is derived from the digestion of carbohydrates.
    • Metabolic Activity: The chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life, including energy production, nutrient processing, and building of tissues.
    • Insulin Resistance: A condition in which the body’s cells become less responsive to the effects of insulin, leading to higher blood sugar and insulin levels.
    • Dysregulation: A disruption or imbalance in a biological system or process, such as the body’s natural regulation of hunger and satiety.
    • Homo sapiens: The species of bipedal primates to which modern humans belong, having evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago.
    • Enzymes: Proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up chemical reactions in the body, such as the digestion of food.
    • Hunter-Gatherers: Societies in which food is obtained by foraging (gathering wild plants) and hunting wild animals, rather than by agriculture.
    • Metabolically Healthy: A state in which the body’s metabolic processes, such as blood sugar regulation and energy utilization, are functioning optimally.
    • Satiety: The feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating, which suppresses further hunger.
    • Counter-Survival: Behaviors or conditions that act against the body’s natural drive for survival and can lead to negative health outcomes.
    • Ketogenic: A very low-carbohydrate, high-fat diet that forces the body to produce ketones for energy.
    • Ketosis: A metabolic state in which the body breaks down fat into ketones, which are then used as a primary source of energy.
    • Low-Carb, High-Fat (LCHF): A dietary approach that restricts carbohydrate intake while increasing the consumption of fats.
    • Net Carbohydrates: The total carbohydrates in a food minus the fiber content, as fiber is not significantly digested by the body.
    • Satiety: The feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating.
    • Fat Adaptation: The process by which the body becomes more efficient at using fat as its primary source of energy.
    • Triad of Health: The interconnected aspects of eating better, moving better, and thinking better for optimal health.
    • Whole Foods: Foods in their natural, unprocessed, or minimally processed state.
    • Non-Foods: A term used in the source to describe highly processed foods that lack essential nutrients and disrupt metabolic health (e.g., foods high in white flour, sugar, and seed oils).
    • Paleo Diet (Ancestral Diet): A dietary approach based on foods believed to have been available to early humans during the Paleolithic era.
    • Legumes: Plants in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or their fruits or seeds, such as beans, lentils, and peas.
    • Microbiome: The community of microorganisms (such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses) that inhabit a particular environment, especially the gut.
    • Aerobic Activity: Physical activity that uses oxygen to fuel the body and is typically low to moderate in intensity and sustained over a longer period.
    • High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): A form of exercise that involves short bursts of intense activity interspersed with periods of rest or lower-intensity activity.
    • Chronic Stress: Prolonged or persistent stress that can have negative impacts on physical and mental health.
    • Hydrochloric Acid: A strong acid produced in the stomach that aids in digestion.
    • Apple Cider Vinegar: A type of vinegar made from fermented apple juice, sometimes used to support digestion.
    • Medium-Chain Triglycerides (MCT Oil): A type of fat that is easily digested and absorbed by the body, providing a quick source of energy without significantly raising blood sugar.
    • Electrolytes: Minerals in the body that have an electric charge and are important for many bodily functions, including hydration, nerve signaling, and muscle contraction (e.g., sodium, potassium, magnesium).

    Briefing Document: “Absolute Easiest Way To Burn Fat”

    Source: Excerpts from “01.pdf”

    Overview:

    This document summarizes the main themes and important ideas presented in the provided excerpts from “01.pdf” regarding fat burning. The central argument revolves around the body’s natural mechanisms for energy storage and utilization, emphasizing the critical role of insulin and the impact of modern dietary and lifestyle habits on these processes. The source advocates for aligning our eating and movement patterns with those of our ancestors to restore metabolic balance and facilitate natural fat burning.

    Main Themes and Key Ideas:

    1. Fat Storage is Primarily Driven by Excess Energy and Insulin, Not Dietary Fat:
    • The source refutes the common misconception that eating fat directly leads to body fat. Instead, it asserts that excess energy from any type of food is stored as fat.
    • The crucial element for fat storage is the hormone insulin: “The first thing that we need to understand is that you cannot store fat; you cannot make fat without a hormone called insulin. It’s a fat-storing hormone.”
    • Type 1 diabetics, who cannot produce insulin, do not gain weight despite high blood sugar, illustrating insulin’s necessity for fat storage.
    1. Insulin Facilitates Glucose Entry into Cells:
    • Insulin acts as a “key” to allow glucose from the bloodstream to enter cells, where it can be used for energy or stored.
    • Without sufficient insulin (as in Type 1 diabetes) or in cases of insulin resistance, glucose remains in the bloodstream, leading to energy deprivation at the cellular level.
    • Insulin is not inherently “evil” but needs to be in balance for proper metabolic function.
    1. Modern Lifestyle Disrupts Natural Eating and Movement Patterns:
    • Our bodies are designed for periods of eating followed by periods of fasting, allowing for energy storage and subsequent burning.
    • Ancestral hunter-gatherer patterns likely involved less frequent eating and more movement to obtain food.
    • The modern habit of frequent eating and reduced physical activity disrupts the natural balance of hunger, satiety, and insulin regulation.
    1. Frequent Eating Leads to Elevated Insulin and Insulin Resistance:
    • Every time we eat, blood sugar rises, triggering insulin release. Frequent meals cause frequent and large insulin spikes.
    • Chronically elevated insulin levels lead to insulin resistance, where cells become less responsive to insulin’s signals.
    • “Whenever something is really high chronically, your cells start resisting it. Your body adapts by creating insulin resistance.”
    1. High Insulin Blocks Fat Burning:
    • Insulin is a fat-storing hormone, and its presence inhibits the body’s ability to access and burn stored fat.
    • “High insulin blocks fat burning because insulin is a fat-storing hormone. If there’s no way for us to burn fat while insulin is really high, then in order to burn fat, we must break that insulin cycle.”
    • This creates a “vicious cycle” where stored fat remains inaccessible, leading to hunger and further eating.
    1. Reducing Carbohydrates and Meal Frequency Lowers Insulin and Promotes Fat Burning (Fat Adaptation):
    • Carbohydrates elicit the most significant insulin response compared to protein and fat.
    • Reducing carbohydrate intake and eating fewer meals are the primary strategies to lower insulin levels.
    • “So it’s not about eating fewer calories per se. It’s about eating fewer things that stimulate insulin. So we drop carbs because fat has a very, very slight insulin response.”
    • Allowing insulin to drop enables the body to access and burn stored fat, a state known as “fat adaptation.”
    • Fat adaptation provides stable energy and reduces hunger.
    1. The “Triad of Health” for Long-Term Well-being:
    • The source emphasizes a holistic approach to health, represented by the “Triad of Health”:
    • Eat Better: Consuming whole, nutrient-dense foods that minimize blood sugar and insulin spikes.
    • Move Better: Engaging in regular physical activity, including both low-intensity aerobic movement and brief periods of high-intensity activity.
    • Think Better: Managing stress through techniques like breathing exercises or meditation.
    1. Focus on Whole, Unprocessed Foods Similar to Ancestral Diets:
    • The dietary recommendation centers on “real food—whole food—the way it came off the planet, with minimal processing.”
    • The DNA of modern humans is highly similar to that of early humans (Homo sapiens), suggesting we are best adapted to eating similar types of food.
    • Modern processed foods, often high in white flour, sugar, and seed oils, are considered “non-foods” that disrupt metabolic health.
    • While a strict “paleo” or “ancestral” diet is a good starting point, the source acknowledges that some individuals may tolerate legumes and certain types of dairy (raw or fermented).
    1. Importance of Movement and Stress Management:
    • Ancestors engaged in significantly more low-intensity movement (steps) and occasional bursts of high-intensity activity.
    • Chronic stress can negatively impact digestion and overall health. Stress management techniques are recommended.
    1. Electrolyte Balance During Insulin Correction:
    • As insulin levels drop when transitioning to a lower-carb diet or during fasting, the body may excrete more sodium and electrolytes, potentially leading to temporary symptoms. Supplementation may be beneficial.

    Key Quotes:

    • “The first thing that we need to understand is that you cannot store fat; you cannot make fat without a hormone called insulin. It’s a fat-storing hormone.”
    • “It’s a constant back and forth: you have hunger, you eat something, you store the excess, and then when you go without, you can burn that. It’s a beautiful system…”
    • “So, if you have a lot of fat on your body, it is simply because you ate too much.”
    • “Insulin is the key that opens up that gateway [for glucose to enter the cell].”
    • “As long as we eat food from the planet in its original form and we move to get it, now there’s a natural regulation…”
    • “High insulin leads to insulin resistance.”
    • “High insulin blocks fat burning because insulin is a fat-storing hormone.”
    • “So it’s not about eating fewer calories per se. It’s about eating fewer things that stimulate insulin.”
    • “The number one absolute easiest way to burn fat is simply to work with your body—to allow the body to do what it’s supposed to do and to provide the resources that it’s supposed to have.”
    • “It is any type of food—whole food—that provides nutrients… But at the same time, it doesn’t cause a bunch of blood sugar swings to upset our metabolic balance.”
    • “Virtually all processed foods and packaged foods are going to be based primarily on white flour, sugar, and seed oils.”

    Conclusion:

    The source argues that the “absolute easiest way to burn fat” is not a quick fix but rather a fundamental shift towards a lifestyle that aligns with our biological design. This involves understanding the critical role of insulin, reducing the consumption of foods that cause high insulin spikes (primarily processed carbohydrates), eating whole, unprocessed foods, engaging in regular movement, and managing stress. By working with the body’s natural mechanisms and mimicking ancestral eating and activity patterns, individuals can restore metabolic balance, access stored fat for energy, and achieve sustainable fat burning and overall health.

    Fat Burning and Metabolic Health: An Ancestral Perspective

    Frequently Asked Questions About Fat Burning and Metabolic Health

    1. Why do we store fat in our bodies? Our bodies store excess energy from the food we eat as fat. This is an efficient survival mechanism that allows us to have a reserve of fuel to burn when food is scarce, a process known as fasting. Fat is the most effective way to store a large amount of energy without adding excessive weight to the body.

    2. Is eating dietary fat the primary cause of body fat accumulation? No, body fat accumulation is not primarily caused by eating dietary fat. Fat is a natural fuel for the body. Instead, it is the excess energy from any type of food (carbohydrates, proteins, or fats) that, when not used, gets stored as fat. The overconsumption of calories, regardless of their source, leads to fat storage.

    3. What role does insulin play in fat storage? Insulin is a crucial hormone that facilitates the storage of fat. Without insulin, the body cannot effectively store fat. Insulin acts as a “key” that allows glucose (derived from food) to enter cells for energy or storage. When there is excess energy, insulin promotes its storage as fat. Chronically elevated insulin levels can lead to insulin resistance, where cells become less responsive to insulin.

    4. Why is it important to consider our ancestors’ eating and movement patterns? Comparing ourselves to our early human ancestors (Homo sapiens) is valuable because our DNA is still over 99.9% identical to theirs. This means we have the same enzymes designed to digest and utilize food. Their natural lifestyle involved eating whole, unprocessed foods from the planet and moving frequently to obtain food. This created a natural balance in their metabolism, unlike modern lifestyles characterized by readily available, often processed foods and less movement.

    5. How do modern eating habits differ from those of our ancestors, and what are the consequences? Modern eating patterns often involve frequent meals and snacks throughout the day, including processed foods high in carbohydrates, which leads to frequent and large spikes in blood sugar and insulin. In contrast, our ancestors, as hunter-gatherers, likely ate less frequently and consumed whole, unprocessed foods. The constant insulin spikes in modern diets can lead to chronically elevated insulin levels and eventually insulin resistance, hindering fat burning and contributing to metabolic diseases.

    6. What are the two primary ways to reduce insulin levels and promote fat burning? The two main strategies to lower insulin levels are: * Reducing carbohydrate intake: Carbohydrates have the most significant impact on raising blood sugar and, consequently, insulin levels. Lowering carbohydrate consumption minimizes these spikes. Fat has a minimal insulin response, while protein has a moderate response. * Reducing the frequency of meals: Every time we eat, insulin is released. Eating fewer meals throughout the day allows insulin levels to drop for longer periods, enabling the body to access and burn stored fat.

    7. What does it mean to be “fat-adapted,” and what are the benefits? Being “fat-adapted” means that the body has become efficient at using fat as its primary fuel source. This occurs when carbohydrate intake is reduced consistently, prompting the body to upregulate the metabolic pathways and enzymes needed to burn fat for energy. The benefits of fat adaptation include more stable energy levels (as fat doesn’t cause the rapid fluctuations of blood sugar seen with carbohydrates), reduced hunger (due to a constant supply of energy from fat stores), and the ability to go longer between meals.

    8. What are the key components of a healthy lifestyle that aligns with our body’s natural design for optimal fat burning and metabolic health? A healthy lifestyle, often referred to as the “Triad of Health,” encompasses three main aspects: * Eat better (Nutritional/Chemical): Consume whole, unprocessed foods from the planet that provide essential nutrients without causing large blood sugar swings. This generally involves reducing refined carbohydrates, sugars, and processed foods, and including healthy fats and moderate protein. * Move better (Structural/Mechanical): Engage in regular movement, similar to our ancestors, which includes both low-intensity, continuous movement (like walking) and brief periods of high-intensity activity. * Think better (Emotional/Stress Reduction): Manage chronic stress through techniques like breathing exercises or meditation, as chronic stress can negatively impact metabolism and digestion.

    Effortless Fat Burning: Understanding Insulin’s Role

    The number one absolute easiest way to burn fat, according to the source, is to work with your body by providing the natural conditions and resources it’s designed to have. This means focusing on becoming metabolically healthy.

    The source explains that the body stores excess energy as fat, and this process is heavily influenced by the hormone insulin, which is a fat-storing hormone. You cannot store fat without insulin. High levels of insulin also block fat burning. Therefore, the key to easily burning fat lies in reducing insulin levels.

    Here are the main strategies discussed in the source to achieve this:

    • Reduce carbohydrate intake: Carbohydrates have the most significant impact on raising blood sugar and consequently, insulin levels. Fat has a very slight insulin response, and protein’s response is in the double digits compared to carbohydrates’ triple digits. By eating fewer carbohydrates, you can lower insulin levels.
    • Eat fewer meals: Every time you eat, you cause an insulin spike. By reducing the number of meals, you have fewer insulin spikes and longer periods where insulin levels can drop, allowing your body to use fat for energy. Consuming meals within a shorter window of time also facilitates longer periods of fasting.
    • Focus on whole, unprocessed foods: The source emphasizes eating “real food—whole food—the way it came off the planet, with minimal processing”. This aligns with the ancestral diet that our bodies are genetically adapted to. Eating unnatural foods, often based on white flour, sugar, and seed oils, disrupts metabolic health and can lead to overeating.
    • Achieve fat adaptation: By consistently lowering carbohydrate intake, your body can shift to using fat as its primary fuel source. This is called fat adaptation. Once you are fat-adapted, you have more stable energy levels and experience less hunger, making it easier to eat less and burn fat.
    • Move more: While the “easiest” way is presented as dietary, the source highlights that our ancestors moved constantly throughout the day (aerobic activity) and also engaged in brief periods of high-intensity movement. This is part of a natural, healthy lifestyle.
    • Manage stress: Chronic stress can negatively impact the body in various ways. The source suggests incorporating stress management techniques like breathing exercises or meditation.

    The source notes that there is no magic bullet or quick fix for burning fat. It’s about making sustainable changes that align with the body’s natural mechanisms. The “Triad of Health” mentioned includes eating better (nutrition), moving better (structural), and thinking better (emotional/stress reduction).

    In summary, the easiest way to burn fat, according to the source, involves adopting dietary patterns that minimize insulin release, primarily by reducing carbohydrate intake and the frequency of meals, and by consuming whole, unprocessed foods. This allows the body to access stored fat for energy and return to a natural metabolic balance.

    Insulin’s Role in Fat Storage and Burning

    Insulin plays a critical role in how your body stores and burns fat. The source explicitly states that you cannot store fat and you cannot make fat without the hormone insulin. It is identified as a fat-storing hormone.

    Here’s a breakdown of insulin’s involvement with fat:

    • Fat Storage: When you eat, especially carbohydrates, your blood sugar levels rise. This triggers the release of insulin, which acts as a “key” to allow glucose (from digested carbohydrates) to enter your cells for energy. If there is excess energy that your body doesn’t immediately need, insulin facilitates the storage of this excess energy. The source mentions that while excess energy from any type of food can be stored, carbohydrates have the most significant impact on raising blood sugar and, consequently, insulin levels. Fat has a very slight insulin response, and protein’s response is in the double digits compared to carbohydrates’ triple digits.
    • Blocking Fat Burning: The source emphasizes that high insulin blocks fat burning. When insulin levels are elevated, your body is in a state of energy storage and is not readily accessing stored fat for fuel. In fact, high levels of insulin “lock in the fat” and prevent its release. This is why the source argues that to burn fat, you must break the insulin cycle.
    • Insulin Resistance: Chronically high levels of insulin, often due to frequent consumption of foods that cause large blood sugar spikes (like high-carbohydrate and processed foods), can lead to insulin resistance. In this state, your cells become less responsive to insulin, and the body produces even more insulin to try to get glucose into the cells. Despite high insulin levels, the glucose may not effectively enter the cells, leading to both elevated blood sugar and a continued blockage of fat burning. Furthermore, insulin resistance increases the tendency to store fat and significantly reduces the body’s ability to burn it.
    • The Cycle of Hunger: High insulin levels and insulin resistance can create a vicious cycle. Because insulin blocks access to stored fat, even if you have ample fat reserves, your body can’t readily use it for energy. This leads to feelings of hunger and cravings, prompting you to eat more, often further elevating insulin levels.
    • Reducing Insulin to Burn Fat: The source suggests that the key to easily burning fat is to reduce insulin levels. This can be achieved primarily by:
    • Reducing carbohydrate intake: Since carbohydrates have the most significant insulin response, lowering their consumption can lead to lower overall insulin levels.
    • Eating fewer meals: Every time you eat, insulin is released. Reducing the frequency of meals allows for longer periods where insulin levels can drop, enabling fat burning. Consuming meals within a shorter window also facilitates this.
    • Focusing on whole, unprocessed foods: These foods tend to have a more moderate impact on blood sugar and insulin compared to processed foods high in refined carbohydrates and sugar.
    • Fat Adaptation: By consistently keeping carbohydrate intake low, the body can become “fat-adapted,” meaning it becomes more efficient at using fat as its primary fuel source. Lower insulin levels allow the metabolic pathways for fat utilization to become more active. Once fat-adapted, the body can access stored fat more readily, leading to more stable energy levels and reduced hunger.

    In essence, the source presents insulin as the central regulator of fat storage and burning. High insulin promotes fat storage and actively inhibits fat burning, while lower, more balanced insulin levels allow the body to access its fat reserves for energy. The easiest way to burn fat, according to the source, is to adopt a lifestyle, particularly a dietary pattern, that naturally keeps insulin levels in a healthy range.

    Ancestral Eating: Whole Foods and Infrequent Meals

    Based on the source, natural eating patterns are closely tied to the lifestyle of our early human ancestors, Homo sapiens, whose DNA is still over 99.9% identical to ours. The source emphasizes that our digestive systems and metabolic processes are adapted to the way they ate.

    Here’s a discussion of natural eating patterns as described in the source:

    • Infrequent Meals: The source suggests that our hunter-gatherer ancestors likely did not eat very often. While the exact frequency is uncertain (maybe once a day, or grazing followed by a large meal after a successful hunt), it’s fairly certain they did not have breakfast upon waking and did not snack throughout the day. Their calories likely came primarily from hunting. This resulted in their blood sugar staying in a very narrow and healthy range, probably between 65 and 120. Consequently, they were likely very metabolically healthy with very few and slight insulin swings.
    • Contrast with Modern Eating: The source contrasts this with the modern, “unnatural pattern” of eating frequent meals and snacks throughout the day, starting with breakfast shortly after waking up and often including mid-morning, afternoon, and evening snacks. This pattern leads to large and frequent blood sugar spikes, resulting in equally large and frequent insulin spikes. Over time, this can lead to chronically elevated insulin levels and insulin resistance, where the baseline insulin level never drops sufficiently. High insulin blocks fat burning because it is a fat-storing hormone.
    • Whole, Unprocessed Foods: The source highlights that our ancestors ate food from the planet in its original form, with minimal processing. This aligns with what the source later refers to as “real food—whole food—the way it came off the planet, with minimal processing”. Their diet consisted of things they could hunt (meat, fish, poultry, wild game), gather (leafy greens, non-starchy vegetables, tubers, nuts, and seeds), and cook with natural fats like butter and olive oil. 100% of their diet came from this group because processed foods did not exist.
    • Avoidance of Modern “Non-Foods”: The source strongly criticizes modern unnatural foods or non-foods, which it identifies as primarily based on white flour, sugar, and seed oils. These processed and packaged foods contain nothing the body needs and disrupt metabolic health and equilibrium, leading to overeating. The source states that today, as much as 60 to 70% of our calories can come from this category.
    • Dysregulation of Natural Systems: By moving away from the natural timing and types of food consumed by our ancestors, we bypass the body’s beautiful and sensitive system that naturally regulates hunger and satiety. This leads to dysregulation, where we can’t tell when we’re hungry, eat for the wrong reasons, eat too much, and lose those natural boundaries that helped our ancestors survive.

    In summary, the natural eating pattern, according to the source, involves eating less frequently and consuming whole, unprocessed foods similar to what our ancestors ate. This promotes stable blood sugar levels and low, balanced insulin, allowing the body to effectively burn fat and maintain metabolic health. The modern deviation from this pattern, characterized by frequent meals of processed foods high in carbohydrates, leads to insulin dysregulation and hinders fat burning.

    Ancestral Diet vs. Modern Eating: A Metabolic Comparison

    Based on the source “01.pdf”, let’s discuss a comparison between the ancestral diet and modern eating patterns. The source emphasizes that our physiology is still very similar to that of our early human ancestors, Homo sapiens, whose DNA is over 99.9% identical to ours. Therefore, comparing our modern diets to theirs can provide insights into what might be more aligned with our natural metabolic functions.

    Here’s a comparison of key aspects:

    • Frequency of Eating:
    • Ancestral Diet: Our hunter-gatherer ancestors likely ate infrequently. The majority of their calories probably came from hunting, meaning they might have had one or two meals a day, or perhaps grazed with a larger meal after a successful hunt. They most likely did not have breakfast upon waking or snack throughout the day. This likely resulted in stable blood sugar levels within a narrow range and very few and slight insulin swings.
    • Modern Diet: In contrast, modern eating patterns often involve frequent meals and snacks throughout the day, starting with breakfast soon after waking up and often including mid-morning, afternoon, and evening snacks. This “unnatural pattern” leads to large and frequent blood sugar spikes, resulting in similarly large and frequent insulin spikes. Chronically elevated insulin levels can eventually lead to insulin resistance.
    • Type of Food:
    • Ancestral Diet: Our ancestors consumed whole, unprocessed foods that they could hunt (meat, fish, poultry, wild game) and gather (leafy greens, non-starchy vegetables, tubers, nuts, and seeds). Their diet consisted of food “from the planet in its original form”. 100% of their diet came from these natural sources because processed foods did not exist.
    • Modern Diet: A significant portion of modern diets consists of unnatural foods or non-foods, primarily based on white flour, sugar, and seed oils found in processed and packaged items. The source suggests that as much as 60 to 70% of our calories can come from this category, which lacks essential nutrients and disrupts metabolic health.
    • Macronutrient Composition:
    • Ancestral Diet: While the exact macronutrient ratios are debated, the source suggests that our ancestors likely did not get 65% of their calories from carbohydrates, which is common in many modern diets that include a lot of grains and processed foods. They were likely in a state of ketosis for long periods, especially during winter when plant foods were scarce. A low-carb, high-fat diet might be closer to their typical intake for significant parts of the year.
    • Modern Diet: Many standard Western diets are high in carbohydrates, often from refined sources, which significantly impacts blood sugar and insulin levels.
    • Impact on Insulin:
    • Ancestral Diet: The infrequent consumption of whole, unprocessed foods likely led to stable and low baseline insulin levels with only slight fluctuations. This allowed their bodies to efficiently store and burn fat.
    • Modern Diet: Frequent consumption of high-carbohydrate and processed foods leads to chronically elevated insulin levels and insulin resistance, where the body’s cells become less responsive to insulin. High insulin blocks fat burning.
    • Metabolic Health:
    • Ancestral Diet: The source infers that our ancestors were likely very metabolically healthy due to their natural eating and movement patterns. Their bodies had a balanced system for storing and burning fat.
    • Modern Diet: The shift towards frequent meals of processed foods has led to widespread metabolic dysregulation, including insulin resistance, weight gain, and other health issues. The natural regulation of hunger and satiety is bypassed.

    In essence, the source argues that our bodies are still adapted to the eating patterns of our ancestors, which involved less frequent consumption of whole, unprocessed foods. The modern deviation from this, with frequent meals high in refined carbohydrates and processed ingredients, disrupts our natural metabolic balance, particularly concerning insulin regulation and fat burning. The “number one absolute easiest way to burn fat” according to the source is to align our lifestyle, especially our diet, with these natural, ancestral patterns to promote metabolic health and healthy insulin levels.

    The Necessity of Movement: An Ancestral Perspective

    The importance of movement is discussed in the sources, highlighting its role in our ancestral past and contrasting it with modern lifestyles. According to the source, our ancestors, Homo sapiens, had a lifestyle where they had to move to get food. This movement was integral to their survival, and our bodies are designed for it.

    The source points out that animals move so that they can go and find food, and if you don’t have roots like plants to extract energy, nutrients, and water, then you need to be moving. Unfortunately, modern society allows us to obtain food without significant physical exertion, which is identified as a problem.

    The source contrasts the constant movement of our ancestors, who likely took around 30,000 steps a day, with our often sedentary modern lives where many people take far fewer steps. This ancestral movement was primarily aerobic activity, characterized by low intensity where the body primarily burns fat.

    Furthermore, the source mentions that our ancestors also engaged in brief periods of high-intensity interval training naturally, such as sprinting while hunting or evading danger. This type of short-term, high stress followed by relaxation is considered healthy for the body, helping it stay sharp and adapt, in contrast to chronic stress.

    The source also notes a connection between activity levels and hunger. When people are active and focused, they tend to feel less hungry compared to when they are sedentary, which can lead to boredom-induced cravings and snacking.

    In the context of fat burning, while the source primarily emphasizes diet and insulin regulation as the “number one absolute easiest way to burn fat”, it also implicitly connects movement to overall metabolic health. The ancestral lifestyle of eating whole foods and moving to obtain them led to a “natural regulation” and a “beautiful system” for maintaining metabolic balance.

    In summary, the source underscores the importance of movement by:

    • Highlighting that movement was a fundamental aspect of our ancestors’ lives, directly linked to obtaining food and survival.
    • Contrasting the high activity levels of our ancestors with the often sedentary nature of modern life.
    • Identifying the benefit of both low-intensity, sustained movement (aerobic) and brief bursts of high-intensity activity in our natural movement patterns.
    • Suggesting that staying active can help regulate hunger and reduce cravings.
    • Implying that movement, alongside diet, contributes to the natural regulation and metabolic health that characterized our ancestors.

    The source encourages incorporating more movement into our lives, even suggesting aiming for a higher step count and acknowledging the benefits of activities beyond just structured exercise. It positions movement as a crucial component of aligning with our body’s natural design and promoting overall health.

    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSb5zBjoYb0
    #1 Absolute Easiest Way To Burn Fat

    The Original Text

    Hello, Health Champions. Today we’re going to talk about the number one absolute easiest way to burn fat. If we want to understand how to burn fat, we need to understand how the body ends up with fat in the first place. The reason is not that you eat too much fat because fat is just a form of fuel—it’s a natural fuel for the body. But so often you hear that you get fat because you eat too many calories and that fat has the most calories, and that’s why you get fat when you eat fat. That is not how it works. It is the excess energy from any type of food, and here’s how that works. When your body needs some resources, then you get something called hunger. Then you can store the excess energy from that. So, if you eat something terribly unhealthy like a 1,000-calorie milkshake, that milkshake is going to be absorbed and work its way through your bloodstream, into the cells, and into storage within two to three hours. If it’s 1,000 calories, but during those two to three hours you only use up 200 or 300 calories, then you’re going to have to store about 700 to 800 calories. That’s what you do with the storage. So then you would have some extra. Again, milkshake is not your best example. I used that kind of as an extreme just to illustrate something, but it’s very practical to store excess energy because then, when you don’t have food and you go without, that’s called fasting. Now you can burn that extra energy. It’s a constant back and forth: you have hunger, you eat something, you store the excess, and then when you go without, you can burn that. It’s a beautiful system, and it’s worked for as long as any living thing has existed on the planet. The reason we store it as fat is that fat is the most effective way to store excess energy. It’s where we can store the most energy without weighing hundreds and hundreds or even thousands of pounds and still have enough energy to last us for weeks or even months if we were to go without food. So, if you have a lot of fat on your body, it is simply because you ate too much. And don’t get me wrong, there’s no judgment here. I’m not trying to say that you’re a glutton or that you have no willpower. There are many, many reasons why you would store extra fat and why you would eat too much, and we’re going to go over a lot of those. The reason I’m bringing this up is that we need to understand why you did that—what sort of circumstances created that behavior. The first thing that we need to understand is that you cannot store fat; you cannot make fat without a hormone called insulin. It’s a fat-storing hormone. If you couldn’t make it, you can’t get fat. That’s what happens with Type 1 diabetics—they can’t make insulin. Therefore, even though their blood sugar is through the roof, they do not gain weight and they actually starve to death in some cases. So we need to understand the difference between having energy in the bloodstream and having energy in the cell. After you eat something, you absorb food and glucose into the bloodstream. This is the bloodstream here, but over here is the cell. The cell is where all your metabolic activity takes place—or the vast majority. That’s where your body manufactures things, that’s where you make energy, and so forth. You make tissues and proteins, and they are going to become body parts. This glucose needs to get into that cell, but it can’t do that without insulin. Insulin is the key that opens up that gateway. Like I said, with Type 1 diabetics, they don’t have that insulin unless we can inject it. Before we had insulin to inject, a lot of Type 1 diabetics—or basically all of them—would die. They could make it for a while with certain diets, but they could not survive in the long run without that insulin. They just need to get the energy from the bloodstream into the cell. If you are a diabetic, if you are insulin resistant, or if you watch some of my videos, you’ve heard a lot about insulin. It’s easy to start thinking that insulin is some evil, some bad substance that we need to fight, but it’s not. Insulin is not evil; it’s not bad. It’s absolutely necessary for life. We just need to get it in the right balance, and it would never become a problem as long as we live in balance with nature. As long as we do what all the other animals on the planet do—which is they eat food from the planet in its original form—they eat it the way they find it. The second thing is that they move to get the food. They move a lot; they move all day long. That’s the purpose of movement. That’s why animals can move: so that they can go and find food. There are living things that don’t move—they’re called plants—and they have roots that they can use to extract energy, nutrients, and water from the soil. But if you don’t have roots, then you need to be moving. Unfortunately, we have a lifestyle today where we can get food without moving, and that’s a problem. So then we need to understand how that affects us and what we can do instead. So, as long as we eat food from the planet in its original form and we move to get it, now there’s a natural regulation—the balance between eating and fasting, the balance between hunger and satiety. There’s a beautiful system in the body that is so sensitive and tells us exactly how much we need to eat and when we’re done. But when we start breaking those rules, when we move outside of that natural lifestyle and we start eating unnatural foods, now we bypass this beautiful system. We bypass that regulation, and we change those set points, and we get what’s called dysregulation. This is where we can’t tell when we’re hungry, we eat for the wrong reasons, we eat too much, and we don’t have those natural boundaries. Normally, that balance helps us survive. This whole system is there for survival, but when we bypass it, now we create something that’s counterproductive, that acts opposite to that survival, and we could call that counter-survival. So when we talk about natural and unnatural regulation and natural foods, then what is that compared to? We need to have a reference, and my reference is the early humans—our ancestors. So, I went to the encyclopedia to figure out what that means, and it’s Homo sapiens. That’s modern humans. Homo sapiens, the species that includes all modern humans, evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago. The reason we compare ourselves to them is that their DNA is 99.9% or more identical to our DNA, and that’s the DNA that codes for all the enzymes that are going to help break down the food. So when you put food in your body, you can’t digest that without enzymes. You can’t use that food without enzymes. And if you have the same DNA, then you have the same enzymes, and you’re supposed to eat the same type of food that they ate. Those are the systems that developed for millions of years prior to Homo sapiens and that have stayed the same for about 300,000 years. So, what does that mean in terms of tolerating modern food? Well, any food introduced in the last 300,000 years that they did not have is basically an experiment. We don’t know. It’s possible that we could tolerate it, that it could even be good for us, but it’s not very likely because these changes occur so slowly. And 300,000 years is thousands of generations, and most of this modern food has been introduced in the last two or three generations. So when we start living differently than what our DNA is asking for, what our DNA is designed for and accustomed to, that’s when we get this dysregulation, this lack of balance. There are two main causes for that. The first one is the timing of food—are we eating more frequently or less often than our ancestors?—and the second is the type of food. So let’s talk about the first one. The natural patterns for how often we should eat is that our ancestors were hunter-gatherers, and they could go around, and they could pick some things. They could pick some berries, some nuts, and whatever edible plants they could find. But for the most part, the vast majority of their calories probably came from hunting. That means they did not eat very often. And here, as an example, I’ve just put in two meals a day and what might happen to their blood sugar. But maybe they just ate once a day, or maybe they grazed a little bit, and then every other day they had a huge meal when they slaughtered a woolly mammoth or something. We don’t know for sure, but one thing is fairly certain: they did not wake up to breakfast, and they did not have snacks throughout the day. They were probably very metabolically healthy, which means that their blood sugar stayed in a very narrow range, probably somewhere between 80 and 120, possibly even a good bit lower—like maybe 65 to 100 or 110 or something. But they didn’t have these huge spikes of blood sugar that we have today. If we compare that with what we do today, I’m going to call that an unnatural pattern. That’s when, if we look at the starting point as midnight, we sleep for several hours, but then as soon as we get up, we have breakfast, whether that’s at 6:00 or 8:00. For a lot of people, for most people probably, it doesn’t pass very many hours. So maybe a couple of hours later, we have a mid-morning snack before lunch, and then an afternoon snack before dinner, and then an evening snack. So we eat throughout the day, and we’re told to eat throughout the day because we believe that blood sugar is what gives us energy and that carbohydrate gives us energy, which is a fallacy. Your body is made to store energy and then to slowly retrieve that energy from a few meals. When we do that, then we have something called insulin, like I said. So every time that you eat something and your blood sugar goes up, we’re going to release a little bit of insulin to bring that foodstuff—the glucose—from the bloodstream into the cell. But if we have very slow and very few blood sugar swings, then we’re going to have very few and very slight insulin swings as well. They’re going to be triggered by the food, so they’re going to be just a little bit behind the glucose curve. Then, in between the meals, assuming that we had two meals in a day, it’s going to go down, but it’s not going to go all the way down to the baseline because insulin takes a while to get back. But overall, by eating whole foods and fewer meals, they never leave that average baseline. They have slight fluctuations, but they still stay metabolically healthy at a very low and balanced amount of insulin. But now, if we look at the modern way of eating, where we have large blood sugar spikes many, many times a day, then the corresponding insulin spikes are going to be very large and very frequent also. The biggest problem here is that, over time, if we have our insulin spikes so frequent, then insulin is never really allowed to drop. So for most of the day, we have an elevated level of insulin. What’s going to happen now is that, over time, insulin baselines are going to go up. This is what creates insulin resistance. So, instead of having a level of maybe three, now, over time—5, 10, 15 years later—our baseline never goes below maybe 15. This is where we start getting metabolic disease and insulin resistance. Here’s why this is so critically important to understand: because high insulin leads to insulin resistance. Whenever something is really high chronically, your cells start resisting it. Your body adapts by creating insulin resistance. One thing that happens now is you get hungry—and we’ll talk a little bit more about that. Also, high insulin blocks fat burning because insulin is a fat-storing hormone. If there’s no way for us to burn fat while insulin is really high, then in order to burn fat, we must break that insulin cycle. Here’s what’s happened with this dysregulation: if we are insulin sensitive, if we’re metabolically healthy, now we can store fat—we can store excess energy. That happens at a certain amount; there’s a certain momentum to do that. Then there’s an equal momentum in the other direction for how much our bodies have a tendency to burn this fat again. So, it’s like a revolving door—that’s the way it’s supposed to happen. We eat, we store some, and then we burn it, and we’re back to square one. But if we drive insulin up over time and we become insulin resistant, now this tendency to store is many, many times higher, and our tendency to burn is almost non-existent. Because, remember, we cannot burn fat when insulin levels are high. High levels of insulin lock in the fat. It pushes this equation—this equilibrium—in one direction only. So, it’s not about eating fewer calories per se. It’s about eating fewer things that stimulate insulin. So we drop carbs because fat has a very, very slight insulin response. If you can see that tiny, tiny area—you might have to zoom in. Because if we compare by numbers, then fat—the insulin response of fat—is in single digits. With protein, it’s in double digits, and with carbohydrates, it’s in triple digits. So if carbohydrates are 100, protein is about 10, 15, 20. Fat is single digits, like two or three or four. The second way to reduce insulin is to eat fewer meals—reduce the number of meals. Because every time you eat, you spike insulin. So if you eat fewer meals, then there’s fewer spikes. And if you eat your meals in a shorter period of time—if you only eat one meal a day—then there’s 24 hours to the next one. If you eat two meals and you put them in a six- to eight-hour period, now there are longer periods of no food. That means during that time, we allow insulin to drop. That simply means that your body knows how to use fat for energy, for fuel. So there’s basically two types of fuel. Your body can use protein, but there are so many mechanisms in place to prevent that from happening. So, as long as there’s carbs and fat available, your body is going to burn that for fuel. Your body is very, very adaptive. So, simply put, if you reduce one—like carbs—then your body will tend to increase the dependence on others. You’re more likely to burn fat if you reduce carbs. But there’s a couple of points here because it doesn’t work exactly the same way the other way. For example, if you ate 50% of your calories from carbs and 50% of your calories from fat, would that mean that you were balanced? That you were 50/50 on carb versus fat adaptation? That your body was equally likely to use both types of fuel? And the answer is absolutely not. The reason is that carbs raise blood sugar. Carbohydrates become blood glucose, and therefore, they must be processed first. Your body is not in a hurry to get rid of the fat. If you eat 50/50 and you have half the calories in the bloodstream as fat and half as glucose, your body is in no hurry to get rid of the fat. But it has to get rid of the glucose very, very quickly because it’s so important to keep that glucose in a very narrow range. High glucose and very low glucose are extremely dangerous. The second reason is that the carbohydrates you eat not only have to be processed first, but they also stimulate insulin. And insulin blocks fat burning. Insulin is a fat-storing hormone. So, because carbs increase insulin, now carbs are also going to block the usage of fat. And here’s another key that most people don’t realize: because high insulin levels block fat burning, that means you can’t retrieve those calories—that energy—from fat as readily. This is going to make you very hungry because if you store all that fat but your body can’t get to it, now you have to eat more. So the solution, therefore, would be to reduce the amount of carbohydrate, which will reduce the amount of insulin. This is how you break that vicious cycle. With less insulin, now you can access the fat, and you can start returning to balance. This is what’s called fat adaptation, and it simply means that if you don’t eat so many carbs all the time that have to be processed first, now your body returns, the metabolic pathways upregulate, and the enzymes and pathways to use the fat kick in. That lower insulin allows you to access the fat. So fat-adapted simply means that your body knows how to use fat for fuel again. The reason this works so well is that once you’re fat-adapted, and you can use fat, and you keep the carbohydrates low enough for this to happen, now you have long-lasting fuel. Carbohydrates bounce up and down every couple of hours; fat doesn’t do that. And if you have a reserve of fat on the body, now you can eat some of your food off the plate, and you can eat the rest of the food, in terms of energy, from the body. Because it doesn’t fluctuate all the time, it gives you stable energy, and you therefore have less hunger. If your energy is stable, you don’t need to run and look for food to stimulate your blood sugar and raise your blood sugar all the time. As a result, obviously, now you can go longer between meals, and this helps you eat less and burn fat. It helps you eat less because now you have a resource on your body that can provide energy. So the number one absolute easiest way to burn fat is simply to work with your body—to allow the body to do what it’s supposed to do and to provide the resources that it’s supposed to have. That simply means to get healthy, and that’s the beauty of this. It’s not a short-term fix, it’s not a magic pill, and it’s not something that’s going to rebound three weeks later when you get tired of it. It means that you get healthy by providing the natural conditions, circumstances, and resources that your body is designed to have by natural law. I often call that the Triad of Health, and we illustrate that with a triangle. It simply means eat better, which is the chemical aspect—the nutritional aspect. It means move better, which is the structural or mechanical aspect, meaning we need movement. And then it means think better—that’s the emotional or the stress reduction aspect of it. So then, what is the best diet to accomplish all of this? It’s not a single diet, it’s not a label, it’s not a program. It is any type of food—whole food—that provides nutrients, that gives us the resources we need: the building blocks and the energy, the essential amino acids, the essential fatty acids, the vitamins, and the minerals. But at the same time, it doesn’t cause a bunch of blood sugar swings to upset our metabolic balance. It’s something that satisfies you, something that gets you full with less amount of food than you have been eating if you want to lose weight, and something that normalizes the regulation that we talked about and therefore prevents overeating. I mentioned this a number of times, and obviously, we’re talking about real food—whole food—the way it came off the planet, with minimal processing. Now, if we compare to our ancestors, should it be ketogenic? Should it be so low that our body generates ketones? Well, not necessarily. But for sure, our ancestors were in a state of ketosis for long periods during the year. During the winter, they probably didn’t have many plant foods unless they lived on the equator. So humans, for sure, have been keto-adapted for a large part of our existence. But it doesn’t mean that you have to be ketogenic all the time. Some of the time would be okay. A little less strict than a ketogenic diet would be a low-carb, high-fat diet. This is typically where you eat probably less than 50, maybe less than 30 grams of net carbohydrates per day. You eat moderate protein, and the rest of it is fat. This works for most people because this creates a lot of satiety, especially for people who have become insulin resistant and already sort of moved out of that balanced state. But it’s not a one-size-fits-all because we respond differently to different things. We get satiated and full from different things. So don’t feel like you have to just try one thing and that’s it, because some people respond better to a moderate amount of carbs. They might eat 70, 80, up to 100 grams of carbs, and that might work better for them. But the majority, I believe—from what I get reported back, testimonials, etc.—low-carb, high-fat seems to work the best for most. But if that doesn’t seem to work for you, try different things. One thing we know for sure that our ancestors did not have is they did not get 65% of their calories from carbohydrates. That means you eat 250, 300, 400 grams of carbohydrates, and that means you have to eat typically a lot of grain and a lot of processed foods. Our ancestors had none of that. Now, I know some of you are thinking that you thought this video was the number one absolute easiest way, and you thought that you were going to get something super easy, and you’re thinking, “This doesn’t sound all that easy. That seems like a lot of work for a long time. I have to change a lot of things.” Well, that’s just the thing. Whatever you’ve been doing, if it’s not working, you have to change it. There is no magic bullet; there is no quick fix. Because there is something called natural law. It’s like gravity—it’s there whether you want it or not. Our bodies respond to natural law. There are principles and mechanisms built in that have been ingrained for hundreds of thousands of years. And if we start breaking those rules, then there are consequences. But it’s not as complicated as people think. It’s just step by step, learning to eat the foods that work and doing simple things in your lifestyle that align more with what your body wants. And it does not mean that you have to eat sawdust and boring things. You can have meat, fish, poultry, wild game, etc. You can have leafy greens. You can have non-starchy vegetables. You can have tubers, and you can have a lot of these. You can have nuts and seeds, and you can cook these things with butter and olive oil. You do not have to be afraid of fat either. What you need to start moving away from, though, are the unnatural foods—or non-foods, as I like to call them—because they’re not food. We talk about them as food; we call it fast food, but it isn’t food. It’s destroyed garbage, with white flour, sugar, and seed oils in it. They have nothing that your body needs, but they upset your metabolic health. They upset your equilibrium and cause overeating. Virtually all processed foods and packaged foods are going to be based primarily on white flour, sugar, and seed oils. So now, if we compare to our ancestors, what our DNA is designed for, 100% of what they ate came from this group because there was nothing else. They didn’t even have the option. So that’s how I like to think about it a lot of times: that this stuff doesn’t exist to me because our ancestors didn’t have it. They couldn’t miss it. They couldn’t have a longing for something that never existed. But today, as much as 60 to 70% of our calories come from this category that has nothing that the body needs. And then there’s a couple of things in a category I call questionable. What I’ve described up here is basically a paleo diet, a caveman diet, the ancestral diet, and I think that’s a great starting point. But I’m not a stickler. I don’t think that you have to be a purist and that there is no possibility of any other food being okay for us. So, legumes and dairy are a couple of things that some people need to stay away from, but for others, it could be okay. Legumes are things like peas, black beans, and other forms of beans as well. Our ancestors didn’t have them, but there are cultures who have done extremely well with them for hundreds of years. In terms of microbiome health and different types of fiber, there are beans that provide a tremendous benefit as long as you can tolerate them. If you don’t have the biome to tolerate them, then you need to make very slow changes. So, I think beans can be okay. Now, remember though, that they’re not extremely high or very low carb—they’re kind of in between. So if you need to keep your carbs very, very low, then you want to keep beans to a minimum also. And then the other thing is dairy because that’s only been around for about 10,000 years, and our ancestors didn’t have it. But we have done well with it for thousands of years in some areas of the world. Scandinavians, for example, tend to do relatively well, whereas Asians tend to do quite poorly. But there’s a difference also between different types of dairy. So if you eat it, I would strongly recommend that you eat it either raw or fermented. The problem for most people comes from the pasteurized and low-fat versions. The skim milk that has been pasteurized creates the biggest amount of problems. But if you eat yogurt or kefir, or if you eat raw milk, then those are generally very well tolerated. I want to compare a couple more things to our ancestors. One thing, of course, is that they moved a lot. They moved constantly throughout the day. They took a lot of steps, which was aerobic activity, meaning very low intensity. You’re not huffing and puffing, and you are burning primarily fat with that aerobic activity. A lot of people ask how many steps should you take. There’s a lot of step counters that people have on their phones and on their watches, and some people aim for 10,000—that’s a number we hear a lot. I think that’s a great number if you can get to it. It’s a whole lot better than 500 steps. But our ancestors and most animals that move to get their food probably get in the neighborhood of 30,000 steps a day. Now, it doesn’t mean that you have to do that, but just realize our ancestors moved a lot. And then they also performed something called very brief periods of high-intensity interval training. Of course, they didn’t call it that—that’s a modern concept. But if you’re a hunter, then there’s going to be brief periods where you do an intense burst of movement, like a sprint running after something, or maybe running away from something. So that’s part of our normal movement pattern. But we also need to understand that high intensity is very stressful, but it’s a very short-term stress that is a good contrast for the body. When we experience high stress and then we get to relax after, that’s very healthy because it helps the body stay sharp, and it helps the body adapt. In contrast, we have what’s called chronic stress. We don’t have these high ups and downs; we have a little bit of stress all the time. That does several things to the body. For one thing, it tends to break us down in so many ways. It raises blood sugar, it breaks down immunity, it breaks down tissues. But one more thing that it does is it reduces the amount of hydrochloric acid, so our digestive systems don’t work as well when we have chronic stress. So, one thing that you can try to compensate is called apple cider vinegar. It’s a very, very nice tool; it’s incredibly inexpensive. You take a tablespoon or two every day. You could take it in the morning, you can take it before a meal, and that’s going to help replace that acidity in your stomach that is reduced by that chronic stress. Another thing that you might want to try is some kind of stress management, like breathing exercises or meditation—whatever you want to call it. It’s just a way of getting away from that chronic stress, of breaking that pattern where your thoughts won’t stop, and you always feel like you’re under pressure. Another thing you have probably noticed is that as long as you stay active, as long as you do something—if you’re out hiking or if you’re super busy with something that you’re focused on—then you tend to not be so hungry. But if you’re just kind of going through the motions and you’re sitting at your desk, or you’re sitting around, then you tend to develop cravings. You tend to want to eat something just to have something to do. And once we get used to it, humans have a tendency to always want to sip on something or bite on something or snack on something. So, a lot of that is just a habit from being bored. The more active you can stay, the better. But if you can’t do that and you feel this need to eat, now you can do things like coffee and tea because that still gives you something to sip on, but it’s not going to change your metabolism. It’s not going to change your insulin or your blood sugar. And if you feel like you really need something, you can try about a teaspoon of MCT oil—medium-chain triglycerides—because they’re a source of fast energy, but they don’t raise blood sugar. It’s a short-chain fat that gets absorbed and metabolized differently, so it can give you that little energy burst without really messing with anything. And one more thing to understand is about electrolytes and insulin resistance. Your ancestors were never insulin resistant; it wasn’t possible with their lifestyle. But if you have been insulin resistant and you start correcting it, now your insulin levels are going to drop. When insulin was too high, then you tended to reabsorb too much sodium and electrolytes, and that’s where we get the high blood pressure with insulin resistance. But once you start correcting it and insulin drops, now you’re going to lose some electrolytes that were sort of artificially maintained in the body. So for a period of time, you’re going to be losing electrolytes. In the long run, it’s a good thing because your blood pressure is going to go down. But before the body has a chance to find that balance again, you might be missing some electrolytes, and you might have some symptoms like lightheadedness, nausea, fatigue, or brain fog. So during the time that you’re fixing this problem, you probably want to supplement with some electrolytes. Especially if you do a longer fast, like over 24 hours, now you want to double up on those electrolytes because you’re not getting any through the food, and your insulin is dropping even faster because you’re fasting. I created a product called euLyte. It’s an electrolyte powder specifically for that purpose, to help support fasting. But it’s a good product for everyday usage as well. I’ll put a link down below if you want to check it out. If you enjoyed this video, you’re going to love that one. And if you truly want to master health by understanding how the body really works, make sure you subscribe, hit that bell, and turn on all the notifications so you never miss a life-saving video.

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

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  • Complete Guide to Android UI Development

    Complete Guide to Android UI Development

    This comprehensive guide, “Android UI Design,” instructs developers on planning, designing, and constructing engaging user interfaces for Android applications. Authored by Jessica Thornsby and published by Packt Publishing in 2016, the book covers a wide array of topics, from fundamental UI elements like layouts, views, and buttons to more advanced concepts such as Material Design implementation, supporting diverse screens and locales, optimizing UI performance, and ensuring app security and accessibility. It emphasizes user-centered design, providing practical techniques and best practices for creating intuitive and visually appealing apps. The text also includes information on utilizing Android Studio for prototyping and debugging, as well as strategies for reaching a global audience.

    Android UI Design Study Guide

    Quiz

    1. What is the primary purpose of using density-independent pixels (dp) for defining UI element sizes in Android?
    2. Explain the difference between LinearLayout and RelativeLayout in Android UI design.
    3. Describe how you would define a reusable string resource in Android and how you would use it in a layout XML file.
    4. What are color state lists in Android, and for what UI elements are they particularly useful?
    5. Outline the steps involved in creating a 9-patch image and explain its benefit in Android UI development.
    6. What is a fragment in Android, and what is the purpose of using the support library for fragments?
    7. Explain the concept of “product icon anatomy” in Material Design and where you can find more information about it.
    8. What are configuration qualifiers in Android resource management, and how does the system use them to select the appropriate resources?
    9. Describe the purpose of the include and <merge> tags when working with Android layouts.
    10. What is the new permissions model introduced in later versions of Android, and how does it differ from the previous model?

    Quiz Answer Key

    1. Density-independent pixels (dp) are used to ensure that UI elements maintain a consistent physical size across devices with different screen densities. Android automatically scales dp values to the appropriate number of actual pixels based on the device’s density.
    2. LinearLayout arranges its child views in a single direction, either horizontally or vertically, sequentially. RelativeLayout allows you to position child views relative to each other or relative to the parent layout.
    3. A string resource is defined in res/values/strings.xml using the <string> tag with a unique name and the string value. In a layout XML file, it is referenced using the @string/string_name syntax for attributes that accept string values.
    4. Color state lists are XML resources that define different colors for different states of a View, such as when it is pressed, focused, or in its default state. They are particularly useful for buttons, as they provide visual feedback to user interaction.
    5. To create a 9-patch image, you use a tool like Draw 9-patch to define stretchable and content-padding areas along the image’s borders. The benefit is that the image can scale properly without distortion when used as a background for UI elements of varying sizes.
    6. A fragment is a modular section of an Activity’s UI, with its own lifecycle and input events, allowing for more flexible and reusable UI designs. The support library is used to provide compatibility for fragments on older versions of Android that do not natively support them.
    7. Product icon anatomy in Material Design refers to standardized shapes that can be incorporated into app icons to create a consistent visual language across Google’s products. Information about these shapes can be found in the Material Design guidelines on the Google Design website.
    8. Configuration qualifiers are suffixes added to resource directory names (e.g., layout-land, drawable-hdpi) to indicate that the resources within are designed for specific device configurations, such as screen orientation or density. The Android system uses these qualifiers to determine the most appropriate resource to load at runtime based on the current device’s configuration.
    9. The include tag is used to reuse an existing layout XML file within another layout, promoting modularity and reducing redundancy. The <merge> tag is used as a root element in an included layout to avoid unnecessary ViewGroup nesting when the included layout is incorporated into another layout.
    10. The new permissions model, introduced in Android 6.0 (Marshmallow) and higher, moves away from granting all permissions at install time. Instead, apps request dangerous permissions at runtime when the user needs the specific functionality, allowing users to grant or deny these permissions individually.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Discuss the importance of supporting multiple screen sizes and densities in Android UI development. Explain the different strategies and resource management techniques available to achieve this, referencing specific configuration qualifiers and best practices.
    2. Explain the core principles of Material Design and how they influence the creation of user interfaces for Android applications. Discuss specific UI components and design patterns that embody these principles, providing examples from the source material.
    3. Describe the process of planning and designing the user interface of an Android application, from the initial brainstorming and concept development to creating a detailed sketch and identifying user and product goals.
    4. Discuss the different techniques for optimizing the performance of Android user interfaces. Explain how tools like Hierarchy Viewer, Memory Monitor, and Lint can be used to identify and address potential performance bottlenecks in layout design and resource usage.
    5. Explain the significance of app permissions in Android and discuss the best practices for requesting and handling them, considering both user experience and app security. Describe the changes introduced in newer Android versions and their implications for developers.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Activity: A single, focused thing that the user can do. It typically corresponds to one screen in an Android application.
    • Adapter: A component that bridges the gap between an AdapterView (like ListView) and the underlying data, providing the views for each item.
    • Density-independent pixels (dp): An abstract unit of measure that is based on the physical density of the screen. It helps in creating UIs that look the same on different screen densities.
    • Fragment: A reusable part of an Activity’s UI. Multiple fragments can be combined in a single activity.
    • Layout: An XML file that defines the structure for the UI in an Activity or Fragment, including the arrangement of Views and ViewGroups.
    • LinearLayout: A layout that arranges its child views in a single direction, either horizontally or vertically.
    • Material Design: A comprehensive guide for visual, motion, and interaction design across platforms and devices, developed by Google.
    • Permission: A restriction on an application that limits access to protected parts of the code or to sensitive data.
    • RelativeLayout: A layout that allows you to position and size child views relative to each other or relative to the parent.
    • Resource: Non-code assets that an app uses, such as layouts, drawables (images), strings, styles, and colors, typically stored in the res/ directory.
    • State List Resource: An XML file that defines a set of images or colors to be used for a View based on its current state (e.g., pressed, focused).
    • Style: A set of attributes that specify the appearance and format for a View or a window. Styles are defined in XML resources.
    • Theme: A set of style attributes that are applied to an entire Activity or application, rather than individual Views.
    • UI (User Interface): The means by which the user interacts with an application, including the visual elements and how they respond to user input.
    • UX (User Experience): The overall experience of a person using a product, system, or service, focusing on usability, accessibility, and pleasure in interaction.
    • View: A basic building block for UI components. It occupies a rectangular area on the screen and is responsible for drawing and event handling. Examples include TextView, Button, and ImageView.
    • ViewGroup: A special type of View that can contain other Views (and ViewGroups) to define the layout structure. Examples include LinearLayout and RelativeLayout.
    • 9-patch image: A special type of PNG image that allows for flexible resizing by defining stretchable areas and content padding.

    Briefing Document: Android UI Design by Jessica Thornsby

    This briefing document summarizes the main themes and important ideas from the provided excerpts of “Android UI Design” by Jessica Thornsby. The book aims to guide developers in planning, designing, and building engaging user interfaces for Android applications.

    Main Themes

    • Fundamental Android UI Elements and Layouts: The book covers core UI components like TextView, EditText, ImageView, and buttons, explaining their attributes and how to customize them. It also delves into different layout managers such as LinearLayout and RelativeLayout, emphasizing their usage for arranging UI elements effectively.
    • Resource Management: A significant portion of the excerpts focuses on utilizing Android resources for strings, dimensions, colors, and drawables. The importance of creating and styling these resources in XML for better organization and maintainability is highlighted. The concept of density-specific resources for supporting multiple screens is also thoroughly discussed.
    • Adapting to Different Screens and Devices: The book stresses the necessity of designing UIs that adapt seamlessly to various screen sizes, densities, and orientations. It introduces concepts like density-independent pixels (dp), scale-independent pixels (sp), configuration qualifiers, and alias resources to achieve this responsiveness.
    • Material Design Principles: The excerpts introduce Material Design as a modern design language for Android, covering aspects like product icon design, system icons, typography, writing guidelines, animations, and providing visual feedback to the user.
    • Prototyping and Development Tools: The book touches upon creating digital prototypes using Android Studio and introduces various development and debugging tools such as Hierarchy View, Memory Monitor, Lint, and Pixel Perfect for optimizing and scrutinizing the UI.
    • Best Practices and Security: The final excerpts cover essential best practices related to securing user data, requesting permissions, supporting accessibility, and optimizing UI performance.

    Key Ideas and Facts

    Introduction to Android UI:

    • Dialogues are important UI elements for grabbing user attention and serving purposes like providing information, requesting input, or asking for decisions. For example, Google+ uses a dialogue to confirm if a user wants to discard an update.

    Layouts and Views:

    • Layout size can be set using keywords like match_parent and wrap_content.
    • Density-independent pixels (dp) are recommended for defining layout sizes to ensure UI adaptability across different screen densities. “The dp unit is relative to 1 physical pixel on a 160 dots per inch screen. At runtime, Android automatically adjusts the number of pixels used to draw 1 dp by a factor that’s appropriate for the current screen’s dp.”
    • RelativeLayout offers flexibility in positioning UI elements relative to the parent container and other elements using attributes like android:layout_alignParentTop, android:layout_centerInParent, etc.
    • Views like TextView, EditText, and ImageView have specific attributes for customization. TextView attributes include android:textColor, android:textSize (using sp for scale-independent pixels), and android:textStyle.
    • EditText allows user input, and its keyboard behavior can be controlled using android:inputType and android:imeOptions.
    • ImageView is used to display images, and supporting multiple screens requires providing density-specific images.

    Resources:

    • String resources should be defined in res/values/strings.xml for reusability and localization. They can be styled using basic HTML markup like <b>, <i>, and <u>. “A string is a simple resource that you define once in your project’s res/values/strings.xml file, and then use it multiple times throughout your project.”
    • Dimensions can be defined in res/values/dimens.xml using units like dp and sp. Providing density-specific dimens.xml files (e.g., values-ldpi, values-hdpi) allows for optimized layouts on different screens.
    • Color resources can be predefined by Android or custom-defined using hex codes in res/values/colors.xml.
    • State list resources allow views (like buttons) to change their appearance based on their state (e.g., pressed, focused). They are defined in XML using the <selector> tag and <item> elements with state attributes like android:state_pressed and color attributes. “The order you place your <item> element within the selector element is crucial, as the system works its way through the color state list in order and selects the first item that applies to the view’s current state.”
    • 9-patch images are resizable drawables that specify stretchable and content areas, crucial for maintaining visual integrity on different screen sizes.

    Fragments and User Input:

    • Fragments are modular UI components that can be dynamically added, removed, and replaced within an activity using fragment transactions.
    • User input from EditText can be registered in Java code. Click events on buttons can be handled either via XML using the android:onClick attribute or programmatically in Java.

    Material Design:

    • Material Design provides guidelines for a consistent and visually appealing user experience on Android.
    • It introduces the concept of product icon anatomy for standardized shapes in app icons. “These are standardized shapes that you can incorporate into your design to help promote a consistent look and feel across product icons.”
    • Using standard system icons is generally recommended.
    • Typography and writing in Material Design have specific guidelines regarding typefaces and text opacity.

    App Planning and Brainstorming:

    • Understanding the difference between UX (user experience) and UI (user interface) is fundamental.
    • Brainstorming involves considering mobile hardware capabilities like touch, GPS, vibration, audio, and interaction with other devices.
    • Planning involves defining the app’s concept, features list, primary task, target audience (creating personas), use cases, and monetization strategies.
    • It’s crucial to determine if a mobile app is the right solution for the target audience and if they own suitable Android devices.

    Prototyping:

    • Digital prototypes can be created in Android Studio.
    • Navigation drawers are effective UI elements for menus with numerous options. “A navigation drawer is an effective solution here, as it’s scrollable and can be neatly tucked out of the way when it’s no longer needed.”
    • ListViews are used to display scrollable lists of items, often used for displaying search results. They require adapters (like SimpleAdapter) to bridge data with the view. “A ListView is a view group that displays items as a vertical, scrollable list.”
    • Styles in res/values/styles.xml allow for defining reusable sets of attributes for views, promoting consistency. Styles can inherit from other styles using the parent attribute. “Typically, you’ll define a style in advance, and then use it multiple times throughout your project.”
    • Themes are similar to styles but are applied to entire activities or applications. Android provides predefined themes, including Material themes, which can be applied by referencing them (e.g., @android:style/Theme.Dialog).

    Supporting Multiple Devices:

    • Specify minSdkVersion, targetSdkVersion, and compileSdkVersion in the build.gradle file to manage compatibility with different Android versions.
    • It’s important to check the Android version at runtime to provide version-specific functionality if needed.
    • Android categorizes screens by size (small, normal, large, xlarge, and more specific qualifiers) and density (ldpi, mdpi, hdpi, xhdpi, xxhdpi, xxxhdpi).
    • Configuration qualifiers appended to resource directory names (e.g., layout-land, drawable-hdpi, values-en-rUS) allow the system to select the most appropriate resource for the current device configuration. “Configuration qualifiers specify the characteristics that a resource was designed for, such as an image that was designed for a particular screen size or screen density.” The order of qualifiers is crucial.
    • Alias resources provide an efficient way to reuse the same resource for multiple configurations without duplication.
    • Screen density is measured in dots per inch (dpi). mdpi (160dpi) is the baseline density.
    • Avoid using absolute pixels for defining sizes; use dp instead.
    • Newer configuration qualifiers like smallestWidth (sw<N>dp), available screen width (w<N>dp), and available screen height (h<number>dp) offer more granular control over layout selection based on screen dimensions.
    • Testing on multiple Android Virtual Devices (AVDs) with different screen configurations is crucial.
    • Use the Device Art Generator to create promotional images of your app in device frames.
    • Localization involves providing alternate resources (especially strings in res/values-<code> directories) for different languages and regions using locale configuration qualifiers (language codes and optional country/region codes).
    • Use system-provided formats and utilities for dates, numbers, and phone numbers to respect locale-specific formatting.

    Optimizing Your UI:

    • Tools like Hierarchy View (accessed through Android Device Monitor) help identify unnecessary views and nested layouts.
    • The Memory Monitor and HPROF files aid in identifying memory leaks and optimizing memory usage.
    • Lint is a code analysis tool that can identify potential errors and areas for improvement in your code and layout files. “Make sure you correct all errors that Lint detects before you release your app.” Lint options can be configured in the build.gradle file.
    • ProGuard can be used to shrink and obfuscate your code for release builds.
    • Pixel Perfect is a tool for scrutinizing individual pixels in your UI and comparing it to design mockups.
    • Layout reuse can be achieved using the <include> and <merge> tags. <merge> is useful for avoiding redundant ViewGroup levels.
    • <ViewStub> is a lightweight view that only inflates its layout when made visible, improving initial loading performance.

    Best Practices and Securing Your Application:

    • Keep user data secure.
    • Request network permissions (android.permission.INTERNET) in the AndroidManifest.xml.
    • The new permissions model (introduced in Android 6.0) requires requesting dangerous permissions at runtime.
    • Use ContextCompat.checkSelfPermission() to check if a permission is granted and ActivityCompat.requestPermissions() to request permissions. Handle the user’s response in onRequestPermissionsResult().
    • Declare hardware and software dependencies using the <uses-feature> element in the manifest. Use android:required=”false” if the feature is optional.
    • Request the minimum number of permissions necessary for your app’s functionality.
    • Be aware of permissions required by third-party libraries.
    • Provide notifications to keep users informed. Consider direct reply notifications and new options in Android N.
    • Implement accessibility features for users with disabilities. Ensure custom views generate AccessibilityEvents and that the app is navigable using directional controls.

    This briefing document provides a comprehensive overview of the key topics covered in the provided excerpts, highlighting essential concepts and best practices for Android UI design and development. The frequent use of direct quotes reinforces the main points and provides context from the source material.

    Frequently Asked Questions about Android UI Design

    1. What are the fundamental aspects involved in planning an Android application’s UI? Planning an Android UI involves several crucial steps. It begins with brainstorming ideas, often considering the use of mobile hardware features like touch, GPS, and audio. Understanding the difference between User Experience (UX) and User Interface (UI) is essential. The process includes writing a concept, creating a comprehensive features list, and identifying the app’s primary task to ensure it’s suitable for a mobile platform and within budget. Defining the target audience and creating user personas are key to tailoring the design. Use cases are developed to map out user interactions, and a feature list is finalized based on user and product goals. Finally, a roadmap outlines the development process, considering aspects like supported devices and marketing strategies.

    2. How can I structure and manage the visual elements of my Android UI using layouts? Android offers various layout options to structure UI elements. LinearLayout arranges elements in a single row or column, while RelativeLayout provides flexibility to position elements relative to the parent or each other. Layout size can be set using keywords like match_parent and wrap_content, or by using dimension values such as density-independent pixels (dp). Views are created and assigned unique IDs. Attributes like android:gravity (for content within a view) and android:layout_gravity (for a view within its parent) control positioning. The background of views can be set using color resources. LinearLayout also supports assigning weight values to child views to distribute available space.

    3. What are Android resources, and how are they used to enhance UI flexibility and maintainability? Android resources are externalized assets like strings, dimensions, colors, and images that an application uses. String resources, defined in strings.xml, allow for easy text updates and localization. Dimension resources in dimens.xml define spacing and sizes, promoting consistency across the app and simplifying adjustments for different screen sizes. Color resources in colors.xml centralize color definitions. These resources are referenced in layout XML files and Java code, making it easier to manage UI properties and adapt the app for different configurations (e.g., screen densities, languages) without modifying the core code.

    4. How does Android handle UI design for diverse screen sizes and densities, and what strategies can I employ to ensure a consistent experience across devices? Android supports a wide range of screen sizes and densities. To handle this, developers should use density-independent pixels (dp) for sizing and spacing, as they scale based on the screen’s physical density. For images, providing density-specific versions in appropriately named drawable folders (e.g., drawable-hdpi, drawable-xhdpi) ensures crisp visuals on different screens. Layouts can also be customized for different screen sizes and orientations using configuration qualifiers in resource directory names (e.g., layout-sw600dp for minimum width, layout-land for landscape). Android selects the most appropriate resource based on the device’s configuration. Alias resources can avoid duplication for drawables suitable for multiple densities.

    5. What are Material Design principles, and how can they be incorporated into Android UI development? Material Design is Google’s design system that provides guidelines for creating visually appealing, consistent, and intuitive user interfaces. Key principles include a focus on visual hierarchy, bold colors, consistent typography, and the use of realistic shadows and animations to create a sense of depth. Android provides Material Design themes that can be applied to an app to inherit its visual style. Components like Floating Action Buttons, CardViews, and bottom sheets are part of the Material Design specification. Standardized product icon anatomy and system icons are also recommended for consistency.

    6. How can I optimize the performance of my Android UI to ensure a smooth and responsive user experience? Optimizing UI performance involves several techniques. Reducing layout complexity by minimizing nested layouts and using tools like Hierarchy Viewer helps improve rendering speed. Reusing layouts with <include> and <merge> tags can streamline the view hierarchy. Loading views only when needed using ViewStub delays inflation of non-essential parts of the UI. Analyzing memory usage with the Memory Monitor and identifying memory leaks are crucial. Tools like Lint help detect potential performance issues. Using ProGuard to shrink and obfuscate code can also lead to smaller and faster applications.

    7. What are the best practices for handling user input and providing feedback in Android applications? Handling user input involves registering listeners for events like button clicks (using onClick in XML or Java) and capturing text input from EditText fields. Providing feedback is crucial for a good user experience. This can include visual cues like button state changes (using state list resources), animations, and displaying messages using Toast. Dialogs can be used to present important information, request additional input, or ask for user decisions. For error handling, providing clear and informative messages helps users understand and correct their input.

    8. How can I ensure my Android application is accessible to a wider audience and secure user data effectively? Accessibility involves designing the app so that it can be used by people with disabilities. This includes providing descriptive text for UI controls, ensuring proper navigation using directional controls (without relying solely on touch), and generating AccessibilityEvents for custom views. For security, it’s essential to request only necessary permissions and explain why they are needed. Be mindful of permissions requested by third-party libraries. User data should be kept secure, and network connections should be handled carefully. Understanding and correctly implementing Android’s permission model, including runtime permissions, is vital for both security and user trust.

    Android UI Design Principles and Practices

    Android UI design is the process of planning, designing, and building engaging user interfaces for Android applications. This process is crucial because the UI is the most direct form of communication between an app and its users. Even if an app has great functionality, a clunky, laggy, difficult to navigate, or visually unappealing UI can deter users. Therefore, taking UI design seriously is essential for developing a great app.

    Developing UIs for Android presents unique challenges and opportunities compared to other platforms. Android’s open nature allows for great freedom in UI creation, but it also means developers must exercise restraint to avoid bad design decisions. Furthermore, the varied Android ecosystem, with its countless devices featuring different hardware, software, and screen configurations, necessitates designing UIs that are flexible and can deliver a consistent experience across this range.

    An effective Android UI is characterized by several key attributes:

    • Clarity: The app should communicate clearly with users, making it obvious what each screen is asking them to do. However, it should also be concise, avoiding unnecessary explanatory text when the UI elements themselves are intuitive.
    • Responsiveness: The UI should be smooth and react promptly to user interactions, creating a feeling of a conversation between the user and the application.
    • Ease on the eye: A successful UI must be visually appealing and professional-looking to attract and retain users. This often involves prioritizing broader appeal over personal aesthetic preferences.
    • Instant familiarity: Following best practices and design guidelines, such as Material Design, allows users to feel instantly comfortable with an app because it reflects UI principles they’ve encountered in other Android apps.
    • Easy and enjoyable to use: An effective UI helps users quickly and easily get value from the app with minimal effort, contributing to positive reviews.
    • Consistency: Maintaining a consistent look and feel throughout the app, often achieved through styles and themes, provides a better user experience.
    • Preventing user frustration: A well-designed UI anticipates potential user errors and helps prevent them .
    • Helping users fix their mistakes: Providing clear feedback and mechanisms for correcting errors is important for a positive user experience .
    • Providing a better overall Android experience: By adhering to platform conventions and design principles, an app can feel like a seamless extension of the Android system.

    The fundamental building blocks of an Android UI are views and layouts. Views are the basic UI components that occupy a rectangular area on the screen and display content (e.g., TextView, EditText, ImageView, Button). Layouts (or ViewGroups) are invisible containers that are responsible for positioning and arranging child views and other ViewGroups on the screen (e.g., LinearLayout, RelativeLayout). UIs can be built by declaring these elements in XML layout resource files or programmatically in Java, or even using a combination of both. XML is generally preferred for defining the UI structure due to its human-readable format and the separation it creates between UI definition and app logic.

    Android provides a wide range of prebuilt UI components that developers can utilize. Examples discussed in the sources include the action bar for navigation and actions, navigational controls like back buttons, action buttons for important actions, the action overflow for less frequently used actions, the floating action button (FAB) for key promoted actions, menus for navigation and options, settings screens for customization, dialogues for important information or decisions, toasts for simple feedback, search functionalities, and various input controls like buttons and text fields.

    Styles and themes are crucial for ensuring UI consistency across an application. A style is a collection of properties applied to an individual view or an entire activity/application, while a theme is a style applied to an entire activity or application but not individual views. Android provides predefined themes and styles, including Material themes, which can be inherited and customized.

    The design process for an Android UI typically involves several stages:

    • Brainstorming: Generating ideas and considering how to leverage unique mobile hardware features like touch gestures, GPS, and audio input/output.
    • Planning: Defining the app’s concept, target audience, features, and monetization strategies. This includes creating a high-level flow of user paths and a screen map.
    • Sketching: Creating initial rough drawings of screens to visualize the layout and content.
    • Wireframing: Developing more detailed screen designs, either on paper or digitally, outlining the placement of UI elements and content.
    • Prototyping: Creating interactive, albeit often non-functional, versions of the UI to test the user flow and design. Android Studio provides tools for creating digital prototypes.
    • Finalizing the design: Refining the visual aspects, text, and overall personality of the app .

    Material Design, introduced in Android 5.0, is a design language from Google that aims to provide a more consistent and unified user experience across Google products and the Android platform. It is based on principles of using shadows, edges, dimensions, and the concept of material sheets to create a striking and minimal experience. Implementing Material Design involves applying Material themes, choosing a color scheme, creating a sense of depth using elevation and shadows, and utilizing new structural elements like Floating Action Buttons (FABs), Bottom Sheets, and CardView. Material Design also provides guidelines for typography, writing, and system icons.

    Supporting multiple devices is a critical aspect of Android UI design due to the platform’s diversity. This involves:

    • Supporting different screen sizes: Android categorizes screens into generalized sizes (small, normal, large, xlarge) and provides configuration qualifiers to target specific screen sizes and available widths/heights. Fragments are a key component for creating flexible UIs that adapt to different screen sizes by allowing multiple UI sections to be displayed simultaneously on larger screens (multi-pane layouts).
    • Supporting different screen densities: Screen density (measured in dpi) requires using density-independent pixels (dp) for sizing UI elements to ensure they maintain a consistent physical size across screens with varying pixel densities. Providing density-specific images in appropriately labeled drawable directories (ldpi, mdpi, hdpi, xhdpi, xxhdpi, xxxhdpi) ensures images look crisp and clear on different screens.
    • Supporting different Android versions: Developers need to consider backwards compatibility by specifying minimum and target API levels. Checking the Android version at runtime might be necessary for using newer features while maintaining compatibility with older devices .
    • Designing for different screen orientations: UIs should adapt gracefully to both portrait and landscape orientations.

    Accessibility is another crucial consideration in Android UI design, ensuring that applications are usable by everyone, including users with disabilities. Best practices include adding descriptive text to UI controls using android:contentDescription, designing for focus navigation using directional controls, providing alternatives to audio prompts, testing with various font sizes, using recommended touch target sizes, providing alternatives to affordances that time out, and testing the application’s accessibility features using tools like TalkBack.

    Optimizing UI performance is essential for a positive user experience. Techniques include identifying and reducing overdraw (where pixels are drawn multiple times unnecessarily), simplifying the view hierarchy to improve rendering speed, and managing background tasks effectively using tools like AsyncTask or Handlers to avoid blocking the main UI thread. Tools like TraceView and the Android Device Monitor can help identify performance bottlenecks. Reusing layouts using <include> and <merge/> tags can also improve efficiency.

    By considering these various aspects, developers can create effective and engaging Android user interfaces that contribute significantly to the success of their applications.

    Google’s Material Design Principles and Implementation

    Material Design is a design language from Google that was announced at the 2014 Google I/O conference and first appeared in Android 5.0 (Lollipop). Its primary goal is to provide a more consistent user experience across Google products, including Android. As an open platform, Android is particularly susceptible to inconsistencies in UI design, and Material Design aims to address this by offering guidelines and tools for a more unified experience. By adhering to Material Design principles, developers can create apps that look good, run smoothly, and feel like a seamless extension of the Android platform.

    The Material Design ethos is based on translating the physical properties of real-world materials, drawing inspiration from paper, ink, and print techniques, into the virtual screen. It encourages the creation of on-screen objects that seem to possess qualities like depth and edges through the use of shadows, light, and elevation. The movement of Material Design objects also mimics the physical world, where objects cannot pass through or occupy the same space simultaneously. To achieve this illusion, Material Design introduces the concept of a simulated 3D space where UI objects have X, Y, and Z coordinates, with the Z coordinate being crucial for creating a sense of depth by extending outward toward the user. Every object in this space has a standard 1dp thickness. Objects within this environment appear, disappear, and transform while maintaining the illusion of a continuous 3D space. The movement of these “sheets of material” can be bound together along an edge to move together, or overlap and move independently based on their Z-axis position.

    Beyond aesthetics, Material Design uses elements like depth and shadow to provide users with visual clues about the interface’s hierarchy, subtly guiding them towards interactive elements and ensuring instinctive navigation.

    The source provides several case studies to illustrate effective Material Design implementation:

    • Hangouts: The redesign of Hangouts incorporated Material Design, with a notable change being the Create New Message button as a floating action button (FAB) located prominently in the bottom-right. The use of elevation and shadows creates the impression that the FAB is floating above other UI elements, drawing attention to the primary action of creating a new message.
    • Google Calendar: This app showcases the Material Design principles of using bold colors and large images, which not only make the app visually appealing but also help users quickly grasp important schedule information. Google Calendar also features Material Design animations that make navigation feel more fluid and natural.
    • Google Maps: Maps utilizes bottom sheets to create an immersive experience where users can explore details about a selected location without leaving the map environment. Bottom sheets use shadows and elevation to suggest the layering of components.

    Getting started with Material Design involves several key steps:

    • Applying the Material theme: This is the quickest way to achieve a consistent Material Design look across an app. Android provides light (Theme.Material.Light), dark (Theme.Material), and a light version with a dark action bar (Theme.Material.Light.DarkActionBar) variations. To apply a theme, you create a new style in res/values/styles.xml that inherits from the desired Material theme.
    • Choosing a color scheme: Color selection is a crucial UI decision. Material Design uses primary and accent colors. The primary color is the main color used throughout the app, while the accent color is a brighter shade to highlight important elements like FABs. Android provides a complete palette of primary and accent colors designed to complement each other, available at a specified URL. When choosing a color scheme, it’s recommended to select three hues from the primary palette (marked 500) and one accent color from the secondary palette (any color except the 500 colors).
    • Creating a sense of depth: Material Design uses lights, shadows, and elevation to create depth. Shadows provide visual cues about an object’s depth and movement, while elevation is the object’s position along the Z-axis, communicating the importance of UI elements. You can set a view’s elevation using the android:elevation attribute. It’s important to maintain a consistent default resting elevation across the app.
    • Creating a Material Design structure: This involves incorporating new structural elements like Floating Action Buttons (FABs), Bottom Sheets, and CardView.
    • FABs are prominent, circular buttons for key promoted actions. It’s recommended to use the standard circular icon and avoid adding overflow actions to FABs.
    • Bottom sheets are panels that slide up from the bottom of the screen to display supplementary content. There are persistent bottom sheets for in-app content that supplements the main view, and modal bottom sheets as temporary sheets for presenting actions.
    • CardView provides a consistent way to display related content comprising multiple data types, often including images, links, and text. Cards have a constant width and variable height and typically consist of a header, rich media, supporting text, a primary action, and optional supplemental actions.
    • Lists and RecyclerView are used for presenting related data in a consistent format. RecyclerView uses a ViewHolder to store references to views for efficiency.
    • Animations and transitions: These visual effects enhance the user experience by reinforcing the illusion of physical properties and creating visual continuity between activities. Transitions ease the user from one activity to the next, blurring the traditional boundaries between screens. Thought should be given to how objects enter and exit the screen to enhance the 3D environment illusion.
    • Providing visual feedback: When users interact with UI elements, the app should provide visual confirmation. In Material Design, a touch ripple is the primary mechanism for this, communicating information about the touch event.
    • Finishing touches: This includes designing the product icon to communicate the app’s identity and purpose, taking inspiration from paper and ink and utilizing standardized shapes. It’s generally recommended to use the standard Material Design system icons provided by Android. Typography and writing also play a crucial role. Material Design uses the Roboto and Noto typefaces. Text opacity can provide visual cues about the importance of text. Writing guidelines emphasize creating text that is clear, accessible, necessary, concise, lacking punctuation (mostly), in the present tense, uses active verbs, and has a friendly and respectful tone.

    For backwards compatibility with older Android versions, you might need to use the AppCompat library. Android Studio users need to add AppCompat as a dependency in their build.gradle file, while Eclipse users need to add the AppCompat library to their project. Activities should extend AppCompatActivity, and themes should inherit from Theme.AppCompat to ensure Material Design elements work on older devices.

    In summary, Material Design is a comprehensive design system that aims to create visually appealing, consistent, and intuitive Android user interfaces by drawing inspiration from the physical world and providing clear guidelines and components for developers to follow.

    Android Screen Size and Density Support

    Supporting different screens is a crucial aspect of Android development, as Android devices come in a wide variety of screen sizes and densities. Your goal as a developer is to create a user interface (UI) that looks and functions well on all of these different screen configurations. The source emphasizes that it’s not enough for your app to be merely compatible; it should give users the impression that it was designed specifically for their device’s screen.

    Android categorizes screens in two main ways:

    • Screen sizes: Traditionally, Android supported generalized sizes like small, normal, large, and xlarge. However, Android 3.2 (API level 13) introduced more specific configuration qualifiers for screen sizes.
    • Screen densities: This refers to the number of pixels per inch (dpi) on a device’s screen. Android supports several generalized densities: low (ldpi), medium (mdpi), high (hdpi), extra-high (xhdpi), extra-extra-high (xxhdpi), and extra-extra-extra-high (xxxhdpi).

    To effectively support this variety, the source highlights several key techniques:

    1. Using Flexible Layouts and Density-Independent Pixels (dp):

    • You should aim to create flexible layouts that can adapt to different screen sizes. Using keywords like match_parent (to fill available space) and wrap_content (to size based on content) is essential.
    • For defining dimensions, it’s crucial to use density-independent pixels (dp). This is an abstract unit that Android automatically adjusts based on the screen’s physical density, helping to maintain the physical size of UI elements across different screens. Avoid using absolute units like pixels, as this can lead to UI elements appearing too large on low-density screens and too small on high-density screens.

    2. Providing Density-Specific Resources (Drawables):

    • Android automatically scales drawables based on the current screen’s density. However, this automatic scaling can result in blurry or pixelated images.
    • To ensure crisp images, you should create alternate versions of your drawables optimized for different screen densities. This is done by creating resource directories with density qualifiers (e.g., drawable-ldpi, drawable-mdpi, drawable-hdpi, drawable-xhdpi, drawable-xxhdpi, drawable-xxxhdpi) and placing the corresponding optimized images in these directories. Android will then automatically select the appropriate image based on the device’s screen density.
    • The source recommends adhering to a 3:4:6:8:12:16 scaling ratio when creating alternate bitmaps and nine-patch files for the ldpi, mdpi, hdpi, xhdpi, xxhdpi, and xxxhdpi densities, respectively. It’s often best to start with the largest density (xxhdpi) and scale down.
    • You can use alias resources to reuse the same drawable for multiple density buckets by creating a reference in a density-specific drawable folder to a drawable in the default drawable folder (or another density-specific folder with a different name).

    3. Providing Size-Specific Layouts:

    • If your UI struggles to display or function correctly on certain screen sizes due to automatic scaling or empty spaces, you should create layouts optimized for those screens.
    • Similar to drawables, you create layout resource files in directories with size configuration qualifiers (e.g., layout-small, layout-large). These layouts should have the same name as the default layout.
    • Android 3.2 introduced more powerful size qualifiers that allow you to specify the minimum width (sw<N>dp), available width (w<N>dp), and available height (h<number>dp) required by a layout in dp units. These provide more precise control over when different layouts are used. The smallestWidth (sw<N>dp) is particularly useful as it represents the fixed minimum width of the screen, regardless of orientation. The w<N>dp and h<number>dp qualifiers, on the other hand, take the current orientation into account.

    4. Designing for Different Screen Orientations:

    • You can also provide layouts optimized for landscape and portrait orientations by creating directories with the -land (landscape) and -port (portrait) orientation qualifiers (e.g., layout-land, layout-port).

    5. Utilizing Fragments for Flexible UIs:

    • Fragments are self-contained, modular sections of an app’s UI that can be embedded within an activity. They are particularly useful for creating flexible UIs that can adapt to different screen sizes.
    • On larger screens like tablets, you can combine multiple fragments within a single activity to create multi-pane layouts, while on smaller screens, the same fragments can be displayed separately in a single-pane layout. Your app can then choose the most appropriate layout based on the current device’s screen configuration.

    6. Thorough Testing Across Multiple Screens:

    • It is essential to test your app across a range of different screen sizes and densities using emulators and Android Virtual Devices (AVDs) that represent various device configurations. The more testing you do, the better the user experience will be across different devices. When creating AVDs, you can specify screen size, resolution, and density.

    7. Wireframing with Multiple Screens in Mind:

    • During the wireframing process, it’s easy to focus on one device, but you should always consider how your designs will translate to different screen configurations. Experimenting with the sizing and positioning of content helps in designing apps that work well in both landscape and portrait modes. You might need to create several wireframes targeting different screen configurations or plan to combine content in different ways using fragments. The source suggests initially wireframing for a “natural state” without worrying about multiple devices and then considering how it translates.

    By employing these strategies, you can create Android applications that provide a consistent and enjoyable user experience across the diverse range of devices available.

    Best Practices for Mobile Application Notifications

    The source provides several best practices to keep in mind when designing your application’s notifications. Well-designed notifications can offer real value to users and encourage them to return to your app with timely updates.

    Here are some notification best practices discussed in the source:

    • Providing the right content: At a minimum, your notifications should include a title (setContentTitle), secondary text (setContentText), and a timestamp indicating when the event occurred (not when the notification was posted). Optionally, you can also include the notification type. To ensure users can easily identify your app’s notifications in the system bar, you should include a distinct app icon using setSmallIcon. This icon should be simple, avoid excessive detail, be eye-catching, distinct from other notification icons, use the Material Light action bar icon style, and have a white design on a transparent background.
    • Using notifications sparingly: It’s crucial to use notifications judiciously as they interrupt the user’s current activity. You should avoid using notifications for background operations that don’t require user input or aren’t time-sensitive, and also for events already visible within the app’s UI. Furthermore, you should refrain from using unnecessary notifications merely to entice users to launch your app, as this can lead to uninstalls and negative reviews.
    • Giving users a choice: Ideally, you should provide users with options to customize your app’s notification settings. This could include allowing them to switch between sound and vibration alerts or even disable notifications altogether.
    • Categorizing notifications: The Android system may consider an app’s category when ranking and filtering notifications. Therefore, you should assign a suitable category to each notification using the setCategory() option and choose from the supported categories (e.g., CATEGORY_ALARM, CATEGORY_MESSAGE, CATEGORY_SOCIAL).
    • Making use of actions: You can enhance your notifications by adding action buttons, allowing users to perform common tasks directly from the notification UI without opening the app. You can add buttons using the addAction() method, ensuring each action has its own icon and name. While optional, it’s generally good practice to include at least one action, but you should limit yourself to a maximum of three actions per notification.
    • Using expanded layouts: For devices running Android 4.1 and higher, you can provide two visual styles for each notification: a default, compact normal view and a more detailed big view style that appears when the user expands the notification. The source mentions three big view styles:
    • Big text style: Displays additional text in the expanded area using NotificationCompat.BigTextStyle().
    • Big picture style: Includes a large image attachment using Notification.BigPictureStyle().
    • Inbox style: Presents a list of up to five items using Notification.InboxStyle().
    • Direct reply notifications: In newer Android versions (mentioned as Android N), notifications can include an inline reply action button, enabling users to reply directly from the notification UI. This is particularly useful for messaging apps. Implementing this involves creating a RemoteInput.Builder and adding it to your notification action. You can retrieve the user’s input using RemoteInput.getResultsFromIntent(Intent).
    • Bundled notifications: Also introduced in Android N, bundled notifications allow you to group multiple notifications from the same app into a single notification. This bundled notification consists of a parent notification with summary information and individual notification items that can be unfurled for more details. To group notifications, you use setGroup() and assign the same key to the notifications you want to bundle.

    While not directly a notification best practice, the source also touches on providing alternatives to audio prompts for accessibility, which is relevant if your notifications include sound. You should always accompany audio feedback with a secondary mechanism like on-screen notifications or visual alternatives to assist hearing-impaired users.

    Adhering to these best practices will help you create notifications that are informative, useful, and respectful of the user’s attention.

    Android App Accessibility Best Practices

    The sources discuss several accessibility best practices that you should consider when developing your Android applications. The goal is to ensure that your app can be navigated, understood, and used successfully by everyone, including people with visual, physical, or age-related limitations. Android has built-in accessibility features that can help you optimize your app for users with disabilities.

    Here are some key accessibility best practices highlighted in the sources:

    • Adding descriptive text to your UI controls. If your UI is well-designed, you might not need explicit labels for every element (e.g., a phone icon in a Contacts app). However, users with vision impairments may not perceive these visual cues, so providing additional information is necessary.
    • You should provide content descriptions for every UI component that doesn’t have visible text.
    • Consider if the descriptions alone offer sufficient context without visual cues. For example, a “Delete” or “Call the selected contact” description might not be very helpful without context.
    • The text in the android:contentDescription attribute is read aloud by speech-based accessibility services like TalkBack when a user navigates to that item. You can add this description in your XML layout.
    • For EditText fields, use the android:hint attribute to explain what content the user should enter, instead of a content description. Once text is entered, the accessibility service will read the entered text.
    • For dynamic content descriptions (e.g., the state of a slider), you can update the description at runtime using the setContentDescription() method.
    • Providing descriptions is particularly important for ImageButton, ImageView, and Checkbox components.
    • Avoid adding unnecessary descriptions, as this can create noise and make it harder for users to understand the UI.
    • Wherever possible, use Android’s standard controls as they often have ContentDescriptions built-in and work automatically with accessibility services.
    • Designing for focus navigation. Focus navigation allows users to navigate UI elements using directional controls (like a four-way remote) instead of touchscreens. This is often used by individuals with limited vision or manual dexterity.
    • Android automatically determines the focus order, which might not always be ideal.
    • You can override the automatic focus order using these XML attributes:
    • android:nextFocusUp: Defines the next view to focus when navigating up.
    • android:nextFocusDown: Defines the next view to focus when navigating down.
    • android:nextFocusLeft: Defines the next view to focus when navigating left.
    • android:nextFocusRight: Defines the next view to focus when navigating right.
    • The easiest way to test focus navigation is to run your app in the emulator and navigate using only the arrow keys and the OK button. Check that navigation works as expected in all directions, including reverse navigation.
    • You can also modify the focus order at runtime using methods like setNextFocusDownId() and setNextFocusRightId().
    • Custom view controls. If you create custom UI controls, ensure you implement accessibility interfaces for these views and provide content descriptions. If you want compatibility back to Android 1.6, use the Support Library to implement the latest accessibility features. Custom views should generate AccessibilityEvents (when an item is selected or focus changes) by calling sendAccessibilityEvent(int).
    • Providing alternatives to audio prompts. Avoid audio-only feedback in your app to assist hearing-impaired users. Always accompany audio with a secondary mechanism like closed captions, transcripts, on-screen notifications, or another visual alternative.
    • Testing various font sizes. Users can manually change the device-wide font size in their device settings. To ensure your app respects these settings, define your app’s text and associated containers in scaled pixels (sp). When large fonts are enabled, check that your text and UI still look good and function normally without overlapping or making touchable elements unreachable.
    • Using recommended touch target sizes. Make sure all touch targets in your app are at least 48 x 48dp, and the space between on-screen elements is at least 8dp. This improves navigation for users with manual dexterity challenges and children.
    • Providing alternatives to affordances that time out. Some UI elements (like video playback controls) might disappear after a set time. This can be problematic for users of accessibility services like TalkBack, as the controls might vanish before they can be focused on and read. For high-priority tasks or important functions, avoid relying on timed-out controls. Consider disabling the timeout functionality when accessibility services are enabled.
    • Contrast ratio for text. For users with visual impairments, it’s recommended to use a contrast ratio of 4.5:1 between your app’s background and text. Smaller text generally requires more contrast.
    • Colorblindness considerations. Be mindful that some users may be colorblind, so don’t use color alone to convey important information. Supplement color with other elements like patterns, shapes, size, textures, or text.
    • Testing your application’s accessibility features. Testing is crucial for uncovering user interaction problems. This typically involves:
    • Using your app with audible feedback enabled: Enable an audible accessibility service like TalkBack on your Android device (often found in Settings > Accessibility) and interact with your app using sound only. Look for ways to improve the experience for non-sighted users. Ensure enough information is provided without being overwhelming.
    • Navigating your app using directional controls only: Verify that your app is easy to navigate without using the touchscreen, ensuring logical focus movement between UI elements. You can use a physical device with a D-pad or trackball, a software-based controller, or the Android emulator’s keyboard controls. You can also explore using TalkBack gestures.

    By implementing these best practices, you can significantly improve the accessibility of your Android application, making it usable by a wider audience and providing a better overall experience. Remember that everyone on your development team should keep accessibility in mind throughout the design and development process.

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Beginning Oracle Database 12c Administration

    Beginning Oracle Database 12c Administration

    This book, “Beginning Oracle Database 12c Administration, 2nd Edition,” is a comprehensive guide to Oracle database administration. It covers fundamental database conceptsSQL and PL/SQLOracle architecture, and essential administrative tasks such as user management, data loading, backups, and recovery. The text also emphasizes practical work practices and problem-solving methodologies, including the importance of proper planning and licensing. Finally, it highlights the broader IT context of database administration, emphasizing communication and the role of the DBA within an organization.

    Oracle Database Administration Study Guide

    SQL and PL/SQL

    Subqueries

    A subquery is a SELECT statement that is embedded within another DML statement (SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) or within another subquery. Subqueries are always enclosed in parentheses and can return a single value, a single row, or multiple rows of data.

    There are three main types of subqueries:

    1. Inline view: This type of subquery appears in the FROM clause of a SELECT statement. It acts like a temporary table, allowing you to select from the results of the subquery.
    2. Scalar subquery: This type of subquery returns exactly one data item from one row. It can be used wherever a single value is expected, such as in a SELECT list, a WHERE clause, or a HAVING clause.
    3. Correlated subquery: This type of subquery depends on the outer query for its values. It is executed repeatedly, once for each row processed by the outer query.

    Types of SQL

    SQL is a powerful language for managing and manipulating relational databases. It is divided into two main categories:

    1. Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to retrieve, insert, update, and delete data in a database.
    • SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables
    • INSERT: Adds new rows into a table
    • UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table
    • MERGE: Combines INSERT and UPDATE operations based on a condition
    • DELETE: Removes rows from a table
    1. Data Definition Language (DDL): Used to define the structure of the database, including creating, altering, and dropping database objects like tables, views, indexes, and users.
    • CREATE: Creates a new database object
    • ALTER: Modifies the structure of an existing object
    • DROP: Removes an existing object

    Railroad Diagrams

    Oracle uses railroad diagrams to illustrate the syntax of SQL commands. These diagrams provide a visual representation of the different clauses and options available for each command, showing both mandatory and optional elements.

    Database Architecture

    Data Files

    Data files are the physical files that store the actual data of an Oracle database. They are organized into logical units called tablespaces.

    Key points about data files:

    • Each data file belongs to one tablespace.
    • Data files are typically named with a descriptive name and a .dbf or .ora extension.
    • Space within data files is divided into data blocks, also called pages.
    • Each data block contains data from only one table.
    • A contiguous range of data blocks allocated to a table is called an extent.

    Server Processes

    Oracle uses server processes to manage connections and execute user requests. There are two main types of server architectures:

    1. Dedicated Server Architecture: A dedicated server process is created for each user connection. This process handles all requests from the connected user.
    2. Multithreaded Server (MTS) Architecture: A pool of shared server processes is used to handle user connections. Dispatcher processes route user requests to available shared servers. MTS is less commonly used than the dedicated server architecture.

    Software Installation

    The software installation process involves setting up the operating system environment, installing the Oracle software, and configuring the listener.

    Key considerations:

    • Setting up appropriate user accounts and permissions
    • Configuring the network listener to allow client connections
    • Setting up firewalls to secure the database server

    Database Creation

    The Database Configuration Assistant (DBCA) is a graphical tool that simplifies the process of creating and configuring an Oracle database.

    Key parameters:

    • db_block_size: Specifies the size of data blocks
    • db_name: Defines the name of the database
    • db_recovery_file_dest: Sets the location for recovery files
    • memory_target: Sets the total amount of memory allocated to the SGA and PGA
    • processes: Defines the maximum number of processes that can connect to the database

    Physical Database Design

    Physical database design focuses on the efficient storage and retrieval of data within the database.

    Partitioning

    Partitioning is a technique for dividing large tables and indexes into smaller, more manageable pieces called partitions.

    Types of partitioning:

    • List partitioning: Divides data based on a list of discrete values.
    • Range partitioning: Divides data based on ranges of values.
    • Interval partitioning: Automatically creates new partitions based on specified intervals.
    • Hash partitioning: Distributes data randomly across partitions using a hashing function.
    • Reference partitioning: Partitions a child table based on the partitioning scheme of its parent table.
    • Composite partitioning: Combines different partitioning methods to create subpartitions within a partition.

    Partition Views

    Partition views combine data from multiple partitioned tables to present a unified view of the data to the user. They provide transparency to the user, hiding the underlying partitioning scheme.

    User Management and Data Loading

    User Management

    Key commands for managing user accounts:

    • CREATE USER: Creates a new user account in the database.
    • ALTER USER: Modifies an existing user account, such as changing passwords, assigning quotas, or setting default and temporary tablespaces.
    • DROP USER: Removes a user account from the database.
    • GRANT: Assigns privileges to a user, allowing them to perform specific actions in the database.
    • REVOKE: Removes privileges from a user.

    Data Loading

    Key methods for loading data into an Oracle database:

    • Data Pump: A high-speed utility for exporting and importing data. The expdp and impdp commands provide a wide range of options for controlling the data loading process.
    • Export/Import: An older utility for data loading. The exp and imp commands are still available but are less efficient than Data Pump.
    • SQL*Loader: A command-line utility for loading data from external files. It uses a control file to define the format of the input data and map it to the database columns.

    Quiz

    Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.

    1. What are the three main types of subqueries, and how do they differ?
    2. Explain the difference between DML and DDL and provide examples of each.
    3. How do railroad diagrams help in understanding SQL syntax?
    4. What are data blocks and extents in the context of data files?
    5. Compare and contrast the dedicated server and multithreaded server architectures.
    6. What are some key considerations during the software installation process for Oracle Database?
    7. Explain the concept of database partitioning and list at least three different partitioning methods.
    8. What is the purpose of a partition view?
    9. Describe the steps involved in creating a new user account and granting them privileges to access database objects.
    10. List and briefly explain three different methods for loading data into an Oracle database.

    Answer Key

    1. The three main types of subqueries are inline views, scalar subqueries, and correlated subqueries. Inline views act like temporary tables in the FROM clause, scalar subqueries return a single value, and correlated subqueries depend on the outer query for their values.
    2. DML (Data Manipulation Language) is used for manipulating data within a database, while DDL (Data Definition Language) is used for defining the database structure. Examples of DML include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, while examples of DDL include CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.
    3. Railroad diagrams provide a visual representation of the syntax of SQL commands, showing both mandatory and optional elements. They help to understand the order and relationships between different clauses and options.
    4. Data blocks (also called pages) are the units of storage within data files, with a fixed size. Extents are contiguous ranges of data blocks allocated to a specific table.
    5. A dedicated server architecture assigns a separate process to each user connection, while a multithreaded server (MTS) architecture uses a pool of shared server processes to handle multiple connections. MTS can be more efficient for handling many concurrent connections but is less commonly used than the dedicated server architecture.
    6. Key considerations during Oracle Database software installation include setting up appropriate user accounts and permissions, configuring the network listener, and setting up firewalls. These steps ensure security and allow clients to connect to the database server.
    7. Database partitioning involves dividing large tables and indexes into smaller pieces called partitions. This improves manageability and performance. Different partitioning methods include list partitioning (based on discrete values), range partitioning (based on value ranges), and hash partitioning (based on a hashing function).
    8. A partition view combines data from multiple partitioned tables into a single logical view. This allows users to query the data transparently without needing to know about the underlying partitioning scheme.
    9. To create a new user account, use the CREATE USER command, specifying a username and password. Use the GRANT command to assign privileges to the user, allowing them to perform actions like creating tables, selecting data, or modifying data.
    10. Three methods for loading data into Oracle Database are Data Pump (using expdp and impdp commands), Export/Import (using exp and imp commands), and SQL*Loader (using a control file to define the data format). Data Pump is the most efficient method for large datasets.

    Essay Questions

    1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using different partitioning methods in Oracle Database. Provide real-world scenarios where each method would be most appropriate.
    2. Explain the concept of read consistency in Oracle Database. How is it achieved, and what are its benefits and limitations?
    3. Describe the different types of database backups available in Oracle Database. Discuss best practices for implementing a comprehensive backup and recovery strategy.
    4. Explain the importance of database monitoring and performance tuning. Describe the tools and techniques available in Oracle Database for monitoring performance and identifying bottlenecks.
    5. Discuss the role of the Oracle Data Dictionary in database administration. How can the Data Dictionary be used to obtain information about database objects, users, and privileges?

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Data Block: The fundamental unit of storage within an Oracle data file, with a fixed size. Also called a page.
    • Extent: A contiguous range of data blocks allocated to a table or index.
    • Tablespace: A logical grouping of data files. Tablespaces help to organize and manage database storage.
    • Dedicated Server Process: A server process dedicated to handling requests from a single user connection.
    • Multithreaded Server (MTS): A server architecture that uses a pool of shared server processes to handle multiple user connections.
    • Partitioning: A technique for dividing large tables and indexes into smaller, more manageable pieces called partitions.
    • Partition View: A logical view that combines data from multiple partitioned tables, providing a unified view of the data.
    • Data Pump: A high-speed utility for exporting and importing data in Oracle Database.
    • SQL*Loader: A command-line utility for loading data into Oracle Database from external files.
    • Read Consistency: A feature of Oracle Database that ensures that all data read during a transaction is consistent with the state of the database when the transaction started.
    • Data Dictionary: A collection of metadata tables and views that store information about the structure and contents of an Oracle database.
    • System Global Area (SGA): A shared memory area used by all Oracle processes to store database data and control information.
    • Program Global Area (PGA): A private memory area allocated to each Oracle server process for its own use.
    • SQL Tuning Advisor: A tool that analyzes SQL statements and recommends changes to improve their performance.
    • Automatic Workload Repository (AWR): A repository that stores historical performance data about an Oracle database.
    • Statspack: An older tool that collects and reports performance statistics for Oracle databases.
    • Wait Interface: A set of dynamic performance views that provide information about the wait events experienced by Oracle processes.

    Briefing Document: Oracle Database 12c Administration

    This document reviews key themes and insights from excerpts of “Beginning Oracle Database 12c Administration, 2nd Edition,” focusing on database architecture, administration, maintenance, and tuning.

    I. Database Architecture

    • Data Storage: Oracle databases utilize data files organized into tablespaces. Data within these files is structured into equal-sized data blocks, typically 8KB. An extent is a contiguous range of data blocks allocated to a table when it requires more space.
    • “The space within data files is organized into data blocks (sometimes called pages) of equal size… Each block contains data from just one table… When a table needs more space, it grabs a contiguous range of data blocks called an extent” (Chapter 2).
    • Server Processes: Oracle employs a dedicated server process for each user connection. This process handles tasks like permission checks, query plan generation, and data retrieval.
    • “A dedicated server process is typically started whenever a user connects to the database—it performs all the work requested by the user” (Chapter 2).
    • Memory Structures: The System Global Area (SGA) is a shared memory region crucial for database operations. It includes the database buffer cache for storing frequently accessed data blocks, the redo log buffer for transaction logging, and the shared pool for storing parsed SQL statements and execution plans.
    • Background Processes: Essential for database functionality, background processes include:
    • DBWn (Database Writer): Writes modified data blocks from the buffer cache to data files.
    • LGWR (Log Writer): Writes redo log entries from the redo log buffer to redo log files.
    • CKPT (Checkpoint): Synchronizes data files and control files with the database’s current state.
    • SMON (System Monitor): Performs instance recovery after a system crash and coalesces free space in tablespaces.

    II. Database Administration

    • SQL Language: Oracle utilizes SQL for both data manipulation (DML) and data definition (DDL). Railroad diagrams, often recursive, are used to explain the syntax and structure of SQL statements. Subqueries, particularly inline views and scalar subqueries, play significant roles in complex queries.
    • User Management: The CREATE USER statement creates new users, defining their authentication, default and temporary tablespaces, and initial profile. ALTER USER modifies user attributes like passwords and tablespace quotas. GRANT and REVOKE commands control access privileges on database objects.
    • “The CREATE USER statement should typically specify a value for DEFAULT TABLESPACE… and TEMPORARY TABLESPACE” (Chapter 8).
    • Data Loading: Oracle provides several methods for importing data:
    • SQL*Loader: A powerful utility for loading data from external files.
    • Data Pump Export (expdp) and Import (impdp): Introduced in Oracle 10g, these utilities offer features like parallelism, compression, and encryption for efficient data transfer.

    III. Physical Database Design

    • Partitioning: A technique for dividing large tables into smaller, manageable pieces. Different partitioning strategies include range, list, hash, composite, and reference partitioning. Partitioning enhances query performance, backup and recovery, and data management.
    • Indexes: Data structures that speed up data retrieval. B*tree indexes are commonly used in OLTP environments, while bitmap indexes are suitable for data warehousing.
    • “Most indexes are of the btree (balanced tree) type and are best suited for online transaction-processing environments”* (Chapter 17).

    IV. Database Maintenance

    • Backups: Regular backups are vital for data protection and recovery. RMAN (Recovery Manager) is Oracle’s recommended tool for performing backups and managing backup sets. Strategies include full, incremental, and cumulative backups.
    • Recovery: Techniques for restoring a database to a consistent state after failures. Options include:
    • Data Recovery Advisor (DRA): An automated tool for diagnosing and repairing database corruption.
    • Flashback Technologies: Allow for quick recovery from logical errors or unintentional data modifications.
    • LogMiner: Enables analysis of archived redo logs to recover specific data changes.
    • Space Management: Monitoring tablespace usage and free space is crucial. Techniques like segment shrinking and coalescing free space can help optimize storage utilization.

    V. Database Tuning

    • Performance Monitoring: Tools like Statspack, AWR (Automatic Workload Repository), and dynamic performance views provide insights into database performance.
    • Statspack: Collects performance snapshots for analysis.
    • “Note that Statspack is not documented in the reference guides for Oracle Database 10g, 11g, and 12c, even though it has been upgraded for all these versions” (Chapter 16).
    • AWR: A more comprehensive and automated performance monitoring framework.
    • SQL Tuning: Identifying and optimizing inefficient SQL statements is crucial for improving overall database performance. Techniques include index creation and tuning, hint usage, and utilizing the SQL Tuning Advisor.
    • Wait Interface: Analyzing wait events helps pinpoint performance bottlenecks. Common wait events like db file sequential read and log file sync provide clues for optimization.

    VI. Key Takeaways

    • Understanding Oracle’s architectural components is fundamental for effective administration.
    • Proper planning for licensing, hardware sizing, and configuration is essential for a successful deployment.
    • Regular maintenance tasks like backups, recovery drills, and space management ensure database health and data integrity.
    • Proactive performance monitoring and SQL tuning are critical for achieving optimal database performance.
    • Utilizing Oracle’s various tools and features like RMAN, Data Pump, and the SQL Tuning Advisor simplifies administrative tasks and enhances efficiency.

    Oracle Database Administration FAQ

    What are the different types of subqueries in Oracle SQL?

    There are three main types of subqueries:

    • Inline views: These are subqueries used in the FROM clause as a table reference. They act like temporary views within a larger query.
    • Scalar subqueries: These subqueries return a single value and can be used wherever a single value is expected, such as in a SELECT list or WHERE clause.
    • Correlated subqueries: These subqueries depend on values from the outer query and are executed repeatedly for each row of the outer query.

    How is space organized within Oracle data files?

    Space in data files is structured in data blocks, also known as pages. Each data file has a fixed block size (e.g., 8KB) defined at the tablespace level. A block holds data for a single table. To accommodate growth, tables claim a contiguous series of data blocks, forming an extent.

    What are the main types of server processes in Oracle?

    Oracle primarily uses two types of server processes:

    • Dedicated server processes: A dedicated server process handles requests for a single user connection. This is the typical model.
    • Shared server processes (Multithreaded Server – MTS): In this model, a pool of shared server processes handles requests from multiple users. This approach can be more efficient for environments with many concurrent but mostly idle connections.

    What are the different types of partitioning available in Oracle?

    Oracle offers several partitioning methods:

    • Range partitioning: Data is divided into partitions based on a range of values for a specific column, typically a date or number.
    • List partitioning: Partitions are created based on lists of discrete values for a specific column.
    • Hash partitioning: A hashing function distributes data across partitions, aiming for even data distribution.
    • Interval partitioning: This is an extension of range partitioning where new partitions are automatically created based on a defined interval.
    • Reference partitioning: This method partitions a child table based on the partitioning key of a referenced parent table.
    • Composite partitioning: This approach combines multiple partitioning methods, allowing for partitions to be further divided into subpartitions.

    How can I export and import data in Oracle?

    Oracle provides multiple utilities for data export and import:

    • Data Pump (expdp and impdp): This is the preferred method in modern Oracle versions, offering features like parallelism, compression, and encryption.
    • Original Export/Import (exp and imp): Although less commonly used now, these utilities are still available and offer various options for data export and import.
    • SQL*Loader: This utility loads data from external files into Oracle tables, using a control file to define the data format and loading rules.

    What is the purpose of the Oracle Data Dictionary?

    The Data Dictionary is a collection of metadata tables and views containing information about the structure and objects within an Oracle database. It stores details about tables, indexes, users, privileges, and other database components. It is crucial for understanding the database’s structure and troubleshooting issues.

    What are some tools for monitoring an Oracle database?

    Several tools help monitor an Oracle database:

    • Oracle Enterprise Manager: A comprehensive suite with web-based interfaces for monitoring and managing various aspects of the database.
    • Statspack: A lightweight performance monitoring tool capturing snapshots of database activity for analysis.
    • Automatic Workload Repository (AWR): Built into the database, AWR automatically collects performance data and generates reports.
    • Dynamic Performance Views: Real-time views providing detailed information about database activity.
    • Third-party tools: Tools like Toad and DBArtisan provide extensive monitoring and management features.

    What are some techniques for tuning SQL queries in Oracle?

    Effective SQL tuning involves a multi-faceted approach:

    • Understanding the Execution Plan: Analyze the query plan to identify bottlenecks and areas for optimization.
    • Using Indexes Appropriately: Create and utilize indexes effectively to speed up data retrieval.
    • Rewriting Queries for Efficiency: Optimize query structure, consider using hints, and avoid unnecessary operations.
    • Collecting Statistics: Ensure up-to-date statistics are available for the optimizer to make informed decisions.
    • Using the SQL Tuning Advisor: Employ the advisor to identify and implement potential optimizations.
    • Considering Materialized Views: Pre-calculate and store query results to improve performance for frequently used complex queries.

    Oracle 12c Database Administration

    Timeline of Events:

    This text excerpt does not present a narrative with a sequence of events. Instead, it offers technical information and instructions related to Oracle Database 12c administration. The provided content focuses on aspects like:

    • SQL fundamentals: Introduction to SQL language, different types of SQL statements (DML and DDL), and the use of railroad diagrams for understanding SQL syntax.
    • Database Structure: Explanation of data files, tablespaces, data blocks, and extents within Oracle databases.
    • Server Processes: Description of dedicated server processes and the multithreaded server model.
    • Software Installation: Instructions for software installation including setting up iptables firewall rules.
    • Database Creation: Details about setting database parameters, data files, and tablespace sizes during database creation.
    • Physical Database Design: Exploration of different partitioning techniques like list, range, interval, hash, reference, and composite partitioning for efficient data organization.
    • User Management and Data Loading: Guidance on user creation, granting and revoking privileges, managing tablespaces, and using utilities like exp/imp and expdp/impdp for data loading and export.
    • Database Support: Introduction to data dictionary views and their importance in database administration, and brief mention of third-party tools.
    • Monitoring: Overview of monitoring database activity through alert logs, checking CPU and load average, understanding listener issues, and using tools like AWR and Statspack for performance monitoring.
    • Fixing Problems: Troubleshooting scenarios related to unresponsive listeners and data corruption using tools like DRA and RMAN.
    • Database Maintenance: Tasks like archiving, auditing, backups, purging, rebuilding, statistics gathering, and user management as part of regular database maintenance.
    • SQL Tuning: Understanding the role of indexes, interpreting query execution plans, and utilizing tools like SQL Tuning Advisor for optimizing SQL statement performance.

    Therefore, it’s not feasible to create a timeline based on the provided content.

    Cast of Characters:

    This technical text excerpt doesn’t feature individual characters in a narrative sense. It primarily focuses on technical concepts and instructions related to Oracle Database 12c administration.

    However, we can identify some key entities mentioned:

    • Oracle: The company developing and providing the Oracle Database software.
    • DBA (Database Administrator): The individual responsible for managing and maintaining the Oracle database.
    • Users: Individuals accessing and utilizing the Oracle database. Specific users like “ifernand,” “hr,” and “clerical_role” are mentioned as examples in user management and data loading sections.

    Instead of character bios, we can highlight their roles:

    • Oracle: Provides the software, documentation, and support for Oracle Database.
    • DBA: Performs tasks like installation, configuration, security management, performance tuning, backup and recovery, and user management.
    • Users: Utilize the database for various purposes, depending on their assigned roles and privileges.

    This information clarifies the roles of entities involved in Oracle database administration, even though traditional character bios are not applicable in this context.

    Oracle Database Administration

    The most concrete aspect of a database is the files on the storage disks connected to the database host [1]. The location of the database software is called the Oracle home [1]. The path to that location is usually stored in the environment variable ORACLE_HOME [1]. There are two types of database software: server and client software [1]. Server software is necessary to create and manage the database and is required only on the database host [1]. **Client software is necessary to utilize the database and is required on every user’s computer. The most common example is the SQL*Plus command-line tool** [1].

    Well-known configuration files include init.ora, listener.ora, and tnsnames.ora [2]. Data files are logically grouped into tablespaces [2]. Each Oracle table or index is assigned to one tablespace and shares the space with other tables assigned to the same tablespace [2]. Data files can grow automatically if the database administrator wishes [2]. The space within data files is organized into equally sized blocks; all data files belonging to a tablespace use the same block size [2]. When a data table needs more space, it grabs a contiguous range of data blocks called an extent [2]. It is conventional to use the same extent size for all tables in a tablespace [2].

    Oracle records important events and errors in the alert log [3]. A detailed trace file is created when a severe error occurs [3]. Oracle Database administrators need to understand SQL in all its forms [4]. All database activity, including database administration activities, is transacted in SQL [4]. Oracle reference works use railroad diagrams to teach the SQL language [5]. SQL is divided into Data Manipulation Language (DML) and Data Definition Language (DDL) [5]. DML includes the SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, MERGE, and DELETE statements [5]. DDL includes the CREATE, ALTER, and DROP statements for the different classes of objects in an Oracle database [5]. The SQL reference manual also describes commands that can be used to perform database administration activities such as stopping and starting databases [5].

    Programs written in PL/SQL can be stored in an Oracle database [6]. Using these programs has many advantages, including efficiency, control, and flexibility [6]. PL/SQL offers a full complement of structured programming mechanisms such as condition checking, loops, and subroutines [6].

    When you stop thinking in terms of command-line syntax such as create database and GUI tools such as the Database Creation Assistant (dbca) and start thinking in terms such as:

    • security management
    • availability management
    • continuity management
    • change management
    • incident management
    • problem management
    • configuration management
    • release management
    • and capacity management,

    the business of database administration begins to make coherent sense, and you become a more effective database administrator [7]. These terms are part of the standard jargon of the IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), a suite of best practices used by IT organizations throughout the world [7].

    Every object in a database is explicitly owned by a single owner, and the owner of an object must explicitly authorize its use by anybody else. The collection of objects owned by a user is called a schema [8, 9]. The terms user, schema, schema owner, and account are used interchangeably [8].

    A database is an information repository that must be competently administered using the principles laid out in the IT Infrastructure Library (ITIL), including:

    • security management
    • availability management
    • continuity management
    • change management
    • incident management
    • problem management
    • configuration management
    • release management
    • and capacity management [10].

    The five commands required for user management are CREATE USER, ALTER USER, DROP USER, GRANT, and REVOKE [9].

    Form-based tools also simplify the task of database administration [11]. A workman is as good as his tools [11].

    Enterprise Manager comes in two flavors: Database Express and Cloud Control. Both are web-based tools. Database Express is used to manage a single database, whereas Grid Control is used to manage multiple databases [12]. You can accomplish most DBA tasks—from mundane tasks such as password resets and creating indexes to complex tasks such as backup and recovery—by using Enterprise Manager instead of command-line tools such as SQL*Plus [12].

    SQL Developer is primarily a tool for software developers, but database administrators will find it very useful. Common uses are examining the structure of a table and checking the execution plan for a query [13]. It can also be used to perform some typical database administration tasks such as identifying and terminating blocking sessions [13].

    Remote Diagnostic Agent (RDA) is a tool provided by Oracle Support to collect information about a database and its host system. RDA organizes the information it gathers into an HTML framework for easy viewing [13]. It is a wonderful way to document all aspects of a database system [13].

    Oracle stores database metadata—data about data—in tables, just as in the case of user data. This collection of tables is called the data dictionary. The information in the data dictionary tables is very cryptic and condensed for maximum efficiency during database operation. The data dictionary views are provided to make the information more comprehensible to the database administrator [14].

    The alert log contains error messages and informational messages. The location of the alert log is listed in the V$DIAG_INFO view. The name of the alert log is alert_SID.log, where SID is the name of your database instance [15]. Enterprise Manager monitors the database and sends e-mail messages when problems are detected [16]. The command AUDIT ALL enables auditing for a wide variety of actions that modify the database and objects in it, such as ALTER SYSTEM, ALTER TABLESPACE, ALTER TABLE, and ALTER INDEX [16]. The AUDIT CREATE SESSION command causes all connections and disconnections to be recorded [16]. Recovery Manager (RMAN) maintains detailed history information about backups. RMAN commands such as list backup, report need backup, and report unrecoverable can be used to review backups. Enterprise Manager can also be used to review backups [16].

    Database maintenance is required to keep the database in peak operating condition. Most aspects of database maintenance can be automated. Oracle performs some maintenance automatically: collecting statistics for the query optimizer to use [17].

    Competency in Oracle technology is only half of the challenge of being a DBA. If you had very little knowledge of Oracle technology but knew exactly “which” needed to be done, you could always find out how to do it—there is Google, and there are online manuals aplenty [18]. Too many Oracle DBAs don’t know “which” to do, and what they have when they are through is “just a mess without a clue” [18].

    Any database administration task that is done repeatedly should be codified into an SOP. Using a written SOP has many benefits, including efficiency, quality, and consistency [19].

    The free Oracle Database 12c Performance Tuning Guide offers a detailed and comprehensive treatment of performance-tuning methods [20].

    Perhaps the most complex problem in database administration is SQL tuning. The paucity of books devoted to SQL tuning is perhaps further evidence of the difficulty of the topic [21]. The only way to interact with Oracle, to retrieve data, to change data, and to administer the database is SQL [21]. Oracle itself uses SQL to perform all the work that it does behind the scenes. SQL performance is, therefore, the key to database performance; all database performance problems are really SQL performance problems, even if they express themselves as contention for resources [21].

    Relational Databases and SQL

    A relational database is a database in which the data is perceived by the user as tables, and the operators available to the user are operators that generate “new” tables from “old” ones. [1] Relational database theory was developed as an alternative to the “programmer as navigator” paradigm prevalent in pre-relational databases. [2] In these databases, records were connected using pointers. To access data, you would have to navigate to a specific record and then follow a chain of records. [2] This approach required programmers to be aware of the database’s physical structure, which made applications difficult to develop and maintain. [3]

    Relational databases address these problems by using relational algebra, a collection of operations used to combine tables. [4] These operations include:

    • Selection: Creating a new table by extracting a subset of rows from a table based on specific criteria. [5]
    • Projection: Creating a new table by extracting a subset of columns from a table. [5]
    • Union: Creating a new table by combining all rows from two tables. [5]
    • Difference: Creating a new table by extracting rows from one table that do not exist in another table. [6]
    • Join: Creating a new table by concatenating records from two tables. [6]

    One of the significant advantages of relational databases is that they allow users to interact with the data without needing to know the database’s physical structure. [3] The database management system is responsible for determining the most efficient way to execute queries. [7] This separation between the logical and physical aspects of the database is known as physical data independence. [8]

    SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to interact with relational databases. [9] SQL allows users to perform various operations, including:

    • Retrieving data.
    • Inserting, updating, and deleting data.
    • Managing database objects such as tables and indexes.

    Despite its widespread adoption, SQL has been criticized for some of its features, including the allowance of duplicate rows and the use of nullable data items. [10, 11] However, SQL remains the most widely used language for interacting with relational databases, and it is an essential skill for database administrators. [11]

    SQL and PL/SQL in Oracle Databases

    SQL (Structured Query Language) is the primary language used to interact with Oracle databases, encompassing all database activities, including administration. [1] Database administrators need to be well-versed in SQL due to its extensive capabilities and functionalities. [1] The significance of SQL is evident in the sheer volume of the Oracle Database 12c SQL Language Reference, which spans nearly 2,000 pages. [1]

    SQL offers a powerful set of features, including:

    • Data Manipulation Language (DML): This subset of SQL focuses on modifying data within the database. DML statements include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, MERGE, and DELETE. [2, 3]
    • Data Definition Language (DDL): DDL statements handle the creation, modification, and removal of database objects, such as tables and indexes. Common DDL statements include CREATE, ALTER, and DROP. [2, 4]

    Oracle’s reference manuals utilize railroad diagrams to illustrate the syntax and numerous optional clauses of SQL statements. [5] These diagrams provide a visual representation of the structure and flow of SQL commands. [5] A notable aspect of railroad diagrams is their ability to incorporate subdiagrams and even reference themselves recursively, adding to the complexity and power of SQL. [6]

    PL/SQL (Procedural Language/SQL) extends the capabilities of SQL by providing procedural programming constructs within the Oracle database. [7] PL/SQL empowers developers to create sophisticated programs that interact with the database, leveraging features such as:

    • Condition checking: Implementing decision-making logic within PL/SQL programs. [7]
    • Loops: Enabling repetitive execution of code blocks for efficient processing. [7]
    • Subroutines: Encapsulating reusable code segments for modularity and code organization. [7]

    One of the prominent applications of PL/SQL is the creation of triggers, which automatically execute predefined actions in response to specific database events. [7] For instance, the HR schema employs a trigger to log historical job changes whenever the job_id in the employees table is modified. [8] Triggers enhance data integrity, security, and auditing capabilities within the database. [9]

    Storing PL/SQL programs within the database offers several advantages, such as:

    • Enhanced efficiency: Reduced communication overhead between client and server, resulting in improved performance. [9]
    • Improved control: Streamlined enforcement of business rules through triggers. [9]
    • Increased flexibility: Empowering SQL statements with the added power and versatility of PL/SQL functions. [9]

    The combined capabilities of SQL and PL/SQL make them essential tools for Oracle database administrators, enabling them to manage data, enforce rules, and optimize database operations effectively.

    Database Backup and Recovery Strategies

    Database backups are crucial for protecting against data loss due to user error, operator error, or hardware failure. Backups are essentially snapshots of a database or a portion of a database taken at a specific point in time. If a database is damaged, these backups can be used to restore it to a functional state. Additionally, archived logs, which contain records of all transactions performed on the database, can be used in conjunction with backups to replay modifications made after the backup was created, ensuring a complete recovery. [1]

    Determining the appropriate backup strategy requires careful consideration of various factors, including the business needs, cost-effectiveness, and available resources. Several key decisions need to be made: [2]

    • Storage Medium: Backups can be stored on tape or disk. Tapes offer advantages in terms of cost and reliability, while disks provide faster access and ease of management. A common approach is to create backups on disks initially and then copy them to tapes for long-term storage. [2-4]
    • Backup Scope: Full backups capture the entire database, while partial backups focus on specific portions, such as changed data blocks or read-only tablespaces. [5]
    • Backup Level: Level 0 backups are full backups, while level 1 backups, also known as incremental backups, only include data blocks that have changed since the last level 0 backup. This approach balances backup frequency with resource consumption. [6]
    • Backup Type: Physical backups create exact copies of data blocks and files, while logical backups represent a structured copy of table data. Logical backups are generally smaller but cannot be used to restore the entire database. [7]
    • Backup Consistency: Consistent backups guarantee a point-in-time representation of the database, while inconsistent backups may contain inconsistencies due to ongoing modifications during the backup process. The use of redo logs can address inconsistencies in physical backups. [8]
    • Backup Mode: Hot backups, or online backups, allow database access and modifications during the backup operation, while cold backups, or offline backups, require the database to be unavailable. [9]
    • Backup Management: Oracle-managed backups utilize Recovery Manager (RMAN), which offers numerous advantages such as ease of use, history data storage, and advanced features like incremental backups and corruption detection. User-managed backups employ alternative methods, such as snapshot technology, which can be integrated with RMAN for enhanced capabilities. [10-12]

    Recovery, the process of repairing a damaged database, often follows a restore operation, which involves replacing damaged or missing files from backup copies. Different types of recovery cater to specific situations: [13, 14]

    • Full Recovery: Restoring the entire database to a functional state. [14]
    • Partial Recovery: Repairing only the affected parts of the database without impacting the availability of other parts. [14]
    • Complete Recovery: Recovering all transactions up to the latest point in time. [15]
    • Incomplete Recovery: Intentionally stopping the recovery process at a specific point in time, often used to reverse user errors. [15]
    • Traditional Recovery: Using archived redo logs to replay transactions. [16]
    • Flashback Recovery: Utilizing flashback logs to quickly unwind transactions, offering faster recovery times than traditional methods. [16]

    Data Recovery Advisor (DRA) simplifies the database repair process by automating tasks and providing recommendations. By analyzing failures and generating RMAN scripts, DRA streamlines the recovery process for DBAs. [17]

    Testing recovery procedures is crucial for ensuring their effectiveness and validating backup usability. RMAN offers the DUPLICATE DATABASE command, allowing DBAs to create a copy of the database for testing purposes without affecting the live environment. [18]

    Documenting recovery procedures in standard operating procedures (SOPs) is vital for consistent and efficient execution, especially in stressful situations. SOPs should outline the steps involved in backups, recovery, and other critical database management tasks. [18, 19]

    Database Performance Tuning: A Five-Step Approach

    Database performance tuning is a critical aspect of database administration, aimed at optimizing the database’s efficiency and responsiveness in handling workloads. Tuning involves a systematic approach to identify performance bottlenecks, analyze their root causes, and implement solutions to improve overall performance.

    One of the primary focuses of database tuning is on DB time, which represents the total time the database spends actively working on user requests. Analyzing DB time allows administrators to pinpoint areas where the database is spending excessive time and identify potential bottlenecks. The Statspack and AWR reports provide comprehensive insights into DB time distribution across various database operations, helping to isolate performance issues. [1, 2]

    A widely recognized method for database tuning is the five-step approach, encompassing: [1, 3]

    1. Define the problem: This crucial initial step involves gathering detailed information about the perceived performance issue, including specific symptoms, affected users, and any recent changes in the environment that might have contributed to the problem. Accurately defining the problem sets the foundation for effective investigation and analysis.
    2. Investigate the problem: Once the problem is clearly defined, a thorough investigation is conducted to gather relevant evidence, such as Statspack reports, workload graphs, and session traces. This step aims to delve deeper into the problem’s nature and collect data for analysis.
    3. Analyze the collected data: The evidence collected during the investigation is scrutinized to identify patterns, trends, and potential root causes of the performance issue. For example, examining the “Top 5 Timed Events” section of a Statspack report can reveal specific database operations consuming significant DB time. [4]
    4. Solve the problem: Based on the analysis, solutions are formulated to address the identified performance bottlenecks. This step may involve adjusting database configuration parameters, implementing indexing strategies, optimizing SQL queries, or considering hardware upgrades.
    5. Implement and validate the solution: The proposed solutions are implemented in the database environment, and their impact on performance is carefully monitored and validated. This step ensures the effectiveness of the implemented changes and verifies the desired performance improvements.

    Tools like Statspack and AWR play a crucial role in database performance tuning, providing rich data for analysis and insights into database behavior. These tools offer comprehensive reports, customizable queries, and historical data collection, enabling DBAs to track performance trends over time and identify areas for improvement. [1] SQL Developer, another essential tool, enables DBAs to examine table structures, check the execution plan for queries, and even pinpoint blocking sessions that may be hindering performance. [5, 6]

    Database tuning often involves addressing various factors contributing to performance issues. Some common areas of focus include:

    • I/O Performance: Optimizing disk I/O operations can significantly impact database performance. Techniques may involve using faster disks, configuring RAID arrays for optimal performance, or tuning the database buffer cache to minimize disk reads. [7]
    • Memory Management: Efficient memory allocation and utilization are essential for database performance. Tuning may involve adjusting the sizes of the shared pool, buffer cache, and other memory structures to optimize resource allocation. [8, 9]
    • SQL Tuning: SQL queries that consume excessive resources can significantly degrade performance. SQL tuning involves analyzing query execution plans, identifying inefficient operations, and optimizing queries through techniques like indexing, rewriting queries, or using hints to influence the optimizer’s choices. [10-12]
    • Contention: When multiple processes compete for the same resources, such as locks or latches, performance can suffer. Identifying and resolving contention issues may involve optimizing application logic, tuning concurrency settings, or implementing appropriate locking strategies.
    • Workload Management: Analyzing and managing the database workload can help distribute resources effectively and prioritize critical operations. Techniques may include scheduling resource-intensive tasks during off-peak hours, implementing resource limits, or using features like Oracle Resource Manager to control resource allocation.

    Monitoring database performance is an ongoing process, crucial for detecting and addressing performance degradation proactively. Tools like Enterprise Manager provide dashboards and alerts, enabling DBAs to stay informed about database health and performance metrics. By regularly reviewing performance data and identifying trends, DBAs can anticipate potential issues and take corrective actions before they impact users. [13-15]

    Effective database performance tuning requires a deep understanding of database concepts, available tools, and a systematic approach to problem-solving. By leveraging these elements, DBAs can ensure that databases operate optimally, meeting the performance demands of their users and supporting business objectives.

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Al-Riyadh Newspaper, April 8, 2025: Vision 2030, Saudi Stock Market, Gaza, Youth and Traffic Safety, Football, Armed Groups

    Al-Riyadh Newspaper, April 8, 2025: Vision 2030, Saudi Stock Market, Gaza, Youth and Traffic Safety, Football, Armed Groups

    These articles cover a diverse range of topics including Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and its impact on healthcare and economic diversification, developments in the Saudi stock market and concerns over US tariffs, and regional news such as the humanitarian crisis in Gaza and diplomatic discussions. Several pieces highlight Saudi Arabia’s cultural initiatives like mosque restoration and arts festivals, alongside social issues like land ownership for youth and traffic safety. Furthermore, the sources examine sports news, particularly football leagues, and international relations, focusing on trade tensions with Taiwan and Iraq’s internal dynamics concerning armed groups.

    01
    وزير الدفاع يبحث مع نظيره الأميركي تطورات الأوضاع الإقليمية

    Source Material Study Guide

    Quiz

    1. According to the article, what is the significance of World Health Day, and when is it observed annually?
    2. What are the primary goals of Saudi Arabia’s Health Sector Transformation Program, as outlined in the text?
    3. What was the general trend of the “TASI” stock market index on Monday, April 7, 2025, and what factor was suggested to be influencing it?
    4. Describe the initiative between the GCC countries and the European Union mentioned in the article. What is its aim?
    5. How many journalists were reported to have been killed in Gaza since the beginning of the “genocidal war,” according to the information provided?
    6. What was the main topic of discussion between the Saudi Minister of Defense and the US Secretary of Defense during their phone call?
    7. What are some of the potential economic downsides for the United States if Taiwan were to fully restrict its market access, as discussed in the analysis piece?
    8. What was the purpose of the campaign launched by the Emir of Jazan related to Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz?
    9. Briefly describe the second phase of the historical mosques restoration project mentioned in the article, including its objectives.
    10. What was the main focus of the “Absher with Eid” initiative mentioned in the local news?
    01
    اقتصادي يحذر من استغلال الملاك لرفع الإيجارات خلال مدة الـ90 يوماً

    Quiz Answer Key

    1. World Health Day, observed annually on April 7th, serves as a global event to raise awareness about specific health topics of concern to the World Health Organization. It commemorates the founding of the WHO in 1948, and a theme is chosen each year to focus on a particular area of public health priority.
    2. The primary goals of Saudi Arabia’s Health Sector Transformation Program are to develop a comprehensive, effective, and sustainable healthcare system. This includes focusing on preventative care, improving the quality and efficiency of healthcare services, ensuring fair and easy access for all citizens, promoting health awareness, and enhancing financial resource management in the health sector.
    3. The “TASI” stock market index experienced a rebound during the mid-session trading on Monday, April 7, 2025, recovering some of its earlier losses. Analysts suggested that this recovery indicated the market was beginning to absorb the impact of the US tariff hike shock.
    4. The initiative between the GCC countries and the European Union is a project to exchange radiological data between the GCC’s Center for Radiological Data Exchange and Emergency Management (GCC-RDEP) and the European Union. Its aim is to help limit the effects of radiological and nuclear disasters through early detection, analysis using advanced simulation systems, and providing technical recommendations for decision-makers in GCC countries.
    5. According to the article, the number of journalists killed in Gaza since the beginning of the “genocidal war” had risen to 210 with the death of journalist Hifni al-Faq’awi.
    6. The main topic of discussion between the Saudi Minister of Defense and the US Secretary of Defense during their phone call was the review of the Saudi-US defense relations, cooperation prospects, and the discussion of regional developments and mutual efforts to support the security and stability of both countries, the region, and the world, in addition to topics of common interest.
    7. If Taiwan were to fully restrict its market access, the United States could potentially lose its current access to the Taiwanese market, which has become increasingly important due to concerns about a potential Chinese invasion of the island. Taiwan is a significant partner in the supply of vital components like semiconductors.
    8. The purpose of the campaign launched by the Emir of Jazan related to Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz for Autism was to raise awareness about autism spectrum disorder, enhance services provided to those affected and their families, and support training, social inclusion, awareness, and rehabilitation programs.
    9. The second phase of the historical mosques restoration project aims to rehabilitate historical mosques for worship while preserving their authenticity and architectural heritage, highlighting their historical, cultural, and religious significance for the Kingdom, and contributing to the cultural dimension of Vision 2030. This phase follows the restoration of 30 historical mosques in 10 regions during the first phase.
    10. The main focus of the “Absher with Eid” initiative was to bring joy and celebration to various segments of society during the Eid al-Fitr holiday. It involved activities in different cities and targeted various government sectors and community groups.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Analyze the interconnectedness of the events reported in the provided source material, identifying potential underlying themes or relationships between seemingly disparate news items.
    2. Discuss the potential implications of the US tariff policies, as described in the article, on both the Saudi Arabian economy and the broader global economic landscape.
    3. Evaluate the significance of Saudi Arabia’s focus on health sector transformation and public health initiatives, as highlighted in the context of World Health Day and Vision 2030.
    4. Critically examine the role of international cooperation, as exemplified by the GCC-EU radiological data exchange and the Saudi-US defense discussions, in addressing regional and global challenges.
    5. Considering the various local and international news items presented, discuss the overall image of Saudi Arabia that emerges from this collection of excerpts.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • TASI (تاسي): An acronym for the Tadawul All Share Index, which is the main stock market index that tracks the performance of all listed companies on the Saudi Stock Exchange (Tadawul).
    • GCC (مجلس التعاون لدول الخليج العربية): The Gulf Cooperation Council, a regional intergovernmental political and economic union consisting of all Arab states of the Persian Gulf except for Iraq.
    • Vision 2030 (رؤية 2030): A strategic framework launched by Saudi Arabia to reduce its dependence on oil, diversify its economy, and develop public service sectors such as health, education, infrastructure, recreation, and tourism.
    • Tariffs (رسوم جمركية): Taxes imposed by a government on goods and services imported from other countries, often used to protect domestic industries or as a tool in international trade relations.
    • Radiological Data (بيانات إشعاعية): Information related to radioactivity and radioactive materials, often collected for monitoring environmental safety and managing potential nuclear or radiological incidents.
    • Health Sector Transformation Program (برنامج التحول الصحي): A key initiative under Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 aimed at overhauling and improving the national healthcare system.
    • Digital Transformation (تحول رقمي): The use of digital technologies to fundamentally change how a business or organization operates and delivers value. In the context of healthcare, this includes electronic health records, telemedicine, and other technology-driven solutions.
    • Privatization (الخصخصة): The transfer of ownership of a business, enterprise, agency, public service, or public property from the public sector (government) to the private sector.
    • “Wasfati” (وصفتي): An electronic prescription service launched by the Saudi Ministry of Health to streamline the process of obtaining medications for patients, reducing reliance on paper prescriptions.
    • Counter-Irjaf (مكافحة الإرجاف): Efforts to combat “Irjaf,” which refers to the spread of false news, rumors, and misinformation intended to cause public disorder and undermine security and stability.

    Saudi Arabia: Developments and Global Engagement, April 2025

    Here is a detailed briefing document summarizing the main themes and important ideas from the provided sources:

    Briefing Document: Key Themes and Ideas from Recent Al-Riyadh Articles (April 8, 2025)

    Source: Excerpts from Al-Riyadh Newspaper, Issue #20735, dated Tuesday, April 8, 2025 (10 Shawwal 1446 AH)

    Main Themes:

    1. Saudi Arabia’s Focus on Healthcare Advancement: The Kingdom is actively promoting health awareness and developing a comprehensive, efficient, and sustainable healthcare system in line with Vision 2030.
    2. Economic Developments and Market Reactions: The Saudi stock market (“TASI”) is showing resilience in the face of global economic pressures, including the impact of US tariff hikes, while Taiwan pledges to address trade barriers with the US.
    3. Regional Cooperation and International Relations: Saudi Arabia is engaging in discussions with the US on regional security and collaborating with GCC nations and the EU on nuclear safety and radiation data exchange.
    4. Humanitarian Concerns and Conflict in the Region: The ongoing conflict in Gaza and its impact on civilians and journalists are highlighted, along with international efforts to provide aid and calls for a ceasefire.
    5. Domestic Initiatives and Social Progress: The Kingdom is launching various initiatives focused on supporting people with autism, developing historical mosques, combating illegal residency, celebrating volunteerism, and empowering women.
    6. Cultural Preservation and Innovation: Saudi Arabia is emphasizing the importance of handicrafts as a cultural and economic resource and highlighting cultural events and intellectual discourse.
    7. Efforts Against Misinformation: The dangers of rumors and fake news are addressed, along with Saudi Arabia’s efforts to combat their spread.
    8. Commemoration of Prominent Figures: The passing of Dr. مطلب النفيسة, a significant figure in Saudi law and the Shura Council, is noted, reflecting on his contributions.
    9. Housing and Land Initiatives: A new policy aiming to make land more affordable for young Saudis is introduced, seen as a major step towards social and economic stability.

    Most Important Ideas and Facts:

    1. Saudi Arabia’s Focus on Healthcare Advancement:

    • World Health Day Participation: Saudi Arabia actively participates in World Health Day (April 7th), emphasizing raising health awareness and facilitating access to healthcare services for all segments of society.
    • Quote: “اململكة تشارك العالم ممثلة بوزارة الصحة بيوم الصحة العالمي الذي يصادف 7 أبريل من كل عام” (The Kingdom participates with the world, represented by the Ministry of Health, in World Health Day, which falls on April 7th of each year).
    • Health Sector Transformation Program: This program is a key initiative to achieve Vision 2030, aiming to develop a comprehensive, effective, and sustainable healthcare system with a focus on prevention.
    • Quote: “التحول الصحي برنامج يعد لتحقيق رؤية 2030، ويهدف إلى تطوير منظومة الرعاية الصحية لتكون شاملة، فعالة، ومستدامة، مع التركيز على الوقاية أكثر من العلاج” (The Health Transformation Program is considered one of the executive programs to achieve Vision 2030, and it aims to develop the healthcare system to be comprehensive, effective, and sustainable, with a focus on prevention more than treatment).
    • Key Objectives of Healthcare Transformation: Improving the quality and efficiency of health services, ensuring fair and easy access, promoting prevention, improving financial resource management, and digital transformation.
    • “Wasfati” Service: The Ministry of Health launched the “Wasfati” (My Prescription) service to facilitate electronic access to medications, reduce reliance on paper prescriptions, and improve the patient experience.

    2. Economic Developments and Market Reactions:

    • TASI Market Rebound: The Saudi stock market index “TASI” rebounded during trading on Monday, April 7, 2025, recovering some of its losses. Experts believe this indicates the market is beginning to absorb recent pressures, including the impact of potential US tariff hikes.
    • Quote: “ارتد مؤشر السوق السعودي «تاسي» في منتصف تعاملات جلسة يوم أمس الاثنين 7 أبريل 2025 بنسبة ارتفاعًا للسوق العام المؤشر ليسجل 11،168.78 نقطة” (The Saudi market index “TASI” rebounded in the middle of yesterday, Monday, April 7, 2025 trading session with an increase for the general market index to record 11,168.78 points).
    • Sector Performance: The telecommunications, energy, basic materials, and banking sectors saw increases during the trading session.
    • Taiwan’s Response to US Tariffs: Taiwan considers the new 32% US tariffs on its imports (excluding semiconductors and some transportation equipment) “completely unreasonable” and pledges to remove trade barriers with the US and consider retaliatory measures.
    • Quote: “تايوان وصفت المواصلات، أشباه باستثناء التي تعد جزءًا من تغير جذري في الممارسات التجارية الأمريكية، بأنها «غير معقولة تمامًا»” (Taiwan described transportation, excluding semiconductors, which is considered part of a radical change in American trade practices, as “completely unreasonable”).

    3. Regional Cooperation and International Relations:

    • Defense Minister Discusses Regional Issues with US Counterpart: The Saudi Minister of Defense received a phone call from the US Secretary of Defense, Lloyd Austin, to discuss the development of regional situations and efforts to support the security and stability of both countries and the region.
    • Quote: “تلقى صاحب السمو الملكي الأمير خالد بن سلمان بن عبدالعزيز وزير الدفاع اتصالاً هاتفيًا من معالي وزير الدفاع الأمريكي بيت هيغسيث. وجرى خلال الاتصال استعراض العلاقات الدفاعية السعودية الأمريكية، وآفاق التعاون في المجال العسكري، وبحث تطورات الأوضاع الإقليمية ورؤية تجاهها، والجهود المبذولة من البلدين الصديقين لدعم أمن البلدين واستقرار المنطقة والعالم” (His Royal Highness Prince Khalid bin Salman bin Abdulaziz, Minister of Defense, received a telephone call from His Excellency the US Secretary of Defense, Pete Hegseth. During the call, the Saudi-American defense relations were reviewed, prospects for cooperation in the military field were discussed, and the developments in the regional situations and the vision towards them, as well as the efforts made by the two friendly countries to support the security of the two countries and the stability of the region and the world, were discussed).
    • GCC-EU Radiological Data Exchange: The GCC and the EU are establishing a platform for exchanging radiological data (GCC-RDEP) to limit the effects of radiological and nuclear disasters.
    • Quote: “دشن معالي الأمين العام لمجلس التعاون لدول الخليج العربية الأستاذ جاسم محمد البديوي، مشروع منصة تبادل البيانات الإشعاعية بين دول المجلس ومركز السلامة النووية وإدارة الطوارئ المشترك” (His Excellency the Secretary-General of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, Professor Jassim Mohammed Al-Budaiwi, inaugurated the project of a platform for the exchange of radiological data between the member states of the Council and the Joint Nuclear Safety and Emergency Management Center).

    4. Humanitarian Concerns and Conflict in the Region:

    • Journalists Killed in Gaza: The number of journalists killed since the start of the “genocidal war” on the Gaza Strip has risen to 127 with the death of Hafeez Al-Faqawi in Khan Yunis.
    • Quote: “ارتفع عدد الشهداء الصحفيين إلى (127 صحفيًا) منذ بدء حرب الإبادة الجماعية على قطاع غزة” (The number of martyred journalists has risen to (127 journalists) since the beginning of the genocidal war on the Gaza Strip).
    • Egyptian and French Presidents Reject Displacement of Gazans: President Sisi of Egypt and President Macron of France reiterated their rejection of forcibly displacing Palestinians from the Gaza Strip and affirmed their support for rebuilding the sector and urgently delivering humanitarian aid.
    • Quote: “الرئيسان السيسي والفرنسي إيمانويل ماكرون من السكان لترحيل رفضهما الاثنين العربية للخطة ودعمهما قسرًا غزة السيسي وقال للقطاع إعمار الإعادة «تناولت بالقاهرة صحفي مؤتمر في معمق بشكل ماكرون والرئيس الساحة على المتلاحقة التطورات بحثا الإقليمية والدولية وعلى رأسها الوضع المأساوي في قطاع غزة، حيث أكدنا ضرورة العودة إلى وقف إطلاق النار فوري، بشكل عاجل، بشكل كامل» الإنسانية المساعدات بإدخال والسماح” (The presidents Sisi and the French Emmanuel Macron affirmed their rejection of the transfer of residents on Monday, their support for the Arab plan, and the forced transfer from Gaza. Sisi said regarding the reconstruction of the sector, “I discussed in depth during a press conference in Cairo with Macron, the successive developments on the regional and international scene, at the forefront of which is the tragic situation in the Gaza Strip, where we affirmed the necessity of returning to an immediate ceasefire, urgently, completely,” and “allowing the entry of humanitarian aid”).

    5. Domestic Initiatives and Social Progress:

    • Prince of Jazan Launches Autism Awareness Campaign: The Prince of Jazan launched a campaign by the Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Charity Foundation for Autism, aiming to raise awareness, enhance services, and support training and inclusion programs.
    • Quote: “دشن صاحب السمو الملكي الأمير محمد بن ناصر بن عبدالعزيز، أمير منطقة جازان، صباح أمس حملة الأمير سلطان بن عبدالعزيز للتوحد” (His Royal Highness Prince Mohammed bin Nasser bin Abdulaziz, the Prince of Jazan region, inaugurated yesterday morning the Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz campaign for autism).
    • Second Phase of Historical Mosque Development Launched in Riyadh: The second phase of a project to develop historical mosques has been launched in Riyadh, following the completion of the first phase which included the restoration of 30 mosques in 10 regions.
    • Campaign Against Illegal Residency: Authorities in Saudi Arabia have apprehended a significant number of individuals violating residency, border security, and labor regulations.
    • “Absher with Eid” Initiative Benefits 2000: The “Absher with Eid” volunteer initiative concluded, having provided aid during Eid al-Fitr in several regions of Saudi Arabia.
    • Princess Nourah University Organizes “Saudi Women in Development” Conference: The conference aims to highlight the role of Saudi women in building a prosperous future in line with Vision 2030 and to discuss empowerment policies and initiatives.

    6. Cultural Preservation and Innovation:

    • 2025 Declared “Year of Handicrafts”: The Ministry of Culture has announced 2025 as the “Year of Handicrafts” to revive and promote the Kingdom’s rich craft heritage as a cultural and economic resource.
    • Quote: “أعلنت وزارة الثقافة أن عام 2025 سيكون عامًا مخصصًا لإحياء الحرف اليدوية، تحت عنوان «عام الحرف اليدوية»، في مبادرة وطنية تهدف إلى إحياء التراث الحرفي الغني الذي تفخر به المملكة، وتحويله من موروث رمزي إلى مورد اقتصادي نابض بالحياة” (The Ministry of Culture announced that the year 2025 will be a year dedicated to the revival of handicrafts, under the title “Year of Handicrafts,” in a national initiative aimed at reviving the rich craft heritage that the Kingdom is proud of, and transforming it from a symbolic heritage into a vibrant economic resource).
    • “Ithra” Celebrates Eid with Cultural and Entertainment Activities: The King Abdulaziz Center for World Culture (“Ithra”) attracted a large number of visitors during Eid with various cultural and interactive programs, including a video game music performance.
    • Asilah Cultural Festival Announces Spring Edition: The international Asilah Cultural Festival in Morocco launched its spring edition dedicated to visual arts, featuring exhibitions and workshops with artists from various countries.

    7. Efforts Against Misinformation:

    • Awareness Campaigns Against Rumors: Saudi Arabia is actively working to combat the spread of false news and rumors, recognizing their threat to social harmony and security. The Public Prosecution emphasizes the legal penalties for spreading misinformation online.
    • Quote: “تعد الأخبار الكاذبة والإشاعات بذورًا مغروسة وهي من أخطر السلوكيات التي تهدد السلم المجتمعي إذ ينتج عنها القلق والخوف المؤدي إلى زعزعة الأمن والاستقرار” (False news and rumors are embedded seeds and are among the most dangerous behaviors that threaten social harmony, as they result in anxiety and fear leading to the undermining of security and stability).
    • Qassim Region Holds Seminars to Combat Rumors: The Qassim region has organized several seminars in recent years to raise awareness about the dangers of rumors and discuss ways to confront them from a Sharia, social, and security perspective.

    8. Commemoration of Prominent Figures:

    • Passing of Dr. مطلب النفيسة: The article mourns the passing of His Excellency Dr. مطلب bin Abdullah Al-Nafisah, a former Minister of State, member of the Shura Council, and a significant figure in Saudi law. His contributions to the development of laws and his character are praised.
    • Quote: “أشهد الله سبحانه وتعالى أن يرحمك أبا خالد أيها الأستاذنا الدكتور مطلب بن عبدالله النفيسة، أبا خالد فقد ملكت قلب كل من عرفك وتعامل معك” (I call upon Allah Almighty to have mercy on you, Abu Khalid, our teacher Dr. مطلب bin Abdullah Al-Nafisah, Abu Khalid, you have captured the heart of everyone who knew you and dealt with you).

    9. Housing and Land Initiatives:

    • Land Price Ceiling for Young Saudis: A decision has been made to set a maximum price for land at 1500 riyals to make it more affordable for young Saudis, a move seen as a significant step towards enabling homeownership and achieving social stability.
    • Quote: “جاء قرار تحييد الأراضي وتحديد الحد الأقصى للسعر عند 1500 ريال ليشكل تحولًا كبيرًا في مسار تملك الأراضي للشباب السعودي” (The decision to neutralize lands and set the maximum price at 1500 riyals came to represent a major shift in the path of land ownership for Saudi youth).
    • Royal Commission for Riyadh to Provide Affordable Housing Land: The Royal Commission for Riyadh will provide tens of thousands of residential plots annually at prices not exceeding 1,500 riyals per meter.

    Overall Significance:

    These articles collectively highlight Saudi Arabia’s proactive approach to various domestic and international challenges and its commitment to Vision 2030. The focus on healthcare development, economic resilience, regional cooperation, social progress, cultural preservation, and addressing societal issues like misinformation underscores the Kingdom’s multifaceted development agenda. The new land policy is a particularly significant development with potential long-term social and economic benefits for young Saudis.

    Saudi Arabia & Global Updates: Vision 2030, Trade, & Health

    FAQ: Key Themes and Ideas from the Provided Sources

    1. What are the main objectives of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 in the healthcare sector, as highlighted in the article about World Health Day? Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 aims to transform the healthcare system into one that is comprehensive, effective, and sustainable. The key objectives include improving the quality and efficiency of healthcare services, ensuring fair and easy access to health services for all segments of the population, promoting preventive care to reduce health risks, enhancing the quality of life, improving the management of financial resources in the health sector, and fostering digital transformation through initiatives like the “Wasfaty” (My Prescription) service.

    2. How did the Saudi stock market (“TASI”) react to the news of potential US tariff increases, and what does this indicate about the market’s resilience? Initially, the Saudi stock market (“TASI”) experienced a significant drop following the news of potential US tariff increases, reflecting concerns about the broader global economic impact. However, the market showed a notable rebound during the same trading session, recovering a portion of its losses. This recovery suggests that the Saudi market has begun to absorb the external pressures and that the underlying strength of the national economy, driven by the achievements of Vision 2030, provides a degree of resilience against global shocks.

    3. What is the significance of the data exchange agreement between GCC countries and the European Union regarding radiation monitoring? The data exchange project between the GCC-RDEP (GCC Center for Radiological Data Exchange and Emergency Management) and the European Union signifies a crucial step towards enhancing nuclear safety and security in both regions. It aims to limit the effects of radiological and nuclear disasters by facilitating the exchange of radiation monitoring data and enabling early detection and analysis of potential threats. This collaboration allows for the use of advanced simulation systems to predict potential consequences and provide timely technical recommendations to decision-makers in GCC countries.

    4. What were the key topics discussed during the phone call between the Saudi Minister of Defense and the US Secretary of Defense? The phone call between the Saudi Minister of Defense and the US Secretary of Defense focused on reviewing the strategic relationship between the two countries in the defense field, exploring avenues for cooperation, and discussing the latest developments in regional affairs and shared perspectives on them. They also addressed mutual efforts to support the security and stability of both nations, the region, and the world, in addition to other issues of common interest.

    5. What are Taiwan’s concerns and responses to the potential imposition of new tariffs by the United States? Taiwan views the potential imposition of new tariffs by the United States as “completely unreasonable” and anticipates significant harm to American consumers due to the vital role Taiwanese imports, particularly semiconductors, play in the US supply chain. In response, Taiwan has pledged to remove trade barriers with the US, encouraged Taiwanese companies to increase investments in the United States, and is considering retaliatory measures. The Taiwanese government is also planning financial aid and relief measures for affected industries.

    6. What are the primary goals of Saudi Arabia’s “Year of Handicrafts 2025” initiative? The “Year of Handicrafts 2025” initiative in Saudi Arabia is a national project aimed at reviving the rich heritage of handicrafts in the Kingdom. Its primary goals include empowering male and female artisans across the country by providing financial and moral support, creating a sustainable environment that enhances their role in the national economy, and building a thriving cultural sector that contributes to economic diversification, in line with the objectives of Saudi Vision 2030. The initiative seeks to transform traditional crafts from symbolic heritage into a vibrant economic resource.

    7. What are the main features and objectives of the “Wasfaty” (My Prescription) service launched by the Saudi Ministry of Health? “Wasfaty” (My Prescription) is a digital service launched by the Saudi Ministry of Health to facilitate patients’ access to medications electronically. It aims to enhance the efficiency and quality of healthcare, reduce reliance on paper prescriptions, improve medication adherence, and minimize medical errors related to prescriptions. The service allows doctors to issue prescriptions electronically, which are then automatically sent to the nearest participating pharmacy, enabling patients to collect their medication without needing to return to the healthcare facility.

    8. What efforts is Saudi Arabia undertaking to combat epidemics and infectious diseases? The Saudi Ministry of Health is making significant efforts to combat epidemics and infectious diseases through national campaigns and programs targeting all age groups. These include comprehensive vaccination programs for children against diseases like diphtheria, measles, polio, whooping cough, tetanus, hepatitis B, influenza, and others. The Ministry also implements mandatory vaccinations for Hajj and Umrah pilgrims and intensifies national awareness campaigns for prevention, such as vaccination drives against HPV. These efforts reflect a strategic approach to protect the community and prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

    Saudi Arabia: Enhancing the Health Sector

    Based on the sources, Saudi Arabia is actively engaged in enhancing its health sector through various initiatives and programs.

    Key aspects of the Saudi health sector highlighted in the sources include:

    • Commitment to Universal Healthcare: The Kingdom participates in the global celebration of World Health Day on April 7th each year, an event initiated by the World Health Assembly in 1950 to commemorate the founding of the World Health Organization in 1948. Saudi Arabia organizes awareness events and programs aiming to facilitate access to health services for all segments of society.
    • Focus on Awareness and Prevention: There is a strong emphasis on raising awareness about the importance of health and its connection to economic and environmental factors. Activities are held in health and educational facilities like universities and medical centers, offering advice on healthy nutrition, the importance of exercise, and sufficient fluid intake, along with educational consultations. The Kingdom is also actively combating smoking through intensified awareness efforts during Ramadan, organized by the Qassim Health Cluster. These campaigns involve organizing awareness corners and exhibitions in public places to highlight the health, economic, and social risks associated with smoking and electronic cigarettes. Furthermore, the Ministry of Health is making significant efforts in combating epidemics and infectious diseases through national programs and campaigns targeting all age groups, including comprehensive vaccination programs for children.
    • Specific Health Initiatives and Programs:”Wafi” and “Tashafi” services: These services, linked to the Ministry of Health and the Saudi Food and Drug Authority (SFDA), aim to ensure the safe and proper use of medication. “Wafi” allows for electronic prescription verification, while “Tashafi” enables monitoring and follow-up of medication use, including reminders about doses and appointments. These services also aim to reduce crowding at hospital pharmacies.
    • Expanded Immunization Program: This program provides vaccinations for children against various diseases like diphtheria, measles, whooping cough, tetanus, hepatitis B, Haemophilus influenzae type b, rotavirus, and pneumococcal infections.
    • Vaccination Campaigns for Pilgrims: The Ministry of Health mandates vaccines for Hajj and Umrah pilgrims, such as meningitis and seasonal influenza vaccines, to protect them from potential epidemics.
    • National Awareness Campaigns: These campaigns focus on preventing the spread of epidemics and promoting awareness about diseases like HPV.
    • Psychological Support: Initiatives aim to improve public health and enhance psychological well-being among individuals and the community.
    • Anti-Smoking Campaigns: The Ministry of Health, along with health clusters like the Qassim Health Cluster, intensifies efforts to combat smoking through awareness programs and exhibitions.
    • Support for Autism: The Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Campaign for Autism was launched in the Jazan region to raise awareness, enhance services for individuals with autism and their families, and support training and inclusion programs.
    • Development of Healthcare Infrastructure and Services: The Kingdom is focused on developing the healthcare system effectively and sustainably, with an emphasis on prevention. This includes leveraging technology, as seen in the development of the “Sehaty” application.
    • International Cooperation: The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) and the European Union are collaborating on a project to exchange radiological data between the GCC Center for Radiological Data Exchange (GCC-RDEP) and the Joint Research Centre for Nuclear Safety and Security, to manage emergency situations.
    • Hospital Achievements: Dr. Sulaiman Al Habib Hospital at Takhassusi successfully treated a sixty-year-old patient who was paralyzed due to a rare cancerous tumor in her chest that extended to her back.
    • Focus on Public Health: Public health is a priority, with programs aimed at promoting healthy lifestyles, preventing diseases, and maintaining a healthy environment.

    Overall, the sources indicate a proactive and multi-faceted approach by Saudi Arabia to improve the health and well-being of its population through awareness campaigns, preventative measures, the development of health services and infrastructure, and international collaborations.

    Saudi Arabia Real Estate: Regulations, Market Shifts, and Riyadh Platform

    Based on the sources, the real estate market in Saudi Arabia is currently undergoing changes and developments. One article notes that the real estate market is expected to witness scrutiny due to new regulations. During this period of change, some individuals are reportedly exploiting the situation by raising rental values for both residential and commercial properties, which is creating additional pressure on citizens, residents, and commercial tenants.

    However, another perspective from the sources indicates that these new regulations, when properly implemented, are anticipated to foster a balance between supply and demand. This balance is predicted to have a positive impact on the stability of the real estate market itself.

    Furthermore, there is an active initiative to develop the real estate sector in Riyadh. The Riyadh governorate is currently working on creating a specialized electronic platform for the real estate sector. This platform aims to directly receive land requests from citizens, eliminating the need for intermediaries or external parties. The goal is to streamline the process for citizens seeking land in the Riyadh area.

    It is also important to note a caution mentioned in the sources regarding unofficial claims related to land grants. The authorities have emphasized that any updates or details concerning the electronic platform or land allocation procedures will be announced through official channels of the Riyadh governorate and the relevant authority related to health. The public is urged to obtain information only from official sources and to be vigilant against any fraudulent attempts that claim to offer land grants outside the official regulatory framework.

    Trump’s Tariffs and Trade Policies: Global Implications

    Based on the sources, there is discussion regarding US tariffs, particularly those imposed by Donald Trump.

    One article states that a “double whammy” of customs duties imposed by Trump under the name “Liberation Day” on April 2nd, combined with OPEC+ increasing its production on April 3rd, led to a sharp drop in oil prices. These reciprocal customs duties ranged from 10% to 54%. This article also mentions that the US is displeased with the trade surplus with Taipei, which reached $74 billion. Dr. Fahad Mohammed bin Juma’h argues that these policies, including the new tariffs, could lead to a new inflationary wave and slow down economic growth and trade disputes, potentially pushing the global economy into stagflation.

    Furthermore, source indicates that if negotiations with partners regarding tariffs do not result in an agreement, Trump threatens to intensify sanctions, alongside efforts to reduce the trade surplus with Venezuela. The article also notes that analysts anticipate the US Federal Reserve to lower interest rates five times this year, which could influence oil prices as the dollar weakens.

    Additionally, source mentions that US President Donald Trump informed foreign governments that they would need to pay “large amounts” for the “comprehensive, customs duties”, which he referred to as “medicine”.

    Source states that Trump’s administration informed officials in Baghdad that if measures were not taken to resolve certain issues, their territory might be targeted by US airstrikes.

    In summary, the sources highlight Trump’s imposition of significant customs duties, his dissatisfaction with trade surpluses, and his willingness to use tariffs and sanctions as leverage in international relations. The potential consequences of these tariff policies, such as inflation, slowed economic growth, and trade disputes, are also mentioned.

    Al-Aqsa Mosque: Settler Rituals and Palestinian Response

    Based on the sources, the discussion surrounding Al-Aqsa Mosque centers on attempts by settlers to conduct religious rituals within its premises. Palestinian religious and national bodies have issued urgent calls to gather as many people as possible at Al-Aqsa Mosque, particularly in the days leading up to the “Passover” holiday. This mobilization is aimed at confronting the plans of settlers and preventing any attempts to bring offerings into the mosque or storm its courtyards.

    Furthermore, one source, while primarily discussing the Ibrahimi Mosque in Hebron, mentions that the attacks by settlers, especially at Al-Aqsa Mosque, are part of a systematic effort to gradually transform the Ibrahimi Mosque into a Jewish synagogue. This suggests a broader concern about the encroachment on and potential alteration of Islamic holy sites by settlers.

    King Salman Relief: Absence in Provided Sources

    Based on the provided sources, there is no direct discussion or mention of “King Salman Relief”.

    While the sources do discuss various charitable initiatives and humanitarian efforts within Saudi Arabia, such as the Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Campaign for Autism launched in the Jazan region, and the “Absher Bel Eidiyah” initiative by a volunteer association, there is no specific information provided about any relief efforts explicitly named or attributed to King Salman.

    Main Headings

    • وزير الدفاع يبحث مع نظيره الأميركي تطورات الأوضاع الإقليمية The Minister of Defense discusses regional developments with his American counterpart.
    • السوق العقاري يترقب الأنظمة الجديدة The real estate market is awaiting new regulations.
    • يوم الصحة العالمي.. المملكة تعزز الوعي World Health Day: The Kingdom raises awareness
    • تبادل البيانات الإشعاعية بين دول «الخليجي» والاتحاد الأوروبي Exchange of radiation data between the Gulf countries and the European Union
    • تاسي» استوعب صدمة الرسوم الأميركية Tasi absorbed the shock of the US tariffs
    • استشهاد 210صحفيين في قصف إسرائيلي 210 journalists killed in Israeli bombing
    • تايـوان تتعهد إزالـة الحواجز التجارية مع أميـركا Taiwan pledges to remove trade barriers with the US

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Python Fundamentals: Variables, Data Types, Operators, and Functions

    Python Fundamentals: Variables, Data Types, Operators, and Functions

    These excerpts provide a comprehensive introduction to Python programming concepts. They cover fundamental data types like numbers, strings, tuples, lists, dictionaries, and sets, explaining their properties and operations. The text also explores essential programming structures such as variables, operators, conditional statements, loops, functions (including predefined, user-defined, anonymous, and recursive), modules, packages, and exception handling. Finally, it touches upon file handling for various data formats and introduces the basics of object-oriented programming, including classes, objects, methods, inheritance, and polymorphism.

    Python Basics and Data Structures Study Guide

    Quiz

    1. Explain the concept of a variable in Python. How does Python handle data types for variables?
    2. What are the key differences between the core numeric data types in Python: integer, float, and complex?
    3. Describe the characteristics of a string in Python. What does it mean for a string to be immutable?
    4. Explain the concept of indexing and slicing in Python sequences (like strings, lists, and tuples). Provide a brief example.
    5. What are the primary differences between a list and a tuple in Python? When might you choose to use one over the other?
    6. Describe the structure of a dictionary in Python. How are elements accessed in a dictionary?
    7. What is a set in Python, and what are its key properties? How does it differ from a list?
    8. Explain the purpose of the if, elif, and else statements in Python. How do they control the flow of execution?
    9. Describe the functionality of a for loop in Python. How is it used to iterate over sequences?
    10. What is a function in Python? How do you define and call a function?

    Quiz Answer Key

    1. A variable in Python is a named storage location that holds a value. Python is dynamically typed, meaning you don’t need to explicitly declare the data type of a variable; the interpreter infers the type based on the value assigned to it.
    2. Integers (int) are whole numbers without a decimal point. Floats (float) are numbers with a decimal point. Complex numbers (complex) have a real and an imaginary part, represented in the form a+bj.
    3. A string in Python is an ordered sequence of characters enclosed in quotes (single or double). Immutability means that once a string is created, its individual characters cannot be changed directly. Any operation that appears to modify a string actually creates a new string.
    4. Indexing allows you to access individual elements in a sequence using their position (starting from 0). Slicing allows you to extract a subsequence of elements using a start index, an end index (exclusive), and an optional step. Example: my_list = [10, 20, 30, 40]; print(my_list[1]) (output: 20), print(my_list[1:3]) (output: [20, 30]).
    5. A list is a mutable, ordered sequence enclosed in square brackets, allowing for element modification, addition, and removal. A tuple is an immutable, ordered sequence enclosed in parentheses, meaning its elements cannot be changed after creation. Tuples are often used for fixed collections of items.
    6. A dictionary in Python is an unordered collection of key-value pairs enclosed in curly braces. Each key must be unique and immutable, and it is used to access its corresponding value. Elements are accessed using their keys within square brackets, e.g., my_dict[‘key’].
    7. A set in Python is an unordered collection of unique elements enclosed in curly braces. Sets automatically remove duplicate entries and support mathematical set operations like union, intersection, and difference. Unlike lists, sets do not maintain the order of elements and cannot be indexed directly.
    8. The if statement executes a block of code if a specified condition is true. The elif (else if) statement checks an additional condition only if the preceding if or elif condition was false. The else statement executes a block of code if none of the preceding if or elif conditions were true.
    9. A for loop in Python is used to iterate over each item in a sequence (such as a list, tuple, string, or range) or other iterable object. It executes a block of code for each item in the sequence. Example: for item in my_list: print(item).
    10. A function in Python is a block of reusable code that performs a specific task. It is defined using the def keyword followed by the function name, parentheses for parameters (optional), and a colon. A function is called by using its name followed by parentheses, potentially passing arguments.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Discuss the importance of data structures in Python. Compare and contrast the use cases for lists, tuples, dictionaries, and sets, providing specific examples where each would be most appropriate.
    2. Explain the concepts of mutability and immutability in Python, focusing on how these properties affect the behavior and usage of different data types like strings, lists, and tuples.
    3. Describe the role of control flow statements (conditional statements and loops) in Python programming. Illustrate with examples how if/elif/else and for loops can be used to solve common programming problems.
    4. Discuss the benefits of using functions in Python. Explain the process of defining and calling functions, and elaborate on the concepts of function parameters and return values.
    5. Imagine you are developing a program to manage a small library. Describe how you might use various Python data structures (lists, dictionaries, sets, tuples) to store and manipulate information about books and borrowers.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Variable: A named storage location that holds a value in memory.
    • Data Type: The classification of data that specifies which type of value a variable can hold and what types of operations can be performed on it (e.g., integer, string, list).
    • Integer (int): A whole number without a decimal point.
    • Float (float): A number with a decimal point.
    • String (str): An ordered sequence of characters.
    • Immutable: A property of an object whose state cannot be modified after it is created.
    • Mutable: A property of an object whose state can be modified after it is created.
    • Index: The position of an element within a sequence, starting from 0.
    • Slicing: A way to extract a subsequence of elements from a sequence using a range of indices.
    • List (list): A mutable, ordered sequence of items enclosed in square brackets.
    • Tuple (tuple): An immutable, ordered sequence of items enclosed in parentheses.
    • Dictionary (dict): A mutable, unordered collection of key-value pairs enclosed in curly braces.
    • Set (set): A mutable, unordered collection of unique elements enclosed in curly braces.
    • Conditional Statement: A statement that executes a block of code based on whether a condition is true or false (if, elif, else).
    • Loop: A control flow statement that allows code to be executed repeatedly (for, while).
    • Function: A block of organized, reusable code that performs a specific task.
    • Parameter: A variable listed inside the parentheses in the function definition.
    • Argument: The actual value that is passed to a function when it is called.
    • Return Value: The value that a function sends back to the caller after it has executed.
    • Module: A file containing Python definitions and statements (with a .py extension).
    • Package: A directory that contains multiple Python modules and an __init__.py file, used to organize modules.
    • Identifier: A name used to identify a variable, function, class, module, or other object.
    • Keyword: A reserved word that has a special meaning in Python and cannot be used as an identifier.
    • Indentation: The spaces or tabs used at the beginning of a code line to define blocks of code in Python.
    • Operator: A symbol that performs an operation on one or more operands (e.g., +, -, *, /, ==, >).
    • Operand: The value or variable on which an operator acts.
    • Expression: A combination of variables, operators, and values that evaluates to a single result.
    • Statement: A complete line of code that performs an action.
    • String Formatting: The process of embedding expressions inside string literals.
    • Escape Sequence: A sequence of characters that represents a special character (e.g., \n for newline, \t for tab).
    • Raw String: A string literal prefixed with r or R, where backslashes are treated as literal characters.
    • Concatenation: The operation of joining two or more strings or other sequences together.
    • Repetition: The operation of repeating a string or other sequence multiple times.
    • Method: A function that is associated with an object of a particular class.
    • Class: A blueprint for creating objects, defining their attributes (data) and methods (behavior).
    • Object: An instance of a class.
    • Recursion: A programming technique where a function calls itself.
    • Anonymous Function (Lambda): A small, unnamed function defined using the lambda keyword.
    • Exception Handling: A mechanism to deal with runtime errors gracefully using try, except, else, and finally blocks.
    • File Handling: The process of reading from and writing to files.
    • Mode (File Handling): A string indicating how a file is opened (e.g., ‘r’ for read, ‘w’ for write, ‘a’ for append).
    • Pickle: A Python module used for serializing and de-serializing Python object structures.
    • JSON: A lightweight data-interchange format.
    • CSV: Comma Separated Values, a file format for storing tabular data.
    • OS Module: A built-in Python module that provides a way of using operating system dependent functionality.
    • Path (File System): A string that specifies the location of a file or directory in a file system.

    Briefing Document: Review of Python Basics and Data Types

    This briefing document summarizes the main themes and important ideas discussed in the provided source “01.pdf,” which covers fundamental concepts in Python programming, including variables, data types, operators, control flow (conditional statements and loops), functions, modules and packages, exception handling, file handling, and the OS module.

    1. Variables and Data Types:

    • Variables as Memory Allocation: A variable in Python is essentially a named memory location used to store data. Each variable has an identification number (obtained using the id() function) that represents its memory address.
    • “variable is nothing but a memory allocation if it’s a memory allocation which store the data that means it release some identification number as well so we can easily find it out like a ID there is the ID function where find it out the identification number when I pass ID of a so you can see here this is the ident identification number”
    • Data Type Dependency on Memory ID: The identification number (memory address) allocated to a variable can depend on its data type. Variables with different data types are likely to have significantly different ID numbers.
    • “reason we change the data type so it release the memory allocation memory uh ID depend on their data type if I’m taking the different data type the that will also be number D is equal to 19 + 19.8 and check the ID of D that will be the uh different identification number it’s not only the few digit is change so lots of values change also reason we change the data type because the D is a floating data type”
    • Main Categories of Data Types: Python has several built-in data types categorized as:
    • Numeric: Integer (int), Complex, Float (float).
    • “numeric dictionary Boolean set and sequence type where we have the main data type is a integer complex and Float integer complex and Float”
    • Dictionary: Key-value pairs.
    • “if I Define the same value with key value pair is equal to key value pair like 5 colon 4 uh 4 colon 7 and 9 colon 8 so if you define like this that will be considered as a dictionary”
    • Boolean: True or False.
    • “dictionary bullan set is also there”
    • Set: Unordered collection of unique elements.
    • “if I Define with the curly brasses curly brasses directly passing the values that is considered as a set”
    • Sequence Type: Ordered collections:
    • String (str): Sequence of characters enclosed in single or double quotes.
    • “if I’m defining with a double quotes so like hello here so that’s a string data type”
    • List (list): Ordered, mutable sequence of items enclosed in square brackets.
    • “you define B is equal to in square bracket that will consider as a that will consider as a list”
    • Tuple (tuple): Ordered, immutable sequence of items enclosed in round brackets.
    • “if I Define with a round bracket that will be considered as a tle”
    • Comments: The hash symbol (#) is used to denote comments in Python code, which are ignored by the interpreter.
    • “what exactly the mean of this hash this hash symbol is nothing but a comment we are defining as a comment”

    2. Keywords:

    • Reserved Words: Keywords are reserved words in Python that have specific meanings and cannot be used as identifiers (variable names, function names, class names).
    • “keyword is reserve word which used for one specific purpose fake purpose cannot be used as a identifier cannot be used as a identifier now the question is what exactly the mean of identifier let me make as a uh markdown so that markdown in the sense it will taking one statement it will not consider as a code okay normal statements so cannot be used as a identifier so what is the identifier identifier so identifier in the sense any variable name any um you know uh function name okay any variable name any function name any class name that will be consider as a identifier class name that will be considered as a identifier”
    • Checking Keywords: The keyword module provides access to the list of Python keywords. keyword.kwlist returns a list of all keywords.
    • “there is one module is called as keyword module keyword module keyword module and when you pass it here keyword do KW list then you’ll find it out how many keyword is available for false none true the lots of keyword is available is Lambda lots of keyword is there which is stored with a square bracket one container and that container we are calling list”
    • Number of Keywords: The number of keywords can vary between Python versions. In the described context (likely Python 3.9), there are 35 keywords.
    • “when I run it will showing you 30 five keyword is available okay so whenever you using any uh ideally right now I’m using the Jupiter notebook ideally so that time you can easily check it”
    • Identifier Restrictions: Attempting to use a keyword as an identifier will result in a syntax error.
    • “can I use uh any keyword like uh if I’m using if Okay small i f if we are using IF is equal to 8 can I define it like this no it will giving the error because because this if is reserved for only the conditional statement you can’t use as a identifier you can’t use as a normal variable”

    3. Indentation:

    • Block Definition: Indentation (using whitespace, typically four spaces in Jupiter Notebook and PyCharm) is crucial in Python to define code blocks, such as the body of conditional statements (if, elif, else) and loops.
    • “indentation in the sense is Define the block I have some program uh like if program uh conditional statement program if a is greater than let me first Define it a is equal to 9 and B is equal to 8 and I have a program is if a is greater than b okay so in other programming language we are using the curly brasses and put inside a statements so here curly brasses is not acceptable so we have a indentation we have to use a colon after the colon it automatically taking the four space okay automatically taking the four space”
    • Block Scope: Statements within the same indented block are considered part of that block. Changes in indentation signify the beginning or end of a block.
    • “if I’m writing here the hello okay so if you want to Define anything like hello if I’m writing here and hi if I’m writing here and he if I’m writing here print he okay this hello hi hey yeah we can say line number 5 six 7 that’s comes in if block so defining the block we are using if uh colon and automatically taking the for space if you’re using the back space and write it down here print by so that line number nine will consider as a uh outside of the block so that bu is not in if condition okay by is not in if condition”

    4. Input and Output:

    • input() Function: The input() function is used to obtain user input from the console. It always returns the input as a string.
    • “we have another function is input function input function will always take the input as a string”
    • Type Conversion: To treat the input as a different data type (e.g., integer), type conversion functions like int(), float(), etc., must be used.
    • “so cannot be multiplied with string and integer so we have another function is int so likewise other data type like int float complex we have a function as well I’m using int open the bracket and close it here when I run it it asking the question enter the value of x I’m passing here five then it will be calculate and showing the answer is five”
    • print() Function: The print() function is used to display output to the console. Multiple items can be printed in a single print() statement by separating them with commas.
    • “result is is nothing but your double uh statements or string and is your number so we have to separate it with a comma when I run it asking the question enter the value of x 6 so um sorry not to display uh X we have to display y let me run it again enter the value of X4 and accordingly is getting the answer is 17”

    5. Operators:

    • Definition: Operators are symbols that perform operations on operands (values or variables).
    • “operator is nothing but the symbol which is responsible to do any operations for example I have a five + 7 so the plus is a responsible to do addition operation so this one we can say it’s operator this one is operator and five and seven is called as a operant operants”
    • Categories of Operators: Python supports various categories of operators:
    • Arithmetic Operators: + (addition), – (subtraction), * (multiplication), / (division), ** (exponentiation), % (modulo), // (floor division).
    • “the first one is arithmetic operator as I said that the symbol are available plus minus the star so I think you guys is already aware about that so the meaning of the plus is nothing but using for addition minus is for subtraction so we can directly use this kind of symbol so only this double star uh modulo that percentage symbol and double slash is something new for you”
    • Assignment Operators: Used to assign values to variables (e.g., =, +=, -=, *=, /=, etc.).
    • “assignment operator”
    • Relational (Comparison) Operators: Used to compare values and return a Boolean result (>, <, >=, <=, == (equal to), != (not equal to)). Also referred to as comparison or conditional operators.
    • “third operator is a relation relational operator somebody is also calling the comparison operator because you are comparing a isal to 5 is there b is equal to 7 is there if you’re writing a greater than b you can also write B is less than a that means you are comparing the answer is always The Logical format what is a logical logical format can be true can be false true or false answer right your answer will always be the true and false concept you comparing like a is less than b a is greater than or equal to B this is the symbol for not equal to this symbol for not equal to this is symbol for equal to equal to in the sense a is equal to 5 is already assigned”
    • Logical Operators: Used to combine or negate Boolean expressions (and, or, not). Always result in a Boolean value.
    • “the next operator is a uh logical operator this concept will be clear okay so a equal to equal to B A is less than greater than when you just run it you will get the either true or false answer why it’s a is H so A and B is not the same that’s why it’s giving the answer is false a is greater than b so the answer is giving the true a is not greater than b okay maybe I didn’t run the this command that’s why yeah it’s taking the previous A and B values you can see here a is not equal to equal to B I wrote it that getting the answer is false where a is greater than b so a is five and B is a 7 that giving the answer is false because five is not greater than 7 okay if is not equal to you can also write the concept like if uh uh a equal to equal to 5 actually the a is a five I assign the values and I’m also writing the five when you just run it you’ll getting the answer is true okay the next operator which I discuss in this uh uh operator as well let me just remove it the next operator is uh yeah okay so next operator is logical operator as I said that this is always giving TheLogical format we can say the value is a bullion true and false is a bullion okay logical operator is and or not”
    • Identity Operators: Used to check if two variables refer to the same object in memory (is, is not). Work similarly to == and != for values within the range of -5 to 255 due to Python’s object interning.
    • “identity operator is very similar to the equal to and uh uh is not is very similar to not equal to so it identify the values like a is equal to 5 and B is equal to 7 and C is equal to a five again so a is C so it very similar to the equal to equal to it also giving the bullan answer okay G given the bullan answer which is a true and false bullan is nothing but a true and false values that we are calling bullan values”
    • Membership Operators: Used to check if a value is present in a sequence (in, not in).
    • “membership operator membership operator is in not in okay the value is a particular member variable or not suppose I have one variable which have a list is a 5 7 8 9 so five in a or not like this practically you can easily understand”
    • Bitwise Operators: Mentioned as less frequently required for general programming but important in specific fields. Symbols like &, |, ^, ~, <<, >>.
    • “one operator is also there is a bewise opor which is not much required for um for pro as a programming perspective if you belong to the any edic field so that time is really important but still I’ll give you the resource where the bewise operator is also available so you just run it you will also understand the beat wise as well but this main operator list try to understand it in a theoretically and practically both the way”

    6. String Data Type:

    • Immutable and Ordered: Strings in Python are immutable (cannot be changed after creation) and ordered sequences of characters, allowing access to individual characters using indexing (positive and negative).
    • “so let’s discuss about the next topic which is a string so string is one of the very important data type in Python programming language so first thing is that it’s a immutable data type immutable in the sense once you define you cannot change it and second thing is that it’s a ordered data type ordered in the sense it have a index position starting with zero and goes till the length of the string minus one and we also have a negative indexing as well starting from minus one till the beginning of the string”
    • Slicing: Substrings can be extracted using slicing with the syntax [start:stop:step].
    • “we discuss about this slicing I disclose the concatenation and we have also one more thing is a repetition okay we can also repeat it with star symbol slicing we are using the square bracket”
    • Concatenation: Strings can be joined together using the + operator.
    • “concatenation we are using this uh Plus operation is used for concatenation plus operation is used for concatenation”
    • Repetition: Strings can be repeated multiple times using the * operator.
    • “reputation we can use the star so for example I have the value is uh variable is a I want to multiply with a five then you’ll getting India India India five times so that is a reputation”
    • Methods and Functions: Strings have numerous built-in methods (accessed using dot notation, e.g., string.upper(), string.lower(), string.capitalize(), string.count(), string.index(), string.title()) and functions (e.g., len(), type()) for various operations.
    • “let’s go to discuss about uh method and function in a string uh string data type so let me just conclude what I discussed okay so I discussed this slicing I disclose the concatenation and we have also one more thing is a repetition okay we can also repeat it with star symbol slicing we are using the square bracket concatenation we are using this uh Plus and reputation we can use the star so for example I have the value is uh variable is a I want to multiply with a five then you’ll getting India India India five times so that is a reputation okay a small small thing is there to go in a very details way again you can go to the data type if you already aware about these things so you can skip or you can just make this video is a 2X or 1.x faster and just complete it and go through this uh Jupiter notebook and run this file you’ll get a better idea but don’t forget to run this uh uh jupter notebook file okay so here I already explained okay so you can just run it just shift enter shift enter run it you’ll and you’ll understand each and everything but again in case if you make any doubts if you not understand anything you can just put your question on a comment definitely I’ll reply you okay so let’s discuss about uh okay I need a space all right I need a space keep because I don’t want to remove it okay so let’s discuss about the next thing is a function and method which is very very important every data type have a different different method and function okay let me first write a method and some function so actually the method and function both are a same there is no any difference this have a very small differences there if function is always defining like a def here I’m not explaining you the details of the function whatever in build function whatever in build method is available in a string that I will discuss it here okay so why the both are a difference see method is always calling with a DOT like I have suppose a is a variable a is a variable which is the India okay so method is always using like a Dot Upper a do lower a do capitalize okay a DOT count a do index small I there is no Capital index so other uh method is also available but when you’re talking about um function so function is like a len and we are passing the values a len means length we have um uh mean we have a mix okay so these are and we have a type so actually this uh uh function is a very common for for all the data type so when you just enter in the list tole dictionary so you’ll also find it out the same type of function that will not change but the method will always change the difference between the uh function and method is that if function is always defining like this and then function name f n if I’m writing defining like this if the function is separately available we are calling function simple but if the function is available inside a class we are calling the method class class name is a okay if it’s available inside a class we are calling method so when I start the objectoriented programming I’ll go in a very details way just now you can just understand like this the method is always using with a DOT and a function we directly call it and to know that which one is a function you can directly understand like if you find it out any statement after this bracket that is a function that can be either function or method if you’re using dot method not using function okay so few method I will discuss it here and uh after that I’ll stop okay because uh no need to explain each and every method when you just run this uter notebook you can easily understand okay so as I uh Define all two variables a which is India B which is a country and I want to make it a Dot Upper so that will make it is a upper case okay it will be make as a upper case a do lower that will make it a lower case small I and uh currently the a variable is already the capitalized capitalize in the sense first letter is a capital the second letter uh remaining letter is a small one let me make one variable is equal to I’m using Python programming language okay so let me just use small I when you just use a c do capitalize okay sometimes uh when you just forget your uh you know that method spell when you make it spellings little bit wrong so it will giving you the error so the best practice is that after this variable put a dot put a tab you’ll getting a different different suggestions I’ll make a capitalize I don’t need to write everything capitalize is already there okay when I just run it you’ll get the values I’m using Python programming language so the first L make it as a capital the rest of the later will make as a small one so C do title there is one more valuable uh”
    • String Formatting: Methods like f-strings (formatted string literals) can be used to embed expressions within string literals for formatted output.
    • “so string formatting is also very important which we already discuss in the input output so this F string is nothing but a string formatting”
    • Escape Sequences: Special character sequences (e.g., \n for newline, \t for tab, \\ for backslash) are used to represent characters that are difficult to type directly.
    • “skip sequence in the sense suppose if you are uh writing some statement and the value will not be print in the place of that uh uh that symbol it will be showing the meaningful result let’s say for example I’m writing here I um working in Python programming language okay which is uh dynamically type language okay I just want some statement after the uh High I want to print in next line I’ll use the slash n so sln is basically going to the next line right it’s not like that it will be print the slash okay and after the statement again I want to in this next line it will be in the next line I want to uh dynamically typed language have some uh space as well SLB B for backspace okay B for back I’ll make the t t for a tab okay so when you just run it you’ll get the values is because of the sln is giving the next line because of this sln is giving the again next line because of this SLT is giving the again some spaces here so that’s why it’s giving the uh uh that meaningful result not exactly is the printing the values right so this one we are calling the skep sequence so I just uh Define it here a different different type of skip sequence like slash n for next line/ t for tab SLB for back space SLR for reserved and uh Slash a for alert so different different skip sequences there sorry it’s a skip sequence okay skip sequence”
    • Raw Strings: Raw strings (prefixed with r) treat all characters literally, without interpreting escape sequences. Useful for file paths and regular expressions.
    • “what is a raw string so raw string in the sense sorry draw string in the sense if if uh you want all the statements as it is I don’t want to print the meaningful result I want as it is values so just before you have to write r that will consider everything as a raw string so the value is not displaying it here sometimes it’s very useful whenever you’re reading some particular files from local machine or in particular server okay suppose if you are reading and uh somewhere the double slash is available single slash is available so python is giving some meaningful result but you don’t want you want as it is uh path so that time we are using the r especially for uh reading the CSV file in the data science we mostly using the r to avoiding the errors”

    7. Tuple Data Type:

    • Immutable and Ordered: Tuples are immutable and ordered sequences, similar to strings but can contain items of different data types. Defined using round brackets ().
    • “so let’s discuss about the next topic which is a tle so tle is one of the smallest data type like uh uh like a number number is very small that was only uh you know uh the integer float and complex but the tle have some values but it’s not as much of uh big topic so let me just cover it in this video only okay so again the tle so first we have to clear that what is the definition the Supple is again it’s a immutable and ordered data type ordered data type okay when you’re talking about the how the tle is defining the tle is defining in a round bracket suppose I have a value is a five a 8 7.0 and high okay so that I store in the variable T so uh uh first of all this tle is a comes under the sequence sequence means is a particularly order and that collecting the data right so the five is a integer 7.0 is a float high is a string so that is a that’s why the tole is become a uh sequence which store the different different data type even inside a tle you can also store the list as well dictionary as well anything so the tle list dictionary in the set that working as a container so the container is nothing but a sequence okay so here as I said it’s the ordered data type so again have a positive and negative indexing is there okay sorry uh oh why it’s showing like this okay have a positive and negative indexing so 0 1 2 3 have a positive indexing and as well as we have a negative indexing as well -1 – 2 – 3 – 4 so like the tle we can also apply the uh slicing order like uh the T slice with uh uh two you’ll get some values obviously you’ll get the value is 7.0 right you’ll get the value is 7.0 in in case if you pass the T of three you’ll get the high but in case if you pass the minus 3 then the value will change that will be 8 right so we can also apply the concatenation here we can also apply the multiplication here so this symbol is used for concatenation and this symbol is used for repetion okay so and uh the likewise the uh string we have also the method and function are available so the best part of this uh tle is that not a best part but uh yeah uh the tle have a very less method when you’re talking about a method have very less and a function okay so method have very less just we have a count count method like T do count and T do index that’s it we don’t have other method is here so again is a tle uh again is a immutable so that means we can’t change the values in between and uh the function when you’re talking about so it will be the same as the which we discussed in the string that like U uh what is the max values what is the mean values what is the um a type okay there is also one more function is available which is a tle which will be responsible to convert any data type into tle okay okay so mean Max is there yeah and we have a len which is very very important Len which will show you how much uh data is available inside a tuple so let me just clear it in the practical way it’s very uh small data type we can see so again you have to refer the data type Jupiter notebook you’ll find it out the practice uh um notes there okay so tole I can Define it here in the round bracket I’ll make this the T1 be Define in the round bracket 47 7.9 and um uh high is here we can Define it and he we can Define it okay so let me also Define one more variable is a T2 where I can Define it 4 5 6 2 there is”
    • Indexing and Slicing: Supports positive and negative indexing to access elements and slicing to extract subsequences.
    • Operations: Supports concatenation (+) and repetition (*) similar to strings.
    • Methods and Functions: Has limited built-in methods (count(), index()) but works with common functions like len(), min(), max(), type(), and the tuple() constructor for type conversion.
    • Immutability: Key characteristic, meaning elements within a tuple cannot be changed after the tuple is created. This provides data integrity.

    8. List Data Type:

    • Mutable and Ordered: Lists are mutable (elements can be changed) and ordered sequences of items, defined using square brackets []. Can contain elements of different data types.
    • “now let’s discuss about the next topic is a list that is the fourth data type list so list basically a a mutable data type so whatever we discussed the previous one is a tle string and numeric that was a immutable data type but this one is a mutable data type mutable and ordered data type again so mutable means changeable ordered means have a positive and negative indexing so list is always defining with this is LS is a variable defining with a square bracket that can be the any data type you can just write it like integer 5.8 is a float High okay and uh 7 five so you can Define like this so it’s a square bracket all right so have a positive and negative indexing as well because of it order so we have a 0 1 2 sorry three and four I have a NE negative indexing as well minus1 -2 – 3 -4 – 5”
    • Indexing and Slicing: Supports indexing and slicing like strings and tuples.
    • Operations: Supports concatenation (+) and repetition (*).
    • Methods and Functions: Has a rich set of built-in methods due to its mutability, including append(), insert(), remove(), pop(), clear(), count(), index(), sort(), reverse(), and functions like len(), min(), max(), type(), list() (for type conversion).
    • “so same as the tle we have also this method and function are available but because of this mutability because of the changeability we can change the values so we have so many method and functions are available so here I will discuss a few method and function and later you can just run the Jupiter notebook file you’ll understand easily so method and function our function is the same that will be Len that will be mean that will be Max that will be uh list list also the function okay and uh that will be the type okay this function very common we we we are using in uh every data type so only this one like for a list we have a list function for tle we have a tle function string we have a s Str function okay so method when you’re talking about so method is um uh we have uh like U we have a DOT count okay we have a um we have a index that that is a common it’s there for a tle and uh in string as well and we have also the other method is like append which is very famous append insert okay so many method are available so again when you just run the jupyter notebook you’ll find it out all the methods there so few method I will discuss here and I’ll discuss in some practical implementation here okay you’ll find it out in the Jupiter notebook each and everything okay as I implemented almost every method here but still if you’ll get any confusion I’m there so let me create one uh heading is a list okay so LS is a variable I’m making some values here 6 comma 3 comma 8 comma 4.7 comma uh H comma K okay so if I want to change the value is H to hello so what is the position of H which is the 0 uh 0 1 2 3 4 that is the fourth position so fourth I want to which is nothing but a h i want to make as a hello hello and later when I just check the values is LS so yes I can see the value is hello so it’s very simple we can just do it right we can just up change the values because of it’s a mutable data type we can easily change the values which is defined inside that right so here H is changed so whatever index is defining for H so in the place of H is showing the hello but you can’t do it in a tle okay”
    • Mutability: Allows modification of elements after the list is created. Elements can be added, removed, or their values changed.
    • Nested Lists: Lists can contain other lists, creating multi-dimensional data structures.
    • “like I want to create one list inside a list that is also possible list inside a list so that is called as a nested list”
    • List Comprehension: A concise way to create lists based on existing iterables.
    • “one more important topic is a list comprehension list comprehension is nothing but a very short way to define a list based on some conditions”

    9. Dictionary Data Type:

    • Mutable and Unordered: Dictionaries are mutable collections of key-value pairs, enclosed in curly braces {}. They are unordered, meaning the order of items is not guaranteed.
    • “now we reach till fifth data type which is a dictionary so dictionary is a little bit different with tle and list what is the different different is that there is no any positive and negative indexing is there in the dictionary that means dictionary is unordered data type but it’s a mutable data type if it’s a mutable let me just write it first it’s a mutable and ordered data type sorry unordered data type unordered data type okay so there is no any positive indexing for a dictionary no any positive and negative indexing so dictionary is a defining like key value pair with curly brasses key colon values okay Curly brasses close”
    • Key-Value Pairs: Each item in a dictionary consists of a unique key and a corresponding value. Keys must be immutable data types (e.g., strings, numbers, tuples).
    • Accessing Values: Values are accessed using their keys within square brackets (e.g., dictionary[‘key’]).
    • “if I want to access the value is a 15 so I will write D of a okay we’ll write a d of a then you’ll get the value is a 15 if I accessing the value is a d of Z so you can get the value is 19 this way we are accessing the values”
    • Operations: Does not support direct concatenation or multiplication like sequences.
    • Methods and Functions: Offers various methods like keys(), values(), items(), get(), pop(), popitem(), update(), clear(), and functions like len(), type(), dict() (constructor).
    • “when I just perform some operation methods here like a D1 do Keys you’ll get the all the keys here okay so r k T5 these are keys and what is the values E1 dot uh values you will get the values here again if you uh if you already aware about that you just the run this file which is I shared with you the dictionary run this file and run this video in a 2X or 1.5x you don’t require to listen each and everything right these are very basic basic things is there and just when you run you’ll understand so I’ll just give you the complete overview here okay so suppose if I want to add some values so there is no any upend option is there right there is no any upend I want to add some values how can I add it so the D1 pass any keys I’ll passing the keys here like uh U I’m assigning the values here 1,000 so when I just run it and get the values here D1 you’ll get the U in the last values okay so like way we can also assign the values so dictionary have some um you know applications so I’ll discuss about that again I will not each I will not write each and every line code so I’m taking the help from here suppose if I’m defining the values here okay here this is the list okay so question is why I’m creating a list here why not sorry this is the tle uh why I’m creating the tle here why not a list the reason behind that tle is very much”
    • Applications: Useful for representing structured data with labels (keys). Can be used to simulate tables when combined with lists.
    • “when you just enter in the data science so everything you are dealing with a table and the table we are reading in the data frame format then you’ll start the operations so if you start the operation if you already aware about that yes this table is nothing but a collection of the keys and values right”
    • Dictionary Comprehension: A concise way to create dictionaries.
    • “likewise the list comprehension we have a dictionary comprehension as well so dictionary comprehension is also the same syntax for variable in sequence you can also put the condition as well but the only changes is that you have to define the key and values that’s it”

    10. Set Data Type:

    • Mutable and Unordered: Sets are mutable, unordered collections of unique elements, enclosed in curly braces {} or created using the set() constructor. Duplicate elements are automatically removed.
    • “now the last data type is a set so set is again a mutable data type but it’s a unordered data type and it always store the unique elements unique in the sense duplicate values is not acceptable and it’s defining with a curly bras but the only difference with dictionary is that dictionary is a key value pair but here directly you are passing the values”
    • Uniqueness: Sets only store unique elements. If duplicates are added, they are ignored.
    • Unordered: Elements in a set have no specific order, and indexing is not supported.
    • Operations: Supports various set operations like union (|), intersection (&), difference (-), symmetric difference (^), and methods like add(), remove(), discard(), pop(), clear().
    • “so sets support so many operation like Union intersection difference symmetric difference and all the Venn diagram concept you can apply it here so Union means combining the two set but again it will store only the unique element intersection means common values difference means the values is there in a but not in b or values is there in b but not in a symmetric difference means except the common values rest of the values will be displayed”
    • Methods and Functions: Includes methods for adding (add()), removing (remove(), discard(), pop()), and updating sets, as well as set operations. Functions like len(), min(), max(), type(), set() are also applicable.
    • Set Comprehension: A concise way to create sets.
    • “there is one more application one application is there in a set which is the uh set comprehension likewise the dictionary comprehension we had we had a uh list comprehension so set comprehension is also there comprehension okay set comprehension so set comprehension the syntax will be the same like the and list so whatever for we have to use for that particular variable in sequence sequence can be any range any uh other sequence like a list or tle or or list or tle mainly so here just you have to write variable and curly bres is mandatory for a set”

    11. Data Type Summary (Mutable/Immutable, Ordered/Unordered, Container/Sequence):

    • Mutable: List, Dictionary, Set
    • Immutable: Numeric (int, float, complex), String, Tuple
    • Ordered: String, Tuple, List
    • Unordered: Dictionary, Set
    • Container (holds multiple items): String, Tuple, List, Dictionary, Set
    • Sequence (ordered container with indexing): String, Tuple, List

    12. Conditional Statements (if, elif, else):

    • Flow Control: Used to execute different blocks of code based on whether certain conditions are true or false.
    • if Statement: The starting point of a conditional block. The code within the if block is executed only if the condition is true.
    • “the condition is always start with if we are writing if take a space and write it down a is greater than b okay that uh your condition after the colon it automatically taking the four space that we are calling indentation and we consider as a block if I write the statement as a print hello and when you just run it and it will be check the condition is satisfied or not”
    • elif Statement: Used for additional conditions to check if the preceding if or elif conditions were false. Multiple elif blocks can be used.
    • “but I want to write one more condition so obviously I have to go back and write one more condition which is the L if L if C is greater than b colon let’s write some statement statement is hey and if I want to one more uh uh if I want one more condition I’ll write it the L if is a is greater than C there is a three condition I mentioned there and simultaneously you can just write a many condition is here okay hello hey hi”
    • else Statement: An optional block that is executed if none of the preceding if or elif conditions were true.
    • “and after that we always using the ls this is the good practice in case if you’re not using it will not show you any error so likewise here it’s not showing any error so same wise here it will not show any error if you’re not using else just write down here else colon and your statement print hello uh just buy else is always execute if any block is not executed previously if any block is not executed that time is working”
    • Top-to-Bottom Evaluation: Python evaluates the conditions in order from the if statement downwards. Once a condition is true, the corresponding block is executed, and the rest of the conditional block is skipped.
    • “python is always working the top to bottom okay it always check that line number one is um um satisfied or not satisfied a is greater than b the meaning is that a is greater than b B that is false Okay C is greater than b which is true a is greater than C which is also false and else is always is a default one in case previous one is not executed that time it will run okay so here the block number two here the third one line number three is execute it when you run it it giving the answer is he but what happened is all the condition is satisfied all the condition is true like a is greater than b okay A a is less than b uh and C is greater than b and uh a is also less than C that all the condition is satisfied so what will be the answer the answer will be the first one because according to the rules here which we discussed if the first condition is satisfied is giving the statement and terminate the Block it’s not entering the next block because l l if will check if the first condition is dissatisfied right if the first condition is satisfied is giving the statement and terminate the block but here the L if is after the false of the first condition so here it giving the answer is hello one day again the last one if no any condition is satisfied that time the buy will execute which is the default one if nothing is there nothing no any condition is satisfied like uh I’ll just change it here uh greater than less than greater than so all the condition is false there is no any true condition and uh so when you just run it it giving the answer is by because nothing is satisfied here this is the way of conditional statement we are using”

    13. Loop Statements (for, while):

    • Iteration: Loops are used to repeatedly execute a block of code.
    • for Loop: Iterates over a sequence (e.g., string, list, tuple, range).
    • “basically the for Loop is used for the iterating of the process if anything is available in a uh you know in any container if you want to iterate it if you want to display the one by one we are using the for”
    • range() Function: Generates a sequence of numbers, often used with for loops. range(start, stop, step). The stop value is exclusive.
    • “sequence is uh scq limes right scq is equal to range so range is one of the function which provided the sequence from one number to another number with interval so if I’m passing the range is like 1 till 15 yeah 11 so python have a rules that it never end with last values it end always before one so if I’m I’m writing the 1 to 11 that means it’s a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 it never goes till 11”
    • Iterating Through Sequences: for loops can directly iterate over elements of lists, tuples, strings, etc.
    • “the same thing is applicable for any list as well so in the list I have a multiple values for V in list print V so it will print the one by one”
    • Nested Loops: Loops can be nested within other loops to iterate over multi-dimensional data structures.
    • “if you have a list inside a list inside a list that is a 3D so you have to apply the three for Loop to read each and every element”
    • while Loop: Executes a block of code as long as a specified condition is true. Requires careful management of the loop condition to avoid infinite loops.
    • “while loop is also for the iterative purpose but it will be continue the process until the condition become false so we have to initialize one variable and provide the condition here and inside a block we have to either increment or decrement that variable so that particular condition will be false otherwise it will be run infinite time so we have to take care about the while loop”
    • break Statement: Used to immediately exit a loop.
    • “if any condition is satisfied in between I want to just stop the loop I can use the break statement”
    • continue Statement: Skips the rest of the current iteration of a loop and proceeds to the next iteration.
    • “if any condition is satisfied I just want to skip it I don’t want to stop the loop I just want to skip and continue the next iteration I can use the continue statement”
    • else Clause in Loops: Can be used with for and while loops. The else block is executed if the loop completes normally (without being terminated by a break statement).
    • “there is one more interesting thing is that the else block is also available with the for Loop and while loop but it will be execute only if the loop is completely executed if the loop is break in between the else block will not be executed”
    • Real-life Example (Login Attempt): The source provides an example of using a while loop for login attempts with a counter and the possibility of pausing the process using the time.sleep() function after a certain number of failed attempts.
    • “I’ll just use the while count is greater than zero I’ll ask the username input enter your username and password input enter your password okay and uh if my condition is username is equal to equal to hurry and password is equal to equal to hurry 1 2 3 my login will be successful print login successful and I’ll break it I don’t want to continue the process anymore but in case if my username and password is wrong is more than three times then the process should stop for particular duration I’ll just make it minus okay then it will showing that uh it only three times is remaining only two times is remaining this kind of you’ll get only three attempts okay the same statement I’ll apply for if the username is wrong my username is wrong and I’ll make it comma uh this particular attempt is remaining all right so okay this okay so if my usern is wrong uh all right I forgot to write F this is string formatting if my usern is wrong two attempt is remaining one attempt is remaining zero attempt is remaining in the sense is the last one it should be stop it here so I have to put one more condition if the count become a zero I have to stop it what I can do it here uh so anywhere like uh the breaking the loop if my loging successful I can also write L if Al if we can write Al if the count is equal to equal to zero the time please wait for 10 second currently I’ll just write in the 10 second okay 10 second and after that process should start again all right so I’ll do the same process for uh this is for password I’ll do the same thing for username as well I do it username as well but the your process should stop for 10 second so how can we do that so there is a like library is called as a Time import time okay so you can directly write the time do slip your process will stop for particular duration so I’ll do it here time do slip for 10 second so automatically it’s a second how can we know that you can just write time. slip and bracket you can just check it what exactly is there it’s a second I click on here inside and click shift tab this option is available in the Jupiter notebook only and if you have any other ideally you can find it out other options okay let me just remove so the process will stop for 10 second and after that it will again start so it’s on you if you want to put the timing you can okay so currently it will be stopped for 10 second process will yeah only two attempts is remaining one attempt is remaining I’ll write hurry password I’ll make it wrong this is the last attempt zero attempt is remaining that means there is no any attempt this is the last one I’ll write it here uh hurry password is hurry wrong let me just write it just wait for 10 second the process is still running it’s not like that your process is totally end up it’s running for 10 second it hold for 10 second you can increase it now it’s ask asking the password again hurry I will write it and again it’s waiting for 10 second because it’s already been uh uh already been you know um is a kind of uh uh already your count was Zero that that’s why it’s waiting for 10 second but it should not be it should not be after 10 second it give the three times option right but here I’m passing the wrong password still is waiting for 10 second so that one glitch is there there I have to just change it uh it should be make it zero again uh it should make it uh three again all right so I use it hurry 1 2 3 and let’s make it yes”

    14. Functions:

    • Code Reusability: Functions are blocks of organized, reusable code that perform a specific task. They help in modularizing code and making it more readable and maintainable.
    • “function is nothing but a block of code which perform a specific task and it is reusable”
    • Types of Functions:Predefined (Built-in) Functions: Functions that are already available in Python (e.g., print(), len(), type(), int(), range()).
    • “predefined which is system is already given the function we are just using it right mean Max int print whatever you you already use it that is a predefined function you just just call and pass the values you’ll get the answer”
    • User-Defined Functions: Functions created by the programmer using the def keyword.
    • “we can also make the function which is we are calling user defined function that means we are defining the function the third one is anonymous function we’ll discuss in um practical manner a function without name so here you can see the uh you can see the def and function name”
    • Anonymous (Lambda) Functions: Small, unnamed functions defined using the lambda keyword. Often used for simple operations where a full function definition is unnecessary.
    • “the third one is anonymous function which is also called as a Lambda function we can define the function without name with Lambda keyword with Lambda keyword”
    • Recursion Functions: Functions that call themselves during their execution. Requires a base case to prevent infinite recursion.
    • “the last one is a recursion function that things we’ll also discuss”
    • Defining Functions: Use the def keyword followed by the function name, parentheses for parameters (optional), and a colon. The function body is indented.
    • “let’s make a block is a depth EF and function name is a equation equation okay as I told you bracket is very very important parameter it’s on you if you want to Define you can otherwise you can leave it and uh like equation is the equation is y equal x squ plus 2X you required X as a input so I’ll just pass it here parameters now your block is ready I’ll just print it y okay I’ll just print it Y and I just run it you’ll not get any answer function have a rules without calling the function function will never execute okay so here I can see this is defining the function defining the function”
    • Calling Functions: Functions are called by using their name followed by parentheses, passing arguments if required.
    • “I want to call it so what I’ll do I have to define the values X is equal to some some something or else you can directly uh pass the values equation I’ll pass the value is five so you’ll get the answer accordingly so this one we are calling the function this section calling the function okay this SE is calling the function”
    • Parameters and Arguments: Functions can accept input values through parameters defined in the function signature. When calling a function, the actual values passed are called arguments.
    • Return Statement: The return statement is used to send a value back from the function to the caller. After a return statement is executed, the function terminates.
    • “the dev hello there is a function and if my number number is a = to 4 and B is = 8 and return is equal to a + and before return let me just use the print print A+ B and when you just call it hello you’ll get the answer is 12 and after the print statement uh my statement is there um um hello world okay this normal statement hello world after 12 is showing that hello world but in case if you use the written statement for a plus b return statement for a plus b hello world where hello world will never display the reason behind that because after the print after the written statement whatever things is there will never be execute”
    • Lambda Function Syntax: lambda arguments: expression.
    • “we are writing the Lambda Lambda and we’re passing the arguments like uh a sorry a comma B and then you uh doing some operations let’s understand it here so syntax is not much important but you should know that how we are writing so just we have to write Lambda what operation you want to perform I want to perform the operation of um a cube of any numbers yeah we can say U addition of XY Z so I have to Define it X comma y comma Z colon colon what operation you want to perform I want to perform is the 2 into x + y + z that equation I want to perform when you just run it we’ll find it out the function is created”
    • Use Cases for Lambda Functions: Often used with functions like filter() and map() for concise, inline operations.
    • “Lambda keyboard is using if your function is very small and you are it iteratively calling it the time we are using you don’t need to Define it separately you in that function itself in that predefined function itself you can use the Lambda”
    • Recursion Function Example (Factorial): The source demonstrates a recursion function to calculate the factorial of a number, where the function calls itself with a decremented value until a base case is reached.
    • “suppose I have a number is n and uh here I pass the value is a five and every time when you call this process when you call this function I’ll make it n minus one at the same time I can also print that n as well so that I can track it how much value is there so when I just run it you can see here the 5 4 3 2 1 and and it’s going till down there is there is a limit is a 3,000 so it will be going down and run it again and again right so what I can do hit here so when you scroll down down down down it’s a 7,000 it’s going to more than 7,000 the reason behind that I increase the limit which is the 8,000 right I increase the limit that’s why it’s going till here after uh 7,000 7,000 something and is going this statement is maximum recursion depth exced while calling the python object my target is that I want to stop in after five steps so I can use it here the condition if my n become a zero that time I will return return just um uh recursion done okay the statement is is a recursion done that’s it so because you know that after the return statement any statement is written there it will never accept okay so when I just run it it will going till uh 1 only what exact what is the meaning is that it’s not acceptable after the return statement like I think I already discussed but again I’ll tell you in the short way the dev hello there is a function and if my number number is a = to 4 and B is = 8 and return is equal to a + and before return let me just use the print print A+ B and when you just call it hello you’ll get the answer is 12 and after the print statement uh my statement is there um um hello world okay this normal statement hello world after 12 is showing that hello world but in case if you use the written statement for a plus b return statement for a plus b hello world where hello world will never display the reason behind that because after the print after the written statement whatever things is there will never be execute”

    15. Modules and Packages:

    • Modules: A Python file with a .py extension. Contains Python code (functions, classes, variables). Used for organizing code and reusability.
    • “module is nothing but uh any python file which have a py extension is called as a module so you have so many python file you create but sometime we creating the Jupiter notebook file that Jupiter notebook extension is i p y and B so that is not a module so python file should be in the py extension that will consider as a module and the module can consist of function classes variable anything because that is the file inside a file so many things we can write it”
    • Packages: A directory containing multiple modules and a special file named __init__.py. Used for structuring larger Python projects and preventing naming conflicts between modules. Sub-packages are packages nested within other packages.
    • “package is nothing but one uh directory we can say where consist of the multiple modules but there is one special file is called as init so that name is init it should be available there that we are calling packages so for example I have a file which is the uh a which is the file name is a. py B do py c. py so these are all a modules but make sure that there is one more file should be underscore uncore init uncore uncore py if this one is also present and it’s available in the particular folder uh suppose the folder name is okay yeah suppose the folder name is main so main is nothing but a package which consist of the multiple modules”
    • Libraries: Often used as a general term for a collection of related modules and packages that provide a set of functionalities.
    • “someone is also calling this one is a library someone is also calling this one is a library so library is nothing but is a collection of the packages”
    • Importing Modules: Use the import keyword to bring modules into your current script. Specific names can be imported using from module import name.
    • “so I want to call it this function with different file so calling is a file both load and calling is available in the same location I want to call the load module so how to call any module we are using the import keyword import load”
    • Finding Module Location: The sys module and sys.path list can be used to determine the directories where Python looks for modules.
    • “there is one um library is in build Library which is a CIS CIS is a system so let me just open the python here directly sorry here anywhere you can open it I can write it here okay so import CIS system sis. paath so it will showing you the path where exactly all the libraries and all the python packages are available”
    • Installing Packages with Pip: pip is the package installer for Python. Used to install and manage third-party libraries from the Python Package Index (PyPI). Command: pip install package_name.
    • “p is working as a package manager which is responsible to install any kinds of packages or libraries so if you’re using the python more than uh 3.4 version so that means PP is already there you have to just use it so if you want to install a package like pandas so you can write it you can write it like pip install pandas that’s it”
    • __name__ Attribute: A built-in variable that holds the name of the current module. When a script is run directly, __name__ is set to “__main__”. If a module is imported into another script, its __name__ is set to the module’s name. This is often used to include test code or main execution logic within a module that should only run when the module is executed directly.
    • “there is one more topic is a name attribute I think you saw this name attribute in a Python programming language is many places so let’s understand it how we can use this name attribute so suppose if you have vs code okay if you have a vs code and uh yeah and I have one file which is a um load file load. py so the variable is 55 and DEP is equal to info and uh pass the statement is this is this is uh load module okay and one more function is available def add and pass to parameter a comma B simple and just um you know perform some operation result is equal to a + b and later return the values return the result okay now it’s done but I want if if I if my target is to create the complete a module which will be the load module but I want to test it that whatever function I wrote it that is perfectly fine or not okay so here uh I just want to um you know test it this add function is properly running or not so what I’ll do I’ll just call the function 5 comma 8 and when I run it so hopefully we will not get any answer because I return the values but when I just print the statement like uh print the statement directly so we will get the answer is 1 so which um I was expecting 13 now the answer is also 13 everything is perfect but here I just want to call the load module let me just call it import load okay and when you just import load let’s see what will happen so import load I just load the I just uh you know load the load module that name is the same I just imported the load module but here I was not expecting that answer should be the 13 because I didn’t call the add function here I didn’t call the add function let me just call the add function uh print load do add I’ll pass the values is 5 comma 12 so I’m expecting the answer is 17 so here I got the 17 but the same time I also got the answer is 13 as well which is wrong not wrong but uh I have to see that where exactly this 13 so 13 is basically I just printed here in the load module just”

    16. Exception Handling (try, except):

    • Handling Errors: Exception handling is a mechanism to gracefully manage runtime errors (exceptions) that can occur during program execution, preventing the program from crashing.
    • “exception handling is basically used for to handle the unexpected event during the program execution”
    • try Block: The code that might raise an exception is placed within the try block.
    • “I’ll just use a try try means I’ll just normally try the normal flow of the program so normal flow of the program I’ll right okay so in case any exception occurred except”
    • except Block: If an exception occurs within the try block, the code within the corresponding except block is executed. You can specify the type of exception to catch.
    • “except exception accept exception uh the time I can I can write it here print Infinity okay I can I can write it anything so if I pass 6 IDE 0 you’ll get the answer is infinity whatever you write it here you’ll get the answer accordingly”
    • Real-life Analogy: Likens exception handling to a car’s fuel indicator: it doesn’t solve the problem of an empty fuel tank but alerts the driver to take appropriate action.
    • “if the petrol is finished the fuel indicator is giving the answer you’re giving the uh instruction that yes your petrol is finished find it out some nearby petrol pump so the fuel indicator is not solving the problem but is giving the instruction that this is the exact instruction you can handle via petrol so this is one of the example”

    17. File Handling:

    • Opening Files: The open() function is used to open files for reading or writing. It takes the file path and the mode (‘r’ for read, ‘w’ for write, ‘a’ for append, ‘r+’ for read and write, etc.) as arguments.
    • “file handling is basically we have to perform the operation with the file like a reading the file writing the file updating the file and deleting the file so these are the four basic fundamental operation we can perform it and to perform this operation we have a inbuild function is called as open function”
    • File Modes: Different modes determine the operations that can be performed on the file. ‘w’ overwrites existing files or creates a new one, ‘a’ adds to the end of an existing file.
    • “your mode should be w w means writing the files and then line by line I’m just writing the file this is my first program this is my second program I’m writing there so make sure that you have to close it otherwise it will be impact to the another files if you opening in a new section so yes I close it that means file is properly written sometimes we are not closing the files so what happened ke if you write the program uh if you apply the uh writing some uh you know lines in a text but you forget to close it so that time the file exactly not writing in the text file okay so now file is a properly written”
    • Closing Files: It’s important to close files using the close() method to release system resources and ensure data is written to the file.
    • “make sure that you have to close it otherwise it will be impact to the another files”
    • with open() Statement: Provides a convenient way to work with files. It automatically closes the file even if errors occur. Recommended practice.
    • “one more option is also available which is a with open we have to use a with open it and if you using the withth open you don’t need to close it the reason because you’re writing entire section inside the block if you’re coming out the block that means file is already closed so this is also one of the good practice”
    • Reading Files: Methods like read() (reads the entire file), readline() (reads one line at a time), and iterating over the file object (reads line by line) are used to read file content.
    • “so if I want to use the reading okay so make sure that I should have some files okay uh so python. txt I create I have one files is a big file so you can also find it out files on um GitHub okay before going to the python. txt let’s also read something okay you can also read the my my text.txt as well let me show you how we can read it so with Way open you can also use it with open I’m just opening the file which name is my txt do my text.txt my my text.txt and mode is equal to it’s r r for reading okay and then uh uh we have to define the Define the you know as a variable as F3 I’m just defining it okay F uh F50 I’m just defining maybe it will be impact the next one because 3 four I just use it there so I’m just use the F50 F50 dot read line and then read line that’s it so it will be uh store somewhere let me store in the where one okay so we can also check that is the first line which will be printed where one so this is my first program so whatever I write it I can also read it as well”
    • Writing to Files: The write() method is used to write strings to a file.
    • Appending to Files: The ‘a’ mode allows adding content to the end of a file without overwriting existing data.
    • seek() Method: Allows changing the file pointer position to a specific offset, enabling reading or writing from different locations within the file.
    • “here we have a a method is a seek method seek method is exactly we can just Define the positions from where you want to start it like I I I decided that I want to start some particular position which is the python is interpreted objectoriented high level programming language suppose I want to start from there so how we can start it like we our cursor is always starting from here but I want to start here so seek will Define the position in a python yeah we can say here in this location and then it will”

    18. OS Module:

    • Operating System Interaction: The os module provides functions for interacting with the operating system, such as working with file paths, directories, environment variables, and running system commands.
    • “OS module is also one of the very important module which will be interact with your operating system like creating the folder deleting the folder and uh checking your current directory changing the directory so so many operation we can perform it”
    • Common Functions: Includes functions like os.getcwd() (get current working directory), os.chdir() (change directory), os.mkdir() (make directory), os.makedirs() (make multiple nested directories), os.rmdir() (remove directory), os.rename() (rename file or directory), os.path.join() (join path components), os.path.exists() (check if a path exists), os.cpu_count() (get the number of CPUs).
    • “OS module is also one of the very important module which will be interact with your operating system like creating the folder deleting the folder and uh checking your current directory changing the directory so so many operation we can perform it let me just show you a few practical examples so currently my current directory is this so if I want to check it OS module first you have to import OS and OS do get CWD so you’ll get your current working directory if you want to change your directory OS do chdir and pass the path wherever you want to go your path will change and next time when you just check it os. getet CWD so you will get it the current location which is the recurrent learning video on python tutorials and some operation we can also perform is like um I want to make some directory I want to make some uh you know some folders directory is a folder so how we can create it uh current location is this this in the sense here nothing in no any folder is available I want to create any folder how we can create it mkd sorry OS do mkd and pass the values you can you can write anything uh I’m just writing temp directory temp di so when you just run it so temp directory will generate yeah temp directory is generated so with the help of os module you can perform some operation with your computer so that python is providing that kind of facilities other programming language is also there just I’m telling you the python have the OS moduel and uh in case if you have the multiple directory for example my current location my current directory is this and I want to create the multiple directory inside a directory like path is equal to I want to create um you know new dir inside the new di I want to create one more directory is a okay analysis okay inside analysis and then um uh we can say Titanic okay this folder I want to create it but if you’re using the. M KD let’s see it will work or not so os. mkdir path let’s see it will showing throw the error the system cannot specify the path because your current directory is this and inside that you want to create the multiple directories so which is not possible with a mkdir so different method is available which is a Mech DS Mech directories so when you just using the me directories so you can create a folder inside a folder inside a folder like that so let me show you yeah new di inside that analysis inside that Titanic so this way we can create it okay so in case I don’t want any directory suppose I don’t want a temp directory still there so OS Dot .rm and provide the path which is the temp Dr so that directory will delete RM di sorry rmd so that directory will delete as well so this kind of option is also available to you can also delete it okay there is one only one directory which is the new d new dir there is no any temp di because I deleted I want to change this name I don’t want you know this new IR I want to rename it so OS dot rename it okay so rename it so what is the file name new di I want to change it as a new only okay rename n a m e rename sorry so new di I just change it is a new so change it here so that kind of option is available so let me just do the last two method and after that I’ll I’ll show you the list you can easily explore it suppose my current directory uh my current directory is this current di let me just do it o.get CWD okay this is my current Di okay I want to perform some operation uh so like uh I want to add it like new Di and with all the locations right so how we can do it like inside a DI there is analysis folder is available so we can also join the path as well so OS do os. paath do join so my current directory current Di with whatever path you want to join it suppose I want to join with a new so it will be joined like this okay so you can perform the analysis and based on that so. path. jooin you can joining with the two One Directory with any other directory in case I want to create One Directory which name is a new which is already exist let me R OS do mkd which is name is new let’s see what will happen so it will throw the error and saying that cannot create a file when that file is already exist so there is a condition we can also apply it okay if os. paath do exist and you can write it that new in case if new is exist the time in case if new a exist if os. path. exist the time will not create okay okay okay let me just try uh okay so it’s kind of if path the the different path is exist then you can create it like I want to uh this one is just tell you like the path is exist or not like I want to check that yes or no so it will show yes that path is exist so in case the new is exist inside that I want to create one uh location like here like here inside a new I want to create it inside new folder I want to create one more folder which name is uh data science okay inside a new I want to create it in a data science likewise okay let me tell you new okay temp Dr and then data science okay so like this live it let me make it the very simple I want to create new directory os. mkd which is name is new I want to create it but it’s already exist so it throw the error so what I can do if not os. path. exist new if it’s not there then it’s create otherwise don’t create so it will not throw the error in case new is not available so currently new is available it’s not enter inside the location but in case if it’s not available I delete it when you run it here so it will be create but inside nothing is there because just now it created okay so when you just apply this kind of condition if not os. path that exist then it’s created otherwise don’t create so in OS module lots of method is available so I just provided the link in a Jupiter notebook W3 schools you can also explore it like anything like I want to know that CPU count okay with a CPU count you can also use it how many CPU is there and you can also perform the operation there is a four CPU kind so likewise I want to also check that in my PC how many CPU count is there so OS do CPU count okay it’s not counts think yeah there is a 12 CPU count is there in their system is a four so likewise you can also explore it other method which is available here”

    19. File Handling (Pickle, JSON, CSV):

    • Pickle: A module for serializing and de-serializing Python object structures (pickling and unpickling). Allows saving complex data structures to a file and loading them back. Pickle files are binary format.
    • “pickle is used for preserving the data so like if you save this kind of data into any format like a Json format or normally the text format you can see easily right if you double click with a notepad you can uh see that kind of files but pickle is always store”
    • JSON: JavaScript Object Notation, a lightweight data interchange format. Python’s json module allows encoding and decoding JSON data. Commonly used for web applications and data transfer. JSON files are human-readable text format.
    • “Json is also for the same purpose if you want to transfer the data from one application to another application so Json is mostly used in web application”
    • CSV: Comma Separated Values, a simple text format for storing tabular data. Python’s csv module provides functionality to read and write CSV files.
    • “CSV is also one of the very famous file format if you want to store the tabular data in a very simple way like in Excel format so CSV is very useful”

    This briefing document provides a comprehensive overview of the fundamental Python concepts covered in the source. Further exploration and practical exercises, as suggested by the source’s reference to a Jupyter Notebook, are crucial for solidifying understanding.

    Python Fundamentals: Variables, Data Types, and Operators

    1. What is a variable in Python, and how does it relate to data types and memory allocation?

    In Python, a variable is essentially a name that refers to a location in the computer’s memory where data is stored. When you assign a value to a variable (e.g., a = “hello” or b = 15), Python allocates a portion of memory to hold that data. The data type of the value (like string, integer, float) determines how this memory is allocated and interpreted. Each variable, being a memory location, also has a unique identification number, which can be retrieved using the id() function. The amount of memory allocated and the identification number can differ based on the data type of the value stored in the variable. For instance, a string might require more memory than an integer, leading to a larger gap between their identification numbers when created.

    2. What are the main built-in data types in Python, and can you provide examples of each?

    Python offers several built-in data types, categorized mainly as:

    • Numeric:Integer (int): Whole numbers without decimal points (e.g., 15, -3).
    • Float (float): Numbers with decimal points (e.g., 19.8, -2.5).
    • Complex (complex): Numbers with a real and an imaginary part (e.g., 3 + 5j).
    • Dictionary (dict): Unordered collections of key-value pairs (e.g., my_dict = {5: 4, 4: 7, 9: 8}).
    • Boolean (bool): Represents truth values, either True or False.
    • Set (set): Unordered collections of unique elements (e.g., my_set = {1, 2, 3}).
    • Sequence Types: Ordered collections of items.
    • String (str): Sequences of characters enclosed in quotes (e.g., “hello”).
    • List (list): Ordered, mutable sequences of items enclosed in square brackets (e.g., my_list = [1, “hello”, 3.14]).
    • Tuple (tuple): Ordered, immutable sequences of items enclosed in parentheses (e.g., my_tuple = (1, “hello”, 3.14)).

    3. What are keywords in Python, and what are the rules for using them?

    Keywords in Python are reserved words that have specific meanings and purposes within the language. They cannot be used as identifiers, such as variable names, function names, or class names. Python has a predefined set of keywords (e.g., if, else, for, while, def, class, True, False, None). You can see a list of Python keywords using the keyword module and keyword.kwlist. Attempting to use a keyword as an identifier will result in a syntax error.

    4. What is indentation in Python, and why is it important?

    Indentation in Python refers to the spaces or tabs used at the beginning of a line of code to define code blocks. Unlike many other programming languages that use curly braces {} to delimit blocks, Python relies solely on indentation. Consistent indentation is crucial because it determines the structure and execution flow of the program, especially within control flow statements like if, for, and while, as well as in function and class definitions. Incorrect indentation will lead to IndentationError and will change the logical grouping of statements. The standard convention in Python is to use 4 spaces for each level of indentation.

    5. How do you take input from the user and display output in Python?

    In Python, you can take input from the user using the input() function. This function prompts the user with an optional message and returns the user’s input as a string. If you need the input to be of a specific data type (like an integer or float), you need to explicitly convert it using functions like int() or float(). For example:

    name = input(“Enter your name: “)

    age = int(input(“Enter your age: “))

    To display output in Python, you use the print() function. You can print strings, variables, and the results of expressions. You can also format the output using f-strings or the .format() method to include variables within strings. For example:

    print(“Hello,”, name)

    print(f”You are {age} years old.”)

    result = 10 + 5

    print(“The result is”, result)

    6. What are operators in Python, and what are the main categories of operators?

    Operators in Python are symbols that perform operations on values (operands). Python supports various types of operators, including:

    • Arithmetic Operators: Used for mathematical calculations (e.g., + for addition, – for subtraction, * for multiplication, / for division, ** for exponentiation, // for floor division, % for modulo).
    • Assignment Operators: Used to assign values to variables (e.g., =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=).
    • Relational (Comparison) Operators: Used to compare values (e.g., == for equal to, != for not equal to, > for greater than, < for less than, >= for greater than or equal to, <= for less than or equal to). These operators return Boolean values (True or False).
    • Logical Operators: Used to combine or modify Boolean values (e.g., and, or, not).
    • Identity Operators: Used to check if two variables refer to the same object in memory (is, is not). Note that for small integers (-5 to 255), Python might reuse the same object ID.
    • Membership Operators: Used to test if a value or variable is found in a sequence (in, not in).
    • Bitwise Operators: Used to perform bit-level operations on integers (&, |, ^, ~, <<, >>).

    7. Can you explain the concept of immutability and mutability in Python data types and provide examples?

    Immutability: An immutable data type is one whose value cannot be changed after it is created. If you perform an operation that seems to modify an immutable object, you are actually creating a new object with the modified value. Examples of immutable data types in Python include:

    • Numbers (int, float, complex): When you add two numbers, you get a new number object.
    • Strings (str): String operations like concatenation or slicing create new string objects. You cannot change individual characters of a string in place.
    • Tuples (tuple): Once a tuple is created, you cannot add, remove, or modify its elements.

    Mutability: A mutable data type is one whose value can be changed in place after it is created, without creating a new object. Examples of mutable data types in Python include:

    • Lists (list): You can add, remove, or modify elements of a list directly using methods like append(), insert(), remove(), or by assigning to specific indices.
    • Dictionaries (dict): You can add, remove, or modify key-value pairs in a dictionary after its creation.
    • Sets (set): You can add or remove elements from a set using methods like add() and remove().

    The distinction between mutable and immutable types is important for understanding how data is handled and how variables behave in Python, especially when passing objects to functions or assigning them to multiple variables.

    8. What are the key characteristics and operations associated with Python’s sequence data types (strings, lists, tuples)?

    Strings (str):

    • Ordered: Characters in a string have a specific order, and you can access them using positive and negative indexing.
    • Immutable: Once a string is created, its characters cannot be changed.
    • Operations:Slicing: Extracting a portion of a string using index ranges (e.g., s[1:5]).
    • Concatenation: Combining strings using the + operator (e.g., “hello” + ” world”).
    • Repetition: Repeating a string using the * operator (e.g., “abc” * 3).
    • Methods: Numerous built-in methods for string manipulation like upper(), lower(), capitalize(), count(), find(), replace(), split(), join().
    • String Formatting: Using f-strings or the .format() method to embed variables in strings.
    • Escape Sequences: Special character combinations like \n for newline, \t for tab.

    Lists (list):

    • Ordered: Items in a list have a specific order, accessible by index.
    • Mutable: You can change the elements of a list after it’s created.
    • Operations:Slicing: Similar to strings, but returns a new list.
    • Concatenation: Using the + operator to combine lists.
    • Repetition: Using the * operator to repeat list elements.
    • Methods: Many methods for modifying lists: append(), insert(), remove(), pop(), sort(), reverse(), extend(), count(), index().
    • List Comprehension: A concise way to create lists based on existing iterables.
    • Supports nested lists (lists within lists).

    Tuples (tuple):

    • Ordered: Elements in a tuple have a specific order, accessible by index.
    • Immutable: Once a tuple is created, its elements cannot be changed.
    • Operations:Slicing: Returns a new tuple.
    • Concatenation: Using the + operator to combine tuples (creates a new tuple).
    • Repetition: Using the * operator to repeat tuple elements (creates a new tuple).
    • Methods: Fewer methods compared to lists: count(), index().
    • Tuples are often used for fixed collections of items and can be more memory-efficient than lists in some cases. They can also be used as keys in dictionaries (unlike lists).

    Jupyter Notebook and Python Fundamentals Illustrated

    Based on the provided source, here are some basics of Jupyter Notebook:

    Installation and Launching:

    • Jupyter Notebook can be installed in several ways, including using Anaconda or Miniconda, or directly via the command prompt using pip.
    • The source recommends using Anaconda for data science as it conveniently installs Jupyter Notebook, along with other useful tools like Spyder, and comes with many pre-installed libraries such as pandas, NumPy, Matplotlib, and Plotly.
    • To install Anaconda, you can go to the official website and download the free version. The installation process involves a simple double-click and following the on-screen instructions.
    • After installing Anaconda, you can find the Anaconda Navigator in your applications (e.g., under the “Anaconda3” folder in Windows). From the Navigator, you can launch Jupyter Notebook.
    • Alternatively, you can directly search for “Jupyter Notebook” in your operating system’s search bar to open it.
    • When launched, Jupyter Notebook typically opens in your default web browser.

    Interface and Usage:

    • Jupyter Notebook opens in a specific local directory on your computer (e.g., your C drive user directory).
    • The interface allows you to navigate through your files and folders and create new notebooks.
    • To start writing Python code, you can create a new Python 3 notebook.
    • Code is written and executed in cells. You can write Python code in a cell and run it by clicking the “run” button or by using the shortcut Shift+Enter.
    • Jupyter Notebook files have the extension .ipynb.

    Key Features and Concepts Illustrated in the Source:

    • Basic Python Concepts: The source uses Jupyter Notebook extensively to demonstrate fundamental Python concepts such as:
    • Variables and how they store data according to their data types.
    • Data types, including numeric (integer, float, complex), string, list, tuple, dictionary, and set, with examples of how to define and check their types using the type() function.
    • Memory allocation for variables and how to check their identification numbers using the id() function.
    • Keywords and how to list them using the keyword module.
    • Indentation as a way to define code blocks in Python.
    • Comments using the hash symbol #.
    • Operators: Jupyter Notebook is used to practically demonstrate different types of operators:
    • Arithmetic operators (+, -, *, /, %, //, **).
    • Assignment operators (=, +=, -=, *=, /=, etc.).
    • Relational (Comparison) operators (>, <, >=, <=, ==, !=) which always return a Boolean value (True or False). These are also referred to as conditional operators.
    • Logical operators (and, or, not) which work with Boolean values.
    • Identity operators (is, is not) which compare object identity (memory location).
    • Membership operators (in, not in) which check if a value is present in a sequence.
    • Data Structures: The source provides examples in Jupyter Notebook to illustrate the properties and operations of various data structures:
    • Strings: Including slicing, concatenation using the + operator, repetition using the * operator, and various built-in methods (e.g., .upper(), .lower(), .capitalize(), .count(), .index()) and functions (e.g., len(), min(), max()). It also covers string formatting, skip sequences (e.g., \n, \t), and raw strings (using r’…’).
    • Tuples: Showing how to define them using round brackets, their ordered and immutable nature, positive and negative indexing, slicing, concatenation, repetition, and the available methods (.count(), .index()) and functions (len(), min(), max(), tuple(), type()).
    • Lists: Demonstrating their definition using square brackets, their mutable and ordered nature, indexing, slicing, concatenation, repetition, and numerous methods (e.g., .append(), .insert(), .remove(), .pop(), .sort(), .reverse(), .clear()) and functions (e.g., len(), min(), max(), list(), type()). The source also introduces list comprehension as a way to optimize code.
    • Dictionaries: Illustrating their definition using curly braces with key-value pairs, their mutable and unordered nature, accessing values using keys, and various methods (e.g., .keys(), .values(), .items(), .pop(), .clear(), .get(), .update()) and functions (e.g., len(), type(), dict()). The source also touches upon how dictionaries can be used to represent tabular data and introduces the pandas library in this context.
    • Sets: Showing their definition using curly braces (for non-empty sets; a blank set is created using set()), their mutable and unordered nature, the property of storing only unique values, and various operations (union, intersection, difference) and methods (e.g., .add(), .remove(), .update(), .intersection(), .union(), .difference()). The source also mentions set comprehension and frozensets (immutable sets).
    • Control Flow: Although not a primary focus of the initial overview, the source implicitly uses conditional statements (if, elif, else) and loops (for) in the Jupyter Notebook examples to demonstrate various Python concepts.
    • Functions: The source explains different types of functions (user-defined, built-in, recursive, anonymous/lambda, return statements) and mentions their coverage in the video tutorial. It also differentiates between functions (like len(), type()) and methods (called on an object using dot notation, like string.upper(), list.append()).
    • Modules and Packages: The source introduces the concept of modules and packages as Python’s way of providing strong standard libraries. It mentions using the keyword module to explore Python keywords and briefly introduces the pandas library for data manipulation.
    • File Handling: The source demonstrates basic file operations (opening, reading, writing, closing) for text files in Jupyter Notebook, along with functions like open(), close(), read(), readline(), write(), writelines(), seek(), and tell(). It also introduces different file modes (e.g., ‘r’, ‘w’, ‘a’). Furthermore, it covers working with pickle (for preserving Python objects in binary format), JSON (a common data exchange format), and CSV (Comma Separated Values) files within Jupyter Notebook.
    • Exception Handling: The try and except blocks for handling errors are introduced with a practical example in Jupyter Notebook.
    • Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): The source begins to cover OOP concepts with examples in Jupyter Notebook, including defining classes and creating objects, defining methods (including the special __init__ constructor), inheritance (single and hybrid), inner classes, and different types of variables (instance, class, static) and methods.
    • Recursion: The concept of recursion (a function calling itself) and the recursion limit in Python are explored with examples in Jupyter Notebook.

    In summary, Jupyter Notebook is presented as an interactive environment that is highly suitable for learning and experimenting with Python programming concepts, especially in the context of data science, due to its ease of use, immediate feedback through cell execution, and integration with essential libraries. The source uses Jupyter Notebook as the primary tool for demonstrating a wide range of Python topics, from basic syntax and data types to more advanced concepts like file handling, exception handling, and object-oriented programming.

    Python Data Types Explained

    Based on the information in the source “01.pdf” and our previous discussion about Jupyter Notebook [Me], here’s a discussion of Python data types:

    Python has several built-in data types that are fundamental to the language. The source categorizes these mainly into numeric, dictionary, boolean, set, and sequence types. It further elaborates on these categories, highlighting their key characteristics.

    Main Categories of Python Data Types:

    • Numeric Data Types: These represent numerical values.
    • Integer (int): Whole numbers without any decimal point (e.g., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2). The source mentions that when you check the data type of a whole number in Python, it is shown as int.
    • Float (float): Numbers with decimal points (e.g., -1.02, 1.5, 5.86). If a number is defined with a decimal, Python considers it a float.
    • Complex (complex): Numbers with a real and an imaginary part, represented in the form a + bj (where j denotes the imaginary unit) (e.g., 5 + 7j). In Python, the imaginary part is denoted by j, unlike the mathematical convention of i.
    • Sequence Types: These represent ordered collections of items.
    • String (str): Immutable and ordered sequences of characters. Strings are defined using single quotes (e.g., ‘hello’), double quotes (e.g., “India”), or triple quotes for multi-line strings. They support positive and negative indexing starting from 0 and -1 respectively, allowing for slicing. Operations like concatenation using + and repetition using * are also supported. The source discusses various string methods (e.g., .upper(), .lower(), .capitalize(), .count(), .index()) and functions (e.g., len()). String formatting, skip sequences (e.g., \n, \t), and raw strings (using r’…’) are also mentioned.
    • List (list): Mutable and ordered sequences of items. Lists are defined using square brackets [] and can contain items of different data types. They support indexing, slicing, concatenation, and repetition. Due to their mutability, lists have numerous methods for modification, such as .append(), .insert(), .remove(), .pop(), .sort(), .reverse(), and .clear(). The source also introduces list comprehension as a concise way to create lists.
    • Tuple (tuple): Immutable and ordered sequences of items. Tuples are defined using round brackets (). They support indexing, slicing, concatenation, and repetition. Compared to lists, tuples have fewer built-in methods, mainly .count() and .index(). Tuples are often used for security purposes when the data should not be changed.
    • Mapping Type:
    • Dictionary (dict): Mutable and unordered collections of key-value pairs. Dictionaries are defined using curly braces {} with keys and their corresponding values separated by a colon : (e.g., {‘a’: 15, ‘b’: 18}). Keys in a dictionary must be unique, but values can be of any data type. You access values in a dictionary using their keys (e.g., D[‘a’]). Dictionaries do not support direct concatenation or multiplication like sequences. They have various methods like .keys(), .values(), .items(), .pop(), .clear(), .get(), and .update(). The source also mentions dictionary comprehension and how dictionaries can represent tabular data, leading to the introduction of the pandas library.
    • Set Types: These represent unordered collections of unique items.
    • Set (set): Mutable and unordered collections of unique elements. Sets are defined using curly braces {} (e.g., {5, 8, 7.9}). A blank set is created using the set() function, as {} creates an empty dictionary. Sets automatically remove duplicate values. They support operations like union, intersection, and difference, and methods like .add(), .remove(), and .update(). The source also discusses set comprehension.
    • Frozen Set (frozenset): Immutable and unordered versions of sets. Once created, you cannot add or remove elements from a frozenset. They support the same operations as regular sets but without modification methods.

    Mutability and Order:

    The source emphasizes the concepts of mutability (whether the object’s state can be changed after creation) and order (whether the elements have a specific sequence).

    • Mutable Data Types: Lists, dictionaries, and sets are mutable, meaning their contents can be modified after they are created.
    • Immutable Data Types: Numeric types (integer, float, complex), strings, and tuples are immutable, meaning their contents cannot be changed after they are created. Any operation that appears to modify an immutable object actually creates a new object.
    • Ordered Data Types: Strings, lists, and tuples are ordered, meaning the items in the collection have a specific sequence, and you can access them using index positions.
    • Unordered Data Types: Dictionaries and sets are unordered, meaning the elements do not have a specific sequence, and you cannot access them using numerical indices. In dictionaries, you access elements using keys.

    Checking Data Types:

    The built-in type() function is used to determine the data type of a variable. As shown in the Jupyter Notebook examples discussed previously, you can use type(variable_name) to see whether a variable holds an integer (int), a float (float), a string (str), a list (list), a tuple (tuple), a dictionary (dict), or a set (set) [Me, 6, 12].

    The source highlights that understanding data types is crucial as it affects how data can be stored, manipulated, and the operations that can be performed on it. The practical examples in Jupyter Notebook, which we discussed earlier, effectively illustrate the creation, properties, and operations associated with each of these fundamental Python data types [Me].

    Python Variable Identification Numbers in Memory

    Based on the information in the source “01.pdf” and our previous discussion about Python data types [Me], here’s a discussion of variable identification numbers in Python:

    In Python, when you create a variable and assign it a value, that value is stored in the computer’s memory. To keep track of where each piece of data is stored, Python assigns a unique identification number to each object in memory, including the values held by variables. You can think of this identification number as the memory address of the data.

    The source explicitly mentions the id() function as a way to find out the identification number of an object (and thus, the value held by a variable). For example, if you have a variable a assigned the string “hello” and a variable b assigned the integer 5, you can use id(a) and id(b) to see their respective identification numbers.

    Key points about variable identification numbers from the source:

    • Memory Allocation: A variable acts as a temporary container that stores data. This storage occurs in memory allocation.
    • Identification Number: Every piece of data stored in memory is assigned a unique identification number.
    • id() Function: Python provides a built-in function called id() that allows you to retrieve the identification number of an object. You pass a variable (which holds a reference to the object) to the id() function to see its identification number (e.g., id(a)).
    • Data Type Influence: The source demonstrates that the data type of a variable can influence its identification number. When comparing the identification numbers of a string variable (a = “hello”) and an integer variable (b = 15), a significant gap might be observed between their IDs. This suggests that different data types might be stored in different regions of memory.
    • Memory Allocation and Data Type: The memory ID released depends on the data type. Different data types might lead to different patterns in memory allocation and thus potentially larger differences in their identification numbers.
    • Small Integer Range: The source provides an interesting observation about the identity operator (is) and identification numbers for a specific range of small integers (-5 to 255). Within this range, Python might use the same memory location for variables with the same integer value. However, for values outside this range or for different data types (like strings and integers), different memory locations and thus different identification numbers are typically assigned. This behavior is related to Python’s internal optimizations for commonly used small integers.

    In essence, variable identification numbers in Python provide a way to uniquely identify where the value of a variable is stored in memory. The id() function allows you to inspect these numbers, and you can observe how factors like data type can affect memory allocation and the resulting identification numbers.

    Python Operators: An Overview

    Based on the information in the source “01.pdf”, here’s an overview of Python operators:

    The source introduces the topic of operators by defining them as symbols that are responsible for performing operations. It gives the example of 5 + 7, where + is the operator and 5 and 7 are the operands. The source categorizes Python operators into six main types:

    • Arithmetic Operators: These operators are used to perform mathematical calculations. The source lists the following arithmetic operators:
    • + (Addition): Adds two operands (e.g., 4 + 7 results in 11). It can also be used for string concatenation (e.g., “hi” + “hello”).
    • – (Subtraction): Subtracts the second operand from the first.
    • * (Multiplication): Multiplies two operands.
    • / (Division): Divides the first operand by the second, resulting in a floating-point number.
    • % (Modulo): Returns the remainder of the division of the first operand by the second. The source refers to this as the “modulo operator”.
    • ** (Exponentiation): Raises the first operand to the power of the second. The source explicitly mentions this “double star” operator.
    • // (Floor Division): Divides the first operand by the second and returns the integer part of the quotient, discarding any remainder. The source highlights this “double slash” operator.
    • Assignment Operators: These operators are used to assign values to variables. The source provides the following examples:
    • = (Assignment): Assigns the value of the right operand to the left operand (e.g., a = 7).
    • += (Add and Assign): Adds the right operand to the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand (e.g., a += 5 is equivalent to a = a + 5).
    • -= (Subtract and Assign): Subtracts the right operand from the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand (e.g., a -= 7 is equivalent to a = a – 7).
    • *= (Multiply and Assign).
    • /= (Divide and Assign).
    • %= (Modulo and Assign).
    • **= (Exponentiate and Assign).
    • //= (Floor Divide and Assign).
    • Relational Operators (Comparison Operators, Conditional Operators): These operators compare the values of two operands and return a boolean value (True or False). The source lists these operators:
    • > (Greater than).
    • < (Less than).
    • >= (Greater than or equal to).
    • <= (Less than or equal to).
    • == (Equal to): Compares if two operands are equal. The source distinguishes this from the assignment operator =.
    • != (Not equal to).
    • Logical Operators: These operators perform logical operations and are often used to combine the results of relational operations. The source identifies the following logical operators:
    • and: Returns True if both operands are True. The source notes the importance of using brackets when combining and with other logical operators to avoid ambiguity.
    • or: Returns True if at least one of the operands is True.
    • not: Returns True if the operand is False, and False if the operand is True.
    • Identity Operators: These operators check if two operands refer to the same object in memory. The source mentions:
    • is: Returns True if both operands refer to the same object. The source notes it is similar to == but works with memory allocation. It highlights that for integers in the range of -5 to 255, is might behave similarly to == due to Python’s memory optimization, but this might not hold for values outside this range or for different data types.
    • is not: Returns True if both operands do not refer to the same object. It’s similar to != in that it checks for non-identity based on memory location.
    • Membership Operators: These operators test if a value (operand) is found within a sequence (e.g., list, string, tuple). The source lists:
    • in: Returns True if the value is present in the sequence. The source gives an example of checking if 5 is in a list.
    • not in: Returns True if the value is not present in the sequence.

    The source also briefly mentions a bitwise operator, noting it is not much required for general programming but can be important in specific fields like electronics. It provides a resource for further learning about bitwise operators.

    In summary, the source provides a foundational understanding of various Python operators, categorizing them by their function and illustrating their basic usage with examples. It emphasizes that practical implementation in a Jupyter Notebook (available via a link in the video description) is crucial for a deeper understanding of these operators.

    Python Indentation: Defining Code Blocks

    Based on the information in the source “01.pdf”, here’s a discussion of indentation and blocks in Python:

    Indentation is a fundamental concept in Python that is used to define code blocks. Unlike many other programming languages that use curly braces {} to delineate blocks of code, Python relies solely on whitespace (spaces or tabs) at the beginning of a line to indicate which statements belong to a particular block.

    The source emphasizes that in Python, curly braces are not acceptable for defining blocks. Instead, after certain statements that introduce a block (such as if, elif, else, for, while, and function definitions), a colon : is used, and the subsequent lines of code that belong to that block must be indented.

    Key points about indentation from the source:

    • Defining Blocks: Indentation is how Python determines which statements are part of a specific block of code, such as the body of a conditional statement or a loop.
    • Colon Precedes Indentation: Statements that begin a new block of code are always followed by a colon :.
    • Four Spaces (Typically): The source notes that in environments like Jupyter Notebook and PyCharm, an indentation of four spaces is automatically taken after a colon. Other IDEs might default to two or eight spaces, but consistent use within a project is crucial.
    • Block Delimitation: The level of indentation determines the scope of a block. Statements with the same level of indentation are considered part of the same block. If a line is not indented at the expected level, it is considered to be outside the current block.
    • Example (from the source):a = 9
    • b = 8
    • if a > b: # Colon indicates the start of a block
    • print(“hello”) # Indented – part of the if block
    • print(“hi”) # Indented – part of the if block
    • print(“hey”) # Indented – part of the if block
    • print(“bye”) # Not indented to the same level – outside the if block
    • In this example, the print(“hello”), print(“hi”), and print(“hey”) statements are inside the if block because they are indented. The print(“bye”) statement is outside the if block because it is not indented to the same level.

    Blocks in Python are sequences of one or more statements that are treated as a single unit. They are defined by their indentation level. Blocks are typically associated with control flow structures (like conditional statements and loops) and function/class definitions.

    Significance of Indentation:

    • Readability: Python’s use of indentation makes code very readable and enforces a consistent visual structure, making it easier to understand the flow of control.
    • Syntax: Indentation is not just for readability; it is a syntactic requirement in Python. Incorrect indentation will lead to IndentationError and will prevent the code from running.

    In summary, indentation in Python is not merely a matter of style; it is a core part of the language’s syntax used to define code blocks. Consistent and correct indentation is essential for writing valid and understandable Python programs.

    🔥 Complete Python Course (Basic to Advanced) | Full Tutorial with Practical Implementation 🚀

    The Original Text

    nowadays Python programming language is booming day by day and it’s required for every industry in Automation in data science in data analysis artificial intelligence and many I made this course for absolutely for beginner from basic to advanc level in easy way and you’ll find it out the complete resource on a GitHub that link is available on description let’s first discuss what topic we’ll cover in this video so for first we’ll start with the overview where we will discuss about history and why should we learn a python what their competitor why should we learn a python for data sign if the lots of programming language is available then we’ll install the required software like py Cham Jupiter notebook anac iser software will anac iser providing the Jupiter notebook and spider so initially we’ll start with a Jupiter notebook and after that we’ll also discuss somewhere pyam as well depend on the requirement and then we’ll discuss about their basics of pythons like uh we’ll discuss variables keyword indentation commands so these are a topic we’ll first discuss and after that we’ll enter the very very important topic which is the backbone of data science data types so numeric string tle dictionary set these are data type this is the primary data type we can say we’ll discuss then and after that conditional statement and loop okay so all the uh Topics in a condition statement and loop will cover and after that functions so user defined function inbuild function recursion function Anonymous function return statements so lots of topic is there in a function will cover each and everything and then package and modules so python become strong because of large standard libraries so library is made with packages and module so we’ll discuss that topic as well so user Define predefine and find search path and some names SP lots of topic is there we’ll discuss in this video tutorials so we can say these are a topic it’s a Basics and intermediate and advanced python is also there which one is file handling will discuss exception handling objectoriented programming and multi-threading let’s discuss about the complete overview of python so here in the market so many languages is available but why should we learn a python right so our entire tutorials is a focused on the data science I’ll take the example of the data science and uh in that direction we’ll discuss so basically machine learning and artificial intelligence obviously it comes under the data science will build on the mathematical principle like a calculus algebra probability statistics so we have to choose those programming language which is very much compartible with this mathematical concept because because nowadays the this Ai and automation concept is booming right so we have to choose those language so python obviously is the best for them but what is the reason before going to the python let’s understand the concept of the machine learning okay so machine learning basically a application of artificial intelligence when a machine can learn automatically from the previous experiences let’s say for example you meet a person after 5 year okay and suddenly you start predicting that the person can be the Priya Raju and moan any any name you are just start predicting and how we able to predict predict it the reason behind that because that kind of pattern is already store in your brain so accordingly you are predicting okay so in a real life so we have the large amount of data let’s take example of Instagram so Instagram the huge amount of data they are recognizing the pattern and accordingly is giving the suggestion to you right so in that algorithm in that pattern Rec in pattern calculation we required a those programming language which should be compatible with the mathematical concept so python is one of them but why python why only the python why not other like only the python can be used in the data science the answer is no we can use the any programming language language in a data science in a machine learning but we have to choose those which is comfortable with mathematical concept so let’s understand that so in a real life there is a two type of categories there of a programming language the first one is a static and the second one is a dynamic what is a static static in the sense so we’ll take example of java in a static and python as a dynamic okay Java is a static programming language and python is a dynamic programming language so basically we are writing uh Java like uh in this this is the script of a Java we’re writing the code but here when you’re assigning the value is 9 uh in a and four in a b so after the calculation a divide by B the answer should be the 2.25 but you’ll get the answer is two the reason I already defined the data type okay Define the data type which is a integer because of the integer it will print only the two so what is the concept behind that because it will take the values the 2.25 it will take the inputs but after translation after the translation it will start comparing the target values which is the C this is the target variable and value is a 2.25 comparing with the input values which is a in C after comparing whatever values we get it and that is showing as a result which is a two all right so the translator in a Java programming language we are calling the compiler okay so compiler is nothing but a translator not in a Java in every programming language compiler is exist but in a Java we normally calling compiler in a python we have a different name but the compiler is there a different name is is inter uh interpreter okay so we understand that the Java is a static programming language but how the python is working so python is a dynamic programming language it directly take the inputs translate it and getting the result how basically is working you can directly assign a is equal to 5 b is equal to 8 and C is equal to B / a and when you just divide it you’ll getting the proper decimal values I’ll I’ll show you some real example okay I’ll show you some real examples so that you can easily understand suppose I have a value is a is equal to 5 b is equal to 8 and C is equal to B / a and get the value C that will getting 1.6 that is the proper floating values but when you just take the data type of a you’ll get the values is integer when you check the data type of B you’ll get the uh data type of B which is a integer but when you check the data type of C which is a float automatically converting the data type so the conclusion is that in the static and dynamic in a static programming language we have to take care about the data type where the dynamic programming language we don’t need to take care about the data type but again so as I said that the every programming language have a compiler means the translator have also the compiler but why it’s not comparing you the input values the reason behind that so whatever source code you have so again the compiler will help you to convert your source code into bite code and there is a virtual machine is available in every programming language like in a Java we we have a jvm in a python we have a pvm python virtual machine so here the compiler and virtual machine is running together that’s why we are directly getting the answer and in a jvm jvm the translator and virtual machine is a running separately so that is the reason we are getting the result based on the input values so which one is a dynamic programming language which one is a static programming language we can say the python JavaScript JavaScript and Java is both are a different language script and Par language and Julia these are a dynamic programming language where is a Java C C++ these are a static programming language okay so these are all these all are a dynamic programming language are matlb Julia SAS JavaScript scalap python this all are a dynamic programming language then again why we choose a python right for a data sici why not we are choosing the r language why not a mat Li so again these all are good to choose uh um uh for data science but every programming language have a limitation python have also the limitation but it our label almost every field if I want to use a Python programming language in the web development via Jango and a flask we can you easily implement the web application if I want to go in a cloud infrastructure that python option is available the data analysis is there in a testing field is there so almost every sector python is available because when you go in a Technology field so it’s not like that you’re you’re doing the analysis on uh you know some uh some PP and dashboard you show in and finished no behind that the lots of pipeline is running so in the pipeline so python is also very good in a data engineering as well so that is the reason python is become very famous and most of the companies are using this python so let’s conclude it what exactly the python this this will be the definition of a python so python is nothing but whatever discuss we’ll just summarize it here so python is first of all high level programming language high level in the sense those language which requir the translator is a high level so almost every programming language is a high level there is two language is a low level and high level low level in the sense machine language which is a binary which computer understand but we are not writing the code in a binary format we writing the code in the normal format like A + B / by 2 so it is a high language source code for computer the high language is not for human not for a student it’s for a computer the computer is saying that hey I understand only the binary and you’re writing something so I need a translator so that is the reason the computer is saying that it’s a high level second one is interpreter language which we just discussed and uh uh for translator we are using this interpreter and uh dynamically type language okay just now we discussed and it have a large standard libraries almost every field the python is available just because of large standard libraries okay so for if I want to do anything just have to install and start implementation it’s not like like that easy but yes the option is available to work in any any uh domain with python so it’s a portable portable in the sense it’s comfortable with any operating system we can use with the uh Windows Linux and Mac so even in the Linux it’s by default the python is available the reason behind that I’ll discuss in a history of python okay but it’s a comfortable with uh all the three operating system a the main thing of the portable language is that suppose I wrote a program in uh Windows operating system and one of my friend is using uh Mac or uh Linux so they don’t need to change any kind of environment they can directly use it if they have a python okay so that is a meup portable it have EXT uh extensibility features in the sense inside uh python I can also write the r language I can write a Java language J python option is also there so we we can extend our Python programming language so python is also supporting the objectoriented concept which is very very important for a software development almost 99% of software is making with objectoriented Concept so that is the reason Java is become very very famous because of this oops concept and again the last concept uh last topic is a free and open source free means you don’t need to pay anything open source in the sense so that source code is available for us we can also check it okay so whenever you install the python that any if you have any libraries like if you install the pandas okay which is famous libraries for a data science if you install the pandas so behind the pandas uh whatever source code is there we can also check it so that is the meaning of source code so let’s discuss about the history of python so history of python is very interesting uh like U um the python is old language or a new language uh in nowadays the two languages are very very famous is Python and Java right so Java is is a versatile language like almost every field is available it’s capture the market um it but the people are thinking that uh the Java is old but answer is no Java is not old python is old those who made the python the name is a good when rasim goo van R so this guy is made started implementation in 1989 so he was a mathematician he was a very uh you know famous mathematician he got many medals in the mathematics uh he did a masters in uh mathematics and computer science so he start doing researching in the mathematics so his main focus was that to um you know solving the mathematical problem so when he started the uh python in 1989 when the Java comes in the market is the 19 1996 1996 okay so it started in the 1989 and uh and he released the first he released the first version is is python 0 .9 which supportable for one andux after that he released for everyone he released for everyone and uh uh you know that be supported for Windows Linux and uh uh Mac all the operating system and this um the Python programming language is start becoming famous after 2000 okay when he released the 2.x version so even nowadays we also confused that which one we have to use 2.x or 3.x that I’ll discuss uh after this after this history so here when he release the 2.x this Python programming language is properly enter in uh software development field before that he was this programming language was in research field in uh mathematical research you can say uh so before the Java is entered in a you know in um a software development field that’s why we think that the Java is very old but actually the python is old programming language actually this guy is working in a many famous companies like uh Google Microsoft Microsoft and Dropbox so these famous companies is worked on it so python has become famous when he was in Google he was in Google in a 2000 5 to 2012 2005 to 2012 he was doing half of the work to developing the python so when he released the 3.x version of 2008 so that time the python start booming in all over the world especially in the data sign and artificial intelligence field because the Google company already doing a lots of research in artificial intelligence so he got a very good opportunity and uh python we Implement python is become The Versatile programming language and the people I start using after 3.x version so sometime we confuse that what is the difference uh between the 2.x and 3.x actually when he released the uh 2.x version 2.x so he forget to implement the object Orient concept so later when he try to implementing the object oriented Concept in a 2.x so the P the programming become very unstable so that is the reason uh he started a 3.x version and even the many people already started the 2.x that’s why he didn’t deleted that uh version but we can say the 2.x is a kind of Legacy but if you are a new if you are a beginner it started the uh this Python programming language so obviously you have to use 3.x you don’t need to use 2.x okay because when you write the the syntax of the Python 2.x and 3.x is a little bit different so like if you want to write a p uh print statement for example uh print hello world hello world so in a threo x we are writing like this but if you want to write in a twoo x so you have to write print double quotes hello world so there is no any bracket so the syntax is also different because the 2.x is not completely supporting the objectoriented programming language installation of Jupiter notebook we have a multiple option is available you can choose anything so like we have a anaconda let me just change the color yeah we have Anaconda we have a minond okay so multiple option is there so uh even you can directly uh install the Jupiter notebook via the command prompt as well but we will choose the Anaconda okay because Anaconda is giving the three options uh for a data science which is really useful for us so you will find it out a jupyter notebook first okay you’ll find a jupter notebook and you also find it out the spider which is very helpful for uh data science even uh in Anaconda is a pre predefine the many libraries so which you don’t need to install it like a pandas naai M plotly this libraries is preinstalled you don’t need to install it separately so many uh option is there so you can use it so we’ll install here the Anaconda and after that we start the installation solution of spider and Jupiter notebook so let’s do that so you can directly go to the official website anakonda just go there you’ll find it out the free download option just click on download that’s it your downloading process will start when you just check it let me just cancel it this my my downloading is already um on I put on a run so it will taking a Max to Max 1 minute to complete it and after that I’ll start the installation so yeah downloading process uh is completed I think so I can also check it in a download no it’s still downloading I think it’s taking ah now it’s downloaded so you can go there it’s showing the uh this icon double click on it it’s very simple just double click on it okay so it’s verifying and just click next I agree just me next you don’t need to change anything just next install you can just add the uh anakonda 3 in your environment if you’re not adding it’s not creating any problem just click install that’s it now it’s completed I think just click next so you can see here the Anaconda Jupiter notebook logo is mentioned there just finish it okay it’s giving the for uh registration for free and so many option don’t do anything just close now back click on Windows you’ll F and all app whatever which one you are using Windows 10 Windows 11 you’ll find it out the Anaconda 3 folder so where we have a anaconda Navigator where in case if any jupter notebook or spider anything is not working properly go to the anakonda navigator that work like a setting and you can use it so anakonda prompt is a kind of command prompt okay so I think it start opening the anakonda Navigator even I I’ll show you as well so in this anakonda prompt you can install any libraries with Pip or k environment so this is like a uh prompt which we have a local machine as well so this Anaconda is provided their own prompt okay this one is the Navigator let me just close it this one yeah Navigator the so many option is showing in case if anything is not working you can launch it from here like py Cham or um yeah py Cham professional R studio so many option they are showing but you don’t need to do anything this one let me just close it okay back to that uh folder again Anaconda 3 yes so you’ll find it out a jupyter notebook and a spider you can just open on it so for Jupiter notebook you can open from here or else you can directly search Jupiter notebook okay will search Jupiter notebook in this location so automatically the Jupiter notebook is opening on the default location which is uh it’s showing the uh prompt here it will open the uh Jupiter notebook in this location C drive you can see the serving notebook from the local directory C user your PC name all right so you can check it so where is it store opening so always opening in this location so my jupyter notebook is open here you can just directly click on new Python 3 and start writing the code is here sometime your jupyter notebook is opening on a you know Chrome or sometime opening on a Internet Explorer so which one is your default um uh web browser okay so you can write here print hello world let me just type it here hello world and click on run you’ll get the answer here so now Jupiter notebook is a properly installed let’s discuss about the third module basics of python where we’ll discuss about variable keyword indentation data type commands and lots of things the very first one is a variable variable is nothing but a memory allocation which store the data according to their data type okay for example I have one one data I want to store somewhere so we need a container right so variable working as a temporary container which store the data and we need a data type to Define that so if you storing the data and is defined with a data type like hello stor in a five store in a b so hello is store according to string data type and it is storing in the variable a five is storing in a b according to integer data type so whenever we Define the data types it it release the identification number so every data is storing in memory allocation and Define the identification number let’s understand with the uh practical implementation so I already created the proper Jupiter notebook file you can easily find it out on a description in the link that Jupiter notebook file okay so hope you know that how to open the Jupiter notebook in particular location so I have created my proper folder so file is available Basics so when I click on there so I can easily open my basic file that’s i p ynb file we can say jupit notebook file let me create a new Cale and write it down here no normal variables like a is equal to hello so when I click this button I can easily run it and when I just check the data type so there is a function predefined function is a type so even the type this topic is there function so where we’ll discuss we’ll create a function as well to check that what exactly the data type we are using the type of a so that’s a string data type when I check that b is equal to 15 and check the type of B then you can find it out it’s a integer data type and python is showing as a int so now as I said variable is nothing but a memory allocation if it’s a memory allocation which store the data that means it release some identification number as well so we can easily find it out like a ID there is the ID function where find it out the identification number when I pass ID of a so you can see here this is the ident identification number okay when I just check the ID of ID of B that is a identification number of your B variable and a variable actually the when you see the differ between the Vari variable a and variable B so lots of Gap is there because a is a string data type whereas B is a integer data type suppose I have a variable um C is equal to 0 and check the DAT uh check the identification number so ID of C this is the ID of c and a simultan I’m also checking with idea B then you’ll find it out the lot Gap is not there Gap is there obviously because the number is a different so when I just check it here you can see the last few digit is only change okay last few digit is only change but when I check with this one the lots of Gap is there reason we change the data type so it release the memory allocation memory uh ID depend on their data type if I’m taking the different data type the that will also be number D is equal to 19 + 19.8 and check the ID of D that will be the uh different identification number it’s not only the few digit is change so lots of values change also reason we change the data type because the D is a floating data type when I just check the type of d That’s a float data type so these are a variable hope you understand how the variable is working but I as I said when I Define any variable like a b is equal to 15 and it store the data according to the data type so now what is a v uh what is a data type so in a Python programming language the lots of data type is there so here python have a main category of the data type numeric dictionary Boolean set and sequence type where we have the main data type is a integer complex and Float integer complex and Float okay so we have also the another data type like a dictionary bullan set is also there and set oh yeah set is there string list and tle that’s comes under the sequence type so these are nothing but just a category so in the coming videos we’ll discuss about very details with each and every data type dictionary set string taple each and every data type will discuss in a very details way but let me just show you how the list is look like how the uh you know uh tle is look like how the string is look like so as you already see that how the integer look like if any number which Define without any decimal that’s a integer so here so data type we have different different data type is available like uh we have a string like if I’m defining with a double quotes so like hello here so that’s a string data type you define B is equal to in square bracket that will consider as a that will consider as a list if I Define with a round bracket that will be considered as a tle if I Define with the curly brasses curly brasses directly passing the values that is considered as a set if I Define the same value with key value pair is equal to key value pair like 5 colon 4 uh 4 colon 7 and 9 colon 8 so if you define like this that will be considered as a dictionary okay so that’s a dictionary that’s a set okay so what exactly the mean of this hash this hash symbol hash symbol is nothing but a comment we are defining as a comment so that’s a set that’s a topple that’s a list okay so these are a different different data type and this one is nothing but a string so in the coming video we have to discuss in the very details of each and every data type now let’s discuss about the keyword what exactly the keyword so keyword is nothing but a reserved word which can be used for only specific purpose and cannot be used as a identifier let me just write it down keyword keyword is reserve word which used for one specific purpose fake purpose cannot be used as a identifier cannot be used as a identifier now the question is what exactly the mean of identifier let me make as a uh markdown so that markdown in the sense it will taking one statement it will not consider as a code okay normal statements so cannot be used as a identifier so what is the identifier identifier so identifier in the sense any variable name any um you know uh function name okay any variable name any function name any class name that will be consider as a identifier class name that will be considered as a identifier okay so now the question is how many Reserve word is available in Python programming language so here in the lots of Reserve word is available but U to check that how many Reserve word is there so there is one module is called as keyword module keyword module keyword module and when you pass it here keyword do KW list then you’ll find it out how many keyword is available for false none true the lots of keyword is available is Lambda lots of keyword is there which is stored with a square bracket one container and that container we are calling list okay so as I said keyword is a reserve word which is used for only specific purpose cannot be used as a identifier used as a identifier what exactly the mean cannot be used as identifier like if I’m creating any normal variable able okay let me create one normal variable my variable name is a equal to 8 so I can easily Define it to not create any problem we can easily Define it here a is equal to 8 can I use uh any keyword like uh if I’m using if Okay small i f if we are using IF is equal to 8 can I define it like this no it will giving the error because because this if is reserved for only the conditional statement you can’t use as a identifier you can’t use as a normal variable so if is used for one conditional statement like if L if else true false is used for one bullion purpose okay so uh class is used for only object oriented break is only for breaking the loop so these are a reserved word which cannot be used for a normal purpose now I want to see that how many Reserve word is there I want to check that how many values is available first thing is that you have to just calculate one by one so this is the uh not a right way so the better is we can use like this there is one function is called as alen length which which will be count each and every element and tell you how many element is available in that container so I’ll use the keyword KW list and when I run it will showing you 30 five keyword is available okay so whenever you using any uh ideally right now I’m using the Jupiter notebook ideally so that time you can easily check it and uh you know the future definitely the python will increase the keyword okay so right now I’m using Jupiter notebook which is considered a 3.9 version which have the 35 keyword is available hope you understand this keyword now let’s discuss about indentation what exactly the indentation indentation in the sense is Define the block I have some program uh like if program uh conditional statement program if a is greater than let me first Define it a is equal to 9 and B is equal to 8 and I have a program is if a is greater than b okay so in other programming language we are using the curly brasses and put inside a statements so here curly brasses is not acceptable so we have a indentation we have to use a colon after the colon it automatically taking the four space okay automatically taking the four space if I’m writing here if you’re going with any other ideally uh maybe it will taking a two space eight space but in a Jupiter notebook and a py Cham is taking the four space if I’m writing here the hello okay so if you want to Define anything like hello if I’m writing here and hi if I’m writing here and he if I’m writing here print he okay this hello hi hey yeah we can say line number 5 six 7 that’s comes in if block so defining the block we are using if uh colon and automatically taking the for space if you’re using the back space and write it down here print by so that line number nine will consider as a uh outside of the block so that bu is not in if condition okay by is not in if condition so here we can see we are using by outside of the block because I I’m not using this four spaces so that’s called as a indentation if you have a single line of commands so we normally using like uh I have a statement is a print hello world and just use the hash if you’re using the hash it will be considered as a single line command like if you run it here you’re getting the answer is hello world I’m using the hash it here so it will making as a comment so single line comment we are using hash and for a multi-line comments suppose if you have multi-line of statements uh I have a same thing yeah this one I want to make a comment so for that you have to use a triple codes 1 2 3 okay start with triple codes and end with 1 2 3 normally when you just run it without using this triple codes it will showing the answer perfectly showing the answer hello hi whatever the program is there accordingly showing the answer but if you’re using the triple codes one 23 and one two 3 run it you’re not getting the answer you’re not getting the answer here actually it’s showing the as it is statements uh this triple quotes is also used for string as well so in a string time we’ll discuss that okay but it is also used for a multi-line commands so this one is a single line commands and this one is multi-line commands we are also using the double triple codes like this one this one okay so we also using a double triple Cotes so it’s a multi-line commands we are using that’s the same thing but we mostly using this hash for a single line comments if you have the multiple lines we using the multiple lines as a single single line of comment with hash now input and output function so suppose if we have any normal uh function like Y is equal to 3 x + 5 so mathematically equation is there I want to apply some input and output function in this equation so where X will working as a input because when you are passing the different different input like 2 3 4 if I’m passing two so two 3 6 + 5 11 when I passing different different input accordingly you’ll get the output so here let’s take X as a input X I’m taking as a directly 8 Y is equal to 3x + 5 3 3 into x + 5 3 into X so Define the multiplication we are using star symbol x + 5 and I want to display it so for a display for output purpose we are using the print statement print function I’m writing here x so when you run it this one run button or else we have a shortcut is a shift enter when you click this cell you’ll find it out the shift enter run the cell and select below as well I’m using it here shift enter okay shift enter so it will showing the answer is eight now I want to this one as a user input so we can take is a input there is a input function and pass the statement is enter the value of x take a space so this one will taking the proper user input and pass it here 3 into x + 5 and accordingly generate the answer is 8 if I’m passing uh you know two isas here so let me just run it asking the question enter the value of x I’m passing the value is a five I’m expecting that three 5 15 + 5 is a 20 but it’s showing the error reason because this input function by default taking as a string so in saying that cannot can only concatenate with a string to string not to string with integer actually the X variable is taking as a string when I just Che it here type of X that taking as a string and X is taking as a string three is a integer so cannot be multiplied with string and integer so we have another function is int so likewise other data type like int float complex we have a function as well I’m using int open the bracket and close it here when I run it it asking the question enter the value of x I’m passing here five then it will be calculate and showing the answer is five now I want to Define it properly uh like result is five so the result is five is the statement I’ll Define in the double quotes result is and then five will display here so result is is nothing but your double uh statements or string and is your number so we have to separate it with a comma when I run it asking the question enter the value of x 6 so um sorry not to display uh X we have to display y let me run it again enter the value of X4 and accordingly is getting the answer is 17 now this time when I just check the type of X showing the answer is integer not to string okay so where X uh X is taking as a input we took the in function is input function so this is the input and this one is the output okay this one is output So based on this uh input output and uh variables so I Define the exercise so you can easily find it out description in this video and that uh exercise is also available you just run it then you’ll understand with a different different scenario of variables data type and input output function continuing the basics of python last topic operator is remaining let’s finish in and after that we’ll discuss about the next topic is a data type so operator is nothing but the symbol which is responsible to do any operations for example I have a five + 7 so the plus is a responsible to do addition operation so this one we can say it’s operator this one is operator and five and seven is called as a operant operants okay so there is so many symbols is available in the programming language so we categorize in many way so that categorize in such a way so that we can easily remember it so there is a six main operator is remaining the first one is arithmetic operator assignment operator relational operator logical entity and membership operator so one operator is also there is a bewise opor which is not much required for um for pro as a programming perspective if you belong to the any edic field so that time is really important but still I’ll give you the resource where the bewise operator is also available so you just run it you will also understand the beat wise as well but this main operator list try to understand it in a theoretically and practically both the way the first one is arithmetic operator as I said that the symbol are available plus minus the star so I think you guys is already aware about that so the meaning of the plus is nothing but using for addition minus is for subtraction so we can directly use this kind of symbol so only this double star uh modulo that percentage symbol and double slash is something new for you so let’s discuss about that and we’ll also discuss some um you know uh this basics of this operator as well in a very short way let’s jump on a practical implementation like if you’re writing here the 4 + 7 then you’ll get the answer when you just run it you’ll get the answer is 11 so plus is a responsible to do the adding two things adding two numbers right but if in case if you’re using this both the this operator Plus for a string like a hi plus hello which is responsible to do the concatenation that we’ll discuss in the very details in in string topic but plus is responsible to do some operations right I was discussing about you know the modulo operators and uh uh uh and flow division operator so I have created the complete uh you know Jupiter notebook file so you will find it Out Below um below this video you’ll find it out the link you can go through it and just run this file you can see here what is the mean of plus minus everything is there I properly created here you just click here and run it you’ll find it out the answer in case if you find it out any confusion anything you can just put the comment below okay so everything just you have to run it you’ll understand easily this how the symbol is working right so this is the arithmetic operator and uh when you go to the next operator so that we have assign assignment operator assignment in the S assigning the values right if I’m writing the a is equal to 7 the meaning is that 7 is assigning to the a right so but if you’re writing the a is equal to is equal to 7 that is meaning is totally different you are comparing a with seven so here the assignment operator is available like uh uh when you just use a equal to 7 at the same time if you’re using A+ is equal 7 the meaning is that plus is equal to 7 is that a + equal 5 is meaning is that a equal a + 5 so again you will understand very easy way if you’re doing the Practical okay so I’ve created the uh all the assignment here all the arithmetic operator if you’re using is equal to like minus is equal to Star is equal to SL equal you’ll get these values a minus equal 7 is equal to a = to a – 7 right it’s very simple way go back to the Practical so here you’ll find it out the assignment operator as well so like here a is equal to 5 and B is equal to 3 I have assigned it where is that here short shortcut key to run this U jupter notebook shell shift enter so a five is assigning to the A and three is assigning to the B A is equal to a plus b so you’ll getting the answer is a whatever values is of available five + 3 that 8 will be assigning to the a you can see here but B you’re not assigning anything so B will be the original values which is three right this all the values I have just created you can you can perform with all the operation all the combination you’ll find it out in confusion you put the comment you will find it on on a GitHub we will put the comment or uh uh YouTube itself you know comment you can put it I’ll reply you okay I consider that is very easy things because in our school days we already learn this kind of things addition subtraction multiplication so only this module and flow division is something new for you when you just run the jupyter notebook you can understand easily let’s talking about the third operation third operator sorry not operator operation third operator is a relation relational operator somebody is also calling the comparison operator because you are comparing a isal to 5 is there b is equal to 7 is there if you’re writing a greater than b you can also write B is less than a that means you are comparing the answer is always The Logical format what is a logical logical format can be true can be false true or false answer right your answer will always be the true and false concept you comparing like a is less than b a is greater than or equal to B this is the symbol for not equal to this symbol for not equal to this is symbol for equal to equal to in the sense a is equal to 5 is already assigned let me assign some other values uh C is equal to 18 and D is equal to again 7 okay so if I’m writing the C is not equal to a so obviously C is not equal to a right so you can see you’ll get the values is true because C is 18 and a is five which is really not equal to True uh not equal to uh both the values you’ll get the answer is true it’s really not equal okay so this kind of thing is mostly using in the conditional State this name have also one more name is a conditional operator yeah have this one have a three name relational operator comparing comparison operator and the third one is a conditional operator conditional operator okay so we can provide the condition and you’ll get the values is either true or false answer go back to the Jupiter notebook you can just perform the operation like here when I just run it uh result is always in the bullion bull this this value is a bullion okay this values is a bullion logical in the sense logical is a operator where true and false is the value is a bullan values again uh see the next operator is a uh logical operator this concept will be clear okay so a equal to equal to B A is less than greater than when you just run it you will get the either true or false answer why it’s a is H so A and B is not the same that’s why it’s giving the answer is false a is greater than b so the answer is giving the true a is not greater than b okay maybe I didn’t run the this command that’s why yeah it’s taking the previous A and B values you can see here a is not equal to equal to B I wrote it that getting the answer is false where a is greater than b so a is five and B is a 7 that giving the answer is false because five is not greater than 7 okay if is not equal to you can also write the concept like if uh uh a equal to equal to 5 actually the a is a five I assign the values and I’m also writing the five when you just run it you’ll getting the answer is true okay the next operator which I discuss in this uh uh operator as well let me just remove it the next operator is uh yeah okay so next operator is logical operator as I said that this is always giving The Logical format we can say the value is a bullion true and false is a bullion okay logical operator is and or not okay and or not so a b let’s consider as a variable and if your value is a true if a is a true B is a true so A and B become a true so this is the rules which you are following in The Logical operator it is there in uh physics and Mathematics everywhere in a programming language we are not changing anything whatever you learn in engineering or uh 12th so that is the same thing here so A and B if anything let me just remove if anything is a false that will be the false see here true false that value will be the false in case if the value is true and true and false the answer will be the false if any one values is a false and operator will give the values false here is a false that’s why it become false if everywhere is a false like here and here is become a false or operator is a totally opposite if anywhere is true giving the answer is true so here both are true that’s why is true one is true that’s why is it true one is a true that’s why is a true and false both the places have a false that obviously it become a false okay so where when you’re talking about the not operator is a totally opposite false to true true to false go back you can find it out the Practical as well so you can see here I performed the lots of operation here so here it’s uh uh something interesting so here I assigned the values a b c c and a both are a same values here I assigned a is greater than b so which is a buan values that can be true that can be false So currently a is greater than b which is uh obviously uh you know it’s a false because five is not greater than C and B is greater than C with seven is greater than five that is all that is true so false and true that become a false so likewise you can just run it you’ll find it out the values not operator is a totally opposite right so not operator like you getting a false this one become true okay so here sometimes a confusion is that uh we use the this symbol and sometime we use this symbol what is the confusion both are same or both are different okay let’s discuss that so to discuss that so we have to go a little bit in bewise operator as well so as I said that it’s not more important as a programming perspective but you should know about that you don’t need to go in a very details way because the beat wise operator is very very big concept okay so here um we have a two symbol we have a a and b and we have a this one as well we have a o r we have a this one as well we have a not we have this one as well so this one we can say it’s a logical values logical values and this one is a b binary values uh B twice values okay this one I can say logical and this one is say the beat wise values so if you write the values is like this let me just compare it suppose the a value a is uh you’re writing here we already have a ABC right so the a uh through okay a is greater than b which is uh false and B is greater than C which is true then getting the answer is a false but when I just go with that this uh different symbol and symbol this one you also become false I have to get some example where getting the opposite values then I can explain you in Easy Way ah I think this one is the best one 15 is greater than 16 which is a false 5 is less than 8 that’s it true so it here the giving the answer is false because this one is a uh this one is a false and this one is a true so answer become a false so when I just perform the operation is here here is the and symbol and here is the and is giving the different answer what is the reason it’s giving the two different answer as I said that is both are very similar not the same okay so so but if I’m just use the bracket here you’ll get the answer is false what is the difference here so don’t be confused anywhere you can use and anywhere you can use and symbol the only you have to take care about the brackets but why is Valu is changing first I’ll just explain you and after that I’ll go to the next operator okay the value is changed because so you can see here the and operation is directly apply The Logical right this one is taking a true uh this one is taking the false this one is taking the true this one is a true this one is a false but when you’re talking about this one so actually it will be in because of the order wise so preference of this uh uh relationship operator like less than or greater than is a below as compared to this so this one is a bwise operator the actual the 16 and five is uh apply the operation and getting some different number how it’s working I’ll show you okay why it’s not removing okay sorry so you can see here let me just remove first okay you can see here if I’m just perform the operation is a 16 and five you’ll get the different values right 16 and five and when you just perform the operation is a 16 and 5 you’ll get a zero why is it totally different the reason behind that when you just perform the operation the the 16 and five will converting in the binary format so uh there is a proper concept is there like uh the 16 if you want to convert in a binary so uh we have the binary format like uh uh Power of Two only so 2 to the^ 0 2 ^ 1 2 The Power 2 2 The Power 3 like this so this one become a 1 2 4 and uh this one become 8 so if you find it out the value of 16 okay and this one will be 2 to the power uh 4 that will be 2 2 4 2 8 2 16 so when you’re talking about the binary concept so you’ll get the value is somewhere around 1 0 0 0 0 that is a 16 and when you’re talking about a 5 so 4 + 1 become a 16 so 1 0 1 one then it perform the and operator so I’ll not go in a very details way the explanation of how the number is converting the binary and then performing the operation there is a lots of function is available not a lots of Function One function is available to explain this concept okay so when you just use the bin of 16 you’ll get this 1 0 0 0 and when you just use the bin of five you’ll get this and it will perform the operation and and operation 0 and one is become a zero right 0o and one become a zero so when you perform the operation here you’ll get a two different number that is the reason is giving the different values so avoiding this kind of confusion the conclusion is here avoiding this kind of problems we always use a bracket if you’re using this and symbol okay otherwise to understand in very details way I can make a separate video I’ll not go in a very details one here so you can just run is the bwise operator how the number is converting how the value is performing the add operation and or operation okay so here I just giving this some example you can use it I’ll go little bit details here you can just run and you can understand I wrote it just now 4 hours ago you can just use it let me discuss the last two operator which is uh identity operator and one more operator is there which is the membership Operator Let me just remove this one again if you want to know in the very details of uh dewise operator I can make a separate video for this but this is not much required for as a programmer because we already have a function Okay so identity operator is very similar to the equal to and uh uh is not is very similar to not equal to so it identify the values like a is equal to 5 and B is equal to 7 and C is equal to a five again so a is C so it very similar to the equal to equal to it also giving the bullan answer okay G given the bullan answer which is a true and false bullan is nothing but a true and false values that we are calling bullan values membership operator membership operator is in not in okay the value is a particular member variable or not suppose I have one variable which have a list is a 5 7 8 9 so five in a or not like this practically you can easily understand so identity operator is basically working with the memory allocation which is is or is not let’s say for example here I have some values when I just run it so a equal to equal to B which is a five and 7 is getting the answer is false but a is B is also giving the answer is false which is correct a is not equal to B we can also make it similar as a is not equal to B but again this operator is working for the minus5 to 255 range only if you have the values more than that that time this is and not is will be not be similar as uh not equal to and equal to I have this values you can get the values is true 7 and seven but again you have a two different values which is a uh 399 okay n and making equal to equal to You’ll getting the pro but n is M the answer is no the value is different so uh the last video I have explained about ID how the memory allocation is working in a variable concept when you just see the V uh the memory allocation of n will be the different as memory location of M so minus 5 to 55 the range the memory allocation is working the same where is this one is working not same okay same thing here so you can see if the value is this one a uh G is equal to the big statement if the memory location are same then it will be considered as equal to the whole conclusion of this identity operator is that this identity operator working with a memory allocation if the memory loation are same it will be say that is and if not same is not okay you can’t directly uh say that the is is nothing but equal to is not is nothing but a not equal to is and is not working with the memory basis and equal to not equal to working with a number basis value basis the last one is a membership operator as I disc as I said it’s uh the particular value is a part of the member or not so in and in not so here I have a big list and checking that a five the particular member or not so saying that yes it’s member but 77 no so but I wrote the statement is not in see the Python programming language is very similar to the English language right so the whatever operator whatever uh statement you writing is will be it’s uh you know the state have some sense it’s not like that whatever here is writing the in here is a not not like that it’s a proper statement in not uh sorry not in okay in not is not make sense but not in have a sense is it true and so likewise I also perform some operation like um the t u a i displayed in the you know the sequence wise here I will not explain that why is display in the sequence wise it’s a for Loop okay so the coming video you can easily find it out how the for Loop is working in the Practical and theoretical way with the flowchart I’ll go in a very very details way okay so I request you please run this all the operators uh all the operator I’ll share with you these files on a GitHub you just download it and run it we entered in a fourth module which is a data type so we already discussed the last uh we already discussed the data type in the last video so I think this PP you already aware about that because in last video the overview of python I already discussed right so what is integer what is a complex what is a float so the data so many data type is there especially in a python so you’ll find it out some some new word like the set set string list tle and dictionary is also there just not there in C+ plus Java and C language so which is something new for you so in this uh from from this uh modules so we will discuss in the very details of the data type right in the last video we just give the overview so here we have to enter in the depth of the data type and see the data type is very very important concept for a interview perspective because 99% probability that the interviewer will ask the question related to a data type actually this data type is using in almost every places if you are making any application with a Python programming language uh this data type like um uh it’s easy to implement it’s easy to understand but you can easily forget as well the reason because this small small topic is there okay it’s not much difficult we’ll learn it one by one and we’ll make the proper structured way because of the lots of data types so python is creating the data type uh with two different categor the first one is immutable data type the second one is a mutable data type so which one will consider as a immutable data type like a numeric numeric data type numeric data type will consider in a immutable string we also have and we have a tle okay and mutable we have a list we have a dictionary we have a set so mainly three is a main data type is there so numeric is also one of the category we are not saying that numeric is a data type so in a numeric we have uh mainly the integer float and complex so let’s understand it all the data type is one by way this completely a six data type is there three 4 5 five and six okay let’s understand the first one is a numeric data type so numeric data type you can understand is like a numbering concept which is learned in a 10th class or e8th class that’s normal numbering concept numeric data type data type I think you aware about the real number right so real let’s start with the real number a number which is really in exist in the real life we can we can say it’s a real number it’s a very simple definition of the real number right that number can be uh start with minus infinite to any number like uh uh minus 2 you can say uh – 1.01 – 1.005 like any number which is exist in the real life and zero is also considered that and one and 1.5 any number till infinite so inside a real number we have a different different uh subset is like a whole number integer number currently I’m in a you know numbering concept I didn’t enter in the programming concept okay let’s first understand with the numbering concept and after that we’ll relate with all the topic with the programming language so that we have a real number okay so inside a real number we have also the different different numbering concept is there the first one is integer okay so integer integer is basically there is no any decimal point is there like it start from minus infinite 2 it will take a minus 2 and after that minus one okay and after that zero then 1 2 till infinite there is no any decimal point and we have also the whole number is also there natural number let me just first Define natural number natural number is basically start with 1 2 3 4 till infinite that is a positive values is defined as a natural number why it’s saying that the positive values is defined as a natural number because uh you know in in a naturally we are using the only positive things right so you can relate like this this is is not a definition okay third one is a whole number whole number which is start from 0 to infinite this is the normal numbering concept I think you learn in e8th class or seventh class okay so and those number which is which cannot be defined in a real life we are calling the complex number the simple way we can say like if you have a number is like a root of five some values is there right 2.2 3 is there I don’t remember the exact number uh 2.2 something is there right you’ll get the some values but when you’re talking about uh uh the value of minus5 root of minus5 that cannot be Define so that we are defining is like root of minus1 into root of 5 so root of minus1 we are calling the Iota in a mathematics which is defined with the I and root of 5 whatever value is there so in suppose if I’m considering 2.2 something 2.23 so 2.23 I that will be the values so that we are calling is a complex number okay complex number so when you enter in the real life def uh this is the real life numbering concept we are using using but when you’re talking about the uh programming perspective so we have a only integer float and complex okay so we have int so whatever we learn in integer that is nothing but in uh that we defining here the in we have a float like if any values minus1 min-2 sorry min-2 will be the less – 2 -1 0 1 2 like this till infinite okay so floating point that can be any decimal points so like a minus U it is also start from uh you know infinite and if you have a minus two that will be considered as an integer but if you have- 2.0 that will be considered as a flow any value which we have some decimal point we are calling the floating Point number okay so minus 1.02 so kind of that values the complex number complex number how we are defining complex number like in a real life we are writing the a + I but here we are defining the any number 5 + 7 G we are not using the I okay uh that can be any number like 5 + 7 I so any number which is defining the uh Iota concept we are calling the complex number let’s try to understand with some practical implementation okay suppose if you have any number like a five if you have any number is like uh uh 5. 86 any number which have some decimal points we are calling the float if you have uh numbers like um uh 5 + 7 G which I which I said okay so when you just take the data type so we can just type here the type A you’ll get the values as integer I and T and A type of B and you just check it that is a float type of C which is a complex to understand the very details way uh so I already created one files the data type you can find it out um on a GitHub link okay so I’ll share with this file so you’ll find it out like which one is integer float and complex and as well as uh you’ll find it the type Cur one conversion as well like if I want to convert float to integer integer to float float to concept so how can we do that we Define it here okay so hope you understand the concept of uh uh in numeric data type where mainly we are using the three data type here in float and complex let’s jump on the next data type which is a which is a string data type okay so string data type is uh uh is mostly using in a data science perspective as well because let’s let me give you one example is a chat GPT I think you guys is already aware about that chat GPT so chat GPT is a totally based on the natural language processing concept it’s little bit a high level of a data science but let me just give you the um overview why the string is very very important see the chat GPT is always needed the string Command right statements you you’re writing some statement and accordingly it will be finding the pattern and giving the result to you and if I’m talking with you so that is The Voice command the voice command first is converting in a text and after that you’ll perform some operations so wherever the text is available we are apply the string command so that is the reason string become very very important because it can be easily connected with real life because the real data uh text is also there so let’s discuss the string data type okay string so first of of all string is a immutable data type immutable data type and ordered data type so like in um interview perspective the interviewer is asking that what is a string string is immutable and ordered data type which is very very important to say that this order data type okay some data type is unordered as well so I’ll discuss that like U dictionary and set that is the unordered so here what is the mean of uh immutable immutable in the sense we can’t change anything if you define the value is like I give I take the variable a is equal to India first first of all let me discuss that how to define the string string is always defined with the single quotes like I’m writing here the end single quotes we can also Define with double quotes as well make sure that if you started with a single quotes end with a single quotes if you started with a double quotes end with a double codes and uh if you have a multi-line of statement and string is there so we can also Define that with uh triple codes one line two line three line wherever ever you end 1 2 3 so same as for uh single quotes as well 1 2 3 one line two line three line so you can increase the line two three okay so that we are defining the string and string have uh uh as I said that it’s immutable that means you can’t change the values in between why I’m saying this word because of the ordering concept so this end if I Define it here if I Define it here i n d i a so where we have a positive and negative indexes available so index is always start with a zero in a Python programming language this uh concept is not for one string everywhere in the python the value is always start with a zero so the value started here here 0 1 2 3 4 so that is the index and when you’re talking about the negative index that is always start with a minus one because there is no minus 0 right so minus one that is starting with the right hand side min-1 -2 – 3 – 4 – 5 it’s five okay so you can access the values as well so those data type have the positive and negative indexes there that we are calling the ordered data type okay so string have the positive and negative Index right so here because of the this ordering concept we have a different different operations as well so we can easily slice it so in case if I’m just printing let’s do it in a practical way okay so string I have one string which is the India okay so because of this uh ordering concept so we can also slice it as well so a square bracket to using up slice always using the square bracket as I said that the index is always start with a zero so if I’m writing the zero in between the square bracket you’ll get the Valu is I right if I’m writing the a of uh uh three a of three so let me just write here a of three so which is the small i 0 1 2 3 okay so in case if I’m writing the minus two so min-1 -2 so you’ll also get the values the same minus one uh sorry min-2 that you’ll get the same values min-2 right so the index of U the value of index 3 is I the value of index minus – 2 is also I right the same values because we have a positive and negative index as well so in case if I want to assign some values if in a of two which is a B I want to make it a capital letter can I do that capital D it will giving you the error so if it Define the particular order you can’t change it if you can change it that’s become the mutable if I change the order if I change the values in between that become IM mutable so obviously um in Python everything is possible if you want to change it it’s possible in a different way but the string is not giving you any kinds of method to change the values directly you can’t assign directly here okay that is the reason is a immutable immutable inmutable means in the sense non-changeable mutable means changeable all right okay so based on that we have a different different operation is available we have a concatenation suppose India and uh I have a um B statement which is the country country okay so the a plus b if I’m performing the operation I’ll get the Valu is India country okay India country in in the in case if you want to Define some space in between so a plus you can provide the space the plus operation is used for concatenation plus operation is used for concatenation if I’m using so India space country perform the operation like this so let’s go to discuss about uh method and function in a string uh string data type so let me just conclude what I discussed okay so I discussed this slicing I disclose the concatenation and we have also one more thing is a repetition okay we can also repeat it with star symbol slicing we are using the square bracket concatenation we are using this uh Plus and reputation we can use the star so for example I have the value is uh variable is a I want to multiply with a five then you’ll getting India India India five times so that is a reputation okay a small small thing is there to go in a very details way again you can go to the data type if you already aware about these things so you can skip or you can just make this video is a 2X or 1.x faster and just complete it and go through this uh Jupiter notebook and run this file you’ll get a better idea but don’t forget to run this uh uh jupter notebook file okay so here I already explained okay so you can just run it just shift enter shift enter run it you’ll and you’ll understand each and everything but again in case if you make any doubts if you not understand anything you can just put your question on a comment definitely I’ll reply you okay so let’s discuss about uh okay I need a space all right I need a space keep because I don’t want to remove it okay so let’s discuss about the next thing is a function and method which is very very important every data type have a different different method and function okay let me first write a method and some function so actually the method and function both are a same there is no any difference this have a very small differences there if function is always defining like a def here I’m not explaining you the details of the function whatever in build function whatever in build method is available in a string that I will discuss it here okay so why the both are a difference see method is always calling with a DOT like I have suppose a is a variable a is a variable which is the India okay so method is always using like a Dot Upper a do lower a do capitalize okay a DOT count a do index small I there is no Capital index so other uh method is also available but when you’re talking about um function so function is like a len and we are passing the values a len means length we have um uh mean we have a mix okay so these are and we have a type so actually this uh uh function is a very common for for all the data type so when you just enter in the list tole dictionary so you’ll also find it out the same type of function that will not change but the method will always change the difference between the uh function and method is that if function is always defining like this and then function name f n if I’m writing defining like this if the function is separately available we are calling function simple but if the function is available inside a class we are calling the method class class name is a okay if it’s available inside a class we are calling method so when I start the objectoriented programming I’ll go in a very details way just now you can just understand like this the method is always using with a DOT and a function we directly call it and to know that which one is a function you can directly understand like if you find it out any statement after this bracket that is a function that can be either function or method if you’re using dot method not using function okay so few method I will discuss it here and uh after that I’ll stop okay because uh no need to explain each and every method when you just run this uter notebook you can easily understand okay so as I uh Define all two variables a which is India B which is a country and I want to make it a Dot Upper so that will make it is a upper case okay it will be make as a upper case a do lower that will make it a lower case small I and uh currently the a variable is already the capitalized capitalize in the sense first letter is a capital the second letter uh remaining letter is a small one let me make one variable is equal to I’m using Python programming language okay so let me just use small I when you just use a c do capitalize okay sometimes uh when you just forget your uh you know that method spell when you make it spellings little bit wrong so it will giving you the error so the best practice is that after this variable put a dot put a tab you’ll getting a different different suggestions I’ll make a capitalize I don’t need to write everything capitalize is already there okay when I just run it you’ll get the values I’m using Python programming language so the first L make it as a capital the rest of the later will make as a small one so C do title there is one more valuable uh one more method is a title everything makees a first uh letter is a the capital of the particular word okay so again to go in a details way so you have this one string data type which is immutable and ordered so you can find out here all the different different uh method and description is also there it’s very understandable way so when you just run it shift tab shift um shift T shift enter when you just run it you can easily understand so again I’m also there in case if if you face any problem okay so these all the options are available till here okay so suppose I have a statement um Rahul got 78% marks in mathematics exam okay so this is the one statement I want to make this statement and dynamic way like uh the name which is a Rahul okay and marks I’ll make a m variable which is 78 78 which is the integer and U subject which nothing but a mathematics okay this three variables I want to make a statement in the dynamic way so making the statement Dynamic may we have a three way to define it let’s discuss the first one string formatting uh the first one is we can print here so the first one is Rahul so Rahul is a subject so I’ll make the name is a string so I’ll make percentage of s okay that percentage of s I’ll make the dynamic way uh Rahul got 78% marks so percentage of s percentage of I I for integer marks in mathematics exam which is the percentage of s s for a string and I for integer percentage of s exam okay and after that after a double quotes you have to use a percentage and in a bracket you have to pass the values 1 by one the first one is a percentage of s which is nothing but a name I’ll pass it the name is here second one is a m which is nothing but a marks third one is a subject I’ll pass the subject here the name will be passed in the percentage of s m will percentage of I which is a integer and subject is uh that mathematics so here showing the 78 so the best part of is that in case if you have some decimal uh numbers is here like let’s say for example you have a 78.6 7 um when you just run it till you’ll get the answer is let me just run it here again still you’ll get the answer is 78 the reason behind that because I pass the values is the integer right so in case if you want the proper decimal point you have to make is a float you have to make as a float so by default that floating point is giving the uh till of five decimal point yeah six decimal points so it’s on you you can easily U you know dynamically you can just change it I can pass it here only the two decimal point so 0.2 when you just pass it you’ll get the values is uh 78.6 7 in case if you’re passing the one decimal point so 67 it will be convert into seven because after six the seven values is greater than uh 0.5 that will be uh round of seven okay but here the percentage symbol is not visible so when you just pass the one percentage it will be show through the error because unsupported format uh because here the considering that if you pass the 1 percentage the meaning is you will pass some um you know the data type here as well that can be string that can be float that can be integer so avoiding this confusion we always using the double percentage so that will consider as a percentage okay so one percentage will consider as as a like you will pass some data type but actually you don’t need to pass some data type right so double percentage you can use it so here uh uh like uh s we are calling string I we are calling the integer so again in the data type already the values is available you can just make it string integer float character everything is there okay so this is the one way to defining this string formatting there is also one way is also there to defining the string formatting you will just write a print and uh whatever values is available like Rahul so he’ll make double quotes always there because of the spring uh this one curly brasses ra you will consider as a dynamic values Rahul got curly brasses percentage marks in cly bres exam okay so here the curly presses you have to pass the values here like I will pass the value is uh name I will pass the value is uh M I will pass the value is subject just before you have to write F this is also the very simple way but again if you make the statement is a very Dynamic especially in the number format so this one is also useful you can also use this one one also so both are very same you can use it sorry we have to give this space and yeah full stop so again everything you can find it out here uh you you can easily find it out here uh one more thing one more is also there uh dot format option okay so you can just use it the same thing here curly brasses got Rahul got curly brasses exam uh cly Braes marks in cly bres exam okay and after that just do format and you’ll pass the values is one by one okay so here when I just pass the value is um uh name first what will be consider and then M then subject again so okay s j c so again you will be confused that what is the difference between in that okay this option is available then why I will use this so this one also have some uh plus point is that suppose um here you have to pass the proper order otherwise the value will be swapped so but in case if you pass the different order I’ll pass m is here I pass name is here I’ll pass a subject is here itself when I just run it you’ll find it out the value is 78 got Rahul percentage it’s very weird statement right so actually the by default uh this one uh the indexing point is also there 0 one and two so when I just run it so by default the values is there but actually this uh the zero index it should be it should be here so I’ll make it zero here okay so you can see you’ll find it the two times because I also pass the zero is here as well so here I’ll make the one so you can change the order as well so all three have a different different positive points uh we can use it okay so one more topic is also there in uh string formatting so uh string formatting is done in a string there is also one more topic it’s very small topic is um skip sequence and uh raw string skip sequence and raw string let me put the heading here skip sequence and raw string okay skip sequence in the sense suppose if you are uh writing some statement and the value will not be print in the place of that uh uh that symbol it will be showing the meaningful result let’s say for example I’m writing here I um working in Python programming language okay which is uh dynamically type language okay I just want some statement after the uh High I want to print in next line I’ll use the slash n so sln is basically going to the next line right it’s not like that it will be print the slash okay and after the statement again I want to in this next line it will be in the next line I want to uh dynamically typed language have some uh space as well SLB B for backspace okay B for back I’ll make the t t for a tab okay so when you just run it you’ll get the values is because of the sln is giving the next line because of this sln is giving the again next line because of this SLT is giving the again some spaces here so that’s why it’s giving the uh uh that meaningful result not exactly is the printing the values right so this one we are calling the skep sequence so I just uh Define it here a different different type of skip sequence like slash n for next line/ t for tab SLB for back space SLR for reserved and uh Slash a for alert so different different skip sequences there sorry it’s a skip sequence okay skip sequence and what is a raw string so raw string in the sense sorry draw string in the sense if if uh you want all the statements as it is I don’t want to print the meaningful result I want as it is values so just before you have to write r that will consider everything as a raw string so the value is not displaying it here sometimes it’s very useful whenever you’re reading some particular files from local machine or in particular server okay suppose if you are reading and uh somewhere the double slash is available single slash is available so python is giving some meaningful result but you don’t want you want as it is uh path so that time we are using the r especially for uh reading the CSV file in the data science we mostly using the r to avoiding the errors okay so that string topic is finished so we covered everything we covered uh four thing here the first one we discuss about uh what is the String which is the immutable and Order data type and uh we discuss about the positive and negative indexing that can be easily slice and uh concatenate and repeating values and uh we also discuss the method function and we discuss the string formatting skip sequence and Ross string so that complete the details again if you have any confusion you can just put on a comment and uh please refer that um uh jupter notebook file your confusion will be cleared there okay so let’s discuss about the next topic which is a tle so tle is one of the smallest data type like uh uh like a number number is very small that was only uh you know uh the integer float and complex but the tle have some values but it’s not as much of uh big topic so let me just cover it in this video only okay so again the tle so first we have to clear that what is the definition the Supple is again it’s a immutable and ordered data type ordered data type okay when you’re talking about the how the tle is defining the tle is defining in a round bracket suppose I have a value is a five a 8 7.0 and high okay so that I store in the variable T so uh uh first of all this tle is a comes under the sequence sequence means is a particularly order and that collecting the data right so the five is a integer 7.0 is a float high is a string so that is a that’s why the tole is become a uh sequence which store the different different data type even inside a tle you can also store the list as well dictionary as well anything so the tle list dictionary in the set that working as a container so the container is nothing but a sequence okay so here as I said it’s the ordered data type so again have a positive and negative indexing is there okay sorry uh oh why it’s showing like this okay have a positive and negative indexing so 0 1 2 3 have a positive indexing and as well as we have a negative indexing as well -1 – 2 – 3 – 4 so like the tle we can also apply the uh slicing order like uh the T slice with uh uh two you’ll get some values obviously you’ll get the value is 7.0 right you’ll get the value is 7.0 in in case if you pass the T of three you’ll get the high but in case if you pass the minus 3 then the value will change that will be 8 right so we can also apply the concatenation here we can also apply the multiplication here so this symbol is used for concatenation and this symbol is used for repetion okay so and uh the likewise the uh string we have also the method and function are available so the best part of this uh tle is that not a best part but uh yeah uh the tle have a very less method when you’re talking about a method have very less and a function okay so method have very less just we have a count count method like T do count and T do index that’s it we don’t have other method is here so again is a tle uh again is a immutable so that means we can’t change the values in between and uh the function when you’re talking about so it will be the same as the which we discussed in the string that like U uh what is the max values what is the mean values what is the um a type okay there is also one more function is available which is a tle which will be responsible to convert any data type into tle okay okay so mean Max is there yeah and we have a len which is very very important Len which will show you how much uh data is available inside a tuple so let me just clear it in the practical way it’s very uh small data type we can see so again you have to refer the data type Jupiter notebook you’ll find it out the practice uh um notes there okay so tole I can Define it here in the round bracket I’ll make this the T1 be Define in the round bracket 47 7.9 and um uh high is here we can Define it and he we can Define it okay so let me also Define one more variable is a T2 where I can Define it 4 5 6 2 there is very small values so the T1 if you access it uh access it with the two so the value 0 1 2 which is a 7.9 you value will generate sorry it’s a T1 not a t 7.9 value will be generate but again I want a 7.9 High both the values so you will start with two you will start with two and end with high start with two and reach till three so the p have a rules that never end with last values so if you’ll write three that it will be considered as a range the 2 to three it will start with a true but not end with three okay so it will showing the value is 7.9 so you have to write here the four this rules is not for only tle it’s rule for everywhere in the python always start with the index always start with zero first thing second thing never end with that values always ending with before one because of that let me write it here always start with index zero and in case if you pass the range is uh 9 meaning is that the value will start from 0 to 8 okay so here when you just pass the two colon 4 the meaning is that prob with two and three like this so this will be applicable for everywhere in the python not for a tle only okay even the last data type which is discussed that was a string it’s also applicable for them also okay so we can also apply the concatenation T1 + T2 you’ll get the value is the complete concatenation we can also apply the uh repetition as well so if I’ll multiply with the three then you’ll get the three times that same values okay so these are the values are available and uh uh we have a different different method as well before going to that method let me just uh do the uh negative indexing and some more values try to get it suppose I want this both the values uh 6 7.9 and high from negative indexing so T1 this is the values I want to start with 6 so that I will take the value is -1 – 2 – 3 -4 so I’ll write write the minus 4 here and when you just print it you’ll get the Valu is minus uh you’ll get the values is six and when you click only colon then it will be start with a uh minus 4 till last okay but I don’t want a high so this the value is minus1 and I want to end with here so when I just write a minus 2 min-2 so you know that it never end with the last values is always always ended before one right is before one so definitely it will end here you can run it and check that so better do you have to use minus one minus one in the sense it end with min-2 this is the rule of python is that never end with last values and always start with zero if you are not defining and the values is always start with the same same if you are defined this is the way and one more thing suppose I want to make this order as a reverse how we can do that so the E1 you can make it and when you make a colon that meaning is that start with the zeroth index end with last okay and after that suppose uh okay after colon you can also increment and decrement so by default start with a zero 1 2 3 in case if I’m writing the two so it will be jump like this 0 2 4 and I just run it you’ll get the values like this but if you make it minus one okay the first place become the minus one then again it will be decrementing so it will make the reverse order okay oh sorry T1 the T1 values of this and you can make is the reverse order all right here if uh if I’m applying the method and function the P1 dot count okay count you can just count it how how many times that values is available I want to know that how many times high is available will tell you yes it’s a one time is available right so in case if you have a multiple times high is there like uh uh T2 how much is there okay so let me make a T3 is equal to T T1 + T2 T1 + T2 so this one P3 I want to perform some operation how many times four is available let’s make it p 3 dot count and make it four you’ll get the values is two okay so again the t uh when you apply the index order dot index index will tell you where is exactly the position suppose I want to know the position of 7.9 7.9 it will give you the value is sorry it’s a T3 give you the value is 2 0 1 2 but the confusing part is here confusing part is here if I want to know the position of six P3 dot index of 6 what will be the values it’s one but I want to know that what is the position of this if you’re walking in the Jupiter notebook click on it here and inside a bracket just write shift tab you’ll get the complete notification okay so it will tell you where the position are starting and where is ending so ending is a huge number and starting is a zero so always start with a zero but if I’m start traveling from the one uh sorry 0 1 2 if I’m traveling from the two so that means it will not check the previous one so here if I start a start T start is equal to two if I’m writing so that means the the two is here it will check only these part so what is the position of six in this part okay start s t take no keyword argument okay let’s remove it so you don’t need to pass the uh keyword there okay so when you just pass the two here the meaning is that it will be start from two only from here it will not check the previous one so this way we can find it out a last thing uh I didn’t uh discuss that why it’s called as a immutable because I have the D1 in case in the place of 7.9 which is the second position I want to replace with some values like U hello so you can’t do it that is not supporting in the tle so tle is mostly used for a security purpose uh the value when you’re defining in uh any any metadata or we can say any storage place we always using the round bracket so that when you start working on a python it should not be changed by mistake to assigning some values okay so now the tle topic is finished this is uh the topic is there in a tle so if you have any confusion you can put on a command we completed the three data type numeric string and tle so now let’s discuss about the next topic is a list that is the fourth data type list so list basically a a mutable data type so whatever we discussed the previous one is a tle string and numeric that was a immutable data type but this one is a mutable data type mutable and ordered data type again so mutable means changeable ordered means have a positive and negative indexing so list is always defining with this is LS is a variable defining with a square bracket that can be the any data type you can just write it like integer 5.8 is a float High okay and uh 7 five so you can Define like this so it’s a square bracket all right so have a positive and negative indexing as well because of it order so we have a 0 1 2 sorry three and four I have a NE negative indexing as well minus1 -2 – 3 -4 – 5 so when you’re talking about the operations so it have also the same operation like a tle and string so we can perform the operation like uh slicing so like LS of for the particular slice if you do it uh like one so you’ll get the answer is 5.8 so if you the slice is the multiple values um like uh 2 to 5 so you’ll get the answer is high so that will be the single quotes here High 7 and five that is the more than one values is always in the square bracket okay so we have also the uh uh this symbol plus symbol which is denoting as a concatenation concatenation okay and uh the star symbol which denoting as a repetion okay that will repeat the Valu in the many times and uh the same as um same as the tle we have also this method and function are available but because of this mutability because of the changeability we can change the values so we have so many method and functions are available so here I will discuss a few method and function and later you can just run the Jupiter notebook file you’ll understand easily so method and function our function is the same that will be Len that will be mean that will be Max that will be uh list list also the function okay and uh that will be the type okay this function very common we we we are using in uh every data type so only this one like for a list we have a list function for tle we have a tle function string we have a s Str function okay so method when you’re talking about so method is um uh we have uh like U we have a DOT count okay we have a um we have a index that that is a common it’s there for a tle and uh in string as well and we have also the other method is like append which is very famous append insert okay so many method are available so again when you just run the jupyter notebook you’ll find it out all the methods there so few method I will discuss here and I’ll discuss in some practical implementation here okay you’ll find it out in the Jupiter notebook each and everything okay as I implemented almost every method here but still if you’ll get any confusion I’m there so let me create one uh heading is a list okay so LS is a variable I’m making some values here 6 comma 3 comma 8 comma 4.7 comma uh H comma K okay so if I want to change the value is H to hello so what is the position of H which is the 0 uh 0 1 2 3 4 that is the fourth position so fourth I want to which is nothing but a h i want to make as a hello hello and later when I just check the values is LS so yes I can see the value is hello so it’s very simple we can just do it right we can just up change the values because of it’s a mutable data type we can easily change the values which is defined inside that right so here H is changed so whatever index is defining for H so in the place of H is showing the hello but you can’t do it in a tle okay so uh we can also uh slice it many things like LS of four what is the values is a hello LS of U uh 2 which is the8 from the eight I want to Define with the last values so you can see the last value is this one but the same time if I want to print till a f only five only so it’s saying that it’s LS not s saying that 8 4.7 and hello right 8 4.7 and hello it reach till four only right so it will take two it will take three it will take four it will not reach till fifth values okay so we can also perform the operation like a concatenation repetion as well I have LS2 which the list is containing the 742 and when I just perform the ls plus LS2 so you’ll get the value is is combining the all right so adding the all the values is here so concatenation we can perform we can perform the repetion as well it’s repeting the values right we can perform the functions as well here all the functions in LS I want to know that what is the length LS so you’ll get the values is six there is a six elements are available so uh inside the list tle dictionary and uh set so that values we are calling the elements right this elements are available there is a six elements and uh when I just perform the operation of minan of Ls so you’ll get the error because these all are a number but the hello and KY is a in these both are a string so string cannot be compared uh to each other right less than greater than symbol is not supported between the string and integer so what we can do it here so we can just remove it or else you can just take the any other like other variables so here when I just check that what is the minimum values in LS2 so which is the two and LS uh LS2 what is the uh maximum values what is the maximum values so you will get the values is seven so we can find it out this way but again so when I just uh competiting with the tle and list for example you have a tle I already Define I think let me just use H T1 tle I want to change the values Pi I want to make is a he uh not a he I want to make as a uh hello okay so we can directly convert this tle into the list so when I just make the list of T1 so it will make the complete list but in a list we can perform the operation right so I can store in the temporary variable temp variable I store it you can store in any variable obviously temp I store it and I just pass the value is the position of high which is a 0 1 2 3 so when I I just pass the value is three you’ll get the answer is high and when I just perform the assigning the values perform the this assignment operation hello here and check the value syst temp you’ll get the hello later again you’ll perform the operation like a tle you’ll convert your list into the tle so make the values this okay so we have this option like uh the the list we have a list function tle we have a tle function so because of that we can change the values right so lots of method is also there that we discuss the um function so method is also there for example I have a list LS I want to add some values so ls. pend we can add some values here suppose 400 I want to add it I can add it here LS the 400 is added but at the same time I want to add in the position of the two or we can say just beside the eight so you have to find it out the position where you want to add it 0 1 2 3 in the position of three I want to add it so upend is always adding in the last but when I just use the ls do insert so this is also one of the function insert so you can what what you want to add you can just take the help from Jupiter notebook shift tab it will tell you where you want to add sorry first where you want to add index is where you want to add I want to add in the position of three what you want to add I want to add a th000 more so when I just run it and check the values LS th000 is adding in the position of three okay so the 4.7 is just transfer in the one position so that means it’s a mutable right the position is changing it here but when you’re talking about the list and a when you’re talking about the tle and a string that cannot change the positions okay because that is a immutable data type insert we can perform we can perform the uh deletion operation so here uh append and insert we mostly use for adding the values if I want to perform deletion operation so that remove operation here I want to remove hello we can directly remove it here and check the values as LS so value is removed so that value is removed from the uh from the values we I just passed the values here but I want to pass the index so ls. pop is there pop is taking the index I will pass the 0 1 2 3 4 5 I’ll pass the index is five the pass the index is five then it will be removed the uh K values take the ls that is remove the key and here you can perform the main Max right there is no any string values is available you can perform it Max obviously it’s a th000 so you can perform here okay so likewise we have lots of method is available remove is there pop is there okay so other method is there you can just check it in uh data type see sorting method is there if applying the ascending order desc ascending order right we can apply the clear clear will remove the all the values there you just run it the shift tab shift Tab run it you’ll understand everything it’s very simple way so much method is there again you don’t need to remember each and everything but you should know that that option is available in a list okay you don’t need to remember because a very small small thing is there okay so in a list there is one topic is very uh famous which is the list comprehension list comprehension so this list comprehension is mostly used for optimizing the code so whatever code you can write in a three four lines because of the list comprehension you can make it to one line and it’s very fast okay so suppose I want to display the 1 to 10 number it’s is very simple example 1 to 10 number so with the help of for loop I can display it here for I in range I can pass the values is here one to uh 11 so this is the rule of Python programming language is that is always starting with that particular values and if you’re not assigning that will be considered a zero and never end with last values okay because the range of 1 to 10 1 to 11 the 10 values should be printed so another programming language why it’s not like that because their indexing start from one and here indexing start from zero so when I print I so it will showing you the 1 to 10 number okay I want to perform the operation based on that I want to perform like U make a container of the uh uh you know the cube of all the values so when I just make it Cube because when you have the particular list and perform the uh I want to store in okay like that suppose if you have the particular list I want to make it all the values as a QBE format but in that time when you just directly perform the operation like um suppose I have a LS and when I just performing a q to the power of three it will show it saying that it’s not supported so in that situation what should I do so we can directly uh you know display all the values display all the values with a for loop it’s iterating all the values is one by one what is happening here it’s printing all the values one by one right so like here LS is this LS is this I want to perform the cube operation based on that so can you do that no it’s not possible when you just apply it here Cube it will giving you the error so likewise we have the one one of the requirement is that I want to make a list of the cube of 1 to 10 so here when I just make it cube of 1 to 10 so the displaying all the values I’ll make one particular uh uh list like LS three is a blank list and every time I’ll just append it append with LS3 sorry not LS3 I I will append it uh let make it a result okay here I’m just using the for Loop but after completing up this data type I have to go in the very details of conditional statement and loop so again if you have a confusion if you if you are okay with that then you can just listen to it otherwise you can just pick the video of uh the for loop as well I have already created not already created after that you’ll get the a for Loop okay soend why it’s not working okay I have to write ls. up okay so when I just check the ls you’ll get the LS3 LS3 not LS LS3 you’ll get the values 1 8 2 7 like this so but with the help of list comprehension you can easily do it just one line of code list comprehens some syntaxes like that so so you’ll apply the for Loop for variable in sequence so before just we have to write variable okay this is the sequ this is the uh syntax of the list comprehensive so what I’ll do I will just use use the for I in range which is a uh because range is a sequence range which is the 1 to 11 and before that whatever want to print you can I I’m just printing the only I so that showing the 1 to 10 number but I want to print the cube so it will showing the cube okay so as I said that in the ls I want to make it the cube directly I can’t do it but if I apply the list comprehension there for uh B in LS3 so before when I just pass the One V you will get the as ittis values because it’s a iterate the all the values is 1 by one right it’s iterate so you have a freedom to do anything with a V so I I’m applying it here the three you’ll get the values is completely the cube of all the values right so here LS3 previously was like this uh not a LS3 let’s perform the ls you can see here previously the ls was like this let apply the cube in all the values is one by one so we with the help of list comprehension we can perform this operation and in real life in the real application we are using this one so based on the list comprehensive I’ve just given some exercise you can just try it it’s very easy I also given the solution as well here you can just try to understand and do it okay so each and everything I just apply it here you can check out and just run it one by one you’ll understand everything here okay so I also created the 2D and a 3D list right so 2D and 3D list let me just explain a little bit 2D and 3D list 2D and 3D list okay so L if you have a list like this that means it’s a one day list okay it’s a one day onedimensional only if you have LS2 is like uh a particular list is there the list inside a list so list inside a list like 4 6 8 comma in the second list we have 3 5 7 like this so that means there is a two rows there’s two rows and three columns so that means it’s a 2 cross three Matrix is there right so when you have the same kind of with a three dimensional as well like uh LS3 so this is the particular one di uh it’s a 2d list I’ll make the 2D list in the same time I will also make it this 2D list in a one particular wrapper so let me change the values like a 15 16 18 13 15 and 17 and everything I’ll make one particular rapper then it’s become a 3D list right in a 3D list that we can say that it’s a this was the two rows three columns and I apply the one more D there right which is the two so 2 cross 2 cross 3 the value will be 2 cross 2 cross 3 it will be right we can if you want to iterate it the for Loop will really help you so it like if I want to slice the values LS uh LS3 this is the values I want to change in the position of 16 okay I want to change the position of 16 first you have to find it out so which uh uh Block it’s available this is the F this is the first block this is the second block so available the second block that means 0 1 so I find it out this block and again it’s a which block it’s uh because I want to change the value is 15 right again is a which block is a zero Block it’s a one block it’s one again what is the position it’s a one I want to change the values is a I change the values when I just take the ls three obviously LS3 get the values is high so this way we are performing the list operation and we can also iterate with the for Loop like for I in LS3 so it will be iterate the one list will be iterated here one bracket will be trated here like print I you will get the values in one list one list and the second list right so again I I want to iterate it so for G in I print G so when I just display so you’ll get the value is G iteration so again I can iterate it the uh with a G as well for K in J so then you’ll get the value is a okay so you’ll get the all the values so if you have a three dimension you have to apply the three for Loop to read each and every element okay so this is the list uh 3D 3D I also completed and list comprehens I also completed all the methods and function as well please check out this Jupiter notebook your all the doubts will be clear now we reach till fifth data type which is a dictionary so dictionary is a little bit different with tle and list what is the different different is that there is no any positive and negative indexing is there in the dictionary that means dictionary is unordered data type but it’s a mutable data type if it’s a mutable let me just write it first it’s a mutable and ordered data type sorry unordered data type unordered data type okay so there is no any positive indexing for a dictionary no any positive and negative indexing so dictionary is a defining like key value pair with curly brasses key colon values okay Curly brasses close so if I want to Define any dictionary so we can Define the dictionaries like this so suppose the variable is a D in a curly bres I’m defining the value is a colon 15 comma B colon 18 comma Zed colon 19 again I told you there is no any restriction for a data type if you started with any string is here and I want to put it here is a integer you can do it there is no restriction any data type as I said in a tle uh topic itself right so likewise the tle this is also one of the container but it’s contain the data as key value paay so likewise uh couple and list so we’ll also discuss about the operations their method and function so when you’re talking about the operations so we can also slice the values but with a key because there is no any 0o 1 1 2 3 there is no any positive and negative indexing is available right so we can’t directly access it suppose if I want to access the value is a 15 so I will write D of a okay we’ll write a d of a then you’ll get the value is a 15 if I accessing the value is a d of Z so you can get the value is 19 this way we are accessing the values but here you can’t perform the operation of the concatenation and multiplication means this star symbol you can’t perform it this plus symbol you can’t perform it so I’m going to remove it this part okay so likewise the uh list and uh uh tle we have also the method and function is available so let’s talking about method and function method and function so here this is not a sequence right which have a positive negative indexing and defining in the one particular uh uh brackets so we can’t use it mean and Maxes here but we can use a length we can use a type we have also own uh function which is a d CT D this function is also available so when you’re talking about the method so also have lots of method is available here like uh we have a do keys keys like if I have a diction if I have a variable is a d so d dot oh it’s not running okay wait wait a minute just me just open it again there is some web problem okay so let me just continue with this okay so we have a keys we have the values as as well okay we have pop okay we have the uh uh Keys values and items so the lots of method is available let’s do it practically let me jump on a practical implementation this one and uh we’ll also discuss about their application as well where we can implement the dictionary in the real life okay okay yeah let me just remove it these things all right let me create one file here all right I already created let me just take it experiment yeah again you have to follow this uh J notebook which is already there in a description you can just uh access this link via GitHub and just run it you’ll find it out all the information here right but I’ll just run it few um you know method and function here yeah the same dictionary a same Jupiter notebook let me create here dictionary I’ll create one dictionary is the D1 is equal to in a curly bres suppose like uh uh R and pass the value is 19 K I’ll pass the values 8. 8.9 I’ll pass the value is e colon hello I will also pass the value is the 5 colon 19 so there is no any restriction for the data type so like you started with the here the string so the key always should be a string it’s not like that you can pass anything here this this restriction is not there in anywhere in the python all right so D1 if I want to access any values I’ll pass the Valu as a k you’ll get the values as 8.9 and D1 I want to access the hello you’ll get the value is oh what’s a what’s the problem oh sorry I just accessing the value is hello with t that that is not possible I can access the T I can access with the T and get the value as a hello right this way it can be performed okay so when I just perform some operation methods here like a D1 do Keys you’ll get the all the keys here okay so r k T5 these are keys and what is the values E1 dot uh values you will get the values here again if you uh if you already aware about that you just the run this file which is I shared with you the dictionary run this file and run this video in a 2X or 1.5x you don’t require to listen each and everything right these are very basic basic things is there and just when you run you’ll understand so I’ll just give you the complete overview here okay so suppose if I want to add some values so there is no any upend option is there right there is no any upend I want to add some values how can I add it so the D1 pass any keys I’ll passing the keys here like uh U I’m assigning the values here 1,000 so when I just run it and get the values here D1 you’ll get the U in the last values okay so like way we can also assign the values so dictionary have some um you know applications so I’ll discuss about that again I will not each I will not write each and every line code so I’m taking the help from here suppose if I’m defining the values here okay here this is the list okay so question is why I’m creating a list here why not sorry this is the tle uh why I’m creating the tle here why not a list the reason behind that tle is very much secure secure in the sense we can’t change the values so most of the time we are using the tle as a key in a dictionary okay so it’s not like that you can’t create a list you can but most of the time we are using the tle because of the security purpose okay so T1 is a tle I want to make each and everything as a dictionary so you know that the Cur if you make the curly brasses like blank curly brasses so uh for example uh D2 blank cly brasses when you check the data type that you’ll also get the data type is a dictionary dict here is showing the dick not a complete name is a dictionary all right so this D1 I want to make as a uh dictionary uh dictionary key so D2 which is is nothing but a dictionary Dot from keys there is a one method from keys I’m passing the values is Keys which is a T1 so you’ll get the values is like this name as a none because I didn’t pass anything colors is a none like this so I’ll make I’ll store this values in the D3 even you can store in the same variable as well it’s on you right so let’s assign some values so D3 I’ll D3 this I want to assign some values in place of the name so I’m assigning the value name okay here you can assign directly any name like Rohit you can assign it or else you can create the completely a list here it’s on you like inside that you can Define one key in the values you can pass n number of n number of uh uh n number of uh uh you know sequences sequences in the sense in in one sequence you can create it like a list on top you can Define the multiple values what is my target here I want to create a complete table I think you you aware about Excel you you seen Excel somewhere right at least I’m expecting this this time okay so in a table suppose I have one name I have a a phone number and I have a um marks something like this so okay so the keys is this this values is always constant this is nothing but a column name so when you’re talking about the terms of the dictionary that will be calling this part as a keys and all the values will consider as a values okay so values of the particular key so likewise I want to Define some values suppose the name is name is uh name is like RIT okay uh Manoj John and their likewise their values is available so you can Define it so in a terms of dictionary when you’re talking about let me just remove unnecessary things yeah okay I want to create the complete table in the terms of the dictionary which will be the pair of uh list and dictionary okay so I have many names available I’ll I’ll just copy paste from uh this file so this one I’m just defining here okay I’m just defining all the values so name I Define the M marks I Define the 90 subject are defining the uh ma maths and college are defining the Mumbai University okay so when I just run it so you’ll get not info obviously uh you have a D3 so d 3 D3 D3 okay when you just check the D3 you’ll get the values like this at the same time if you have a multiple values you can also Define it m I’m defining with uh the other name is John so again if you have one values you don’t need a container container or a sequence we can also say if you have one values we don’t need a container if you have multiple values we need a container which can be either which can be either list or tle I’m just making here a list okay you can make a tle it’s not a problem okay and I’m just passing the values 56 and any values so maths let me pass the English okay let’s store it and uh Mumbai University and uh okay IIT Bombay all right so when I just run it so you’ll get the values is like this so here the m and John you’ll get the same time if I want to make it this as a table this is not look like a table but there is a library which you’ll learn maybe um after U uh 8 nine videos topic is the package and modules there is inbuilt packages available is the pandas import pandas okay I’m importing the pandage which is inbuild package and already installed in a Jupiter notebook and Anaconda if you’re walking with any other libraries then you will not get it par directly you have to install it import pandas and pandas do data frame so I’ll just make it completely a frame okay frame and when I just pass the values at D3 run these values you’ll get the complete table where the name College subject and marks is considered as a keys where the other thing considered as a values so when you just enter in the data science part currently you are just learning the Python programming language when you enter in the data science so everything you are dealing with a table and the table we are reading in the data frame format then you’ll start the operations so if you start the operation if you already aware about that yes this table is nothing but a collection of the keys and values right so mes John Mumbai University iitb this is nothing but a values where is the name and college that’s considered as a keys so let me just Define is the variable DF data frame and DF when I just pass the values do Keys you’ll get it the keys because this is nothing but that data frame is also nothing but a combination of list and dictionary so when I just pass the DF do values you’ll get a values as well see everything is a values there is no any Keys okay and some other method is also uh adding here like a DF do columns which is not there in the dictionary but this is the method of data frame you’ll get the values but you can see the keys is very much similar to the uh DF do columns but if you perform this operation dictionary do column you will not get it this is the uh method of a data frame don’t apply it I I’ll just remove it here okay when you enter in the data science then you’ll understand here just try to understand that a table is a made with a dictionary and list so again I request you to run all the files you don’t need to create anything if you want to do experiment do it but at least run this file this all the values is available like uh how we can get the keys how we can get the values items how we can perform pop clear operation how can get the values how can add some values how can update the values right so this is one one line of code you just run it you’ll understand easily each and everything like here creating some particular data frame is here so likewise uh list we have also the dictionary comprehension dictionary comprehension is the same as list comprehension the only thing is that the syntax will change the reason structure of the dictionary and a list both are a different let me first remove it this I’ll write the syntax and after that finish the dictionary comprehension all right okay dictionary comprehension okay dictionary comprehension when you’re talking about uh the syntax the syntax is very very same call brasses so again we have the key values pair suppose if you apply the operation is like for each in sequence so here you have to perform the key colon values is mandatory I want to print one to 10 number okay I want to print one to 10 number but at the same time I want to show the values as well suppose if you have a list you performed like for I in range which start from one end with 11 and before you just wrote the values is I and you’ll get the one to 10 number this is I you’ll get the one to 10 number but I want the cube of this all the number with the same numers should also be defined like one colon 1 2 colon 8 3 colon 27 4 colon 64 like yes so that was a list here I’ll make the curly Braes make sure that you have to use key values pair so I colon I’m just using IQ okay I Cube you’ll get the values is like this 1 28 327 464 5 6 like this until 1,000 okay so disc dictionary comprehension is the same as list comprehension while the structure is changed the set is a mutable mutable and unorder data type it’s a unordered data type okay so unordered meaning is that there is no any positive index there is no any negative index mutable means we can change the values easily in between we can delete it we can update it we can append it we can insert anywhere right but it’s unordered the meaning is that we can’t put any index so that we can access it so defining the set we are defining like this is the curly brasses even dictionary is also defining with the curly brasses but have a key value pair and here curly brasses and with the values directly 5 8 7.9 High K like this so this is a set so there is no any uh you know the same data type concept is there in the entire python again when I said the statement the many times again I’m saying there is no any data type okay so that don’t be confused anywhere so when you’re talking about the method and operations so I think set concept you already learn in a school days set the right so whatever you learn like a union section and difference and a difference update um you know this same thing same concept is also available in the programming language as well we talking about the operation so we can iterate it with the for Loop like other programming language for Loop concept we can apply it but we can’t access with any index even in the dictionary we had key so that we can access it here we don’t have any key if you want to take a values is one by one you have to apply the for Loop okay even the for Loop you can apply in any data type so when I will not write it here okay we’ll directly jump on a method and functions okay let me just write it here method and function again there is issues okay method and function so method is basically uh let’s first discuss is the union okay and the second one we have a intersection I’ll just write a small small there is not a capital intersection we have a difference okay we have a difference here is a point okay so set if you have defined with the S so s dot s dot s dot so let me just explain you a little bit about what is a union what is a intersection and what is a difference okay so suppose I have one set S1 which Define the value is a 5 7 8 and 10 I have a different set S2 which Define the value is uh uh 3 7 uh 11 and 9 okay so when you just created the complete set let me change the color complete set so there is one set where the values are available is a five 7 8 and 10 there is one set S1 and when you’re talking about the S2 so S2 is like this okay 7 is also available it’s a 3 11 and 9 when you’re talking about uh uh the um Union when you’re talking about the union so Union will take s One Union which Define the symbol like this in S2 and in a programming language we are writing the statement and s do Union with S2 okay so it’s there is no any symbol concept is available in a set programming set data type so in a set theory in a mathematics that symbol was there so the value will be the value will be uh 5 7 even 8 is also there 10 and three and 11 okay 11 I already defined okay okay here let me just write it at 10 11 and 9 okay so this will be the union so Union is basically like this we’ll take all the values we’ll take all the values better the same way we’ll take all the values here all right okay so when I talking about uh the next concept is a uh intersection so S1 intersection S2 so it will take only the common which is the common values here so here only one values is available which is a seven so intersection will be like this this part only seven okay only seven will consider as a intersection so this part will be a intersection and you know and if you’re taking entire things that will be the union if I’m talking about the difference there is also one more concept is a difference so difference uh let me just make blue color okay so if have a value is S1 and S2 here is a 7 uh 5 10 and 8 3 11 and 9 okay if I have a value is this is the S1 and this is the s 2 and if I value is S1 difference S2 if I Define like this so from the S1 I’m removing the S2 okay so it will take the value is one Le this only this part it means only the seven will remove okay because from the S1 I’m removing the S2 so 7 will remove so you will get the values is a five 10 18 so here is the very interesting concept is there he uh if I have a toule I have a list as a container so what is the need of a set so what is the special qualities there in a set concept the special Quality quality is there the set never take a duplicate values okay so I can also write somewhere let me just write it okay can I take it the next page it’s very difficult okay all right so let me go to the Practical implementation I’ll just write on a practically itself let me just remove all those things all okay all ranks yeah all right so we are learning the last concept is a set so set is always take a unique values I can write here okay so set first of all it’s a mutable let me write here itself okay it’s a mutable and unordered data type unordered data type and the second concept is that set always take always take unique values unique values there is is no any duplication you’ll find it out in the set concept but in a tle and list you can put a duplicate values as well that is a speciality of a set concept set data type if I Define the set is like the you know curly brasses 4 6.8 and K and nine so this is the set okay it always take a unique values here is sometime confused that I’m just using the curly brasses as a set curly brasses as a dictionary as well with the key value pair but how to define the blank set and blank dictionary it’s very very confusing right so suppose I have the uh a variable temp variable TMP variable so which is the curly bres so what will be the data type of temp it will be the set or dictionary so when you just check the data type okay when you just check the data type of attempt so you will get a dictionary it’s not a set but how to define the blank set so blank set is defined like S2 is equal to set set function bracket see this function we are using to define the blank set when you check the data type here S2 you’ll get a blank set okay we still here so let me just create one more a set here S3 is equal to 4 6 uh 9 okay 1 6 okay six let me just take it one more time 6 6 6 and uh uh 15 so when I just print the value is S3 you will get one this six is one time it’s not showing the multiple time here in case if you have a list if you have a tle it will showing the multiple time but the set will take always the unique values so I have S3 I have S1 I want to perform some operation here like uh Union intersection so S 3 dot Union if I pass the value with S1 you will you will get the values with the combination of S1 and S3 but the value will be always unique you can see here the 1 15 5 6 which is a combination of uh S3 and S1 here there is no any particular order is available because of the because of uh the order is not available so you can’t access it in case if you’re passing the S3 in square bracket of four you will get a error because there is no any POS positive and negative indexing is there but you can apply the for Loop here like for uh variable V in s so if you want to iterate it you can iterate you can iterate it but you can’t access any values with a square bracket like uh list tle string and a dictionary with a key that you can’t do it here okay so again uh you can perform the U difference as well we can perform the intersection as well like S1 do intersection intersection you’ll pass the values as S3 you will get the common values here which is S4 and 9 if I perform the S1 do difference okay difference so there is the two things difference and difference update so if I pass the values S3 so whatever values there in S3 which will be uh s which whatever value is there in S3 in S1 that will be removed so here the 6 and 8 you’ll get the values you can get here S1 and S3 so S1 and S3 here you can see the S1 which is a four and 9 which is a common that’s why it’s remove the four and 9 from the S1 with S3 and now I said that there is the two values the difference and difference update the difference when you apply so the value will be as it is it will giving you the result S1 is as it is S3 is as it is but if you apply the values S1 do difference update difference update and pass the value is s uh3 you will get the update updated values in S1 okay previously the value was not updated as I said that we can add some values as well we can update some values as well we can remove some values as well right so if I am talking about S3 so I want to add some values S3 do add and pass the value is suppose 56 so you can add it okay because it’s a mutable data type if I want to remove anything as three. remove I can easily remove it like nine you can remove it if I want to uh update I already discuss there is lots of things is there intersection Union difference okay so you can perform it so again you have to run this J notebook where is the last section yes last section here you will get the two difference set and performance all the operation here the one by one you will easily understand all right so you can see you’ll find it out each and everything thing yes uh the one thing I forgot to discuss with you the mean and Max and Len the same concept we can also apply it here so mean Max you’ll find it out the minimum values you can find it out the maximum values like S 3 mean of uh what is the minimum value of S3 you get one what is the maximum values of S3 you’ll get uh S3 but again don’t forget to run that jaal notebook okay that give you the more clear idea as compared to this video right video just giving you the complete overview but the details if you want to go the jiter notebook is important for you so before going to the next topic like uh uh looping concept first you have to understand the entire data type concept from the Jupiter notebook this is the set so there is one more application one application is there in a set which is the uh set comprehension likewise the dictionary comprehension we had we had a uh list comprehension so set comprehension is also there comprehension okay set comprehension so set comprehension the syntax will be the same like the and list so whatever for we have to use for that particular variable in sequence sequence can be any range any uh other sequence like a list or tle or or list or tle mainly so here just you have to write variable and curly bres is mandatory for a set okay so let me just create it I want to print just one to uh uh uh one to 10 number one to 10 number let me just print it here for I in range I’ll pass the values of 1 comma 11 is same like a list and dictionary comprehension only the syntax is little bit Chang this because of data type is change when I just run it 1 to 10 number in case in case if you you have a list okay instead of this uh set I printed the values is instead of the I I I’m just want to print high so the high will print 10 times you can see here high is printed the 10 times but if you apply the same concept for a set you will get only the one times it will be generate 10 times but the accept only the one times go here and run it so you’ll get only one times that is the speciality of a set which is always take the unique values never take any duplicates okay the last concept of the set is that Frozen set the Frozen set is basically it’s not a new thing here it’s we can say let me just remove H we can say it’s a it’s a immutable set so whatever we we had a set concept that was a mutable so here we have immutable set immutable set but again if it because of the set it will be unordered immutable set and that is the unordered okay it’s a immutable set that I was talking about Frozen set okay that concept is a frozen set so let me just discuss it little bit and after that uh we’ll stop this video because the Frozen s concept is already there in the Jupiter notebook okay the heading is frozen set Frozen set which is nothing but immutable set and unordered okay it’s immutable set and unordered so suppose I have one particular set which is the S4 and I Define the values like this okay there is so many duplicates is also there if I print the S4 you will get the only unique values so this is the set which is a mutable but uh if I want to make S5 as a frozen set Frozen Frozen set yeah Frozen set I’ll pass the S4 and run this values so S5 is a frozen set S4 is a normal set let me also Define one more set it here so 5 6 2 1 yeah that is enough okay so can we perform the operation in between the Frozen set and set answer is yes so only thing is that it’s immutable so if I want to add anything in S5 which is a frozen set do add and pass the values is anything like uh 1,000 that will showing you the error because Frozen set has no any attribute of addition but because of this set we have we can perform the operation of like a union intersection difference this values we can easily perform so like if I want to perform the difference operation here S5 do difference you can see the common values is a five and six so S5 difference with S6 which is the set normal set which is the mutable set we can say and S5 is the immutable set when you perform the operation you will get a Frozen set values okay but but if you do it Ulta if you do it the opposite one S6 dot difference and pass the values s five then you’ll get a set because I perform the operation the difference on S6 okay S5 on S6 so S5 is nothing but a frozen set S6 is a set that’s why it’s perform like this again you can you just run it it a small thing is here you will get the values finally we completed all the data types numeric string tle list and D dictionary and set but after completing of all the data type and we we discuss in the very details way but we have a confusion sometimes which one is a mutable which one is immutable which one is ordered which one is unordered because so many things is there where we can add it where we can remove it so in this video we will focus on that at the complete mind map of all the data type so that if you’re going for interview you just have to refer this slide you can easily understand all the data type in the same time okay so let’s start it so numeric data type we have a mainly three main function uh first we’ll start start with a function so we have a int okay we have a float we have a complex this three function and string we have a St Str function tle we have a tle function list we have a list function dictionary we have a dict function set we have a set function this all the data this all the function is available for all the data type all right when you talking about how we are defining so integer we are defining like a 5 7 like this the float we are defining like 8.9 with some decimal point complex we are defining like a 7 + 8 G okay string we are defining always with the if if you start with the single quotes always end with the single quotes if you start with the double quotes end with the double quotes tle we are defining with e is equal to round bracket 5 8.9 like K anything you can Define it there is no any common data type concept is there in the entire Python programming language so list we are defining like L is equal to square braet 5 8 7 9 7.9 square bracket we are using dictionary we are using the key value pair like a d is equal to key values okay key values pair and when you talking how we are defining the values D is equal to like 5 col 8 okay 7 col 9 for a set we don’t have a space so I’ll just change the color okay the set we are defining the value is s is equal to curly bres 58 directly you can pass the values this way we are defining the all the data type okay so when you’re talking about the mutability and immutability okay mutability and immutability which one is a mutable and which one is a immutable right so the numeric data type is a immutable string data type is a immutable tle data type is a immutable list is a mutable dictionary is a mutable set is a mutable okay see it is a mutable and the next one is a ordered and unordered so let me just write here ordered and unordered okay ordered which one is ordered which one is unordered so numeric data type there is no any concept of ordered and unordered likewise the uh numeric uh for mutability as well to numeric there is no any meaning of mutab and immutability because it’s not a collection anything like string is a collection of some letters or El uh okay so if you have only one letter so at least it will be defined the index is a zero right so so string tle have a meaning is that it’s a mutable and immutable ordered and unordered so likewise in a numeric we don’t need any discussion for numeric immutable and mutable string is a ordered okay couple is a ordered list is a ordered dictionary is unordered set is unordered clear set and dictionary is unordered whereas a tle list and dictionary is a ordered all right so if you want to add anything again so dictionary uh uh sorry numeric there is no any meaning of that we can add it or we can’t add it likewise the string as well so here tle dictionary tple list tle list dictionary and set this will be considered as a container because it contains some values right so like the tole we are containing the values is a round bracket list is a square bracket dictionary is a key value pair set is also containing the values whereas where is tole let me again make it different color tole list and set it’s called as a sequence okay why it’s called as a sequence because we are directly pass the values so only dictionary we can’t as a sequence because it’s a key values pair if you just iterate the values you will get a only key if you’re not passing the dot items you’ll get only keys so that’s why we are not considering as a uh sequence but dictionary is a container so this is the way where we can remember it if that is not more important like which one is a container which one is not container because that is not a question question is that which one is mutable because giving you the information that we can’t change the values it’s a immutable if you have a mutable that we can change the values that is giving the information right so the container sequence is just tell you that we can we can just uh you know wrap up the multiple values at the same time if you’re talking about the add the values so no we can’t add any values okay I’ll pass I’ll write the no we can’t add any values there because it’s a immutable but in a list if we want to add anything so we have a multiple option is available like uh append okay we have insert okay in a dictionary there is no any direct concept is available and and and we have also the extend option is there extend okay when you’re talking about the dictionary we can’t directly add anything but like this b square bracket key and pass the values is values we can add it right there is no any direct method is avable label but we can do it and uh set yes we have uh s do add method is available this method we can add the values but in a tle we can’t add anything the last thing is the delete so there is no any meaning of uh the deletion of in numeric and string because these are not a container but if when you’re talking about the tle so tle no we can’t delete anything because of it’s immutability we can’t delete anything but in a list we have a lots of option is available we have a clear option okay let me just change the color okay we have a clear option we have a uh remove option we have a pop option okay this option is available in a list and in a dictionary we have a pop option is is available okay and uh in a set we have also the pop option we have also the remove option that is a remove and we have a discard option as well okay but the important is that yes in a list dictionary and a set we can delete anything we can add anything and uh uh in a tle we can’t delete anything we can’t add anything okay so this is the complete mind map where we can just remember it and we can perform the operation this this data type operation in any applications let’s understand the conditional statement the conditional statement there is a three keyword we are using the first one is if second one is L if third one is else okay before starting the Practical implementation first we’ll understand the flow chart of uh conditional statement in a diamond shape we are always using a condition so condition is always start with if that can be two scenario that can be true and false if the condition is true then giving the statement okay giving the statement and pro uh the block will terminate after giving the statement it will not checking any other block it directly terminate okay here I’m just writing here and but if your condition is false I want to give a one more condition uh to check that time we are using L if we are not using IF in case if you’re using if that will be the separate block L if is also the condition then it can also be the same same scenario can be true can be false if it’s true then giving the statement okay giving the statement and the same thing after giving the statement program will terminate and after the uh Al if condition I want to give one more condition then again you have to use the AL if but in case if you don’t want to give any other condition you just want to stop it you can directly top this block but we always doing this practice that uh the the last one we always using else so else is not a block else is just giving the statement in case any block is not uh you know if any if any block is not passed so here I’m just using else else is just giving the statement if any block is not satisfied then else block will run and then directly terminate after the else block you can’t write any other condition in case if you’re writing that will be considered the separate block the separate section that is not a relation of the particular block so whatever we discuss that is one block is mentioned there this is complete one block like if the one condition is satisfi then giving the statement not satisfi then giving the any other state any other condition to check that the condition is satisfied or not let’s try to understand in the Practical scenario how exactly is working and then we’ll also enter the real life scenario as well let’s say for example I have a three variable a is = 5 b is = 8 C is = 19 this three variable is there and the condition is always start with if we are writing if take a space and write it down a is greater than b okay that uh your condition after the colon it automatically taking the four space that we are calling indentation and we consider as a block if I write the statement as a print hello and when you just run it and it will be check the condition is satisfied or not so a is greater than b means 5 is greater than 8 is it true or false so obviously is a false that time is not giving any answer but if the condition is satisfied like a is really less than B that means five is really less than eight then it’s giving the answer is hello okay but here I put only one condition in case if you have a multiple condition is there if a is greater than b okay if a is greater than B that time will print normally hello and and uh when you click enter after this print statement it’s automatically the same block this is the same block but I want to write one more condition so obviously I have to go back and write one more condition which is the L if L if C is greater than b colon let’s write some statement statement is hey and if I want to one more uh uh if I want one more condition I’ll write it the L if is a is greater than C there is a three condition I mentioned there and simultaneously you can just write a many condition is here okay hello hey hi and after that we always using the ls this is the good practice in case if you’re not using it will not show you any error so likewise here it’s not showing any error so same wise here it will not show any error if you’re not using else just write down here else colon and your statement print hello uh just buy else is always execute if any block is not executed previously if any block is not executed that time is working so python is always working the top to bottom okay it always check that line number one is um um satisfied or not satisfied a is greater than b the meaning is that a is greater than b B that is false Okay C is greater than b which is true a is greater than C which is also false and else is always is a default one in case previous one is not executed that time it will run okay so here the block number two here the third one line number three is execute it when you run it it giving the answer is he but what happened is all the condition is satisfied all the condition is true like a is greater than b okay A a is less than b uh and C is greater than b and uh a is also less than C that all the condition is satisfied so what will be the answer the answer will be the first one because according to the rules here which we discussed if the first condition is satisfied is giving the statement and terminate the Block it’s not entering the next block because l l if will check if the first condition is dissatisfied right if the first condition is satisfied is giving the statement and terminate the block but here the L if is after the false of the first condition so here it giving the answer is hello one day again the last one if no any condition is satisfied that time the buy will execute which is the default one if nothing is there nothing no any condition is satisfied like uh I’ll just change it here uh greater than less than greater than so all the condition is false there is no any true condition and uh so when you just run it it giving the answer is by because nothing is satisfied here this is the way of conditional statement we are using but again do you think that we are using this kind of conditional statement in the real life answer is no we are not using this kind of conditional statement this is the way where we are learning we are starting the conditional statement to connect with the real life let’s take one example and we’ll understand it how exactly the conditional statement and other things like a loop is working the example which I selected that logging with username and password login with user name name and password okay this is the real life scenario where we’ll implement the conditional statement let’s say for example one one different example and obviously the practically we will use with the username and password login if you’re going for applying in a passport in a passport office there is a first condition you should be eligible for 18 year old okay if you are 18 year old the first condition if you you satisfied then it will be check second condition do you have a pan card do you have a AAR card do you have any other government documents it’s like that like it is like condition inside a condition right so here in the real life we always using condition inside a condition that scenario we are calling nested conditional statement the statement which we are using calling nested conditional statement nested conditional statement okay as we discussed in the last slide so where we decided that if and L if is using for a condition where is the else is giving only the statement okay else is not giving any kind of condition only the if and L if given the condition let’s understand the flow of the Ned conditional statement the flow is always start like this if you have a condition condition one okay so obviously the condition is always start with if that can be true scenario can be true can be false okay if the uh condition is false that time if you want any other condition we always using Al if okay if you Al if that can be true that can be false that we understand in the last uh slide but if the condition is true and I want to give one more condition okay that I can write here condition two I want to use one more condition what will be the keyword is it be a if or if the answer is if okay so previous slide what we had we had is like if the condition is satisfied given the statement and not satisfied that time Al if or else right so there was no any confusion Al if is always coming from the false but if I want to give one more uh condition that time which keyword we have to use the keyword which you are using it here if if the condition is coming from if the condition uh as I said that Al if and uh if I have right Al if and if I have so both are giving the condition right both are giving the condition but if the condition is coming from the true part and if the condition is coming from the false part so we are using accordingly if is coming from the true then we are using if the condition is coming from the false we are using Al if hope this one is clear so condition is always the two scenario the true and false okay if the condition is true and again if you want to give one more condition condition number three so again we have to use if but let me just stop it here if you want you can just increase it accordingly I’ll give the statement okay I give the statement and give the statement if the statement is given OB obviously the program will terminate I’ll make the termination is here end program is terminate in the end it will be check in other block if you have okay so here given the state condition is uh the statement is uh ended again if it’s a false I want to give any condition so what will be the keyword condition number three what will be the keyword the key keyword will be Al if keyword will be Al if right why the AL if because is coming from false part so if its condition can be two possibilities can be true can be false if it’s true and here here if I want to give any other condition then what will be the uh keyword condition number four what will be the keyword keyword will be if because it’s coming from the true part okay and and then let’s give the statement I I don’t have much space so I’ll just close it here okay okay and then program will terminate and after the false if the condition is a false it here don’t worry we’ll understand with the Practical scenario and that is a real life example so you can easily understand okay so giving the false if the false and if you want to give the condition L if you can use it or else I am just using here the else with statement okay else is not giving any other Condition it’s just stop the block the same time here this El if I after the El if I want to give the condition I want to give the condition let’s condition number five okay condition number five then it will be start with if not Al if why because the uh uh the condition is coming from the true part okay so it’s giving the statement after giving the statement program will terminate after the statement program is always terminate it not take any other section okay and here is a false was there here is a true was there after the false it’s on you you you can pass any else block you can otherwise you can D directly terminate the block here I am also terminating the block without giving any else part let’s make it a else part it here okay else part and terminate the block so this one looks little bit clumsy but uh it’s very easy when you start doing the practical and uh when you start doing any practice okay uh let me just summarize it what exactly the conditional statement is working with Nate conditional statement see we have a if we have a l if and we have a else okay if and L if is giving the condition these both are giving the condition and this is giving the statement is not giving any condition and this one this condition is always start in it start always using the if always if we never start with L if and if the condition is coming from the true part we are using if if the condition is coming from the false part we are using Al if very simple let’s try to do with the Practical scenario okay so to understand the Practical scenario with the Ned conditional statement again uh this is I have to write one more heading uh which is nested conditional statement nested condition okay nested condition don’t worry you’ll find it out this uh this Jupiter notebook below the link in this video okay so suppose I have one username which is very simple just like um a hurry and the password which is defined it here currently we are not connecting with any database in the future we definitely will do that I’ll continue with this this example in a very broad level hurry 1 23 it’s very this is the password is very simple hurry 123 I want to perform the operation condition if the first one I have to take a user so uh user input user input I I take the example is input please enter your username okay the same time the password uh password input PS WD I can write it here it’s just a variable input please enter your password okay the condition we can just perform it here if your user input is match with double is equal to you are comparing you match with user if it’s match with you can just writing it this currently I’m just checking that my program is performing well or not user name is correct so when I just run it it’s uh asking that will please enter your username username I’m just writing the hurry and is asking the password is hurry 1 2 3 so the username is correct that means whatever I wrote the program that is perfectly fine okay so when I can say that my uh when I can say that uh you log in it successfully if your username and a password is correct right so if your username if your username uh is match with hurry and if your password WD input is match with password okay this password and his input is matched with password that time I can say that print login successful logging successful okay all right so let’s run it again and check that so here you can say the if inside if you perform it right if you have a multiple username multiple password that time you can just perform accordingly L if can also be performed I I’ll show you so when I just run it your intro username which is the hurry password is uh hurry 123 okay so logging successful but again when I just run it there is one issues if my username is incorrect still is asking that what is your password if my username is Inc correct it don’t need to ask the password right so if I’m my password is a correct so it’s very difficult to know that which one is wrong so it’s not showing any other any information you can see here it’s not giving any other information so this is wrong we have to use else so that we can tell to the user hey your password is wrong your user is not wrong the first issues you have to solve it here is that it should not be asked the password until your username is correct okay my username is correct the time it’s ask the password right if I run it my username is incorrect it not ask the password that I perform well but if the username is incorrect I have to give the proper answer hey my username is incorrect so the line number three If it’s incorrect I have to use else block for that else I have to write there my usern name is incorrect okay my username is incorrect not my username username is incorrect that’s it username is incorrect some explanatory symbol okay username is incorrect right so if I’m writing anything any uh not proper username then it’s saying that username is incorrect but again if my username is correct like hurry and it’s asking that enter your password so if my password is incorrect that’s not giving the proper information I have to write something here for the line number five if block else print the user uh print the uh password is incorrect okay password is incorrect so that we can know that which which is my incorrect uh you know section is there if I’m writing the hurry password is incorrect the password is incorrect is mentioned there let’s run it again hurry already 1 2 three now properly loging logging successful and in the real life scenario if you have any proper software so after the logging successful you can start is any other function any other block to uh different application you can start from here right from this uh username and password login in case if you have a multiple username multiple password then what will perform so I can also perform like I have a multiple username I’ll copy it I’ll not do anything with this blog multiple username that uh another username is a kind of uh John John 123 right so here I will use because the first condition is not satisfy I want to check one more condition that will be the L if L if user input is uh if user input is match with um the previously it’s checking with the user So currently I’m checking with John that was uh hurry and that was uh Harry 123 right previously I defined a different variable but I I can write it out directly here here John if my um user input is a match with John okay the time I will ask the password again the same thing I’ll perform I’ll ask the password what is your your password if my password is also match with here I will use if not Al if go back again you can check it if your condition is coming from the two the time we have to use if right here if the condition is coming here L if if the condition is coming from the true we have to use f okay so you can use it here just give me a minute yes sorry for that let’s continue I will use the condition here if my password p a s WD input is match with is match with John 1 2 3 if match with the John 1 12 3 the time I can write the statement print um logging successful okay Lo logging successful that can that time I can also write it so here you can say I use the if inside if I use the AL if inside the if right I also use the else as well so username is incorrect like if not match with not match with John the time is giving the username is incorrect but in case if your password is incorrect and here password is incorrect I didn’t write anything let me just write else password is incorrect okay when you just run it is asking that your enter your username I’m writing the John okay it will also accept the hurry as well and here I am writing the hurry 123 so that’s saying that password is incorrect because it’s already enter in this block and is checking this kind of password okay it cannot be checked the previous one let’s run it again hurry H 1 12 3 is giving the loging successful John John 123 is logging successful it’s perfect L fine so hope you understand the scenario and when you’re talking about the future persp future perspective of this login with the username and password the simple thing is that what can be the uh future scenario the first thing is that if you have the thousand of user thousand of password then how we will maintain it so you can use the dictionary to maintain it in a temporary basis and that permanent basis you can use the database second example is that if my username and password is incorrect so the block is like down block is uh stopped directly like a password is incorrect stopped but it should be ask the password one more time right so the time we are using the loop so the next con concept which you are using which is a loop and where we’ll discuss that how the loop we can perform with the user and login pass uh this example there is two types of loop is available let me back two types of loop is available while loop and for Loop okay before going to the Practical implementation we’ll first discuss about the flow chart so the every Loop there is a condition and after that we are entering the uh block right the condition is always showing in a diamond shape and statement is a rectangle shape so here the condition is not defining with if the condition is defining with a while if you have a condition and uh condition and I’ll Define it a while okay so that can be two scenario that can be uh true that can be false here I’m writing the false uh because of the reason I I’ll show you because it will be very difficult to define the structure that’s why the false I’ll write in here can be true can be false if the condition is a false that time is also giving the statement okay the time is also giving the statement and you can also write one more condition like with while we can also write a condition with if anything you can write it but if you write the condition with a while let me write properly while if you write the condition with while then if the condition is true the giving the statement giving the statement after the giving the statement back to the loop again it’s never terminate the difference between the conditional statement and loop is that Loop is end Loop is continuous uh running whereas the conditional statement is ending okay so the loop is end when the condition become a false the one only one way to condition uh there is only one way to stop the loop if that condition become false okay this is the way our Loop is working so when you’re talking about a nested Loop so nested Loop is also the same but before going to the nested Loop let’s first understand some practical scenario the last video we discussed uh uh this example I’ll continue with the same example before going to this um you know real life example I’ll give you some small uh you know exercise suppose a is equal to 5 is is equal to 7 and B is equal to 9 is there okay and we wrote uh I just want to print 1 to 10 number not to this number with this number I want to print one to 10 number so I want to start with one okay is equal to 1 so while there is a condition while there is a condition condition condition is a should be less than r equal to 10 so one is really less than r equal to 10 a while is working kind of condition with a loop right condition with a loop and and write the statement is uh High okay so the number a is equal to 1 which is true which is giving the true section to uh true statement here and it will enter inside a loop and 1 a is always one so when you just run it here when you run it here it will be run in uh like a infinite Loop because a is always one and 1 is always less than or equal to 10 so it enter in the infinite Loop so you can see here your process is still running so it will never stop so I have to forcefully stop it here and then I’ll tell you where how the proc process will working okay I’ll make the increment I’ll make the increment here a is equal to a + 1 a is equal to a + 1 so what will be happen he starting the a is equal to 1 and also print the a as well a is equal to 1 the next time is become a equal to a + 1 so a + 1 is become a two two is assigning to the a it not ending the loop it will running again and again again and again and until the condition become a false here the condition become false like if the number become 11 which is not less than or equal to 10 then the program will stop when you run it 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 8 10 okay program will stop so you can just write down here uh program finished finished okay program finished so when this blog will end then program will finished okay and this we are using so as I said that this is the why while is working as a condition with a loop if it’s a condition so I can use the default statement like else so yes I can also use LS it here and instead of writing here I will use it here so when the condition will be running it will be run that statement and when the condition become a false the for this condition become false I can use it here okay so like this this one is working so when you’re talking about the nested Loop how how the nested Loop is working so here I will just focus on the while loop okay for Loop we’ll discuss later I’ll focus on the while loop here so nested Loop how it exactly is working I’ll just connect with the real life scenario as well let’s first understand with the uh flowchart okay let me remove yeah so I have a loop I have first condition condition with the while okay that can be true scenario can be false can be true okay if it if it’s false so it’s on you you can uh write uh statement without else with else as as well so I’m just writing here with else else statement again State else okay else is always giving the statement No any condition so the condition number one and if the condition become true I want to give a statement you can give the statement okay according to the rules it will be back and repeat it again and again and this will be end but I don’t want to uh repeat it only this block I want to add one more condition is here so what I will do I will write one more condition condition two that again it will be used with while okay and that can be two scenario like uh the previous one can be true can be false false okay if it’s a true then it will be repeat the block it will be repeat the block I’ll give the statement okay I’ll give the statement after giving the statement it will be jump it here but again just think about it if here the condition become false I give the statement the program will terminate the answer is no program will not directly terminate here when you just directly terminate if you’re writing that means it’s a false this is not like that it will program terminate if you have a loop inside a loop this one is Loop inside a loop we can say nested Loop we are working right The Heading name is listed Loop if the program uh the second Loop because it’s coming from here after giving the statement here if the block if the uh condition is a false given the statement after giving the statement it will be back it will be back it will be back to the loop if the first one is also false then it’s okay if the first one is also false then given the statement then ter end the block this is the way our nested Loop is working okay so to understand the scenario I’ll give you one example and with that example we’ll understand okay I want to print 1 12 100 number uh I want to okay I want to print a 1 to 100 number 1 to 100 number okay in the 100 number starting 1 to uh 20 I’ll print hello and 20 to 40 I will print a high and then 40 to uh 70 again I’ll print hello okay 70 to uh 72 uh 72 100 again I want to print here okay I want to print uh let me also put one more condition 70 to 90 print hey again 90 to 100 I want to print hello again you can see I want to print hello three times one time two time and three time so in between high and ha is also there so how can we perform with a nest uh you know nested Loop is here in this example let’s try to understand okay so instead of writing the loop I can write it here uh while and for but I’m working with the while okay I’m working with the while all right I want to print one to 100 number let’s print one is is equal to 1 and uh while a is less than Ral to 100 and just print the hello first okay hello and with that number a all right and uh let’s increment it is very very important otherwise it will be enter in the infinite Loop let’s run so 1 1200 it printing in the hello but my question was that in a 20 to 40 I want to print high okay and 70 to 90 again I want to print he let’s first focus on this 20 to 40 hi and again hello 20 to 40 so I will enter inside the loop again while a is greater than 20 and a is less than or equal to 40 okay less than or equal to 40 if it satisfy the time I print high and with increment a is equal to a + 1 so what will be happen so it’s printing 1 to 100 number 1 2 3 4 5 6 100 right but in between if the this block is satisfied like 21 so again 21 let’s print a as well 21 High 21 22 High 23 high like this this program will run repeatedly when the number become the 41 it back to the again Loop is this satisfied or not yes it satisfied that means the 41 is also less than or equal to 100 then again hello will print when hello will print run the block like this 21 to 40 like this okay and again hello will back because because I want to print the 40 to 70 hello again so I will not write the separate program for hello okay because previous block it already running the hello the same thing I have another condition which is for 70 to 90 he so I’ll write a while a is greater than 70 and a is less than or equal to 90 I’ll print the value is a a again you have to a is equal to a + 1 you run it so high which is start from 21 to 40 again 71 to 90 again hello this is the way our Loop is working okay this is the way our Loop is working this is the process so hope you understand let’s try to understand how can how can we Implement with our real life scenario which I promised in the last video Yeah copy just paste it here I want to incrementally running this program okay incrementally running this program so let me just remove one block let’s make hurry only okay so what happen if my username is incorrect it show knowing that username is incorrect but it should be giving the option for to pass username one more time this is not showing it here so what I can do I can apply the loop is here okay I will ask the usern name in a loop while I’ll make it true directly I’ll make it true when I just make it true yes I’ll make it through it here when I make it through so it will be uh you know in on a looping format so it will ask the question username username is hurry which is incorrectly I’m passing it here so it’s saying that username is incorrect okay when I just pass hurry again so it’s asking the password password is incorrect if I’m passing here it’s saying that password is incorrect and again is asking the username let’s pass the hurry hurry 1 123 proper password logging successful after logging successful it should not ask anything so what is a good practice of writing the code writing code is that make a small code to run it and check that where is the mistake and Sol it one by one okay so if the my loging successfully so make sure that you have to break the loop okay if here I’m forcefully breaking the loop because I’m not performing any numbers is here so that after some time the number become a false it will never be false so that’s why I’m breaking forcefully okay so again username wrong is asking the username is incorrect so hurry I will write hurry 1 2 3 so logging successfully into breaking the loop okay so here I want to perform the nested while loop because you can see when just run it hurry uh wrong use uh yeah hurry and password is wrong the time it should be ask only password but it’s asking that password is wrong and asking the username one more time it’s not make sense so what I can write it here hurry hurry 1 2 3 let me just close it I will perform the condition that uh this password uh password condition separately while true and everything I’ll put inside a loop so what will be happen if my username is correct if my username is correct it will be enter in the second Loop okay entering the second Loop and if password is wrong it’s not going back directly it will be repeating only the password part let’s run it oh sorry let’s run it my username is hurry password is wrong it’s asking the password only okay if my password is correct hurry 1 2 3 so what will be happen logging successful is a break the loop but it’s breaking this Loop only but the problem is not breaking the first Loop that’s why is asking the username you can see it’s breaking this Loop there is a two while so obviously there is will be the two break okay so after the break I have to break one more time is here okay in this condition here as well if my blogging successful I have to break two times inv Violet okay sorry here I can’t use it because uh this will be here why I think so yeah why I can’t use it because it will be the same block password is incorrect okay wait a minute I make it wrong this is for inside because it it was impacting to this else that’s why I was not able to use it so username is hurry password is incorrect is asking that you ENT enter your password only I’ll write the password is here hurry 1 2 3 it’s showing that login successfully properly Stop the Loop so I am giving you one uh task for you so you have to apply the numbering the the task is that I will explain in after two three videos okay I’ll explain after two three videos not a two three videos after the uh loop ending so the task is that apply oh not here sorry I it code hurry hurry 1 2 3 the task is very simple you have to apply the number part apply number in apply number apply count if username and password is failed in three times okay if the username and password is failed in three times so you have to stop the uh apply the count block account block if the username password is a failed in a three times so your your process should be blocked for some particular duration just imagine that if you’re applying the username and password in ATM machine it’s blocking for some particular duration like 24 hours so you here you have to block for just 20 seconds 30 second right so I’ll explain you after two three uh after completing of the for Loop so whatever flow chart is showing it here for while loop that is also applicable for for loop as well the syntax of the for Loop is a little bit different uh when you compare with the while loop so basically how exactly the for Loop is working so for Loop is working like for this is the Syntax for any variable you can write it and uh that sequence in sequence and the code whatever um block you are writing so I’m just writing here the block so you can whatever uh you know block or any statement you want to write you can so here the sequence can be anything sequence can be your range sequence can be your list sequence can be your tle sequence can be your set right anything so basically the for Loop is used for the iterating of the process if anything is available in a uh you know in any container if you want to iterate it if you want to display the one by one we are using the for so let’s try to understand the Practical implementation so yeah for Loop suppose I have a sequence sequence is uh scq limes right scq is equal to range so range is one of the function which provided the sequence from one number to another number with interval so if I’m passing the range is like 1 till 15 yeah 11 so python have a rules that it never end with last values it end always before one so if I’m I’m writing the 1 to 11 that means it’s a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 it never goes till 11 okay so I’ll just use a for any variable I’m writing the v in sequence so when I just print that variable so it will be printing the one by one it’s printing like 1 2 3 4 till 10 okay so that sequence can be anything so simply uh the range is very famous so let me first discuss about the range and after that I’ll also discuss other sequence as well so like here I want to print 1 to 10 let me again print and then we’ll discuss the details for I in range I can be it’s one of the variable 11 print I okay so one to 10 number here if I want to print 10 to 15 it will be going like start from 10 and end with 60 then it will print a 10 to 50 okay because it’s never end with the last values so after this comma it always the value is one because always incrementing with one okay but in case if you want to increment with the two like 10 12 14 16 like this let me write the 26 okay 1 to 26 so I want to increment with y two so 10 12 it will be going like this right so this is the incremental way so if someone is saying that just print 10 to one so the process will be also the the same like for I in range 10 we will start with a 10 end with one when you just print it you will not get any values because after 10 it’s become 11 but you put the ending value is one so I’ll pass it here so it will not print anything so you have to decrement the value is a minus one so it will start from 10 and reach till min-2 not a uh it will reach to two not a one because the python is never end with the last values okay so you can’t pass any decimal point is here in increment and decrement always the integer values in case if you pass 0 1.4 will showing you the error so float object cannot be interpreted as an iner always try to understand the error statement it give the lots of information okay I’m just removing it here 10 to 1 10 to2 is printed as I said the other sequence is also acceptable here uh for examp example I have a sequence is a is equal to our statement is India India so if I’m just printing the uh this uh statement India in a for Loop for uh for V in a V is nothing but a one uh variable a just nothing but India so when I print V it will be showing the value I and d i a The separately okay because it’s it’s passing as a sequence and it open it here the same thing is applicable for any list as well so in the sense if you have a uh any list is available where five whatever values is available inside that that can be string as well okay and when you just apply the for for v in LS and print the value as uh V and it will be showing the value is the sequence order for example I want to perform the value as U um 1 to 10 number with the square up of each number like I have a list okay LS is equal to IM me just write a list which have the range of one to 11 so it will be showing like this okay this is the list but I I don’t want to list like this I want to list of the square of each values square of one is one square of two is 4 square of 3 is a 9 square of 4 is a 16 like this so let me store the value is any variable is a LS so when you directly applying the ls is a square of two it will be showing the error because that operator is not supporting so how can we do like this so that time the for Loop is really help us so we can like for each any variable each is one of the variable each in LS and when you just print each showing the values like 1 to 10 number but I want the square of each values so you can just perform because these are the one by one number the square of each values when I just run it is going to square but again the square of this values I don’t want the separately I want in the proper list like the original format so it will be showing like this the that time we can use the comprehension concept we can use the comprehension concept here I’m just using least comprehension list comprehension concept basically list comprehension is nothing but applying the loop in a list okay so whatever I I printed here I can I can just wrap up with the list how can we wrap it so the for each in LS was there so whatever you want to print you have to just write before you have to write before LS okay this is the this is the syntax of the list comprehension and whatever uh data type you want I want a list just make a square bracket it will be showing you this all the values sorry not LS that output you want to print so each will be showing like this so each is showing the all the values but if you want to apply the square it will showing you the square the syntax of the list comprehension the very simple simple uh very simple is that where where uh just uh uh sequence uh just iteration for where in sequence and before just write where that’s it this is this this is the syntax of uh the list comprehension but when you’re talking about the double comprehension the concept is also very similar just you have to perform the square uh round bracket it will be a uh tle comprehensive the comprehension concept is very famous and uh very useful in a real life scenario when you’re making any kinds of projects okay back to our topic um to understand the nested for Loop last concept is remaining in uh loop next for Loop how can be perform I selected one of the example the example is uh pattern concept I think you learn this pattern in a college test pattern okay pattern concept the pattern concept uh let’s try to understand how the pattern concept is working and after that I’ll Implement in a practical way so the pattern concept suppose I have this box okay I want to show you pattern here is a star here is a star here two star here is a three star and here is a four star okay as we know that uh our index in a python is always start with a zero so the index of the Python will be can we change the color yes we can change the color yeah so the index is always start with 0 0 1 2 3 so this index is also start with a 0 1 2 3 so the basically I want to display the pattern in the order but this pattern is made with a 3 cross 3 Matrix right so first you have to make a 3 cross 3 Matrix and then apply the logic there so let’s understand it okay how to remove okay so let’s understand it here first I’ll create 4X 3×3 pattern for each in range which is start from always zero so if you’re not passing anything to always start with a zero and I want to reach still three then I’ll write four colon Print Star okay when you print star it will be showing like this uh the one line uh like um the vertical way is printed here when you just apply the for Loop inside that for each uh better to pass rows and column wise the first one is rows right how many rows you have to print one 2 3 4 so here I’ll pass R here I pass a c for c c for column R for rows let me again explain that this is called as a rows and this is called as a column okay column 1 2 3 four row one row two Row three row four okay this is the way we are using all right so I’ll just use a row basically row and column in range pass the value is a four and again colon and just print it so when you just print there is a 4 cross 4 Matrix obviously it’s not a 3 cross 3 it’s a 4 4 cross 4 Matrix so I’ll remove uh this one this one four cross 4 Matrix because there is a four call uh four section is there python is starting from the zero that’s why uh I make it 3 cross 3 but actually it’s a 4 cross 4 okay when you just print it then you’ll getting the 16 stars but it’s not in a cube format why it’s not Cube format the reason behind that everything is a printing in the next line so in a print there is a keyword is a end keyword is available that by default is a sln if you want to know you can just shift click uh click anywhere inside this bracket and click shift tab you’ll find it out what is the default values available which is slash n when you just remove the slash n with a space okay by default is a slash and will you remove it and make it is just a space it will will be the horizontal V but I don’t want all the stars is the horizontal V I want only this all four values is the horizontal V the next all four values the horizontal V the next four next four like this so what I will do I will use the column is a horizontal way but the rows I will use as a vertical way if I’m not passing anything the automatically the end is equal to sln is there so when you just run it automatically four cross for Star will Beed so till here we understand now I want to make the pattern so make the pattern so it’s very simple how can we do that see here you can understand um yeah here you can understand the first point first point is a position of the 0 and zero so what exactly is happening the the row is taking the value is uh first one first is taking the value zero and uh then it will be enter in this this for second for Loop that will also taking the value zero right so that’s why the printing the position of the star zero the next time again going back and it’s taking the one that’s why it’s one 2 3 so I don’t want the second for loop as a four I don’t I want the dynamic based on the previous one okay I want to make a dynamic based on the previous one let me just remove okay so how can we perform it so basically so whatever rows is coming I want so after that this one this part should be only one so that it will be print only the position of zero and it will be ended and back to the for loop again okay back to the for loop again and when this row become a one so this one should be two let’s make it plus one this one should be two so that’s why the column will take only zero and one okay take you only zero and one so when I just run it we showing like this and when the row become a three so this portion become a four when this become a four when this one become a two this become a three if it become a three then it will be print one this in the position of 0 1 2 so that’s why is printing the 012 and it will be reach till four only that’s why showing the push star like this you can think about a different way of the uh opposite star so again don’t try to memorize it any stars try to understand the how the star pattern is working the reason behind that the star pattern is there in your syllabus because with the star we can easily understand how the nested for Loop is working how the nested concept is is working because the star is not only display with the for Loop we can we have other uh concept is available to display the star let’s discuss the apply the count block if the username and password is fail in three times so we already generated the code where is that yeah this one so I want to apply the block if the username and password fail in a three times So currently hurry if I’m passing hurry 1 2 3 and showing the value is logging successful what if the uh login uh your username and password is wrong more than three times so I’ll apply the count processes here count is equal to Zer and in every uh wrong username on a password it should be increment where is the username and password wrong here else the password is incorrect so I’ll just make it uh count is equal to count plus one and password is incorrect um one this attempt is remaining attempts are remaining okay so I’ll just make it here F so uh let’s do it in case if my password is wrong let me just see that uh the statement is correct or not um hurry and password is wrong then it’s showing that password is incorrect only one attempt is remaining so this is not a right way okay okay hurry 1 two 3 so what I’ll do better I’ll just fix it the uh three times if your username and password is wrong is more than three times then the process should stop for particular duration I’ll just make it minus okay then it will showing that uh it only three times is remaining only two times is remaining this kind of you’ll get only three attempts okay the same statement I’ll apply for if the username is wrong my username is wrong and I’ll make it comma uh this particular attempt is remaining okay this particular attempt is remaining all right so okay this okay so if my usern is wrong uh all right I forgot to write F this is string formatting if my usern is wrong two attempt is remaining one attempt is remaining zero attempt is remaining in the sense is the last one it should be stop it here so I have to put one more condition if the count become a zero I have to stop it what I can do it here uh so anywhere like uh the breaking the loop if my loging successful I can also write L if Al if we can write Al if the count is equal to equal to zero the time please wait for 10 second currently I’ll just write in the 10 second okay 10 second and after that process should start again all right so I’ll do the same process for uh this is for password I’ll do the same thing for username as well I do it username as well but the your process should stop for 10 second so how can we do that so there is a like library is called as a Time import time okay so you can directly write the time do slip your process will stop for particular duration so I’ll do it here time do slip for 10 second so automatically it’s a second how can we know that you can just write time. slip and bracket you can just check it what exactly is there it’s a second I click on here inside and click shift tab this option is available in the Jupiter notebook only and if you have any other ideally you can find it out other options okay let me just remove so the process will stop for 10 second and after that it will again start so it’s on you if you want to put the timing you can okay so currently it will be stopped for 10 second process will yeah only two attempts is remaining one attempt is remaining I’ll write hurry password I’ll make it wrong this is the last attempt zero attempt is remaining that means there is no any attempt this is the last one I’ll write it here uh hurry password is hurry wrong let me just write it just wait for 10 second the process is still running it’s not like that your process is totally end up it’s running for 10 second it hold for 10 second you can increase it now it’s ask asking the password again hurry I will write it and again it’s waiting for 10 second because it’s already been uh uh already been you know um is a kind of uh uh already your count was Zero that that’s why it’s waiting for 10 second but it should not be it should not be after 10 second it give the three times option right but here I’m passing the wrong password still is waiting for 10 second so that one glitch is there there I have to just change it uh it should be make it zero again uh it should make it uh three again all right so I use it hurry 1 2 3 and let’s make it yes sleep for 10 second and after 10 second after 10 second Make It Count is equal to is equal to 3 all right Make It Count is equal to is equal to three and it’s here uh where is wait for 10 second and the same thing we have to apply for password as well so this is for username I think yeah this is the username I think so we have to do for oh sorry not here it already there just count is equal to is equal to 3 not is equal to is equal to is equal to is equal to is a compar comparing it’s assigning the values so let’s wait for yeah one attempt 0 attempt there is no any attempt is remaining I’ll pass the hurry I’ll pass the wrong password it’s wait for 10 second if the 10 second will end up then again it should be Q next three attempts okay so let’s see yeah two attempt is remaining one attempt is remaining hurry 1 2 3 so this way we can perform the operation with a Time basis okay so you can also apply the different different operation this is from the totally scratch in a real life we just adding some front end otherwise the back end we are applying the same process this is the good way to learn our programming language all the concept try to always connect with the real life so function is nothing but a block of organized code where we can reuse your code again and again use for performing single related actions so we’ll also discuss in a practical manner so let me first show you how the function we are writing in Python programming language so we are first defining is a def def keyword we are using to define the function now after that function name like I’m writing the hello you can write anything any function name and then parameter we are defining like parameter 1 parameter 2 parameter 1 parameter 2 right and important to you have to make the uh colon after that it will taking a four Space 1 2 3 4 automatically taking the four space when you click enter and you can write your uh function body okay whatever C code you want to perform you can just write it but function will run when you call it so here when you just calling hello when you’re just calling the function and if you define the two parameters so you have to pass two arguments okay so suppose I pass the five and six that is the arguments so the five will store in the parameter one and the six will store in the parameter two okay sometime you confuse that which one is a parameter which one is the uh arguments so this is not a much complicated thing right so let me just remove it I also Define the same like here I Define the function with function name there is a three main parameter and after that when you just writing the function name the argument one will we passed to the parameter one so parameter we are defining arguments we are passing so hope this one is clear right so argument two will pass to the parameter two three will pass to the parameter three so in the function there are so many uh types are available not so many four main types are there so the very first one is a predefined function and predefined which is system is already given the function we are just using it right mean Max int print whatever you you already use it that is a predefined function you just just call and pass the values you’ll get the answer okay I’ll give you one small trick to Def to identify which one is a function see if you have a statement and after that this bracket is there that you call as a function okay so mean is a function Max is a function print is a function after that is bracket should be there because that function is a calling all right so we can also make the function which is we are calling user defined function that means we are defining the function the third one is anonymous function we’ll discuss in um practical manner a function without name so here you can see the uh you can see the def and function name so we can create a function without name but this have a different purpose first we’ll discuss the purpose and after that we’ll show you how we can make the anonymous function the last one is a recursion function that things we’ll also discuss let’s jump on the Practical Implement implementation how we can uh uh function can perform in practical way suppose I have a very small program a is equal to 5 b is equal to uh 4 and C is equal to a + b and uh I’m just printing and just print C and you’ll get the answer is 9 5 + 4 is equal to 9 but here if you want to uh just addition of different numbers for example I want to add 15 and uh 28 so every time you have to change this like 15 here and uh uh 23 so this is very simple program just imagine that if you have very complication fun any um equation is there like like I need annotation yeah okay uh like um y = x² + 2x this is the function uh this is the one uh mathematical function this is not a programming function okay I want to create this program like if Y is equal to x² + 2 into X okay this is the function and uh I Define the x is equal to uh 15 and when you just print it okay and uh pass the value is y and you’ll get the answer is 255 and in case if you change the values is 25 you’ll get accordingly this answer but imagine that this function I want to use somewhere else this mathematical function don’t be complic don’t be uh confused I I’m talking about this is the mathematics function and which function we are talking about here which is a programming function okay here I write a mathematical function programming function I didn’t started so suppose this mathematical function I want to reuse any other places to make a different applications uh so it will be very complicated to to to call it or else you can just copy paste and write the code again so this is not a right solution so what I can do I can make one block and call this block again and again right so I have a different uh equations instead of saying the function I’ll say the equations that will be better okay uh Z is equal to y + 2 y + 28 this this is the one of the equation is there so what what I’ll do I’ll just write here Z is equal to uh and different places I want to use it y + 28 so I’ll get the answer z I’ll get the answer here 709 uh 703 so here when I just change the value is like two you’ll get the answer is eight the next time value is change accordingly but I have to use this uh program again and again so better to better to uh you know I have to run it then you number will change so better I can make a block and call that block again and again so let’s make a block is a depth EF and function name is a equation equation okay as I told you bracket is very very important parameter it’s on you if you want to Define you can otherwise you can leave it and uh like equation is the equation is y equal x squ plus 2X you required X as a input so I’ll just pass it here parameters now your block is ready I’ll just print it y okay I’ll just print it Y and I just run it you’ll not get any answer function have a rules without calling the function function will never execute okay so here I can see this is defining the function defining the function okay I want to call it so what I’ll do I have to define the values X is equal to some some something or else you can directly uh pass the values equation I’ll pass the value is five so you’ll get the answer accordingly so this one we are calling the function this section calling the function okay this SE is calling the function in case if you change the value is like uh 25 you’ll get the answer accordingly right this is the way our function is running when you’re talking about how the block is executing what is the processes behind that so process is running like this it will check the line number one okay and then go to the line number uh sorry line number one is just uh comment so obviously it will start from line number two which is a comment right comment will not execute it will just run not giving you any any answer so first we’ll check the line number two and after that directly jump on the line number six if the function is defined there it will never enter inside right and uh after line number six it’s calling to the function then again back to the line number so now you are calling so that’s why it giving you okay yeah that’s why is giving you uh it it will be uh giving the line number two again okay and then it enter the line number three like this and then line number four as well so this is the way our function is working right it’s not like that top to bottom approach so yes python is working the top to bottom approach but if the function is there it will first checking that where the function is calling and after that entering the inside you can understand one of uh uh I’ll give you one one more example the use case of uh this function let me first remove it okay suppose you are making the calculator is a simple example you making one calculator addition subtraction multiplication and division there is a four different different function you define it but at a time you are using this subtraction so other things will not execute because you define inside a block if you define inside a block so this one this one this one you can save your memory you can save your time because the other program will not execute only the sub program subtraction will execute so imag that if you have a big project and in a project at a time everything is not running so part part wise the values are running right which one is required you can just call it but you have to Define you can’t remove it and you can’t write the code again and again that is the reason function is very very important so in a function there is so many topics is there which I have to discuss here so very first topic is a return statement okay written statement other next topic which is uh we can say um so user Define which we already did equation is a user defined function and uh um uh we can say uh system defined function a predefined function we already used it like in float print these are a user uh these are system defined like a print I’m using here as a function which is system defined the two type is done and the third type which is anonymous function function and the fourth one which is a recursion function the fourth one which is a recursion function okay recursion function there is a these topics we have to discuss let’s discuss the about a return statements let me just remove it okay so return statement uh I’ll take one example like hope you remember about math there is a um library is called as a math and if I want to know the square root of some particular values like math.sqrt I’m just giving you the use case why written statement is important and what kind of problem what kind of problem is solving by the written statements see if you running any any any if you’re learning any topic first try to find it out why you are learning what kind of problem is solving this topic so like sqr I want to know the square root of 25 you’ll get the answer answer easily which is a 25 and I can store it somewhere I’m storing in the variable R and uh print this statement as a um s root of 5 is R very simple statement is there uh square root of 25 is 5 very simple statement okay I want to create like this because here the sqr sqrt is a kind of method so method and a function both are the same okay here is little bit confusing like method and function both are the same or different so method and function both are the same let me just Define it method and function so you can say method when when we Define a function inside the class we are calling method okay so here we here I created the equation which is not inside a class class I am talking about object oriented class and object which is this one is not inside a class so we are not calling equation as a method we are calling function only so here why I’m calling square root of his a method because math is work like a class uh math is a work like object which class is defined somewhere okay with the object I’m calling method so method we are defining as a function don’t be confused method is a defining as a function but only difference is that it’s inside a class so if I I have a value is like a I have a value is like a def um ABC dep ABC I Define it okay and inside you write a body so this one ABC is a function but if you define like a class class name class name is suppose U uh temp okay class name is a temp and you define it and inside that there very uh important uh parameter you always right is a self so now here the ABC become a method why is a method because you are calling like a t is equal to Temp okay you created the object here and the T dot ABC you can use it this ABC with the help of object which is a t that is is the reason I was saying sqrt is a method so now currently you’re not aware about a object oriented in a python so you just consider that method and function both are the same as a defining purpose only difference is that that method is inside a class so currently we are not inside a class so we’ll call as a function okay okay so I want to make uh the program like this okay suppose I created the function which is the Squire root okay let me change the name the same like I want to create it X as a parameter and I’ll make it it it’s a square root so um answer is equal to x to the power of x to the power of 1x 2 anything which is the power of 1 by two which is nothing but a square root okay let me again clear it like a square root of 5 which is nothing but 5 to the power of 1 by 2 or we can say 5 to the power of 0.5 the same thing and you can write it here just ANS okay when I just call this function as square root and pass the values is 25 you’ll get the answer is 5.0 which is a correct answer but can I write like this can I store it in R variable yes we can store it can I write like this print um square root of 25 is um R can I make like this you’ll getting the answer is 5.0 here but here I’m getting the value is none let’s try let’s understand it here here we print it the print meaning is that the the actual work of the print is nothing but displaying the values that’s it it’s not doing any other thing it’s just display the values so when you just um uh you know call this function here is square root 25 when you just pass it here you’ll get the answer is ANS is get the answer is five and here just display it’s not doing any other thing it’s not store any values so what I want the square root square root should store some values so that it can be defined it here so we can solve this problem via written statement see the word saying everything return meaning is that returning the value to the function so inste of writing the print I will say return so I’ll return this value to the square root so then you’ll get the values as it is like this okay so return return basically can be used any other function this function when you just calling it this function when you call it I can store it somewhere else so that we can reuse it hope you understand the return statement concept okay let’s jump on Anonymous function let’s jump on Anonymous function a function without name is called as an anonymous function what is a mean Anonymous function that we are defining we are defining anonimous function with Lambda keyword with Lambda keyword okay Lambda keyword what is the um you know syntax of that let first discussed okay we are writing the Lambda Lambda and we’re passing the arguments like uh a sorry a comma B and then you uh doing some operations let’s understand it here so syntax is not much important but you should know that how we are writing so just we have to write Lambda what operation you want to perform I want to perform the operation of um a cube of any numbers yeah we can say U addition of XY Z so I have to Define it X comma y comma Z colon colon what operation you want to perform I want to perform is the 2 into x + y + z that equation I want to perform when you just run it we’ll find it out the function is created okay function is created how can we um uh you know call it this function right function is created it’s saying that function you can um defining the function without any name here there is no any name but if you want to call it you have to store somewhere I’ll store in the result variable I’m directly storing it there and with that variable I can call it result is equal to um result is equal sorry result when you just run it it will saying that a function you have to pass some parameters I’ll pass the parameter 5 comma 7 comma and 3 I’ll get the answer is 20 because this one is taking as a argument these are the parameters and these are the operations I perform it the question is if we already have a diff param diff parameterized function is available in um in this topic then why we required this Lambda why we required answer is here let’s understand the example where we can use it this kind of function um suppose you want to create one function which is very small and you want to call it again and again why you required the separate function if you function is very small you can just Define it here call it the same time okay how can we use it let’s define one variable which store many values okay yeah this values I want to uh take only the um you know even numbers so many method is there there is one a famous function in build function is there which is the filter function I can directly use it filter function okay filter function so when you just uh put your cursor in between and type shift tab you’ll find it out suggestions so first you have to define the function and what you want to iterate it I want to iterate a and function you have to Define it okay let’s define the function name is a uh even this is the function name even and a I want to pass it so even you have to Define it right even let me Define separately def even and I’ll pass as a any parameters because whatever Val U value you have the whatever list you have iteratively one by one it will be pass and giving the answer so if x is a modulo of 2 is equal to equal to Z that means it’s a even number and should be written written as a x okay when I just run it oh so compressed so I’ll just use the list and I’ll get the answer I’ll got only a even number from this section so there is a 13 and 21 is a odd number but here I got only even number with the use of filter function but you can see here this function is very small so you define separately and it took a three line more space and obviously the calling from the different function from the different places obviously is a memory consuming so what I can do I can use the Lambda keyword so I can use the same thing filter I’ll pass the values here Lambda X and then condition I’ll apply it X modul of 2 is equal to equal to 0 and what you want to pass I want to pass a just pass it a that’s it and make it list and you’ll get the answer is yes same thing so here I defined with the five line of code here I Define the one line of so both are doing the same thing only difference is that with the help of Lambda keyword I can reduce my number of cod so that I can save my memory and space because this is your learning phase start now you are just learning but when you go in the project perspective so we have to take care about the optimization as well your project should not be take much time your project should not be take much memory so Lambda is one of the good solution so one thing the definitely you are uh in your mind uh in case if your uh number of code in a function which very big right like uh the function is very complicated here is just three line if you have a five line six line that is okay if you function if your function itself have almost 20 to 50 line so in that time should we use the Lambda keyword the answer is no so Lambda keyboard is using if your function is very small and you are it iteratively calling it the time we are using you don’t need to Define it separately you in that function itself in that predefined function itself you can use the Lambda a function call itself is calling a recursion function let me also write it here a function call itself calling recursion function let’s do it in a practical way suppose I have a function uh function name is U um process okay and inside the process this normal print statement is there hello world all right so when you just call it this process function process then as expected answer is a Hello World here the process is working like this your function um work like this line number one then four again line number one two after line number two in case if I’m calling the same function again same function again the function name is process same function again so what will be happen so it will be call the function again one line number one line number two and three again one 2 3 again 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 it will be like a loop but actually it’s not a loop it’s a recursion recursion have a limit what is the limit let’s discuss it first so here you can see uh the process is stopped now means there is some limit to stop when you scroll down you’ll find it out the maximum recurs and depth ex exceeded while calling the python object so there is a limit so limit you can also find it out with the CIS module Sy CIS means system CIS do get recursion limit get recursion limit get recursion limit you’ll find it out how much limit this recursion have so every system every system in the sense uh if you’re working on a Jupiter notebook and if you working on a normal python if you’re working on a py charm if your environment is a different then recurs limit can be the different but you you can use this command to find it out the recursion limit I can also increase and decrease the recursion limit so increase the recursion limit is very simple just you have to pass set recursion limit and I’m passing it here 8,000 okay 8,000 and later when I just check that what is this recursion limit it will showing the 8,000 but the question is how can we decrease it suppose this H world is showing 3,000 times I want to check one the five times or six times so that means I’m decreasing the rec person so there is um one beautiful feature is there written statement with the help of written statement we can perform the recursion process suppose I have a number is n and uh here I pass the value is a five and every time when you call this process when you call this function I’ll make it n minus one at the same time I can also print that n as well so that I can track it how much value is there so when I just run it you can see here the 5 4 3 2 1 and and it’s going till down there is there is a limit is a 3,000 so it will be going down and run it again and again right so what I can do hit here so when you scroll down down down down it’s a 7,000 it’s going to more than 7,000 the reason behind that I increase the limit which is the 8,000 right I increase the limit that’s why it’s going till here after uh 7,000 7,000 something and is going this statement is maximum recursion depth exced while calling the python object my target is that I want to stop in after five steps so I can use it here the condition if my n become a zero that time I will return return just um uh recursion done okay the statement is is a recursion done that’s it so because you know that after the return statement any statement is written there it will never accept okay so when I just run it it will going till uh 1 only what exact what is the meaning is that it’s not acceptable after the return statement like I think I already discussed but again I’ll tell you in the short way the dev hello there is a function and if my number number is a = to 4 and B is = 8 and return is equal to a + and before return let me just use the print print A+ B and when you just call it hello you’ll get the answer is 12 and after the print statement uh my statement is there um um hello world okay this normal statement hello world after 12 is showing that hello world but in case if you use the written statement for a plus b return statement for a plus b hello world where hello world will never display the reason behind that because after the print after the written statement whatever things is there will never be execute okay if I’m writing the normal ABCD any thing so it will be never execute so that is the uh functionality of the return statement we will use this functionality in a recursion function to stop the recursion so here the recursion is STO because when the number become a zero when a number become a zero and at that time it return the recursion done and when the line number three is executed after that whatever you wrote it will never execute that is the reason it’s not going in the next one but here the question is why the recursion done is not showing right why the recursion done is not showing the reason behind that it’s a return if it’s a return so you have to display it okay uh I have to uh I think process I have to also return yeah process app to also return that time uh whatever is returning the values it will also display so that that’s why the recursion done is also showing it here one um uh famous example is there uh uh for a recursion function uh which is mostly um you know interviewer is asking this kind of question what is the factorial number okay let me just explain what is the factorial number so factorial number you can understand like this uh it’s a application of application of recursion function okay so with the with the help of recursion function we will use it so instead of write this the factorial number with the recursion function okay recursion function so we’ll use the um recursion function uh yeah I need a pen so hope you know about a factorial number I’ll give you a short way so suppose I have a factorial number of five factorial number of 5 is equal to 5 into 4 into 3 into 2 into 1 it is going till one only it’s not more than that the answer will be 120 okay 54 20 22 3 60 602 120 but we can also write like this the 5 factorial is equal to 5 into 4 factorial till 1 till one it’s not going Beyond one it not accepting the zero because if you multiply with the zero you’ll get the answer is entire zero and uh if you have a six factorial that is a five uh 6 into can I remove okay 6 into 5 factorial if you have a 7 factorial 7 into 6 factorial so we can also do like this because the 5 5 into 4 factorial the meaning is that 5 into 4 factorial is 4 into 3 into 2 into 1 so we will use this kind of uh application uh to understand the factorial number like I’ll create a function Factor name is a fact fact only okay and I need a number I’ll Define the number is n colon I’ll return the value as the N into means N means exact number the four uh yeah if if if you take the example of five factorial then 5 into factorial of four fact of 4 which is the n minus one right if I pass the values is six the 6 into factorial of five if you pass the value of 7 7 into factorial of uh 6 but again so when I just call it here the fact which is value is a five I’m expecting the number is 120 the problem is here when you just run it you calling this function again and again again and again there is no any limit to stop it so that’s why it’s not defining anything it’s not showing any values the reason I’m not printing anything I’m not displaying anything every time is returning the values so I want to put the limit so that I can get the exact number so how can you define the limit so limit we can Define like this if number become so again you can you can see here it’s maximum recursion depth X exceeded because it’s not showing the number it’s not showing any values the reason I return the statement not to print so if number become a one for that time I will return one if I return return one if you multiply with one then will stop it’s not going any other things so when I just run it get the answer is 12 okay so you can take as a input uh uh okay in put okay I and PT okay anything you can take the variable input enter the number for factorial vectorial okay so I can Define it and that should be the integer that should be the integer here I’ll pass I and PT I n PT so when I just run it it’s asking that what enter the number for factorial I’m passing the eight is here I get the factorial is the 4320 so this way we can understand the recursion function so package and module this topic is playing the very important role for uh all the uh Frameworks and advanced level up Python Programming because uh whenever uh you enter any kinds of uh any framework work any any technology like a web development or data science so many libraries so many modules are there so here we will learn that how modules and package we can make it we can build it like uh from Custom based we’ll try to make the modules and packages so first one is a module module is nothing but uh any python file which have a py extension is called as a module so you have so many python file you create but sometime we creating the Jupiter notebook file that Jupiter notebook extension is i p y and B so that is not a module so python file should be in the py extension that will consider as a module and the module can consist of function classes variable anything because that is the file inside a file so many things we can write it we can write a function we can write a class we can write a variables anything we can write it there and what is the uh package package is nothing but one uh directory we can say where consist of the multiple modules but there is one special file is called as init so that name is init it should be available there that we are calling packages so for example I have a file which is the uh a which is the file name is a. py B do py c. py so these are all a modules but make sure that there is one more file should be underscore uncore init uncore uncore py if this one is also present and it’s available in the particular folder uh suppose the folder name is okay yeah suppose the folder name is a uh for example folder name is main so main is nothing but a package which consist of the multiple modules so let’s understand in the practical way I’ll create the multiple modules and I also explain you how we can create the packages as well like this there is a package I can also create the multiple packages as well for example like this example here so open change close these are a modules even in it is also the modules that is consist of the one folder which is called as a image Right image so image is a package the likewise the image there is also one more package it’s called as sound we can also say the package but the problem is I here I mentioned that the sub packages because you can also create the init file and make the one more folder which is the game so can you say this this one is a package this one is a package also become a package but the problem is here the main folder other folder inside that folder two folder is also available we can say it’s a package uh it’s a sub package okay so in case if you calling this one is a package that’s not wrong why I’m calling here the sub packages because it’s consist up the one more packages that’s the only reason okay someone is also calling this one is a library someone is also calling this one is a library so library is nothing but is a collection of the packages so if I clarify this what exactly it meaning so module is nothing but a consist of the multiple function and classes whereas the package is the collection of the modules whereas the library is a collection of packages or packages we can also say that it’s a collection of sub packages let’s do it practical implementation of package module and library in uh uh you know in a coding way so you can open your any ideally I’m just opening the visual studio visual studio and open one particular location where you want to walk it this package module and Library concept okay I’m just opening one folder uh yeah this is the location here nothing is available okay okay I think I selected the files I have to select the folder yeah exercise now it’s done I already selected here all right let me close it unnecessary files yeah I’ll I’ll create one file python file so file name is calling. py okay so in this file I’ll try to call any other modules let me first create any modules here even the calling file is also called as a module but the variable file is not a module because the extension of calling is a py where is the extension of variable is i p y and B so that is a jupyter notebook file both are a different so only calling is a module let me create one more file which is the load module yeah we can say load file I’ll create some function def info and uh some statement here print this is load module okay simple because variable uh sorry uh module is nothing but a collection of of any function any variable any classes anything you can write anything here this is the function I can also Define one variable here a is equ Al to 55 and uh let me also Define one more function def add and pass some uh parameters r n comma M okay and uh R is equal to result is equal to n + m and I will return return R okay so there is two function with one variable let me just write it first here two different function and one variable okay so I want to call it this function with different file so calling is a file both load and calling is available in the same location I want to call the load module so how to call any module we are using the import keyword import load so when you just use the import load let’s see what will happen you can run the file here so hope you have completed the configuration if you not then uh you can just refer uh my video for uh installation of vs code in case if you’re facing any issues you can also uh you know text on a chat all right let me just remove the unnecessary things so nothing is printed here because I didn’t print anything let me also print just normal statement print um hey that’s it hey so when I just call this this function uh this um you know this load module when I just call it here you’ll get the values is here only here but I want to call the info function I want to call the add function so if you if you want to call the ADD and info function so load do info you have to write it so when I just write the load. info you’ll get the answer accordingly so first is a he because I import it and uh in load module the statement was already there here and inside the function info the statement was this is the load module so that’s why it’s sprinted I want to call the a variable as well because I Define one variable which is the 55 a as a variable and 55 is a value so load. a you can also call it but uh that value you want to print it previously the info function is printed something here is just Define the values so I can also print it and see what exactly the values so I’m expecting that the value should be 55 so yes value is a 55 we can also call it that variable as well we can also call the function with the parameter to passing the arguments so load do add and pass the uh arguments because two parameters defined it here n and M I’m passing the parameters three uh passing the argument as three and 8 so I’m expecting the answer should be 11 so yes okay so here is not printing any answer the reason behind that I return the values I can store somewhere I’m storing the ens wer answer and that answer if I want to print it print answer so you’ll get the answer accordingly that is the 11 so hope you understand the concept of module and when you go into the next topic which is a package that is a collection of module so when I just create one uh folder inside that I’ll create a multiple python file and uh one init file as well then it’s become a package so let’s create it I’ll follow this structure load I created here so let me create other two files which is play and pause and I’ll put inside the sound folder that’s become a package okay let me create one more file which is the play. py I’ll create one function name which is the info let’s create an info so that you can remember it everywhere I’ll write the function which is the info it’s not compulsory that you have to pass the same function everywhere just for remember purpose I’m just writing here print this is but the statement I’ll make it different this is play module okay and let me also create one more file uh pause. py def info I’ll make it print this is um pause module okay all right so this is the files I’ll create one folder for them the folder is sound I’ll create it the folder name is sound sound I’ll pass all the modules play load play and pause inside that function inside that folder folder name is sound but here the sound is not a package because I didn’t Define one a file which is the init so in it is nothing but a Constructor so what is a Constructor so Constructor is whatever statement you write inside the Constructor it will automatically call you don’t need to call that function even the Constructor concept will also come in objectoriented programming that time I’ll discuss very details way but here you can just understand I’ll create a Constructor the file name is init.py that I don’t need to call it it would automatically called okay so inside that I’ll create a file which is theore uncore netore dopy so let me just write it all the statement to everywhere first uh let me just write it okay so so first in a Constructor let me write something so the statement is this is um sound package simple this is sound package and in a load I already defined so many functions pause let me just Define a def info the state m is this is okay pause module that’s it and play is already there is a play module so now I can say the package is considered as a uh so sorry sound is a considered as a package so now I want to call the info function which is available in a sound package because the sound is a completely a package let me also delete it here because it’s already available inside okay play uh load play and pause so yeah so sound is a package so let me make as a comment all right okay so if I want to call the info function which is available in the sound so you have to first call the sound okay you have to call the sound so when you just call the sound so let’s see what will happen so answer is showing that this is sound package so how it’s happened because I didn’t call anything I just import the sound but this Constructor is automatically called which is the in it so inside the init the statement is this is the sound package so that is the reason the first statement is this is sound package okay so again that info function is available in a pause module for example let’s let’s take it a pause module I want to call the info function which is there in the pause module so I have to go inside pause okay pause so you can pass as a reference as the uh a you can Define any variable so later a do info so when you just call a do info which is nothing but a sound. pa.info so here you’ll get answer which is this is a pause module there is also one way uh another way to uh call any function from sound import pause because the previously you are entered the sound and then enter the pause so here from the sound you enter only a pause so this one is a better way to call any modules any function okay so I’ll just directly pass it here pause doino that’s it you’ll get the same answer so in a real life whenever you importing any uh any packages any libraries like pandas numai anything so sometime we are using the from sometime using directly import so now you understand why I’m using a from why I’m using the import directly okay so now here the sound is consider uh working as a package so I can make sound as a sub package as well so you can create one more folder which is the image let me create it and later I’ll show the hierarchy as well so by the way this underscore Pi cache it’s just generating the cach that what function you called it so here you can see I called the pause I called the init so that is the reason it’s generated so previously you can also see what I called I called the pause and in it so that packages are generating here is also the package I call the load so that is the cpython so you don’t need to care about that it automatically generating so let me also create one more folder which name is image okay that folder name image image so inside that image I’ll create a three different file which is the open change and close with in it let’s create it from here here it will be quite faster first I have to create the Constructor okay and it then I’ll also create the uh open. py then I also create change. py then also create I think close is there open change and close py okay three files I generated here so sound uh sound is a package now here image is also considered as a package because I created The Constructor I put inside multiple module as well so I’ll put this packages this image and sound I’ll try to make it as a sub package with game as a main package okay so I didn’t write any function there but the same thing you can also follow for image as well so game here consider as a main package if I’ll pass the image inside a game let me just drag and drop control C cut I’ll pass inside image okay I’ll replace it the same thing and make sure that if you have the image and sound as a package if you want to make game as a uh library or a main package you have to create one more file which is the init then it will be considered as a package or Library underscore init.py make sure that double underscore in the both side so now game game is a library image and sound is package or we can say game is a package image and sound as a sub packages so you can say anything let’s back to our calling function yeah yeah calling modules where we are calling the different different uh uh functions so if I’m writing the same statement from sound import pause so do you think that it will be work absolutely not the reason behind that because previously the sound is a aable sound folder is available in the same location where the calling function was available yeah calling uh file was available so when I just run it here it will showing that the no module name sound reason previously sound was the same location now sound is available in the game location but if you’re using the game Dot Game dot sound because it’s available inside a game so it will work right it will work so let me also write something in uh in it of game currently game Constructor don’t have any kind of statement that is the reason is not printed here let me just write some statement in a game Constructor in init.py so the statement is this is game Library okay game library now so when I just call this again function calling function so the statement is also here this is game library because it’s available inside uh um inside a game library that this Constructor in Constructor is there in the game library that is the reason is printing here now uh this game library is available in the same location where this calling Fun calling file is available imagine that if the game libraryies is available in the different location if you want to call it again so it’s showing the error right so in that situation we have to find it out one a global place where I can put my library and I can access anywhere in my laptop so let me just change the place of the game Library So currently is here I’ll just copy cut not a copy directly cut it here and let me just put it outside because here the calling file there is no any game Library so when you just run it it will showing the error no module name game so how exactly this working because uh you know whenever you importing any inbuilt library that is pandas numai mat plotti anything in that situation uh this library is available in the global location so that we can access it so let’s take the example of fondas and how exactly is working So currently yeah so currently uh I have a many libraries so n pandas M plotly let me just open first the command prompt command prompt here okay so I am using the Anaconda prompt so I’ll just open the Anaconda prompt here so I already have a pandas but still I’ll just write a pip install pandas okay okay so it will showing the statement is that uh the pandas is already installed and it’s also showing the statement um you know the location where exactly the install C user your um you know PC name and anakonda 3 lip and side packages so the same thing here there is one um library is in build Library which is a CIS CIS is a system so let me just open the python here directly sorry here anywhere you can open it I can write it here okay so import CIS system sis. paath so it will showing you the path where exactly all the libraries and all the python packages are available so this is showing the complete list let me just open it one by one for each in. paath 1 2 3 4 print each Okay so that will showing the one by one so you can go to any location so main location is this one lib lib is Library let me copy it and open your uh Windows Explorer File Explorer and paste it there in the URL see user your PC name Anaconda 3 and lip so it showing the location here I want to see that where exactly the pandas is available you can see it here the pandas is available C user PC name anakonda 3 lip and site packages so here definitely site packages one folder is available you can just search it site packages yeah site packages and you can also search the where exactly the pandas pandas yes here is the pandas so you can find it out other libraries like a matplot li numai numai yes you can see the numai and matplot Le if you searching you’ll also find it out somewhere M plot lab okay so exactly if you are importing the pandas numai mat plot Li that all the code is coming from in this location if you just checking the pandas so inside a pandas sometime we are using a pandas do data frame so where exactly the data Frame data frame is a code so go to the pandas you’ll find it out somewhere go to the pandas and uh here is the API here you can find it out like so many things is available you can easily find it out there right so in the core I think uh data frame is available yeah you can see the reshape is available uh interchange is available indexes is available group by we are using D types we are using see inside that the lots of code is available so we are just using that particular code right so with the help and here here pandas is nothing but a library so inside a pandas so many packs of packages and packages is there with in it you can see with in it when you go to the inside of core you’ll also find it out in it somewhere okay in it in it is there see here is the init is there now so these packages libraries you can find it out where exactly is available with the help of CIS uh packages CIS Library so now the my target is that keep uh the game library is available in the local location I want to change it I don’t want in that uh you know local location so that if I’m access and we change the location so it will be showing that no module name a game so what we can do I can put this game folder in any of this location any of this location lib side packages anything I’ll directly put the lib let me go there yeah so Li so I’ll directly pass it here hope the game yeah it’s not available I’ll just put paste it here game paste it here so in your system anywhere in in in a system when you just run it it will not get any kinds of error okay still showing the error I think I have to refresh it kind of uh okay uh you can just access it uh let me just run it again it should not be it should be accessible okay let me just write it here import game okay it’s so okay let me just pass it in the side packages here is not working then I’ll just pass in the side packages side packages a lips or lips yeah okay let me just directly paste it here team okay go inside a lip and game okay let me just run it again here import G yeah this is the game Library so you can access it there is uh and the current location is my RT and my RT is the PC location and here I’m trying to access the game it’s accessible so here is not accessing why there is some some issues there is some issues let me just try to use it import game this normal import game so hope it should be available so I don’t know why it’s showing this error okay so there is some issues so better I can go in the particular location uh let me exit it so where exactly I’m working I can also search it here uh the location is the location is uh D recurrent learning python exercise okay I can just go there D CD recurrent learning Python and exercise okay so in this location I’m trying to just access the game libraries is it accessible or not so I’m just uh I think there is some issues in uh you know in in versions so I think I’m just using a different version here and different version there so that is the that is the problem because I just copy the path from a command prompt here so let me just import it here it will definitely work yeah here is working so if I’m just accessing game from game import sound dot play Sorry dot here I can’t use it uh but here I can definitely use it do sound import play okay so this is the sound packages that is also working here the play play do info yeah this is the play module is perfectly working fine here so if you put your libraries inside U uh the global location so you can access anywhere in your PC so p is working as a package manager which is responsible to install any kinds of packages or libraries so if you’re using the python more than uh 3.4 version so that means PP is already there you have to just use it so if you want to install a package like pandas so you can write it you can write it like pip install pandas that’s it so you have to write it pip install whatever libraries if you want to install just write it down so pip uh will install that particular libraries in global location in your system so there is one more topic is a name attribute I think you saw this name attribute in a Python programming language is many places so let’s understand it how we can use this name attribute so suppose if you have vs code okay if you have a vs code and uh yeah and I have one file which is a um load file load. py so the variable is 55 and DEP is equal to info and uh pass the statement is this is this is uh load module okay and one more function is available def add and pass to parameter a comma B simple and just um you know perform some operation result is equal to a + b and later return the values return the result okay now it’s done but I want if if I if my target is to create the complete a module which will be the load module but I want to test it that whatever function I wrote it that is perfectly fine or not okay so here uh I just want to um you know test it this add function is properly running or not so what I’ll do I’ll just call the function 5 comma 8 and when I run it so hopefully we will not get any answer because I return the values but when I just print the statement like uh print the statement directly so we will get the answer is 1 so which um I was expecting 13 now the answer is also 13 everything is perfect but here I just want to call the load module let me just call it import load okay and when you just import load let’s see what will happen so import load I just load the I just uh you know load the load module that name is the same I just imported the load module but here I was not expecting that answer should be the 13 because I didn’t call the add function here I didn’t call the add function let me just call the add function uh print load do add I’ll pass the values is 5 comma 12 so I’m expecting the answer is 17 so here I got the 17 but the same time I also got the answer is 13 as well which is wrong not wrong but uh I have to see that where exactly this 13 so 13 is basically I just printed here in the load module just for experimental purpose so if you doing the experiment so don’t direct don’t directly write it the experimental uh print statement so what will happen ke um if you write anything and import it somewhere so definitely that uh statement will uh call it so I can use it name attribute if underscore uncore name underscore uncore is equal to is equal to mean what is the meaning of main so main is nothing but main is nothing but the own file okay main is nothing but the own file so when I just run it here definitely you will get the answer is 13 okay I here you’ll get the answer is 13 why the 13 because I just passed the values is five and 8 so here I pass the condition if my name attribute is a main main is same file that time it will be called this function add but so what will happen when you just importing this file import load that time your name attribute is not a mean your name attribute is become a load okay your name attribute is become a load so how you can you can see that uh so here here when I just print it you will not get the answer is 13 you’ll get the answer is only 17 so let me just verify it ke uh that that time the name attribute is a main and uh uh when you just call the uh when you just import the load module that time is become the file name so print uncore uncore name okay I’m just writing here name attribute what is exactly the name attribute here so definitely here I didn’t pass any kinds of condition so that if you just use it in any other module in a calling Fun calling file so this one will definitely print so let me first print it here so when I just print it so here you’ll get the answer is the name attribute which is a mean all right the name attribute which is a main here I got the answer is mean but at the same time when I just calling here and uh run it so definitely this line will execute line number 10 will execute and when I just call it you will get the answer is load and what was the condition the condition was that the name underscore uncore name is equal toore main that means in the within a file it will be called but if you import it somewhere that will not call because the name attribute become the file name okay that condition I didn’t pass it here so hope you understand the entire uh package and module concept if you face any issues anywhere if you just importing something package Library anything so you can uh you know put the comment below we’ll definitely I I’ll solve your problem exception handling is a unexpected event is exactly an unexpected event which occurs the execution which occurs during the execution of the program that disturb the normal flow of the instruction so there is a lots of keyword is available to handle this kind of exception so the keyword is a try except else and finally so there is a four main keyword to handle the exception so let’s say for example uh this is the real life example how exception is occurred suppose if you’re running the car and car is suddenly stopped that can be any unexpected event maybe your engine failure maybe the petrol is finished can be anything but suppose if the petrol is finished the fuel indicator is giving the answer you’re giving the uh instruction that yes your petrol is finished find it out some nearby petrol pump so the fuel indicator is not solving the problem but is giving the instruction that this is the exact instruction you can handle via petrol so this is one of the example so let’s try to understand in the practical way like any unexpected event is occur to how we can handle it so open the Jupiter notebook I’ll just create a new file to better exception handling oh that file is not available yes the file is not there let me just create it exception handling exception handling okay suppose I have a very simple program a is equal to uh yeah a is equal to I’ll take a input okay as a integer enter the first number just normal program I’m just writing it later I’ll just create some issues and try to solve this B is equal to ENT andp put enter the second number okay and R is equal to a + b simple not a plus b a divided by B and I will print it R just normal answer yeah we can say I can also write it the proper statement answer is okay so asking the first uh first number that is the four I’m just passing it here second number is a three answer is 1.333 okay so it’s very normal program so you’re not expecting that you’ll not get uh you not get any kinds of error but let me run it program and 5 divide by 0 so that time it’s unexpected event is occurred so I was not expecting that I’ll get error right because it ask the question enter the first number I pass a five enter the second number I pass a zero zero is also the integer but I got the answer is zero division error so different different error is exist we’ll discuss in uh you know in pptq how many types of error is there but here the error is occurred so how can I handle it because 5/ by 0 that invalid it’s kind of invalid so if you using uh the calculator any calculator your mobile calculator you can also check it 5 / by 0 Let’s see what will be the answer the answer is showing that Infinity so if you check the 5 ID by 0 in your mobile maybe you’ll get a different answer maybe it will showing the invalid all right so different different statement is showing so instead of showing that red color error if I’m just showing the infinity that will be better so that is handle the error it’s not solving the error right so here uh so 5id by 0 the value is not exist so I will try to handle it if I’ll face this kind of issues how we can handle it so I’ll just use a try try means I’ll just normally try the normal flow of the program so normal flow of the program I’ll right okay so in case any exception occurred except except exception accept exception uh the time I can I can write it here print Infinity okay I can I can write it anything so if I pass 6 IDE 0 you’ll get the answer is infinity whatever you write it here you’ll get the answer accordingly so it’s not solve the error because 6 IDE by 0 the number is not exist but I’m just handle this kind of error if this kind of error is exist how can we handle it so in case the error is like here is saying that enter the first number by mistake I pass the value is uh T which is the string and here you’ll get a different error but instead of showing the error is showing the infinity that is like not sensible right so different different types of error is exist so here the common standard exception is available which is the zero division error which I just discussed name error it occur when the N name is not found and indentation error like if you conditional statement of for you are using the time is occurred and input output error is there eoff error is there so kind of some common standard error is available and uh we can handle it with their own name instead of writing The Only Exception so exception is just we can see the main class so where the different difference of classes is available zero division name error and indentation so let’s understand it in a deeper way in Practical implementation so here I use the try I use the accept there is a five keyword let me also write it here four keyword four main keyword try except try except and uh finally and what else yeah else else so these are the four main keyword is available in exception handling so try and accept we already used uh let me go first deeper here because the statement was that if I’m passing a t the still is getting the answer is infinity so in that situation how to handle it let me copy paste there in that situation instead of passing the exception I will pass it the uh exact error so in case if I uh face the issues okay you know so if I’m just pass it here okay T so I’ll get a value error so here I’m not getting the answer so because uh you know here I directly use the exception so when I just run it here separately here pass the R so it will you will get a value error so you can copy and paste instead of passing the exception I will just pass the value error so it will handle the one value error so I’ll write it here please enter any numeric number okay please enter any numeric number number when I just run it here and if someone is passing the any uh statement like T so it’s throwing the statement please enter any numeric number because I passed the any statement right so uh but uh if you’ll get any um zero division error then 5/ by 0 then it will showing the zero division error so again you can Define it zero division error separately okay accept zero division error so if you’ll face any kinds of um you know zero division issues so it will showing the answer is please enter any nonzero values okay so this one is perfect but here is very common question ke uh in the starting phase how you know that what kind of error will occurred because it’s a unexpected event right so in unexpected event how can we find it out the solution is that so whatever you know value error I know a zero division error I know so I can write it but your save side you can also Define it here except exception if zero division will not catch zero uh value error will not catch then exception will definitely catch because it’s a main class and inside that other classes available like a zero Division and value error so so here I’ll just write it down this normal statement invalid okay in case if value error zero division is not captured then exception will definitely captured so one thing is also here uh let me just pass okay you’ll get this kind of answer so one thing you can uh Define it here ke let me just copy the first one okay we can also pass the references as well so here instead of passing the infinity I’ll pass the invalid okay so invalid so if if someone is passing the W any U string values in an integer so definitely it will not convert it so it’s showing the invalid I can also pass the references as e and at the same time I can also Define it e so you’ll get the uh answer is T if I pass so you will get the answer is invalid even let me just Define it here uh colon so that it will be separate okay if someone is passing so it’s showing that invalid literal for integer with a Bas 10 so that means you have to pass any best 10 number but if I’m just passing any zero division issues okay so it’s showing that the invalid and uh the E is representing that division by zero so that error is also we can check it with passing the references um here is not compulsory to pass e you can pass any variable there okay try and accept we understood uh how we can use the uh else and finally block so let me also use it here okay all right so if you’re using U you know the accept after accept we can also use the else block try accept or else else okay so here I’m just writing the normal statement is um uh uh program finished program yeah program done just normal statement so what will happen here the uh program completely done yeah successfully completed successfully program successfully done because when I’m just passing any statement like 2 divide by 6 uh definitely we’ll get the answer is 0.333 and program successfully done but in case if I’ll get any kinds of error any unexpected event is occurred like w if I pass it so it’s showing that invalid and that time the program is not successfully done okay so we can apply the looping concept here uh like the program is running it again and again until we are not done so like if I’m just pass it here the while loop while true so it will be running again again and again but when the program is done that time it will be break so the else is also playing the important role in some situation uh where if everything is if not getting any kinds of error so that time else we can use it so here when I just pass W it will get the error at the same time it’s showing that invalid okay um it’s showing the invalid and again when I just pass the first number properly the two divide by 0 so it also giving the invalid division by zero but when I just pass the proper number so it’s showing that program successfully done and uh the while block is finished this way is working and finally block is kind of uh it doesn’t matter exception is there or exception is not there the finally block is definitely called okay so else is kind of if you not have any exception that time it will be run but the finally block no matter what is happening in the program but finally block will definitely execute so I will choose this one this program because it looks good because zero division is separately and value error is separately okay yeah so finally is Shing that um U like kind of um if I’m making any any any games okay if I’m making any small games so in that situation uh try accept is working very well and finally is playing the very important role create a very small game to generate a random number and we have to guess it so where I will Implement all the keywords of exception handling like a try accept else finally I will use it everything let me first create one random number so we can import import random and uh random do Rand range so we can provide the range from where to where you want to generate the random number I want to generate 1 to 100 so it will generate the random number in between so whenever you run it you’ll getting always different different random number so uh random number we can say just I I’ll I’ll pass it num that’s it okay so my target is that when I just uh when I just pass passing the input if the random number is match then it will showing the statement is that okay I guess the number but if it’s not match then it’s less than and greater than it will giveing the answer so user I will take it as a integer input please guess the number okay please guess the number and if the user that uh you know the guessing the number is greater than num then what I have to say number is greater than than uh guessing number you know your number is a greater than guessing number your number is greater than guessing number yeah random number whatever you can write anything random number okay so and L if we can also apply it if user is less than num the time I can write it here your number is less than random number okay random number okay all right so when I just run it it will asking the question is that please guess the number I’m guessing the number is a five it will saying that your number is less than random number right so that means whatever number I have to guess it the next time make sure that it should be more than five but when I just when you just run it here again so your random number will generate again right so we don’t know previously maybe the random number was uh 25 but now the random number is two so make sure that your random number should not generate multiple times okay again your random number is um less than your your number is less than random number so I will just apply the true uh while loop I’ll I’ll apply it and make sure that it will be running the multiple times while I’ll make it true okay I will make it true so it will asking the question that please guess the number and here the random number will be the static it will not generate every time but your while should be the uh you know your your while loop should be stopped when the number is match with your user is match with user is match with number so what I have to do I have to uh directly write it here um we can we can directly write it the if condition everywhere it’s very simple program you can modify it according to you if user is equal to equal to num the time I have to write it here uh okay we can write it yeah you you got the number you got the random number okay that’s it when the number is match so let me run it again please give guess the number the number I’m guessing that seven saying that your number is less than random number okay uh so that means I have to guess it more than 7 I’m guessing the 50 again is saying that your number is less than random number that means is more than 50 I’m guessing the 80 saying that your number is less than random number I’m guessing the 90 your number is greater than RDA number that means this number exactly in between the 80 and 90 right I’m just guessing the 85 so your number is greater than the random number that means it’s the 80 to 85 I’m guessing the 82 your number is less than that that means 83 can be or 84 only two only two option is there 82 or 83 or 84 is less than that that means the answer is 84 yeah you got the random number I got the random number but again it’s not stopped because I didn’t break it I have to break it here okay I have to break it here let me uh let me just terminate the program because I didn’t use the break condition here break keyword here let me just use it break when you got the number so in this small game what we can what we can uh you know add new things or new features the first thing is that in case if I’m running it and someone is passing the T I got the error so in error we can’t afford it like any kinds of error right so what we can do we can directly uh apply try okay we can apply try in everywhere and accept block because exception handling is very common for any kinds of program so whenever you building any applications so we don’t know what kind of exception will come we can’t show the red color error we have to tell them yes it it’s kind of invalid you have to write it uh you know new things uh the proper statement proper number so whatever is mentioned there in a program I’m just writing there the exception okay and just normal statement is invalid invalid right let me also put the colon here because this not looks good it’s like it’s mixing here so everywhere let me put colon colon colon okay great so try we use it except we use it and uh so if you pass it t that means it not make sense like when I just run it it passing the T so it’s invalid right uh so if you got the number exactly the random number so I want to know that how many attempts I did so that things like if I pass T that means by mistake I just pass the T it’s invalid that should not be countable so what I can do it here let me just break it uh what I can do it here the else I can use it if not exception the time I have to just Define one count here the count is equal to zero so whenever your program is run your try is run so that time the count is increased count is equal to count + one okay every time you count is increased and uh when you got the exact number uh when you got ex here I have to do it because if suppose in the first attempt you got the number so you’ll get the answer is yeah I you got the number but uh what is the attempt so attempt will be the one because zero attempt is not possible right so uh yeah you got the number after count this uh string formatting I’m just use it here so I got it like after how many attempts I got the number okay so this number should increase here let me just run it when I just pass the number is uh 50 okay your number is less than random number that means it should be higher I’m passing the 70 less than that then let me pass the 80 is less than pass the 90 is greater than okay so maybe the number is quite similar no it cannot be is it greater than that uh okay I have to go back lesson number 82 number is lesser 83 is the final answer so yeah you got the random number after seven attempt okay so I have to just make it you know here else I use it except I use it try I use it I want to use the finally block so what finally block does so finally block is basically uh your exception is occurred not occurred it doesn’t matter but the finally block will execute is a kind of if if you um if you open any files exception is occurred or not occurred make sure that the file the program is finished the file should be closed because the next time file will open so here is a game so it kind of every steps there is some checkpoints so I can just write it here just normal checkpoint that means one person will do second person will do the kind of I can make it just checkpoint like one person is finished so the checkpoint will occur doesn’t matter the exception is occurred or not right if the triy block will run finally will run accept will run finally will run else will run finally will so let me just run it when I guessing the number I’m guessing the number is a 50 one checkpoint is done right so it will Shing that yes the first one and second one is totally the separate so guess the second number it’s less than that I can make it 90 greater than 80 less than oh it’s kind of the random number is generating the inbit 85 let me just run it okay yeah you got the random number after four attempt right so hope you understand here where we can use the try in case if you have any kinds of issues you can see here suppose if you run it the program and uh you P guess the number less than that but by mistake you pass the number is uh some string so it will showing that invalid the checkpoint will still run but it will not increase the count this will will considered as attempt because it comes under the else where is this exception which is comes here will not consider as attempt so the next time when I just suppose if you got guess the number so this part will not be considered this part will not be considered hope you understand let me just finish this game okay less than that that means it’s more than that 90 okay it’s kind of every time time is generating the number is in between uh okay five attempt you can see here one attempt okay two attempt three attempt four attempt and here the five attempt this invalid is not considered here hope you understand this try except else and finally block last topic of exception handling is uh nested exception handling nested exception handling okay let me just use the same program which I discussed in the last to last session the same thing I will just use it here all right so here the normal program is like division of two number if the number when someone is passing that any string instead of any number then it’s showing the error and that time is handled by value error but in case if denominator someone is passing the zero so that time the any value cannot be divided by zero so that time the values is passing as a please enter any non-zero values so what I can do I can make it as a Ned exception handling as well because the last one I just make it um exception invalid in case both the um in standard exception Handler is not ex uh you know considered that time the exception will considered I can also make it let me just remove it this one here it’s not required I can also make it the separately the tri block everything I’ll just put inside a tri block and then I can apply it here the exception except exception so it’s become a nested exception handling like try inside a try you are just using likewise the nested for Loop nested conditional statement nested condition is means if inside a if nested Loop is Loop inside a loop nested exception handling is try we can say exception inside exception here I also use the same thing here so in case if this kind of exception is not handled that time the main exception class will accept yeah considered me just write it here the error okay so let me just pass it here suppose any value error if I’m passing so that time please enter any uh numeric values so this part is handled and I just run it 5 / by 0 that time this value is handled but in case if you passing any those kind of values which is not acceptable in value error and zero division error that time this exception will considered likewise if I’m not passing anything that is also so the value error how I explain you this one okay suppose if I’m just removing this part only zero division error is um you know available inside a try inside a try and I just pass it t here so that time is showing the values is one error because zero division error is not considered the value error exception so this entire block is become the error so which is handled by this exception class so hope you understand this exception inside exception sometimes like if you have a bigger program like any application if you are making it this Ned exception handling is really required so before going to the file handling let’s understand that how many types of files is which is available in our computer Industries so many format is there to handle the uh data with first one is it txt and uh PDF we have PDF we have CSV we have do Json we have XEL we have do pickle we have okay so these are a format which is available so this format to store the data so data can be anything so data can be stored in the different different format so if I’m storing one data which is like uh uh the college Rel College data where the student marks is there student subject is there student name gender age everything is available I’m storing the data so we can decide the particular format so if I decided the format is a csb so that csb is considered as a file CSV file right so at the end we are generating one file that can be any file like txt PD fcsb anything so these files we can perform some different different operations so what is operation Operation can be I want to open the files I want to close the file I want to delete the file okay I want to delete the file I want to you know update some file I want to newly write some file so these are operations so I created one complete Jupiter notebook so where you don’t need to re you don’t need to listen the entire video you can also refer that Jupiter notebook you’ll understand easily how the file handling is working so here the first one I just mentioned there first we’ll start with the tech uh text file so how we can write it update it read it everything okay to deal with this kind of operations we required some functions so these are a few important function is available the first one is open and close so if you want to perform any kind of operations so first you have to open some file okay and after that you can perform some operations and then make sure that you have to close that file as well so this this function is also very important so here I didn’t write the description what is the mean of read read is just reading the file read line means line by line reading the file okay write is writing the files right line space one by one writing the files but see and tell is something different so that is the reason I mentioned the description as well seek means defining the exact position and uh tell is find the position which is tells us ke where exactly the uh cursor is available don’t worry we’ll discuss in the practical way so one thing is also required which is a mode okay the mode mode is nothing but ke like what operation you want to perform I want to perform writing operation read operation appending op operation rri Operation sorry yeah rri operation or write in binary operation so here is available so I have one file which um my txt txt my text.txt I am try to write something okay so let me just do it one by one so first I will just create one files I don’t have any files there go back here you can see I I don’t have any kinds of txt file okay I don’t have any txt file so I will just create it one files so here this is the first operation open it will just open the particular file make sure that your mode should be w w means writing the files and then line by line I’m just writing the file this is my first program this is my second program I’m writing there so make sure that you have to close it otherwise it will be impact to the another files if you opening in a new section so yes I close it that means file is properly written sometimes we are not closing the files so what happened ke if you write the program uh if you apply the uh writing some uh you know lines in a text but you forget to close it so that time the file exactly not writing in the text file okay so now file is a properly written so we can also check that ke properly written or not my txt my text.txt so yes file is a properly written there so this is the first way to write the files we have to separately open it and then uh write something and then close it so one more option is also available which is a with open we have to use a with open it and if you using the withth open you don’t need to close it the reason because you’re writing entire section inside the block if you’re coming out the block that means file is already closed so this is also one of the good practice so if you’re using the with open that time you don’t need to close anything okay so I’ll also do it like let me just use it my text. TX my text one.txt let me just create uh new files it will be better so that you can easily compare it let me run it here you can also check it my text one txt so yes this is my first program this is my second program that is properly written here okay so yes this way we can write something but if you already written something I want to update it like I want to add some values which is the line number third line number four so first make sure that you have to open that file mode is very very important so here I just use a w mode meaning is that I’m writing something a is I’m appending something okay when I just use the uh third line and fourth line and if you close it and after that you can see you will find it out ke third line and fourth line is also available but in case if you’re just passing the W instead of a so what will be happen your previous statement will delete it and third and fourth will create so don’t apply the w every time w means writing means if you already exit it will be overwrite again so if you want to just up uh update something so you have to write a so I just use the my txt do my text.txt okay then I’ll check my text.txt yes this is the third line this is the fourth line actually directly starting where the um you know the cursor ended previously it’s ended here that’s why it started here and I use the slash n so that’s why it’s showing the slash in next time so now we we understand the read read line WR right line everything uh okay read uh right we we did that so if I want to use the reading okay so make sure that I should have some files okay uh so python. txt I create I have one files is a big file so you can also find it out files on um GitHub okay before going to the python. txt let’s also read something okay you can also read the my my text.txt as well let me show you how we can read it so with Way open you can also use it with open I’m just opening the file which name is my txt do my text.txt my my text.txt and mode is equal to it’s r r for reading okay and then uh uh we have to define the Define the you know as a variable as F3 I’m just defining it okay F uh F50 I’m just defining maybe it will be impact the next one because 3 four I just use it there so I’m just use the F50 F50 dot read line and then read line that’s it so it will be uh store somewhere let me store in the where one okay so we can also check that is the first line which will be printed where one so this is my first program so whatever I write it I can also read it as well but this is very small line of program so uh I can’t explain you you know much here so that’s why I I created I have one files which is the python. txt yeah this one python. txt this is the Big File okay so let’s let’s understand it how we can read it line by line and uh some particular uh specific location if I want to select it I want to read it then how we can do that for example I want to read only the python support modules python support modules and packages which encourage program modularity like this L this line I want to read it how we can read that kind of line uh you know to skipping other things and directly read this one so first of all you have to read first of all you have to open that file if you’re using the read meaning is that it will read entire things and I’m just closing it here and I just use the print I use the print the reason I want to display everything so now everything is a display but in case I want to display a few things only right so here I store let me store in the variable T why I’m storing variable T because I want to perform some operation there okay uh because everything is available in the string format you can also check the data type so what is the type of T which is the string right so like I want to know that how many times pythons is available in the entire book yeah we can say entire text okay so let me just check it so it’s available at the two times so what is the position of that that uh that pythons the first position which is the 2002 so what is the second position of the pythons so you can directly write here 12 23 means the next position so actually why I’m writing here the 213 because it will be start from 213th position so what will be the next so 66th position have a pythons okay so there is a two places pythons is available you can easily find it out here string with string operation okay so here we have a a method is a seek method seek method is exactly we can just Define the positions from where you want to start it like I I I decided that I want to start some particular position which is the python is interpreted objectoriented high level programming language suppose I want to start from there so how we can start it like we our cursor is always starting from here but I want to start here so seek will Define the position in a python yeah we can say here in this location and then it will printed the uh that particular line so I I Define the position which is the 216 okay let me also check that what exactly U showing that particular line so when I just do that 1216 the current position so which is tells us so tell it will tell you ke look what is the exact position and seek is defining the position set the position so when I just set the position when I just set the position and uh from there it will be starting so python designed the philosophy EMP prise code readability with its notable use of significant indentation so this is the line where is that okay yeah python design I want to read this one because I use that what exactly the position of um uh you know the first pythons so that was starting from it will tells us this one 212 but uh it will tell you the entire 212 entire pythons not the P I want to know that the position of P this P so that is the reason I just use the plus 4 and uh use it here 22 + 4 so likewise you can also check it and you know in case if you’re not write writing the plus 4 so what will be what will happen so it will showing that g dot and then values so you can just count it 1 2 three four after four position it should start then I’ll make it plus four that is the reason I did that okay so you can print it everything here so because I just use the C is equal to 216 that is the reason is printing after that okay that is the reason is printing after that so hope you understand how the text operation is working in Python programming language to handle the operating system operations in your computer so there is a module is available in Python which is the Os Os module so in OS module the lots of method is available to perform the different different operations so we can find it out this kind in any module I want to know that how many method is available you can use a DI function Dr OS so these are the supporting attributes so don’t check this one and here the ABC aert access CHD close chmod lots of method is available so every method have their own work so here in this video we will discuss about the few method and we perform some operations like let me just do the first one the OS do get CWD so get CWD will tell you like what is the current location your Jupiter notebook is working in some particular location what is that location there so the D drive recurrent learning and python so in case if I want to change the location how we can change it so this is the location here D drive okay D drive recurrent learning suppose I want to change it I want to enter in the directly in a python okay I want to enter not only yeah Python and exercise I want to enter in that location okay recurrent learning python exercise this location I want to enter it okay it’s already there in the python let me change any any other location back not in Python video I want to enter and Python tutorial so there is no any files is available I want to enter in that location so copy it that path go there and uh we can use it os. C HD change directory so you can provide the path here so when I just use the change directory your path will change and next time when you just check it os. getet CWD so you will get it the current location which is the recurrent learning video on python tutorials and some operation we can also perform is like um I want to make some directory I want to make some uh you know some folders directory is a folder so how we can create it uh current location is this this in the sense here nothing in no any folder is available I want to create any folder how we can create it mkd sorry OS do mkd and pass the values you can you can write anything uh I’m just writing temp directory temp di so when you just run it so temp directory will generate yeah temp directory is generated so with the help of os module you can perform some operation with your computer so that python is providing that kind of facilities other programming language is also there just I’m telling you the python have the OS moduel and uh in case if you have the multiple directory for example my current location my current directory is this and I want to create the multiple directory inside a directory like path is equal to I want to create um you know new dir inside the new di I want to create one more directory is a okay analysis okay inside analysis and then um uh we can say Titanic okay this folder I want to create it but if you’re using the. M KD let’s see it will work or not so os. mkdir path let’s see it will showing throw the error the system cannot specify the path because your current directory is this and inside that you want to create the multiple directories so which is not possible with a mkdir so different method is available which is a Mech DS Mech directories so when you just using the me directories so you can create a folder inside a folder inside a folder like that so let me show you yeah new di inside that analysis inside that Titanic so this way we can create it okay so in case I don’t want any directory suppose I don’t want a temp directory still there so OS Dot .rm and provide the path which is the temp Dr so that directory will delete RM di sorry rmd so that directory will delete as well so this kind of option is also available to you can also delete it okay there is one only one directory which is the new d new dir there is no any temp di because I deleted I want to change this name I don’t want you know this new IR I want to rename it so OS dot rename it okay so rename it so what is the file name new di I want to change it as a new only okay rename n a m e rename sorry so new di I just change it is a new so change it here so that kind of option is available so let me just do the last two method and after that I’ll I’ll show you the list you can easily explore it suppose my current directory uh my current directory is this current di let me just do it o.get CWD okay this is my current Di okay I want to perform some operation uh so like uh I want to add it like new Di and with all the locations right so how we can do it like inside a DI there is analysis folder is available so we can also join the path as well so OS do os. paath do join so my current directory current Di with whatever path you want to join it suppose I want to join with a new so it will be joined like this okay so you can perform the analysis and based on that so. path. jooin you can joining with the two One Directory with any other directory in case I want to create One Directory which name is a new which is already exist let me R OS do mkd which name is new let’s see what will happen so it will throw the error and saying that cannot create a file when that file is already exist so there is a condition we can also apply it okay if os. paath do exist and you can write it that new in case if new is exist the time in case if new a exist if os. path. exist the time will not create okay okay okay let me just try uh okay so it’s kind of if path the the different path is exist then you can create it like I want to uh this one is just tell you like the path is exist or not like I want to check that yes or no so it will show yes that path is exist so in case the new is exist inside that I want to create one uh location like here like here inside a new I want to create it inside new folder I want to create one more folder which name is uh data science okay inside a new I want to create it in a data science likewise okay let me tell you new okay temp Dr and then data science okay so like this live it let me make it the very simple I want to create new directory os. mkd which is name is new I want to create it but it’s already exist so it throw the error so what I can do if not os. path. exist new if it’s not there then it’s create otherwise don’t create so it will not throw the error in case new is not available so currently new is available it’s not enter inside the location but in case if it’s not available I delete it when you run it here so it will be create but inside nothing is there because just now it created okay so when you just apply this kind of condition if not os. path that exist then it’s created otherwise don’t create so in OS module lots of method is available so I just provided the link in a Jupiter notebook W3 schools you can also explore it like anything like I want to know that CPU count okay with a CPU count you can also use it how many CPU is there and you can also perform the operation there is a four CPU kind so likewise I want to also check that in my PC how many CPU count is there so OS do CPU count okay it’s not counts think yeah there is a 12 CPU count is there in their system is a four so likewise you can also explore it other method which is available here this is the last topic of file handling so here we will discuss about an different type of files like a pickle Json CSV okay so let’s create one dictionary so dictionary where inside some list is also available so this is the normal dictionary so pickle is used for preserving the data so like if you save this kind of data into any format like a Json format or normally the text format you can see easily right if you double click with a notepad you can uh see that kind of files but pickle is always store in the preserving method so like if I’m creating this kind of data as a complete data frame I want to preserve it and store somewhere so that in future we can also use it so usually this pickle we are using if you are generating any kinds of you know the model uh machine learning model or uh uh any any kind of model deep learning we are not using because for deep learning we have a separate extension is there so L take the example of machine learning if you created the machine learning we have a lots of steps is available and that entire steps that entire model uh steps we can preserve it with a pickle extension so here I’m just taking the one of the simple example which is dictionary I want to preserve it so again if you want to write any kinds of files we have to go with WB right in binary because it’s a pickle file and that have a two with two extension we can use it first one is pickle second one is Sav okay we can when you just store it uh uh that file will be stored in the pkl format so dick. py uh di. pkl the file is stored and you can’t see directly even if you’re opening on notepad you can’t see that kind of files so we have a two extension is available Sav and Pon okay so in case if you downloaded this file and uh you want to open it normal notepad any other any kinds of you know applications let me just download it and and I will show you how exactly look like so that was a dictionary that was a dictionary and now it’s visible like this actually that was not dictionary that was a data frame but it’s not visible properly if you want to see this kind of data again and if you share to anyone and they want to load it how we can load that kind of files so again we have to open first of all that uh files like with open Lim just use it with open file name file name is nothing but uh di. saav okay and we have to define the mode mode is equal to read in binary and pickle okay that we need one reference as F okay so pickle do load that F I want to load it let me store in the result values let me see result yeah so now we can see that kind of files so directly if you try to open it you can’t so because it’s store in the preserving method okay likewise we have also the another type of files which is a Json Json one of the data format where we can store in uh Json format right it’s a different type of format is there so Json always is working with the um curly brasses inside that key value payer option is available okay so we have a two types of data is available first one is uh structured data second one is unstructured data so this kind of data this word table kind of structured data but in case if you have a sector sector we have an HR and in HR the multiple set sector is there yeah we can say multiple type is there so you will you need to create one more table and then Define it HR how many types of HR is there right but the plus point of the Json is that ke name is a bob but the language instead of defining only one we can also Define the multiple languages as well okay and likewise inside the dictionary we can also make a dictionary so like the language is there inside the language I can also create one dictionary like in in a language I can also create a dictionary for example I can also make like this okay in English what is exactly the marks is there 45 so likewise they totally the unstructured we can Define the data in any way but if you have a table format so we have a limitations like English have a 45 a French have 56 the kind of we can also Define it so the Json is giving the lots of freedoms to Define our data set okay so nowadays the most of the data is available in the unstructured format so we preferring the Json extension okay so let me just show take it as it is yeah all right so we can also write it let me just create one normal files uh per . Json I just create normal file I’m just writing it here and dump now it’s dump and you can also do like this with with um you know with keyword you can also do that either or you can just open the file and then dump it okay so reading the files like file is already created the person. Json you can also see that so Json file you can easily see yeah they look like this okay so Json data is like little bit bigger even uh I can also show you uh some data set okay let me just go to uh covid 19.org one famous website okay covid 19.org okay I’m I’m just going with that okay this is a official website okay any other website is there co9 .org yeah covid 19.org okay I’m not able to find it out any H yeah yeah this is the uh one website is there when you scroll down and you scroll down so you’ll find it out the database here most of the data you’ll find it out in the Json format because unstructured data we can easily store in the Json extension okay see this is the format of the data so the most of the here the data is available like um you know the key and that values that is also considered as a key for that values this one is a key for that values like that we can also Define it like there is no any limitation to Define our data set if you’re doing with the same thing for a table so we have to create multiple tables for that so that is the reason Json is a quite booming and quite famous data type is there okay so we can also read it simply we have to read that data set so when I just read it look like this but if you want to see in uh same as it is the Json format so we can also apply the indent indent means taking a space for each uh sections we can say so to showing like this the name is a bob language and inside a language we have the different languages is there so we can also see that kind of data and and indentation it’s totally Upon Us ke how many indentation you want to pass it you want to pass the four it will be taking the four space otherwise it will be taking a two spaces so we have also uh another type of data which is the CSV is a quite famous I think uh uh everyone know about that CS V and Excel CSV is the comma separated values okay so here I created one complete CSV files so this is the field I Define it and this is the row and I want to create the complete table CSV tables which I will open on Excel uh software okay so I created the complete data let me first show you the data before writing the CSV format okay how it look like so row is look like this so this is the data I created it here and this is nothing but a field okay so field which is the name ear branch and marks so here I here I just just normally open it with with keyword student. csb is my data uh file name and I want to just write it and for next line I don’t want to Define anything and a dict writer when I just pass it and every time I will just write it uh write header and every rows that rows values one by one it will be passed into the um csb so the file is created you can also see that in a student. csb go back and uh we can see C student. csb is created here let me first download and I’ll show show you how it exactly look like the CSV file is created and the data will be look like this you can see okay name ear branch and marks so okay that is nothing but a field yeah name ear branch and marks that is a field and all the rows is also present here the name I Define it as uh Saga here I Define it a 2022 20 and Branch I Define it marks I Define it accordingly it’s created okay accordingly it’s created here you can see with the help of file handling we can also create the CSV file as well so likewise here I also Define it okay new line I want to add it so mode I make it upend and uh new line I didn’t Define anything so next time it will be appending that values so let me just refresh it okay uh here it will not refresh let me open in the same location here student okay so yes Manish math I Define it here okay Manish and Branch 2024 and math and marks I Define it here okay so likewise I also create uh the same thing for a data frame in case if you have uh uh this is the way of file handling techniques to create the CV file but one more way is also available to directly generate the CSV file like if I created the complete data frame with the pandas so it look like this I want to generate into the CSV so data set make sure that this uh this data set type this data type should be in a data frame pandas data frame okay so this is one is a pandas frame. data frame so if this kind of format of data is available you can directly pass data set in 2 csb if you pass the 2 csb so that directly will generate the files you can also see that yeah movies. CSV so the file will be generated in the Excel format sorry CSV format but in case if you want to generate the Excel format as well that is also quite simple why is not opening yeah it’s open okay by default is generating the uh index in case if you make it reset index Tex that will not visible there again uh this kind of things we’ll discuss when we start the pandas and numpy topic okay so let me show you how we can create the Excel file data set do 2XL you can Define it and uh you can write it here the movies do x x LSX that is extension previously it was a CSV that is a comma separated values Excel and csb both are different things both are different format is there okay when I just create it so you can see this one is a uh this one movies is the Excel which have a 5.07 KB that file size is little bit bigger compared to the CSV file this one is a CSV file but when you just click on it you’ll find it out the data is the same but only thing is that the Excel is creating their own format like this one is making at the board B this one is also making as a bold like that okay so this one is also the format of reading the any Excel file of CSV file I’ll just normally open it with the mode of R when I just make it mode of R and uh every time I just make it header and print it that sorry reader then and I print it one by one so you can see that the file so yeah so this way we can and why I just use this next because I want to just print it next one by one okay all right so hope you understand this all these structures but in case if you’re facing any kind of issues because uh this one I was little bit faster reason it’s the extra yeah we can say the different uh format of the data set is there sometimes useful sometimes not useful and uh I just explain the Json CSV and pickle maybe you also use different types of you know formatting but again the the structure the the process which I explain for this kind of formatting of the data set that will be the quite similar for that other format as well okay so hope you understand this video but in case if you’re facing any issues you can write it down in a comment definitely I’ll solve your problem so let’s first discuss about uh the topic which we’ll cover in object-oriented programming series Okay so so we’ll first discuss about what is the object then classes what is the inheritance and also we’ll also discuss uh Constructor polymorphism will discuss abstraction and encapsulation there is a completely a six main topic is there in object oriented we will cover one by one very first one what is the object and classes okay so class is nothing but so the uh topic name is objectoriented right right so first we’ll discuss what why the name is object oriented so object oriented is nothing but almost everything in uh programming language we consider as an object so like if I’m I’m a human my name is uh my name is X someone name is a y so that person is nothing but object so some classes is also there like the person is a x the person is a y the classes will be the human right we can say simply human human so suppose one car is there like here I I given the example as a maruti Audi BMW so these are a car the car is considered as an object where the car is a class this maruti AI BMW is an object the car is a class the same thing here so object which is defined here the Happy angry sad whereas the emotion is a class so the one real thing is which is really exist in a real life so we can say it’s object and some classes is also exist so class is nothing but it’s a blueprint of object whereas a object is a instance sub class instance is nothing but the example so object is a one example of a class so maruti is a example of car Audi is example of car BMW is example of car example is like instance of a that car so let’s understand in the practical way we’ll do it in the python okay so let’s do it in the practical way I’ll I’ll take the same example maruti Audi and BMW I will not take any other things so just consider here the maruti Audi BMW is an object and car is a class we’ll create it accordingly I’ll try to connect with that how programming uh in programming language objectoriented we are implementing so let me create one Jupiter notebook so it’s taking a time yeah now it’s created let me just take it oops concept okay so very first one is object and class we’ll try to Define it in a p in Python programming language we are defining with the uh class and class name so class name I’m writing here the car whereas the object will be BMW Audi and these are the things okay so car is a class so inside that we have a different different uh uh you know object is there so inside a car we can just Define it we can Define it the multiple functions so inside there is a class to multiple function is available right so the function can be the engine the function can be uh you know uh some indicate fuel indicator uh function can be the seat how many seats are there how many doors are there right so there is a door I’m defining the the function is a door so it’s very important to write it down here the self okay in Python programming language self is very very important whenever you’re defining any uh method inside a class so I’ll explain you later why the self is important for this self and then normal statement this car have four doors that’s it okay and and Def engine self is very important print this car have very powerful engine okay and uh let me also Define one more things is here uh seat self print normal statement this car have five seat yeah now then we just create an object so object can be uh BMW I’m defining it here BMW is equal it’s a object so car is a class so we Define the object like call the class and using the bracket and after that with the BMW what are the functionalities available you can directly call it okay so BMW do door so currently I just Define the very high level just door engine and seat but you can also Define it the very specific things is there ke in a BMW uh what is the engine is there so BMW have very powerful engine as compared to the marutti Suzuki or atata anything right so we can also Define the separate separating and we can call to that specific engine and specific seat okay and uh uh then I just call the B I just call the only door function so door will open right when I just run it so this car have a four doors okay so if the BMW i define it BMW do seat then it will call the seat only so this car have a five seat okay so likewise uh suppose if you have a different car car okay and I Define it car and uh T do door when you just call it so you’re not expecting that it should be the answer is a four seater a four door there is only two door right but here I directly Define it the four door because it’s a uh you know just default value I just pass it that I printed the values but you can pass the arguments if you just calling the uh door function and your object is a thar so definitely it should it should be pass only the two door not a multiple door is there so likewise we can also Define it so we can pass the arguments here is showing the four door because I Define it so here my main Moto was that ke how we can create a class and object so car is a class door method seat is a door engine seat is a method I can directly Define it here this is nothing but a class and these are we are calling the method and these BMW is nothing but an object BMW is nothing but a object object calling okay so this way we are defining here the the confusion is that what is the meaning of self and uh in case if I’m not writing the self so what will be the impact here so suppose if I’m deleting the self let’s see what will happen throw the error it throw the error is saying that the car. door takes zero positional arguments but one was given so that means so here the self is very important to Define it because so by default when you are creating the object it’s passing some arguments okay so that’s why it’s saying that take a zero positional argument but one was given but means here is passing some arguments but uh uh you know but I didn’t Define a I didn’t Define any positional argument so here I didn’t Define anything so that mean we have to define the self so what is the use of Self in case if I just use it here the self what is the purpose of that so self is a kind of self is a kind of one parameter so it’s using for passing the references so here I Define it self is a parameter is a reference to the current instance to the class and used to access the variable belonging to the classes so it’s very simple like if I have any variable uh the variable is um door is equal to four instead of defining here directly the four I just Define it as a variable I pass it the door okay I pass it the door and uh the same thing for a seat I also Define it seat is equal to 5 okay I Define it the seat okay all right so when I just run it so you’re getting the same answer nothing will change because I just create the one variable and Define the variable here same thing here I create the variable define it here but in case I want to use this door variable in a seat function is that possible so absolutely not we can’t can’t do it because it’s a local variable so it’s useful only inside that function any other function if you want to use it it’s not possible there so how we can use it so like here I want to instead of writing here okay instead of uh uh instead of writing this car have a five seater and door and doors are door is it possible to write it so it thr throw the error if you’re calling the seat function definitely throw the error yeah it’s saying that door is not defined in a seat function why it’s not defined because you can see here this car have this uh this this function have the variable seat but door don’t have but if you’re using any kinds of variable and attach with a self so it’s become a kind of global for the entire classes not outside of that so self is kind of passing the references so that it can be used inside a classes self. door instead of writing the door if I’m writing the self. door you can access why not access okay uh self. door is not accessible it should be self. door self do okay let me also Define it yourself I think half of you can’t use it door is not defined mhm okay so it’s throw the error in the first U function uh bmw. door okay so here is throw the air because I Define the self. door and here I’m calling the uh one door so that’s why throw the error so now the problem solved I use a self door and that variable I can also access easily any other function as well but make sure that that all the functions should be available in the same classes if the classes are different so then it create the problem but again that problem have also the solution is that uh we can use the inheritance that we’ll discuss later okay hope you understand that how the self parameter we are using what else we can also discuss it here there is one topic is called as a method and function and uh uh some you know some myth is there ke method and function both are the same uh both are the same or different and if it’s same then why we are using the two different name right it’s very confusing things so method and function both are same first of all let me just clear it it’s the same nothing different so only different is that if you’re creating any kinds of function with like uh Def and uh some function name is like a fun okay let me just write it there if you’re defining the function def function name is a great okay this is the function name and inside that whatever you want to write you can I’m just writing the pass so this one we are calling the function this one we are calling the function but in case if you’re defining any class okay class name is a and inside that if you’re defining this kind of function and with a cell parameter which is mandatory in objectoriented programming language if you are writing in a python so that time the grd become a method okay so here grd we are not calling it a function it’s a method so the difference is that the function and Method both are a same only when we Define the function inside a class is called as a method let me also write it when we we are defining the function inside the class we are calling method very simple so method or function both are the same only thing is that when you’re defining the function inside a class we are calling method there is also one more perception not a perception one statement is quite uh popular in Python programming language only which is in a python python is an object-oriented programming language that is true but almost everything in a python is an object with their properties and Method now it’s very confusing almost everything what is a mean almost everything so that means if I’m defining any variable that is also the method uh that is also the object yes as I said like when we start the objectoriented programming I said ke uh almost everything thing in uh in the world which is really exist is called as a object right so here if I’m defining any kinds of variable this normal variable a is equal to uh 15 and B is equal to hello these are two variables so according to that statement can I say that A and B both are in object it’s true both are object so why it’s object see if it’s object then definitely some classes will be there right because python is objectoriented programming language I said that A and B both are object that means some classes will be there so when you just check the type A so definitely you will get a class actually you writing in the Jupiter notebook that’s why it’s not showing that complete statement when you just print it print a so you’ll get it yes so int is a class of a so a is object integ a class some method will be there some function will be there method will be there not function okay because when you define the function inside a class that become a method so where is the method so when you just using the DI function which we used in I think last classes uh for OS module so di of a you’ll get it all kind of method these are attributes which we are using in object oriented in in class and object and when you scroll down you’ll find it out the object as well uh sorry method as well these are the method two type real image everything right so hope you remember in the uh data type um in string so lots of method is there I I make I separate it okay these are a function these are a method a method is always calling right method is always calling so here when I just use the DI R of B of B you’ll find it out the lots of method I think some method you already aware about that so like uh join we usually implement it split we usually implement it where is that yeah upper lower these we are implemented these are a method so if it’s a method I want to call it how we can call it here so B is a object okay I want to call one method Dot because B is object if you’re calling any method we have to use a b dot what is that upper so this is the method so when I just run it yes it’s working but that classes is the inbu classes so int string di list these are inbuild classes so hope you understand this concept is that why I’m saying that int uh why I’m saying that almost everything in a Python programming language is considered as an object a Constructor is a special type of method which we are defining with the init so I think we already discussed the init in package and module so there we didn’t create it in a class and object but here the Constructor which we defining that will be the class and object so the Constructor is executing when you’re just creating the object of the class so even don’t need to manually call The Constructor so let’s do it practically this is not a theoretical topic let’s do it practically here I’m taking the same example the car and what I just discussed let me just do the copy paste and try to just create one problem and that problem will solve with the Constructor okay so these are the uh code and here I Define the door and that that self. door I’m just using inside the uh yeah the seat yeah in the seat method I’m also using the self. door but what happen if you’re not calling the door method and you’re just directly calling the seat method so of course it will be give the error so here is showing that bound method oh okay because I Define it the door method and door function uh door variable both are a same so never do like that uh so better I’ll just do a doors okay and here I also use doors so here you’ll find it out you’ll get the error all right let me just remove it this one you’ll get in the error because you didn’t call the door method and you’re using this door variable so in that situation what is this uh option for you because anyhow you have to call the do method then you can use whatever you have Define inside that particular method so avoid this kind of scenario we are using the Constructor so Constructor we are defining with underscore underscore and it underscore underscore inside that cell parameter is always be there and whatever you’ll write print this is Constructor okay this is Constructor so whatever you’ll Define inside the Constructor this in it and that will automatically print so let me just remove it both okay let’s just create uh create the object BMW is equal to car so when I just run it automatically this method is run it’s executed it even I didn’t call it here so let’s call the BMW BMW dot the seat method seat method if you’re calling so there is a variable is self. seat okay self. seat which is Define it uh Define it here here directly and seat number better uh let’s change the variable name seat number so don’t make it the variable name and Method name are same otherwise the conflict will happen and you will be confused that why the getting the different error yeah different answer okay the better of door I’m also taking the door number yeah number of door okay number of Doors number of doors okay so here when I just run it and check the error car object has no attribute of number of doors the reason behind that because I didn’t call the uh car method and directly calling the seat method here so the seat uh there is a two variable I’m just using SE seat number which is defined in the same method but the number of door is defining the different method so avoiding this kind of conflict if you’re just using the same variable in the multi multiple method so don’t use it here I can directly use it inside a Constructor because Constructor will always always execute and you can directly call any method you not depending on any method here so when I just run it yes this this car have a five seat and doors are four so right so this kind of Constructor we are calling the non-parameterized Constructor so the Constructor is also defining the two types the very first one is a parameterized second one is a non-parameterized parameterize simple you have a parameter non-parameterized you don’t have a parameter right so which I Define it here this one is considered as a non-parameterized Constructor red Constructor and if I want to make it a parameterized Constructor whatever you passing the number of doors and uh seat number so that you can pass as a parameter so let me just Define it and uh we are doing the Constructor let me also make the heading properly here so this is the Constructor topic okay so I want to make it parameterized Constructor here so this is normal non-parameterized Constructor let me just remove it my target is to make it parameterized Constructor so whatever is Define the number of doors so instead of taking the manual Valu is the four I’m taking as a parameter wise uh suppose the door number okay door number suppose that variable I’m just taking it and at the same time so all the variable which I Define it even the self dot seat number that I also take it inside the Constructor itself okay let’s take the seats number let me take the number of seat directly number of okay so uh here I’m getting the values as a parameter so let’s not take it this one now so this is the normal method I’m just making it so inside a door I’m just printing the number of doors engine just normal statement and Method and seat and we are printing the seat and doors both so here I don’t want to make it manually four and five let’s make it some Dynamic way so in the place of four I’ll just pass it the uh door number and here in the place of five I’ll pass it the seat number so whatever value will be store in the seat number and door number that will be that will assign into the self do number of doors and self. number of seat so here when I just pass when I just call the Constructor when you don’t need to call the Constructor automatically call let me just create the object of it BMW is equal to car and here you have to pass the parameter because if you not you have to pass the argument if you’re not passing the argument it will throw the error what is saying that the car do in it missing two positional argument which is the number of door number and seat number so I’ll pass the two arguments let me pass the four door and five seater okay four door and five SE when I just run it so this this is Constructor that statement is run that means there is no any problem in the Constructor so now when I just pass the when I just calling any method like bmw. seat so that running properly okay bmw. seat oh the core object has no attribute seat number okay it’s not a seat number it’s a number of seat okay when I just run it yes this one properly working the main Moto of it here if you are just defining the parameter inside the Constructor it’s become a parameterized Constructor and if you define the parameter of course you have to pass the arguments okay and uh you can also make it default parameter as well so you can make it get zero in case if I’m not passing anything if I’m passing the four and five of course I’ll get the four and five as a seat number of seat and number of doors but in case if I’m not passing anything so in the time is taking 0 0 so that default value we can also Define it so this way we are doing the Constructor let’s first discuss about the definition of The Inheritance so inheritance is a mechanism which inheritance is a mechanism in which one class classes acquire the property of another classes so there is so many examples available for inheritance so I’m just took one of the example of uh parent and child so likewise the child is always acquiring the uh you know all the kind of property and uh other stuff of uh his father so the kind of uh this kind of classes this child this classes we can say the child classes okay and it’s we are also calling the derived classes it’s already mentioned there derived classes and uh we also calling us yeah child classes and and this one we are calling the base class we calling the parent class parent class okay so likewise we have a two different name we are using it so there is a multiple type of inheritances exist in the objectoriented programming language okay I already mentioned there the super class we also calling sub classes we are calling of this child okay so there is a multiple types of inheritances exist single inheritance multiple inheritance multi-level inheritance hierarchical inheritance and Hybrid inheritance so here the the complete map of the single inheritance and multiple all kind of inheritance map is available so we will discuss about the Practical implement how we can perform the inheritance concept with the Python programming language okay let’s jump on the coding yeah practical implementation okay I required one classes uh let me just take a very simple classes is U father okay so I’ll take the very uh you know real life scenario situation where you can easily relate it like I create a I will create father class I will create a child class I will just create object of the child so that you can easily real relate with the real life example father and so whatever if you want to create any kinds of Constructor you can otherwise it’s not required currently okay so we’ll create one method so method name is like the father have car okay so the child can acquire the car car and self is very very important self and let me let me also pass some parameters car model your model I’m just passing it here and just normal statement okay father have a car here I can also Define the model as well so this is one class I’ll also create one more class which is a child okay child and here I will inherit the father let me first create the child later I’ll inherit how to inherit I will also discuss in a deeper way as well so def a child have a bike okay let me also pass the self and bike model yeah yeah model we can say model and print the statement is I have a bike and that also Define the model as well simple so I’ll create one object the child object the ra name is Rahul Rahul is a object of child class now I create it if I want to call any method which is available in the child class I can easily call it Rahul dot bike okay I can easily call it so now when I just run it you’ll get the statement is I have a bike so whatever bike he have so we can easily get it okay so here we can simply perform the operation and also check that key uh this one is running or not there is a error why it’s Error because we defined one parameter but didn’t pass any kinds of arguments so I will pass the arguments what kind of bike you have I’m just passing the fet simple so I have a bike FZ but can Rahul call the car method is that possible so no Rahul cannot call the car method because it’s available in the father class so I can simply create I can simply inherit that father class in a child class so you can just create just round bracket and inside that whatever class you want to acquire it you can directly write out there that class name so I’m writing the father so when I just writing the father inside the child bracket that means I’m just acquiring the all the property of child uh all the property of Father inside the child so when I just run it so I should get the answer now okay so father is also have one parameter so I have to pass the arguments so I’ll just pass the arguments as like maruti simple maruti okay when I just pass it so father have a card which is a maruti so simply Define it here so one class acquire the property of another class so property of another class in the sense property can be any variable can be any method can be any function method and function both are a same so you you can call to any kind of the inherit Constructor as well you can call it okay so this kind of inheritance we are calling the single inheritance we are calling single inheritance we can just Define it single inheritance simp so let me also take one more example of another inheritance and after that I’ll Al assign you the one kind of task for you you can try it and check that key uh you can you know you can easily do it this inheritance sing multiple or multi whatever you can do it or not so single inheritance is done and now I have to take some complicated in inheritance let me take the Hybrid inheritance because when I just take this hybrid inheritance so hybrid will be cover the hierarchical inheritance which will be this and uh it also cover the multile inheritance as well so I’ll just go with Hybrid inheritance and uh you can also do the practice of multi-level inheritance and hierarchal and multiple separately as well okay let me just also Define the uh here headings so that you can also do it so you will get this Jupiter Notebook on GitHub just go to the description you’ll find it out one link just go there and find it out this this Jupiter notebook code okay so uh I’ll go with the Hybrid inheritance inheritance inheritance okay it’s one sorry okay so Hybrid inheritance I’ll just try to create it I’ll just take this uh same example this one okay now this one is a single inheritance I’ll also create one more class which have simply mother and Def car self model not a model I’ll not a car I I’ll take something else uh scooty okay scooty suppose mother have a scooty uh so I can also Define it here the self and model I will not pass anything I can directly call the scooty and print this normal statement okay so mother have scooty okay simple so child here the child is acquiring the father only and uh let me also create the object is Rahul is equal to child and Rahul will call to father rul will call to sorry not a father rul will call to car r can Rahul can also call the bike as well so he will not get any kinds of error okay so model is required so I’ll just pass it here okay so maruti I’m just passing the same thing and there I’m just passing the F said so this one is working but if a child try to acquire the property of scooty Rahul do scooty so you’ll get the error while getting the error because here the child is not acquired the property of mother so I’ll here I’ll try to just acquiring the property of mother as well just do the comma and pass the mother so what will be happen so child is acquiring the property of both mother and father both okay so simply you have to just pass the both the classes inside that bracket uh which one which class you want to inherit so this kind of inherit this kind of hierarchical uh this kind of uh inheritance we can say it’s a hierarchical inheritance because I have a father I have a mother and here is a child so it it acquire the property of father and mother okay so when you’re talking about uh other inheritance like if you have a multiple things so so this it’s not a hierarchical inheritance we can say it’s a multiple inheritance multiple inheritance okay so when you’re talking about the uh you know any hierarchical inheritance so one kind of class should be there so let me also create one more classes and father and mother both can acquire that kind of property so we can say uh we can say Define that um uh property we can simply we can say property so property can acquire in inside a property function so father and uh mother both can acquire the classes so we can also Define it here so that become the hierarchical inheritance so upsider one we can say it’s a this one so this one we can say it’s a hierarchical inheritance and uh in inside one we can say this downside one it’s a multiple inheritance so let me just remove it clear all the drawings yeah so let’s create one kind of class and just Define it this one is this hybrid this currently it’s a not a hybrid this one we can say it’s a yeah this one is a multiple inheritance I can also Define it here multiple inheritance multiple inheritance I have to also pass The hierarchical Inheritance as well inheritance okay so currently I just use the uh multiple inheritance let me also Define The hierarchical Inheritance as well so I can just take it here one of the classes which is okay property okay okay properties I can M it because maybe I think some in build function or in build classes can be so I will not take the property I’ll just take the properties I’ll create one function is a uh okay land Square self I Define it here so that property father father mother both can acquire it at the same time child can also acquire it so I can also Define it here uh just normal statements so we have five acre ACR I think we can call call it property in India okay the normal statement is there so currently that properties classes cannot uh you know it’s not connected with a father and mother if they want to acquire it they can also directly pass it here the properties so this is just a normal example how the all kind of inheritance is working properties okay so simply uh properties that spelling is Miss wrong I think okay properties so there is no any error so in case if I’m creating the object of father and mother anything So currently uh the object of child is already present so let me also directly call that Rahul do properties Rahul do land Square so when I just use the land Square I don’t need to pass any kinds of arguments so Rahul can also access it why father and mother so same time if I creating the object of father and mother like f is equal to father and uh F do land square if I’m just calling it so you can also access it so inheritance one of the simple topic of objectoriented programming language so here I just use it the Hybrid inheritance inside a Hybrid inheritance so multiple and hierarchical is a covered so multi thing is remaining in the multi-level so you can also try it and let me know if you’re facing any issues but I’m I’m I’m damn sure you will not face any kinds of issues because hybrid is covered kind of all kind of uh levels because the multiple is already there so you have to just increase one of the labels so it become a multi-level inheritance let me also create one heading multi- inheritance okay so polymorphism is nothing but like many form the simply we are calling is the many form right many form we can directly say so when you’re talking about the definition of the polymorphism is simply if you have any kinds of function and the same function name being used in the different way let me just remove it that annotation yeah the same function name being used for a different types so not only the function uh usually we are using for a function that we are also calling the method but we can also do the same for operator as well so polymorphism can be achieved in the many way so the very first one I think you already aware heard about that that is Method overloading method overloading and uh the second one we are calling method overriding okay so and we have also the another type is also aaable uh that uh we have Operator overriding Operator overloading Operator overloading and uh we have also one more type is there the duct type okay why I mention there the operator overloading and duct type here because in this video and in the series we going to discuss about the method overloading and method overriding which is very very important um in the polymorphism perspective but you can also learn it the method over loading and duct type as well but if you want any if you want a video for uh operator overloading and duct type I can also make it it’s not much as much complicated okay so these are the way to achieve the method or uh to achieve the polymorphism concept let me also write it here this way we can achieve polymorphism okay so uh polymorphism we can also understand it there is two way the first one we can we can try to understand with without classes okay without without classes which I will discuss in this video okay without classes and we also discuss in with classes as well okay so with classes like here method overloading and method overriding that we can do it with classes but let’s understand it very simple way how polymorphism is working in um you know normal examples so let me also let me take one heading polymorphism okay startingly I will not make it much complicated overloading overriding we’ll discuss later but let’s understand it how polymorphism is working with a simple function without any classes polymorphism okay let’s say for example if you have um you know inbuild function is a len so Len is a function if you you pass a simple statement is hello okay so it will give you the answer is the length of five length of hello which is uh five but in case if you’re passing the length of any uh list 5 6 8 9 there is no any restriction to pass any kinds of data type I can directly pass a string that is also acceptable I can pass a list that is also acceptable if I’m passing Apple dictionary set anything that is acceptable so the one function have a multiple form to define the length of uh the length of container that container can be the string that container can be the list dle anything suppose if I’m defining any function here the def def add function I’m passing the values is x y and Zed okay x y and Zed and just uh returning the values return x + y + z so when you call this function the ADD and pass the values is 4 comma 5 comma 6 then you’ll get the answer like addition of all the values which is a 15 but in case if you’re passing only two values two arguments but you define the Define the three parameters but if you pass the two arguments definitely you’ll get the error but if you directly Define some uh you know default parameters which is if I’m defining the none here so that is acceptable here uh not a none uh none type cannot be added let me pass a zero okay pass zero so you’ll get the answer is 5 + 4 so the same function I can add two values the same function I can add add three values as well so here the add function being being like uh the same function is uh you know working for multiple forms so we can use it right so this there is a two techniques is a method overloading and Method overriding so that is a two different totally different techniques we’ll try to understand it and do it in practical way so how exactly the method overloading is working so let’s say for example if you have one class okay class and the class name is a uh for example is a cal So Cal class so inside a cal clock I can Define it multiple methods uh multiple methods but the name will be the same so the name is like def me method name is ADD I can pass the parameter is like X comma Y at the same time I can also Define one more method which is ADD and this time I will pass the parameter is X comma y comma Z okay okay so if you have a two different method is available but the name are name are same so when you create the object of the class so the class name is suppose C Class name is a cal and object is a c Cal okay and uh C do add if I I’m just calling it if I’m calling the add function with three parameter 5 comma 7A 8 then definitely you will get the addition but the same time if I am just calling the addition U addition of only two number suppose if I’m not passing the eight okay so function is already defined the add function is already defined so definitely this function should call but in a python this kind of you know normal overloading is not supporting the reason behind that the python is a interpreted language and it always take piing the current positions current positions values so here the current one is the add which is defined with the three parameters and if you pass the two parameters the previous one is not accepted it’s being overloading but if you’re defining if you’re passing the only two parameter it not able to call the previous one so the complete overloading is not acceptable in the Python programming language let’s try to understand in the Practical implementation okay uh the topic is Method overloading let me just uh write it down the heading here method overloading okay so the class I Define it the same example I will take it class calc okay inside a cal I’ll uh I’ll Define the uh function add and pass the parameter is a comma B okay and uh make sure that you have to pass the self uh par meter which is passing as a reference which is compulsory in in the Python programming language I’m just passing it here return of A+ B okay so and then I’ll Define the ADD and pass the uh parameters a comma B comma C okay there is three parameters and uh return the values A + B + C and me also Define a without parameter def add and self inside I’ll just pass the A and I will return return e that’s it so very simple example is there the method overloading so method overloading let me also write it down the definition here a see okay uh method name are same but different parameter method name are same with different parameter okay so here I make the same thing method name are same but the different parameter if I’m just I the structure is ready now I’ll create the object object is let me just see take it as a c is equal to Cal okay all right so here Cal is a class and the C is object I will call the method add the C do add and pass the parameter 4 comma 5 comma 7 so I’m expecting the answer is uh 19 5 + 4 9 + 7 16 so yes the answer is correct the 16 but here I pass the three parameters so definitely this method is run okay but in case if I’m passing only the two parameter what will happen so if I’m passing the only two two or ments this one is arguments okay let me also write it down here this one is a arguments and what you are defining is a parameter okay so here I’m passing the only two arguments and uh the line number five is already defined the um you know only two parameters so I’m expecting the answer should be nine but here is the getting the error it’s saying that the missing one required positional arguments which is C so why it’s showing this kind of error the reason behind that you can see here so the last method is defined three parameters and I pass only the two arguments so it’s not able to check the previous one because of the Python is a interpreted language so if I’m passing the parameters it taking the current one for example if I have the a is equal to 7 and a is equal to 8 so if I run it so it’s being completely over overridden okay so if I’m printing the a so it will getting the answer is eight so what will happen is the first eight is a store in the first seven is a store in a variable when I’m just storing the eight in the same variable so what will happen the previous values is removed so the same thing happening is here so previous value is not considered it’s taking the current one only so what I can do uh so simply the method overloading is not completely acceptable in the Python programming language but if I want to achieve it so we have a you know different way we can achieve it see in a python everything is possible but something is direct or something is indirect so the directly method overloading is not possible but indirectly you can use it so what I can do it here if you if I have a three variables so all three variables I Define it a b and c but make sure that you have to Define some parameters I’m I’m just defining it here zero okay I’m just defining it here zero uh or else or else I can uh directly Define it here is equal to none nothing is there because I I’m not defining anything right so uh is equal to none but a is not equ equal to none here so because if I’m just passing the only a values so it’s not is equal to none okay uh so it’s not none is equal to none it’s is equal to is equal to none hope so it’s correct okay all right so uh this way is not possible so what I can do it here let me just uh okay so let me take it as it is now I’ll Define it a different function here so what I I’m expecting that what is my target my target is very simple is that if I’m passing the three parameters it should be the addition of three number if I’m passing the two values it should be the addition of two if I’m passing the one values it will be just print as it is so how is possible I can Define it the same class let me just Define it C A LC class and Def add and uh pass the self and Define the a comma B comma C simply I I I can use it here the condition wise so if the a is not is equal to none okay and B is equal to is equal to none and C is equal to is equal to none so in that time I will return simply a okay and L if if a is not equal to none and B is not equal none and C is not is equal C is equal to is equal to none so in that time I will return a + b okay it’s not a comma it’s a and at the same time Al if a is not equal to none and B is not equ equal to none and C is not is equal to none in this time okay I will uh return the value A + B + C great so let me just create the object C is equal to calc C1 let me just check it because the previously I Define it so I don’t want to mix up here C1 is equal to calc all right C1 dot add if I pass the three parameter 5A 4 comma 6 Okay so you the answer is a 16 what happened def C where is that def C line number 20 where is the line number 20 oh oh sorry oh it’s not a def it’s a class sorry it’s 15 I’m getting the answer is 15 okay previously it was yeah 15 and if I’m passing the only two arguments it’s giving the answer is okay the C positional arguments is defining it here uh okay 11 line number 11 if I’m passing the ADD and pass the parameter a comma B comma C okay is equal to none let me Define it is equal to none let me Define it is equal to none and let me Define it so the 5 + 4 is getting the answer is nine so if I’m passing only one arguments five that’s it boom right your how it’s happening because if I’m passing the values and in case in case if I’m not passing anything let me also defining else is here none so if I’m not passing anything so it will not give the error it getting the none so what will be happen so if I’m not passing any parameter so default values is none none none okay so all the condition I Define it ke if one values is present a is present it will be return B A and B both are present it will be return c a b c both are all three are present A plus b plus C is working is here and in case if you’re not passing anything so the answer is none so this way method overloading can be achievable but directly the concept was method name are same but with a different parameter if you define it so that is not achievable directly in Python other programming language yes it’s achievable in Python is not possible so the next topic which we have to learn it here method overriding which is mainly used in almost every applications so in the last video in meod overloading what we discussed is ke the same method and same uh different parameter was there method name was same but different parameter but here in the polymorphism is being little bit more complicated method name are same and the same parameter as well right so the problem was the previous uh topic is the overloading that was not acceptable completely so the question is how it acceptable is the over overriding because here the method name and that parameter both are same it’s acceptable because the classes are different you can see here so there is a class is a shape class inside a sh shape class in there is a class uh sorry there is a method is a draw draw draw and there is no any parameter is available here right so I can say the same method but and the same parameter as well but all three method are available in the different different classes like Square class Circle class and he hexagon class so this method overriding is achievable with the help of inheritance concept so we already covered The Inheritance you can also just refer that videos as well so let’s do in a practical way how method overriding can be achievable in polymorphism topic okay let me just write the heading here method overwriting okay so suppose if you have a class class name is a father and uh father have um you know uh one method uh car okay and yes self parameter is very very important in object oriented in Python if you’re writing the code and a simple statement is that hey I have a car okay the car name you can also Define it here suppose the car name is um uh you know uh BMW okay simply BMW and there is also one more class which is a child and child have a bike okay and let just just normal statement here I have uh um sports bike Define it here uh the same thing is a BMW okay the father have a car and the child have a bike if I’m just calling it here uh you know the object of a child simply Rahul is equal to Rahul is a object the child is a class okay Rahul do bike and and uh uh when you just uh call the bike then you’ll get the answer is I have a sports bike which is a BMW and you can also inherit the father as well okay and if you inherit then Rahul can also access the property of a father so Rahul doar if I’m just calling so you can also access the car as well so Rahul is saying that I have a sports bike which is BMW and he’s also saying that hey I have a car which is is BMW so there is no any overriding till now but if I’m creating the a car method inside a child which is also present in a father car and the same method name and the same parameter like here I didn’t pass any parameter and in the child car I’m also not passing any parameter here so when I just writing here the different statement I have car Mercedes okay Merced is bench so here if I’m just running this this method the car so this time it will not calling to the father it will directly call which is available inside the child so here the statement is being changed I didn’t change the calling method here is the same thing as a car previously was also car but here it’s not showing the BMW it’s showing the I have a car which is Mercedes previously it was showing the BMW why it was showing because it was not present at that time and it inherited from the father and that is the reason it’s showing that yes I have a car which is BMW actually the child don’t have a car fathers have a car but now the child have their own car instead of writing the I have a car I have my own car okay Mercedes-Benz so the here the car method this car method is overridden from the father car so this way we can achieve the overriding concept here so there is also the techniques is available the uh operator overriding so there is also one more issues is exist which is uh if you’re creating the class we always creating the uh Constructor which is defined with underscore uncore init so every classes when we Define The Constructor the always the name are in it so when you define it so by default that init is being overridden but sometimes we have to we have to use both the Constructor so in that time how to achieve it how to solve that kind of problem so we’ll discuss in the next video so if the method overriding we have some issues like if we are creating the Constructor and uh uh how we can if the Constructor is also overridden then how can we use the previous Constructor yes parent class Constructor so super function is solving that that problems the super function is used to give the access to method and property of the parent or sibling classes so it’s kind of giving the access it’s accessing related things is there so this things you’ll understand in the practical way okay it’s not a theal topic so let’s let’s discuss about some scenarios where super function we can implement it let’s say for example I have a class okay it’s not a capital letter I have a class class name is um uh same is the father and the father I have one Constructor this time I’ll just use a Constructor last time I didn’t use any kinds of Constructor there so I’ll use a Constructor in it okay so make sure that you have to write a self here self and then just write it uh some some variable uh self. car okay that car name is I I will use it um I’ll use it maruti very simple simple car is here maruti Suzuki Suzuki okay all right and uh a function name is um you know info so inside that I’ll just writing here print I have a car and the car name I can also mention here the self dot car very simple okay same time I’ll also create one more class that is child the child have a Constructor uh the diff in it I’m so sorry yeah here I’ll just use it and it I’ll just pass it here so so you know that if you just um you know apply The Inheritance concept here it will be over done right so let me just complete the code and after that I’ll apply the uh inheritance concept here Def and and then uh self. bike that bike name I can also Define it here Duke okay Duke okay all right and then the same time def info okay I’ll just use the same thing here same function info okay and same parameter here I just didn’t use any parameter I here I’m also not using any kinds of parameter I’ll just use it here I have a bike okay I have a bike let me just write here the bike info right bike info I have a bike and and and I can also Define it here the self. bike simple all right okay let me just create object is Rahul is equal Al to child okay object is created Rahul do bike info I create the object yes I have a bike which his name is Duke all right so here I didn’t apply any kinds of inheritance concept so let me just use the inheritance when I just use the inheritance so I can also acquire the property of father so when I just use it here the self dot okay self dot uh sorry not a self do father I just use it here the father I’m so sorry yeah so yes Rahul can access the property uh yeah we can say the function which is bike info I can Rahul can also be access Rahul doino as well which is nothing but a car info let me also write it here the car info okay car info can also be access what is the issues here the child object ch object no attribute of the car why why it’s showing that no attribute to the car because here the two things is overridden here I have a car info okay that I can also access it but the problem is it will be needed self. car which is not available in this init okay let me just Al let me just write a very simple statement I have a car that’s it okay so you’ll not face any issues I have a car that’s it I have a car so Rahul can also the acquire the property of car info can be acquired but if the Rahul need any kinds of variable from the init from the init like Rahul want to access Rahul want to access the a car can yeah bike let me first take the bike bike yes Duke can be access simply can be access here can can Rahul be access a car which is available here is it accessible the answer is no Rahul cannot be accessed the car uh is it required a function here oh not a function okay sorry rul cannot be accessed the car because this in it here I just use the init because of this init and here I also use the init this is the same method is available with the same parameter it’s become overridden in a child class so you cannot be access it but still I want to use the car uh car variable I want to use it how can we do do that so you can use the super function super function super function. net super dot yeah and it so when you just use it uh okay there is some issues I can directly use it here super super is a function yeah and then use it in it okay uh sorry in it is not as in exactly this in it you have to write it here in it yes Suzuki I can also access it so I I can I I can’t directly write it like this you have to print it so when you just print a car bike you’ll get the bike and if you print a car you can also access the car so the simple is here when you just write it here the self. bike that means you can uh self bike you can easily access it because of this init is inherited from the father in in it so that means it’s become overden so the previous one is not access ible but still if you want to access it the super is nothing but your parent you know from where you are acquired it this is applicable for any kinds of hierarchal um inheritance any kinds of inheritance if you just using it the same concept will be applied the super is like child super is nothing but a father so the father variable can also be accessible if you are using the super function okay super function if you just using it you can access it and now if I’m just writing it here um self. car so that means you can access it so here I can see I have a car which is a Maru Suzuki okay I have a car is the maruti Suzuki but again it is applicable if you’re just using the same function is a car info okay and uh self is very very important car info and just write it here um I have a car which name is I can write it here uh B BMW okay so here showing the BMW because this same function is overridden okay but uh this function is not available definitely it will go back from father class and and use it but here the self. car is also available and uh which is available in a Constructor and Constructor is already overridden to to overcome this kind of problem to solve this kind of problem we are using the super function so super function is nothing but the giving the access the variable method and uh any kind of attributes from the super classes yeah father classes so the definition is also saying the same thing the super function is used to give access to Method properties of a parent or a sibling class okay the super function return return an object that represent the parent class okay so here super is represent that I I’m I’m a parent class okay whatever you need you can just call me so this way uh super function is working so let’s directly jump on the Practical implementation here okay so this this topic is very very simple uh we’ll just create the inner class we’ll just create outer class and try to call it how we can call it and what is the procedure we’ll uh discuss it step by step let me create one class class name is very simple just laptop okay inside a laptop and just for a confirmation um you know so that we I just call it so that we’ll get a confirmation so I’ll create one Constructor because Constructor is automatically called we don’t need to call it make sure that you have to write a self here and the statement this is this is laptop class just normal statement and after that it’s on you if you want to create any kinds of function you can create it but I’ll directly create a class here so class class name is HP okay inside that laptop there is a class is HP and uh again I’ll create object uh sorry not object Constructor I’ll create a Constructor and Define some name here print this is HP class inside the laptop class okay it’s very simple laptop class great and we can also create one one more function function name is info okay and this normal statement here hey this is is info function simple this is info function so the creating the inner class and outer class is really very very simple just we have to Define it which one is inner class and which one is outer class so this one you can understand like this look like outer class yes it is outer class it is outer class and this one we can say it’s a inner class okay sorry inner class all right so how to call it like my target is to call the info function which is available HP that HP is available in a laptop so let me first create object of laptop L is equal to laptop laptop okay or create it and uh if you create it the object so Constructor will definitely call yes uh this is laptop class it’s a class yeah this is laptop class okay and I want to call the info function fun which is available inside HP so H is equal to l do HP okay l. HP right because HP is not you can’t directly call the HP because which is available in outer class so first you have to call the outer class and after that you can call to the another uh inner class okay uh the laptop we don’t have any kinds of attribute okay all right then I can directly write here okay sorry uh HP is a capital letter yeah HP class this is HP class which is inside the laptop class and with h i can directly call the info that’s it so hey this is the info function and this is the one way to call the a function which is available inside the inner class but we can also directly call it here ke we directly create the object is H is equal to laptop okay dot uh HP we can call like this so inner class and outer class we can we directly create the object and that object will be the inner class which is HP and we can directly call the H Dot info if this kind of topic is there so definitely we have also the variable exist so the likewise instance function we have also the instance variable okay instance variable and uh we have also the class variable the same time we have also the static variable again this this kind of things we will discuss in the practical way then you’ll understand easily how the instance function class function and static function is working okay so let’s jump on the Jupiter notebook okay here so I’ll create very very very simple uh function here so the topic is instance function class function and um static function example if you creating any kinds of class with normal class uh class name is uh okay uh class name we can say the first class okay first class okay then normal the first class uh the class name is there and you also Define some one Constructor in it and pass this self and here you define it self dot um a is equal to and self do name is equal to you define it and name is hurry okay and Def info I Define it here and simply I Define it here he hurry right self. name I I I’ll just pass it okay self. aray so simply I just create the object let me create the object object name is FC is equal to first class and FC do info so here hey harry so he har is calling it here so I create the class this kind of um uh this kind of function this info function which I Define it s self as a reference it’s passing the references so that we can use the any kinds of variable within a class so this method we are calling the instance method so instance method and I also Define one variable which connect with self so this variable is instance attribute we are calling okay instance attribute or instance variable instance variable we can say inance variable let me create one more uh variable variable name is like um uh College college name okay college name is IIT Bombay I Bombay okay all right and U uh this instance function here you create it instance variable you also create it if I want to call it print and call it here the um instance variable can I just call it so FC do uh name if you’re calling so you can also get the values as hurry so that is also accessible with object as well okay I created the uh one variable is a college name and I want to access it that uh let me just directly write it here so what kind of variable we are calling actually this kind of variable we are calling the um you know class variable class variable we are calling and I’ll just pass it here college name so when I just call this I Bombay is accessible but uh this uh class variable this one is a class variable I if I want to use it any method how can you use the method okay this one is a class variable how can you use the method So Def class okay not class info one I can write it here better I can write it info one and this one in info two okay info one I can just call it here yeah info so again college name is not connected with a self right so in case if I’m writing it here self and uh just just pass it uh you know print college name and here I just pass it simply the self do self. college name so obviously it’s not accessible let me let me just call it FC do info2 okay um that is accessible here it’s accessible it’s not a problem I Bombay is also accessible college name uh but again this kind of variable is a uh class variable because it’s not connected with self self reference is not connected with that here self if you’re forcefully writing it here yes it’s accessible but this function we can’t call it as a um you know instance method yeah instance function we can’t call it if you write it here CLS see LS and then uh then this kind of method is called as a class method okay that is also accessible hope so uh but uh you don’t need to Define it yourself obviously CLS you have to Define it and it’s accessible so CLS if if you’re passing the reference as a CLS then it’s a class method but if you’re passing the reference as a self that is the instance method okay so there is also one more variable and one more mode method we can also use it uh def uh info 3 okay and if you’re not passing anything and make sure that uh we have also you know decorator we can also Define it so for a security purpose so here we can also write it class method okay so we easily uh Define it here decorator is a class method what we are calling we let me also write it out here decorator decorator okay all right so here I’m not passing the CLS I’m not passing the self so this kind of method and and whatever variable I’m just Define it here inside that um I’m I’m defining it a variable here U like um what is name role number yeah role number not a role number and we can say uh the ID student ID which is maybe the confidential student ID I’m just Define it here 1 121 09 okay 12109 this is the confidential and it should not be accessible outside okay and when you just run it you’ll getting the error not getting the error because I didn’t call it so fc. info3 when I just call it is getting the error like saying that take zero positional argument but one was given because because whenever you creating any kinds of method that automatically expecting that it should be either CLS or a self but here I’m not passing anything okay so that is the reason it’s making that here the take zero positional argument but one was given okay so uh one was given that this kind of error will coming definitely will come so how to overcome this kind of problems so this kind of method is called as a static method this kind of method is called a static method there is no CLS there is no self but how to uh you know solve this problem how to create it so there is a decorator you have to Define it here static method and when you just Define it then to not create any kinds of issues and this variable uh student ID if I want to call it static variable okay fc. student ID so that is not accessible there is no attribute because it’s defined in the static method and and it’s not passing the reference with self and uh this class variable that was available in the outside of that that is a global variable and Global variable for that particular class but here you can’t you can’t call it so where you you can use this kind of um method so simply I can just write it here this is uh my my student ID is student ID when I just pass it and and and showing that hope so is showing that yeah okay okay here is showing that uh student ID my student ID is this one okay and this variable we call calling as a uh static variable hope you understand this this all the method and function this one is a class variable and then class method we have we have a instance variable able we have a instance method we have is a static variable we have a static method we have okay so now it’s done and uh you please refer the Jupiter notebook uh if you don’t want to watch all the videos uh you know complete videos just refer the Jupiter notebook run it and try to understand but you face any issues go back to the video and check it where you’re stacking exactly and now we reach the topic of encapsulation we already covered the many topics like um you know the object class polymorphism inheritance okay so now we we have to discuss about encapsulation so encapsulation is really very very important for a security purpose hiding the information so let’s first discuss about the definition here so this one is saying that this put a restriction on accessing variable and Method directly can prevent The Accidental modification of the data to prevent The Accidental changes an object variable can be only be changed by an object method so those type of variable we are calling the private variable so this is the normal definition we will discuss about in a practical implementation as well so you can just imagine that you have a capsule inside a cap you know medicine capsule so whatever information is whatever uh ingredient is there so we can’t see that that is the hidden but we can see the medicine so likewise here we have hidden information we have important information like a method and variable which is available in the class and we can’t directly uh you know we can easily access the method and variable so we provide some restrictions so that the people cannot be accessed directly so there is the multiple way to protect it so we have a topic is called as access modifier so there is a three access modifier is available public protected and private okay so when you’re talking about how uh public protected private is working so before let’s understand that ke how we can access any kinds of method and variable see there is uh some access attribute is available so if you just use this uh get attribute has attribute set attribute so you have a you know you have opportunity you have option to you know get the any kinds of variable or method easily okay with the help of objects obviously and we have also the one more option is available building uh class attribute we can see all kinds of method and variables we can see that so we just try to protect the method and variable so we have access modifier so there is there is a restriction is providing this protect and private so what kind of restriction they are providing so we need talking about the first one is a public member the public member uh kind of variable a variable which is the publicly so the public member of a class let me just take the annotation yeah public member of a class are variable are available to everyone anybody can easily access it so they can access from outside of the class and they can and also other classes too so there is no any restriction for the public public member like whatever whatever variables and Method we have created that is the public member previously what we created that was a public member protected member is providing some restriction there so you can see here the protected member are those members of the class that cannot be accessed outside of the class but can be access from within the class and its subclasses so it’s providing the uh some restriction but not the entire restriction right it you can access it you can access it within the class but outside of the class you can’t access it but when you’re talking about the last one which is a private member so a private member of a class are only accessible within the class even sub classes can also not be accessible so when I just summarize it everything let’s understand the simple way the summary of uh the public protected and private public member Public Access modifier can be accessed with the same class same packages even sub classes and other packages as well so when you’re talking about the protected so protected cannot be access with to other packages but it can be easily accessed with a sub packages sub uh sub classes and same classes as well private access modifier a private member can be accesses within a class only it cannot be accessed from the any other packages or same packages or or any other classes so we already discussed in the last video is that how can we make the um you know static method and how can we make the class method that is the way where we can just uh you know protect our our methods and and some variables so there is also one more topic is called as uh private variables that I’ll I’ll discuss in the practical way let me jump on the Practical implementation to discuss about that inbu attributes the last video we discuss about this instance function instance uh class function and static function so here uh we discuss in the details way and just try to access it some some variables and Method so you can see here when I just use it the object the object here FC FC is the object so when I just use this fscore uncore the dict uncore uncore obviously I have to use the dot do dict you can see here so whatever variable is present here the variable is uh the name actually the instance variable is showing only it’s not showing any kinds of uh the class variable so that is also here you can say it’s protected so so kind of the public private and protected is the category to achieve that category we have a different different uh topic is available so here uh so you can say the class variable class method and static variable static method is also one of the way to achieve the en encapsulation so you can see here when I just use the dict so here uh any any college name is not showing it’s showing only the name right so we have also I also Define some uh documentation so with the help of FC dot FC doore uncore yeah so we can also see the documentation as well so with the help of object we can easily find it out you know other things we can easily access it any kinds of documentation any variables or anything here so like I want to find it out what is the is it uh you know the main module is there or any other module is also there so underscore uncore module you can also check it okay sorry it’s not a DF it’s FC doore module so you can also say check that so I’m working with the same files that’s why it’s showing that U main is here I can also check that the classes as well FC doore class so yes it’s showing that my class name is a first class with the help of object I can find it out anything easier right so I can also check that uh you know there is the variable name is an variable name is name okay variable name is a name okay so I can also find it out has attribute is that attribute is available or not so object I have to Define it FC and name I’ll just pass it it’s saying that yes that attribute is available so I can find it out that variable get attribute I can just use it and pass the values as FC and uh uh what is the actual values of the name is showing that hurry so so you can see here so with the help of object I can find it out any information that I want to protect it okay so like uh a set attribute I can Define it set attribute so outside of the U class with the help of object I can also create one variables instance variable FC and I can Define it here uh any any variable name is like a ro number which is not there hope so which is not there uh yes there is no any role number yeah role number kind of variable is not there so I can make it role number and and Define it the role number is a one 12 one okay so I I set the one variable when I just check that the FC FC doore dict you can see here there is two variable is present previously it was only hurry now the role number is also present right so and and I can also delete it so FC dot FC sorry Del Del attribute delete attribute I just want to remove the FC have to pass it and just pass the role number okay and now it’s deleted hope so uh DF is not defined it’s FC and the next time when I just check this here so it’s showing only hurry it’s not showing other things so this way we can easily access any kinds of uh variables any kinds of methods we can easily access it in a continuation of encapsulation we we discuss about access mod fire where we discuss a public member we discuss a protected member we discuss the private member as well so here we discuss about a private variables how we can make it suppose if you have a class class name is uh College okay college and I Define The Constructor and here I Define the name is equal to uh Rahul so this this is the variable name that variable you can say is the instance variable okay so instead of name I’ll just use a self. name so that I can easily access it within a class and uh create a object object name is like um you know C is equal to college and when I just try to access it like a c do name so you can easily access it which is Rahul and here I just want to write it uh create one um object self dot college ID okay college ID I just want to write it IIT Bay 001 56 suppose this is the college ID is there and uh when I just try to access it the college ID we can easily access it right C do college ID so you can easily access it but what happened uh okay what happened if in case if I’m just writing here the double underscore so what will be happening you can’t access it here is showing that the college ID is uh the college object no attribute of college ID let me also use it under double underscore here still you can’t access it so that means this kind of Vari uh in case if you’re using the two underscore before the any variable you can’t access it but normally if you’re writing any variable a is equal to 5 it’s it can be accessible and print a yeah and if you just using a double underscore a and here if you’re using the double underscore a so that is also accessible here is not a issue but if you’re doing the same thing in your object oriented so it’s become a private variable private variable so private variable have a only only one way to find it out only one way to access that kind of variables which is you have to call the college so with the help of object you can’t access it so here when I just try to access only the name so you can easily access it but if I want to access the C doore uncore college ID so you can’t so the time you have to call the object object name is a college underscore College you have to write it then you can access it so the private variable cannot be accessed directly so again the encapsulation is the way encapsulation is is a techniques where we have a different different topic is available like private variable static method and static variable so that that topic will help you to achieve the encapsulation because in Absolution is a techniques to protect our variable and methods so let’s let’s discuss about the how data abstraction is working data abstraction and encapsulation are synonyms as data abstraction okay so you can just understand with this images so encapsulation is also protecting the method as a variable but abstraction is providing the complete restriction so that you can’t enter it so to re to reach abstraction we need need encapsulation so that means first you have to protect the variable as a method and then you can provide the complete Shield right so just abstraction is is totally give the Restriction okay so so here is the definition is also there let’s let me just read it so that you’ll get a better idea and after that definitely I will discuss about the Practical implementation substraction is used to hide the internal details and show only the functionalities abstracting something abstracting something means to give the names to things so that the name capture the basic idea of what a function or whole program does is give the just basic idea okay to achieve the abstraction so there is a two way so an abstraction abstract class can have both the normal method and Abstract method both can be present an abstract method yeah we cannot create an object of abstract class so how to achieve that abstraction let’s discuss about it so data abstraction let me just create uh the yeah heading data abstraction okay so data abstraction um let me create one a class the class name let me just write it here a computer okay computer and yeah inside a computer let me just Define one uh you know one method normal method is a processing okay and self is very very important and just write it the normal statement anything uh just pass okay so this is not abstract class or abstract method it’s not here so when we can have a abstract method normally whatever you writing here okay whatever you are writing here um print this is computer class okay and I can also write the object C is equal to computer so when you just uh call it C do processing and you can easily access it so now let me just create this this class as a abstract class so you have to import from ABC abstract Blaze class import uh let me just take the ABC Capital so which is the main class is there and Abstract method as well abstract method abstract method yeah so here I will just inherit the ABC so now now the computer become the abstract method so when I just here the abstract method is available okay and uh this class this uh computer become the abstract class but if I want to make the method so I have to use the decorator so abstract method so here so when you just make so when you just make this um processing as a abstract method and uh your class become become the completely abstract class so you here is saying that cannot Institute abstract class computer with abstract method processing you cannot use it okay so you can’t create object of any abstract class if when when we are calling the abstract class if you inherit from the ab ABC abstract Base Class and if you have a method which is the abstract method so that time we are we are calling it’s the abstract class an abstract method so if I want to just create any um any other you know I want to use it this is computer class I I just want to use it so I can also create a different um um different classes here let me just create a laptop okay simply laptop and this time I will inherit the computer so computer is inherit the abstract Base Class and laptop is inherit the computer and and simple I’ll just write it here the processing anything I can just use it now here what will be happen so here is kind of um overriding so because I just inherited that so overriding here just using self I’m just using it here and uh whatever things is there I’ll just pass it is high so instead of creating the object of a computer I will just create the object of a laptop so let me just comment it here lap L is equal to laptop L do processing when I just use the processing you’ll get high because it’s become completely inherited if it’s completely inherited the previous one will not be used okay but in case instead of processing if you have a processing one and if you want to inherit the then again is facing the same problem you cannot okay you cannot even not only the um not only the calling the methods so if you’re still running so you cannot create the object of the class the laptop class as well because laptop is inherited the a computer computer is a completely abstract class right because it’s inherited the abstract Base Class so here you cannot use it until unless you’re not overriding the abstract method so here I’m just overriding the abstract method now I can create object I can also call any method as well so this is the way to deal with any abstract class so again if you have any kinds of U uh method which you want to protect it you can just use abstract me abstract method with ABC abstract Base Class finally we reach the last topic of this entire python series that is multi- threading multi-threading is very very very important for a software development even um uh you’ll find it out the separate job for uh you know for multi- threading so even when you’re entering uh the multi- threading let’s first discuss about the multitasking how exactly it’s working because dayto day day-to-day life when you’re using the computer so different different task we are just doing it let’s say for example I’m just doing a task is a word processing and and sending some emails and doing web browser and uh our in virus is running so that entire thing is running on the operating system right and that operting system is is is on a CPU course so even so multi-threading is not only the software topic uh like if you are a programmer you should know that it’s not like that if if you’re using a computer the multitasking and multi- threading is running inside your computer so let’s let me first show you how exactly the multi trading and multitasking is running in your computer you can just go to the taskbar you uh shortcut keys control alt delete you’ll find it out the taskbar go there the taskbar will open here so in your computer it will be open and just go to the performance and let me just maximize it yeah you can see here uh yeah you can see I’m just running the 312 process with the threads so what exactly the threads thread is nothing but a lightweight process so I I’ll discuss in details let first understand that like if I’m just running the multiple process my computer is running the 312 process which handles the 177,000 1 lakh 73589 right and that how much core is there 10 core so core is nothing but how your whatever process you’re running is the Distributing in the different different core that is CPU core okay and every process have a different different threads that means small process is there inside one process for example you can go to the processes 312 processes running go to the processes you’ll find it out which 312 processes there so five is ongoing processes there five apps is running I just open the uh PowerPoint I open the taskbar WhatsApp Zoom is running so much things running is here and and another process is also running the background process because sometime you confuse that here is the 312 process where exactly is that see some background process is also there and other processes also consuming right so after uh the entire process is 312 is showing it here so let’s understand it like how trades is working threads is nothing but just a small process of the particular process it’s confusing let me show you how exactly is working let’s say for example I choose the uh normal things is is game okay in the game I choose the I just open one game so game is a one process okay game is one process but inside that the multiple process is running that is consu that is producing the sound that is Graphics that is U when a player is uh you know it’s a different different opponent is there the multiple prer is playing the games so kind of like the multiple Pro multiple small small processes running inside the game app your game process so simple here so what exactly the multitasking multitasking refer to the ability of operating system to perform a different task at the same time because here in the operating system I’m just running the multiple process at the same time right so as I said that uh when you’re going for a job so you’ll find it out the multi- threading is also very much required if you are entering the software development that can be the web development that can be the application development with a python not only the python if you are going with a Java that time is also required the multi-threading right so you can also search it on no.com I just took the screenshot here but yeah lots of job opening is there for multi-threading that is also required and uh the interviewer is asking the question right yeah so here I took the example is a word processor okay word processor one one example I just taking it here inside that so Graphics is there and responding to keystroke and grammatical check that is a small small process which is there inside a word processor right so that small small processor that small small process is called as a dats simple word what exactly the threads so thread is nothing but a lightweight process thread is a lightweight process which is independently flow up execution that means there is no dependent that when uh Graphics will complete then the cas keystroke will run no there is independently running so whenever you making the application so threading is playing the very very important role because we have to we have to achieve the independent iny right so here so there are two types of multitasking in operating system that is a process best and thir best right so what is a process best because the multiple threats running on the operating system simultaneously for example for example is listening the song and playing the game is is two different process running in the operating system but when you’re talking about the threats so thread is a single process consisting of the separate task right for example a FIFA game is a consisting of the multiple threads so one game is a consisting of multiple threads is there so now the question is what is threat even I already explain that thread is nothing but a lightweight process so inside the threads in inside inside the one process the multiple threats is there is this example is mentioned there so the question is where we can use it what is the purpose of thread when we required the threads is there so threads when we have a multiple task need to achieve you have multiple task and you want to independently running it so task don’t have interdependency right if I’m running the one particular function there is uh four function is there fun one and fun two and fun three and fun four okay so I so python is a procedural programming language and functional as well and objectoriented as well but usually is following the top to B bottom approach when the fun if in case if I call the first function second function third function fourth function accordingly it will run but there is no any relation between the function one to function two it can be independently run so in the time we required a mult the training so that is the mean of interdependency it should not be any kinds of interdependency between the two different function right so there is two way to create the threads in the Python programming language the first one is without creating a class directly with a function we can create it and with a class we can achieve the threads okay so there is the four things which is very very important to know about that how to perform the multi- threading task so run there is run method which is which method is entry point of the threads and start method which is start the thread when you call the run method it will start the trade and join method it will be uh wait for Threads to terminate it and is alive will check that your thread is still alive or not and get name get the get name will return the name of the threads so this five method will help you to perform the entire thre operation uh let’s take example suppose I have a two task the task number one read um read data from database and there is a 10 data I have to read it right and the second task I have um read um PDF file okay that is also 10 PDF I have so there is a two different task and uh this one is taking every every database every data is taking a 0.5 second that means it will taking okay 0.5 second one task will take 0.5 second one task will take so it will taking a 5 Second okay all right and the second one second one read the PDF so 0.3 second is taking so it will taking completely a 3 second okay so I’ll try to optimize it in this Pro this problem right so the complete if you if you’re running the entire task it will taking the completely 8 second I’ll try to reduce it to make it around U uh 5 Second okay let me take the four and this will be 4 second so total will be total will be 9 second great so let’s do the do the Practical implementation here def I’ll create one one uh function def um read data okay read data and simple I’ll just create of follow for I in range and yeah the 10 data I have to read it and print the normal statement read the data from database okay and uh I + 1 because it will start from zero right and let me also take the time import import time or I can yep and every time it will take time do slip 0.5 second 0.5 second I’m uh so every process is will taking a 0.5 second and then def read PDF for I in range 10 I will pass and time do sleep and 0.4 second and print the statement um read the data from uh PDF okay read the data from PDF and and then I plus one as well because it will start from zero all right great so yep I’ll just print it here start time strd start time is equal to uh time dot time I think time do time is there let me let me just print it time do time yeah so time. time it will starting time it will take and uh mhm start time and at the end when I just call it I’ll just call this function rate data and rate PDF okay and I will take it here the end time is equal to time. time time. time and uh process took time process time I can make it here end time minus start time okay so it will start the process so first it read the entire data from database and then uh the PDF will start and here it’s taking a 9 second why it’s taking the 9 second the reason behind that the reason behind that because the first one took the 5 Second and second one took the 4 second that is the reason it’s more than 9 second is taken here so how can I reduce it this time so we can use the multi-threading to reduce this particular time is here so there is a librar is called multi- threading from multi threading multi threading import I’m taking a everything like even I required here the thread so I’m taking the Trad here oh sorry uh better I can just take this libraries in the outside so that it will be oh sorry uh I can undo it yeah undo delete yeah here I can pass my library okay multi-threading spelling is wrong M ready okay it’s not a multi- Threading uh sorry it’s a Threading only sorry yeah threading import thread So currently whatever process I have it’s not inside the thread so I’ll try to make it the inside thread so so this one is not required this one is just taking the time this one I’ll just make it comment and I’ll make it a thread so T1 thread so inside a thread because there is no any class so you have to decide the target what is the target the target is uh read data the second one is T2 is equal to thread what is the target the target is read PDF and uh the simple one let’s start a T1 dot start uh start the U uh thread here t1. start and then t2. start when I start this two different threads so here the threads will run independently there is no relation between the read PDF and read data so the same time your data from the DAT reading data from database and reading the data from PDF will start the same time so you can save a lots of time is here you can sa then tar 4 second let me just run it oh what what’s the issues spelling is wrong seriously mhm d h r e a d hey it’s it’s correct oh okay spelling is wrong yeah sorry yeah so it started the time is started here the process time okay uh the problem is here it’s attached with um uh the completely this time is attached with our threads okay I have to also explain one more thing is here so there is always one thread is always active which called as a men thread so because of this because of this threading so this one is also considered as a Threading this one is also independently run this file right this is independently run this file in that situation what I have to do I have to just join it t1. join t2. join so what happen is here so T1 and T2 is joined it’s not joined with the men threate right so here this this entire this process this this two Lines line number 27 and 28 is not joined with T1 and T2 so T1 and T2 is running the independently so that is the reason you can see here it’s reading the PDF then database PDF database and sometimes the PDF two time as well the reason is taking only 2 second and the entire process is ending with 5 Second only previously it took a 9 second I save a 4 second so that means if you have the big process if you have a big process so and and imagine that imagine that uh currently I have only two process you have a 15 process and all the 15 process have independently running so what which process is taking more time inside that the other process can also be finished it so multi- threading is saving a lots of memory lots of time so that’s why it’s very very important for a software development so usually the software we are making with class class and object read data from database that it will take 10 second and the second one read PDF from read data from PDF yeah we can say read PDF files that is taking a 4 second there is a 10 files and every files is taking 0.4 second the total time is 9 second okay so I’ll try to create with the class here the multi-threading so simple uh class name is class of read data and uh make sure that if you’re if you’re using the multi trading so you have to inherit the thread so let me just use the prom threading import thread and from time UT C okay great so I have to import thread here okay all right and inside that you have to create a function yeah we can say method def run method okay run method self is very very important okay and after that give me a minute after that just we have to run the file for I in range and the 10 times and uh let’s apply the slip 0.5 second right this normal statement okay read data from database database right this is one threade I just created and the second one is class read PDF and thread colon def run and pass the self is here for I in range pass the values is 10 okay the same thing I’ll just use it here slip 0.4 second and print the statement read PDF data that’s PDF data all right and how it will be run just call create object of that particular thread T1 because the every class is already become the thread because it inherited from thread class is equal to read data okay so if you’re not using this a threat inheritance let me just show you okay let me just show you I’m not using inheritance of the thread and uh let’s create the object T2 do T2 is equal to read PDF so when I just run it and let’s run this file here T1 dot T1 dot run okay and t2. run and uh just just normally Define it here the timing okay start start time is equal to time dot okay time sleep and time let me just take both time and yeah just time you can just take it and uh at the last time this end time okay that is the end time and uh just print it here process time that is like uh end time and time minus start time okay so it will it will tell you like how much time it took to complete the entire process we know that here it will take uh the 9 second because the 5c first read data will take and the second one 4 second will take so yeah it’s took the 9 second yeah let me also just Define it the number which file is reading I + 1 because it’s starting from the zero so that’s why I’m just mentioning here the I + 1 great so let’s apply the inheritances here let’s apply the threading with inheritance uh um concept so we just inherit the thread and let me also inherit the thread so if you use the method is a run and uh you don’t need to call the run so now the entire process has become the complete thread right so this this entire classes become the thread this this one is a thread and this one is a thread so now I want to run it then t1. start that’s it t2. start that’s it now when you just start it the process will start again yeah so this one uh this print statement this is completely a separate threats that is the reason that is also being independent so that is it’s running first so let’s make it dependent there is if I’m asking that how many threads is running is here so there is a three thread is running the first one is read data second one is yeah we can say T1 T2 and the third one is men thread so men is always there so all menth is being independent so making the T1 and T2 is a dependent you can make it t1. join and t2. join so now you both will join and the men threate is independent so the line number 27 will be running dependently right when the T1 and T2 will finish then 20 line number 27 will run then you’ll find it out how much time it took it here the last time it took 9 second now it’s taking only a 5 Second so this is the beauty of multi-threading so let’s also discuss the other things um how many threats is there we can also check it and U uh yep so if if I’m just printing it here in in the next line I can just directly print it here print uh like a T1 do um um I can check it like is alive or not uh we can we can normally check it so it will tell you yes it’s it’s false because uh the process is end so it will tell you yes it’s a false so if you’re running inside that in inside that um uh threads like here if if I’m just after start if I’m just running so definitely give the answer is the the threads is running or not the T1 thread check all right 31 thread check it will check the true because the threads is running right so with the help of is alive we can check it the threads is running or not so we can also check the other things like um uh the active count okay so here when I just check it in between anywhere we can check check it here um number of threads we can check it number of thread so we can check it so simply we can just pass it here active count there is a method is called as active count okay so active count when I just run it it will tell you the number of threads is eight is running yeah like number threat is 8 is running because the complete active count is 8 is here okay and uh so the same time like here uh what is the thread name is I can also check that what is the exactly the thread name is here so at the same time I can also check it here the current thread dot get name okay current thread. getet name so we can also check it like which thread is running that uh particular line and here you can also check it right so when I just run it it will tell you okay so it’s showing that 32 3T like the thread number is showing that and the last one is a men thread so now here some somewhere like number of threads is there because the entire thread is not stopped that is the reason it’s showing that is a eight so when I just checking the outside how many threads is running outside here so it’s showing six so the six is running the two is not considered here so hope you understand how exactly this working right so active alive we can check that that particular thread is running or not how many uh active thread is there and what exactly the thread name is here you can easily check it with all the methods oh

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Visceral Fat: The Easiest Diet and Reduction Strategies

    Visceral Fat: The Easiest Diet and Reduction Strategies

    Ben Azadi’s “The World’s Easiest Diet For Visceral Fat Reduction In 14 Days” outlines a seven-step protocol to reduce harmful belly fat. The core principles involve lowering insulin through carbohydrate restriction and prioritizing protein and healthy fats. Additional recommendations include eliminating snacking, incorporating sprints and daily walking (especially post-meal), avoiding alcohol, practicing intermittent fasting with an 18/6 schedule, and optimizing for 90 minutes of deep sleep nightly. The text also addresses the role of stress and protein intake in fat loss and details methods for measuring visceral fat, emphasizing MRI scans for visualization. Ultimately, the source provides actionable lifestyle changes for rapid visceral fat reduction and improved metabolic health.

    The World’s Easiest Diet For Visceral Fat Reduction: A Study Guide

    Quiz

    1. What is visceral fat and why is it considered dangerous?
    2. According to the source, which macronutrient has the most significant impact on insulin levels? Explain why this is relevant to visceral fat storage.
    3. Describe the first step of the recommended protocol for reducing visceral fat. Provide a few examples of foods to avoid and foods to include.
    4. Why is snacking discouraged in this dietary approach? Explain the analogy used to illustrate this point.
    5. What is the suggested protocol for sprinting, and how does this type of exercise help in reducing visceral fat?
    6. Explain why alcohol consumption is discouraged for those trying to lose visceral fat, according to the source.
    7. How does walking, especially after meals, contribute to visceral fat reduction? Briefly describe the study mentioned to support this.
    8. Outline the 18:6 intermittent fasting schedule recommended in the source and explain the proposed benefits for visceral fat loss.
    9. Why is deep sleep considered important for burning visceral fat? List three scientifically proven tips provided to improve deep sleep.
    10. According to the interview with JJ Virgin, why is prioritizing protein intake beneficial for reducing body fat, including visceral fat?

    Answer Key

    1. Visceral fat is the fat stored around the abdominal organs, often referred to as belly fat. It is dangerous because it applies pressure to vital organs like the heart, kidneys, liver, and pancreas, contributing to chronic diseases such as fatty liver disease, obesity, cancer, and heart disease.
    2. Carbohydrates have the most significant impact on insulin levels. When carbohydrates are consumed, they cause the highest blood insulin response compared to protein (moderate response) and fat (minimal impact). Elevated insulin is the primary hormone that signals the body to store visceral fat.
    3. The first step is to lower the hormone insulin by swapping carbohydrates for protein and fat. Foods to avoid include oats, oatmeal, cereal, bread, grains, fruit, fruit juices, quinoa, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and legumes. Foods to include are cauliflower rice, squash rice, cabbage rice, eggs, red meat, wild-caught salmon, poultry, and goat/sheep dairy.
    4. Snacking raises glucose and subsequently insulin levels, even if the snacks are considered healthy. This disrupts the metabolism and prevents the body from burning stored visceral fat. The analogy used compares snacking every few hours to someone constantly banging on your office door, disrupting your productive workflow.
    5. The sprinting protocol involves a 20-second all-out effort sprint followed by 90 seconds of rest, repeated for three total rounds, three times per week. High-intensity interval training like sprinting activates hormones such as human growth hormone, making the metabolism more efficient at using stored fat for energy after glycogen stores are depleted.
    6. Alcohol is considered a poison and a toxin that the liver prioritizes metabolizing before fat. This slows down fat burning. Additionally, alcohol stimulates appetite, decreases testosterone levels (which can hinder fat loss), and can increase estrogen levels (linked to abdominal fat storage).
    7. Walking after meals helps to blunt the spike in blood sugar that occurs after eating, even with a lower carbohydrate intake. This results in less insulin being produced, allowing the body to enter a fat-burning state faster. A study showed that a 30-minute brisk walk after meals improved the glycemic response regardless of the meal’s macronutrient composition.
    8. The 18:6 intermittent fasting schedule involves fasting for 18 hours a day and having a 6-hour eating window (e.g., 12:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m.). This schedule is proposed to lower insulin levels, increase human growth hormone, reduce insulin resistance, boost metabolism, and promote overall hormonal balance, all of which can contribute to visceral fat loss.
    9. Deep sleep is where most fat-burning hormones are activated, and the body taps into stored fat for energy. Three tips for better deep sleep are drinking banana tea, keeping the bedroom cold (around 65°F), and ensuring the bedroom is completely dark (using blackout curtains or a sleep mask).
    10. Prioritizing protein intake is beneficial because protein is more metabolically costly to digest and assimilate compared to fats and carbohydrates (having a higher thermic effect). Eating protein first can also lead to feeling fuller for longer, reducing overall calorie intake and cravings, which are crucial for achieving a caloric deficit needed for fat loss.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Discuss the interconnectedness of diet and hormones, specifically focusing on the role of insulin and cortisol in visceral fat storage and reduction as described in the source.
    2. Critically evaluate the seven-step protocol presented for visceral fat reduction. Which steps do you find most compelling and why? Are there any potential challenges or limitations to following this plan for the average individual?
    3. Compare and contrast the different types of exercise discussed in the source (sprinting and walking) in terms of their mechanisms for promoting visceral fat loss and their practical implications for implementation.
    4. Analyze the importance of lifestyle factors beyond diet and exercise, such as sleep and stress management, in the context of the source’s recommendations for reducing visceral fat.
    5. Based on the information provided, synthesize a comprehensive strategy for an individual aiming to significantly reduce their visceral fat within a few months. Include specific dietary changes, exercise recommendations, and lifestyle adjustments.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Visceral Fat: Body fat that is stored within the abdominal cavity and surrounds vital organs such as the liver, intestines, and stomach.
    • Insulin: A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood sugar levels. It also signals the body to store excess glucose as fat.
    • Cortisol: A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress. Chronically elevated levels can contribute to increased visceral fat storage.
    • Macronutrients: The three main categories of nutrients that the body needs in large amounts: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
    • Glycogen: The stored form of glucose, primarily in the liver and muscles, which the body can use for energy.
    • High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT): A form of exercise that involves short bursts of intense activity followed by periods of rest or low-intensity activity.
    • Postprandial: Occurring after a meal.
    • Glycemic Response: The effect that carbohydrates in food have on blood sugar levels.
    • Intermittent Fasting: An eating pattern that cycles between periods of eating and voluntary fasting on a regular schedule.
    • Autophagy: A natural cellular “clean-up” process where the body removes damaged or unnecessary components.
    • Human Growth Hormone (HGH): A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that plays a role in growth, metabolism, and fat burning.
    • Insulin Resistance: A condition in which the body’s cells become less responsive to insulin, leading to higher blood sugar levels.
    • Neurodegenerative Diseases: Conditions that progressively damage or kill nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord.
    • Leptin: A hormone produced by fat cells that helps regulate appetite and energy balance, often referred to as the satiety hormone.
    • Satiety: The feeling of fullness and satisfaction after eating.
    • Deep Sleep (Delta Sleep): A stage of sleep characterized by slow brain wave activity, during which the body repairs tissues, builds bone and muscle, and releases important hormones for fat burning.
    • Nitric Oxide: A molecule that helps blood vessels relax and widen, improving blood flow.
    • Vaso Dilation: The widening of blood vessels.
    • Oxytocin: A hormone often associated with bonding and social interaction, which can help lower cortisol levels.
    • Thermogenic Effect (or Thermic Effect of Food): The energy expenditure of the body above basal metabolic rate due to the cost of processing food for use and storage. Protein has a higher thermic effect than fats or carbohydrates.
    • DEXA Scan (Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry): A type of medical imaging scan that uses low levels of X-rays to measure bone density and body composition, including fat mass.
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): A medical imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of the organs and tissues in the body, allowing for the visualization of visceral fat.
    • CT Scan (Computed Tomography Scan): A medical imaging technique that uses X-rays and computer processing to create cross-sectional images of the body, which can also be used to assess visceral fat, though it involves radiation exposure.
    • Myosteatosis: The infiltration of fat into skeletal muscle tissue.

    Briefing Document: The World’s Easiest Diet For Visceral Fat Reduction

    Source: Excerpts from “01.pdf” by Ben Azadi

    Date: October 26, 2023 (Based on the provided context)

    Author/Presenter: Ben Azadi (Keto Kamp)

    Main Theme: This document outlines a 7-step protocol presented by Ben Azadi for effectively reducing visceral fat (the dangerous belly fat surrounding organs) in less than 14 days. The protocol focuses on dietary changes, lifestyle adjustments, and exercise to lower insulin levels, activate fat-burning hormones, and improve overall metabolic health. Azadi supports his claims with his personal transformation story and insights from health experts and research.

    Key Ideas and Facts:

    1. Lower Insulin Levels Through Dietary Changes:

    • Visceral fat storage is primarily driven by the hormone insulin. “when this hormone insulin is elevated a ton of visceral fat gets stored around your belly.”
    • Carbohydrates cause the highest insulin spike compared to protein (moderate) and fat (minimal). “when you eat carbohydrates you can see it creates the highest blood insulin response protein is number two but it’s a moderate insulin response and fat barely touches the dial on insulin.”
    • The first step is to swap carbohydrates for protein and fat to lower insulin and enable fat burning. “the first step here in your protocol is to swap carbohydrates for protein and fat.”
    • Common “healthy” foods like açai bowls (99g sugar), Lucky Charms (60g sugar in two servings), oatmeal (52g sugar in two servings), and orange juice (52g sugar in two cups) are high in sugar and cause significant insulin spikes.
    • Foods to remove include oats, oatmeal, all cereals, bread, grains, fruit and fruit juices, quinoa, white and brown rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and all legumes.
    • Foods to replace them with include cauliflower rice, squash rice, cabbage rice, eggs (whole), red meat (beef, lamb), wild-caught salmon, organic poultry (chicken, turkey), goat and sheep dairy (preferred over cow dairy due to higher MCT content), and greens (arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower).
    • Aim for under 50 grams of total carbohydrates per day to facilitate the metabolic switch to fat burning.

    2. Stop Snacking Between Meals:

    • Every time you snack, you raise glucose and insulin levels, hindering fat burning. “every time you snack you raise glucose and then insulin even if it’s a healthy snack.”
    • The average American eats 17 to 23 times per day due to grazing.
    • Snacking disrupts the metabolic “fat-burning workflow.”
    • The recommendation is to start with three meals a day and gradually work towards intermittent fasting.

    3. Incorporate Sprints (High-Intensity Interval Training):

    • Sprinting is the “best exercise you can do to blast melt visceral fat.”
    • HIIT activates hormones like human growth hormone, making metabolism more efficient at using stored fat for energy.
    • Protocol: 20-second all-out sprint followed by 90 seconds of rest, repeated for three total rounds, three times per week (5-7 minutes total).

    4. Eliminate or Limit Alcohol Consumption:

    • Alcohol is a “poison” and a toxin that the liver prioritizes metabolizing over fat burning.
    • Alcohol slows fat burning and can stimulate appetite, decrease testosterone, and increase estrogen levels (especially beer, linked to “beer belly”).
    • Recommendation: No alcohol. Opt for unsweetened mocktails or sparkling water with lemon.

    5. Increase Daily Walking, Especially After Meals:

    • Aim for at least 7,000 steps daily, with 10,000 being even better.
    • Walking after meals helps to blunt blood sugar spikes and reduces the amount of insulin needed. “by going for a walk you blunt this big spike in blood sugars and you allow less insulin to become produced meaning you get into a fat burning State faster.”
    • A study showed that a 30-minute brisk walk after meals improved the glycemic response, even after high-carbohydrate meals. “although higher glucose levels were observed with High carbohydrate meal our finding show that a 30 minute post prandial meaning after eating brisk walk session improves the glycemic response after meals huge.”
    • Mike Mutzel, a fat loss expert, recommends breaking walks into “exercise snacks” of 2,500-3,000 steps interspersed throughout the day, which is more effective than one long walk.
    • Research suggests that walking at least 8,000 steps per day helps prevent metabolic deterioration and improves fat utilization. A low step count (around 2,600) resulted in an exaggerated post-meal triglyceride level and a 30% reduction in fat oxidation compared to a high step count (around 8,500).
    • Walking after a high-carb meal can significantly reduce glucose levels. Mike Mutzel experienced his glucose dropping from 185 to 85 mg/dL after a one-mile walk following a high-carb vegan meal.
    • Walking stimulates muscles to absorb glucose, reducing the need for excessive insulin.
    • Blue Zone research suggests that movement and recreational activity play a significant role in longevity, alongside diet.

    6. Practice Intermittent Fasting (18/6 Schedule):

    • Intermittent fasting offers numerous benefits, including protection against neurodegenerative diseases (via autophagy), lowered insulin levels, increased human growth hormone (key for fat burning), reduced insulin resistance and blood sugar, reduced heart disease risk and blood pressure, boosted metabolism, potential lifespan extension, reduced inflammation, and improved hormone levels (leptin, testosterone).
    • The recommended schedule is an 18/6, meaning an 18-hour fasted state (water, electrolytes, supplements, coffee, tea only) and a 6-hour eating window (e.g., 12:00 PM to 6:00 PM) with 2-3 meals.

    7. Aim for 90 Minutes of Deep Sleep:

    • Deep sleep (Delta sleep) is when you burn fat and visceral fat, and fat-burning hormones are activated.
    • Track deep sleep using devices like Oura Ring, Apple Watch, or Fitbit.
    • Scientifically proven tips for more deep sleep:
    • Drink banana tea (boiled banana with peel).
    • Keep the bedroom cold (around 65°F).
    • Ensure the bedroom is dark (blackout curtains or sleep mask).
    • Practice mouth taping to encourage nasal breathing and increase nitric oxide.
    • Take 400-600 mg of magnesium.

    Questions and Answers:

    • Role of Stress (Cortisol): Cortisol works with insulin to store visceral fat. Chronic high cortisol levels lead to a “cortisol belly.” Managing stress (mental, emotional, physical, chemical) is crucial. Increasing oxytocin (through hugging, laughter, hobbies, gratitude – “vitamin G”) helps lower cortisol.
    • Protein Intake: Focus on protein intake (ideally 0.7 to 1 gram per pound of ideal body weight) for satiety, increased metabolic cost of digestion, and to support lean muscle mass. JJ Virgin emphasizes eating protein first at meals.
    • Measuring Visceral Fat:Indirect: Fasting insulin blood test (levels over 10 suggest insulin resistance and visceral fat storage).
    • Most Accurate: MRI scan of the abdomen. CT scans can also show visceral fat but involve radiation. Dexa scans quantify but don’t visualize visceral fat effectively.
    • Dr. Shan Omar, a visceral fat expert, emphasizes the visual impact of seeing visceral fat on an MRI as a powerful motivator for change. He notes that radiologists typically don’t report on visceral fat. Fatty infiltration in skeletal muscle often correlates with high visceral fat. Re-testing frequency depends on individual levels and goals, ranging from 3-12 months. Cost of MRI can vary significantly.

    Quotes:

    • “visceral fat is the nasty belly fat around your stomach”
    • “insulin is the hormone that tells your body to pack on the visceral fat it’s the only hormone in your body that stores fat”
    • “when insulin is high from eating carbohydrates you’re your fat burning hormones they go and they hide they cannot coexist with insulin”
    • “sprinting is the best exercise you can do to blast melt visceral fat”
    • “alcohol is a poison to your body it’s a toxin to your brain”
    • “walking actually helps you uh trigger the the autophagy mechanisms that are some of the health benefits linked with fasting” (Quote from Mike Mutzel)
    • “Deep sleep right here this is where you burn fat this is where you burn visceral fat this is where most of your fat burning hormones are activated”
    • “gratitude is strength training for your soul” (Ben Azadi)
    • “eat protein first because I have been at too many dinners and heard too many times from women that they get too full to eat their protein” (Quote from JJ Virgin)
    • “MRI is the best way uh to do that and uh it’s uh when when people visualize it I get lots of colorful language the f bomb is dropped all the time” (Quote from Dr. Shan Omar)

    Next Steps (Implied):

    • Follow the 7-step protocol.
    • Consider checking fasting insulin levels.
    • If motivated, explore getting an MRI scan to visualize visceral fat.
    • Check out the Keto Kamp recipes and other resources mentioned.
    • Watch the recommended video on “10 foods that put you in a fat burning State.”

    This briefing document summarizes the core principles and actionable steps presented in Ben Azadi’s guide to reducing visceral fat. The emphasis is on understanding the role of insulin, making strategic dietary changes, incorporating specific types of exercise, prioritizing sleep, and managing stress to achieve rapid fat loss and improved metabolic health.

    Visceral Fat: Reduction Through Diet and Lifestyle

    Frequently Asked Questions About Visceral Fat Reduction

    1. What is visceral fat and why is it dangerous? Visceral fat is the fat stored around your abdominal organs, often referred to as belly fat. It’s different from subcutaneous fat, which lies just beneath the skin. Visceral fat is particularly dangerous because it’s metabolically active, meaning it releases hormones and inflammatory substances that can contribute to chronic diseases such as heart disease, type 2 diabetes, fatty liver disease, obesity, and even certain types of cancer. It puts pressure on vital organs like the heart, kidneys, liver, and pancreas, hindering their proper function.

    2. What is the “easiest diet” to reduce visceral fat quickly? The core principle of this diet focuses on lowering the hormone insulin, which is the primary hormone responsible for fat storage, especially visceral fat. The easiest approach involves swapping high-carbohydrate foods for protein and healthy fats. Carbohydrates cause the most significant spike in insulin, followed by protein (a moderate response), while fat has a minimal impact. Therefore, to promote fat burning, especially visceral fat, it’s recommended to drastically reduce or eliminate foods like oats and oatmeal, all cereals, bread and grains, fruit and fruit juices, quinoa, white and brown rice, potatoes and sweet potatoes, and all legumes. Instead, focus on consuming non-starchy vegetables (like cauliflower rice, squash rice, and cabbage rice), whole eggs, red meat (beef and lamb), wild-caught salmon, organic poultry (chicken and turkey), and goat or sheep dairy (or raw, organic, grass-fed cow dairy in moderation). Aim to keep total carbohydrate intake under 50 grams per day to facilitate a metabolic shift towards fat burning.

    3. Besides diet, what other lifestyle changes are crucial for blasting visceral fat? Several lifestyle modifications complement dietary changes for effective visceral fat reduction: * Stop Snacking: Frequent snacking, even on healthy foods, elevates glucose and insulin levels, hindering fat burning. Aim for three main meals a day initially and consider progressing to intermittent fasting. * Implement Sprints: High-intensity interval training like sprinting (20 seconds of all-out effort followed by 90 seconds of rest, repeated for 3 rounds, 3 times per week) is highly effective in activating fat-burning hormones like human growth hormone and depleting glycogen stores, forcing the body to utilize stored fat. * Eliminate or Limit Alcohol: Alcohol is a toxin that the liver prioritizes metabolizing, thus slowing down fat burning. It also stimulates appetite, decreases testosterone (important for fat loss), and can increase estrogen levels (linked to abdominal fat). * Increase Daily Walking: Aim for at least 7,000, ideally 10,000 steps per day. Post-meal walks, even for 30 minutes, are particularly beneficial in blunting blood sugar spikes and reducing the need for excessive insulin production. Breaking up walks into 2,500-3,000 step sessions throughout the day can be more effective than one long walk. * Practice Intermittent Fasting (18/6 Schedule): Fasting for 18 hours daily with a 6-hour eating window (e.g., eating between 12 pm and 6 pm) can protect against neurodegenerative diseases, reduce insulin resistance, lower blood sugar and blood pressure, boost metabolism, extend lifespan, reduce inflammation, and optimize hormones like human growth hormone, leptin, and testosterone, all contributing to visceral fat loss. * Prioritize Deep Sleep (90 Minutes): Deep sleep is crucial for fat burning and the activation of fat-burning hormones. Tips to improve deep sleep include drinking banana tea, keeping the bedroom cool (around 65°F) and dark, using mouth tape to encourage nasal breathing, and taking 400-600mg of magnesium.

    4. How does stress impact visceral fat accumulation? Stress plays a significant role in visceral fat storage. While insulin is the primary fat-storing hormone, cortisol, the stress hormone, works in conjunction with it. Chronically elevated cortisol levels can lead to increased visceral fat storage, often referred to as a “cortisol belly.” Managing stress through adequate sleep, addressing mental, emotional, physical, and chemical stressors, and increasing oxytocin (the “love hormone”) through actions like hugging, laughing, engaging in hobbies, and practicing gratitude can help combat cortisol and reduce visceral fat.

    5. How much protein is recommended to help burn visceral fat? Protein is crucial for fat loss due to its high thermic effect (the energy required to digest and assimilate it), its ability to promote satiety (keeping you feeling full longer), and its role in preserving lean muscle mass during a caloric deficit. A general recommendation is to aim for 0.7 to 1 gram of protein per pound of your ideal body weight. Prioritizing protein intake, especially eating it before other macronutrients, can help manage hunger and cravings, supporting overall calorie control and visceral fat reduction.

    6. What are the ways to measure visceral fat? There are both indirect and direct methods to measure visceral fat. * Indirect Method: A fasting insulin blood test can indicate insulin resistance. A fasting insulin level over 10 suggests insulin resistance and likely the presence of excess visceral fat. This is a relatively inexpensive test that can be requested from your doctor. * Direct Methods: The most accurate ways to visualize and quantify visceral fat are through imaging techniques like DEXA scans, CT scans, and MRI scans. While DEXA scans provide a number representing visceral fat, they don’t offer a visual representation. CT scans and MRI scans provide images that clearly show visceral fat (appearing as white on the scans). MRI scans are considered superior due to their higher resolution and lack of radiation. However, it’s important to note that visceral fat is often not routinely reported by radiologists. Visualizing the visceral fat on an MRI or CT scan can have a strong emotional impact, motivating individuals to make necessary lifestyle changes. Software exists that can quantify visceral fat from these scans, though it’s not always necessary as the visual evidence can be powerful. Repeat testing can be done every 3 to 9 months to monitor progress. MRI scan costs can vary significantly by location, so it’s worth shopping around.

    7. Can walking really help in losing stubborn belly fat? Yes, walking is a mandatory aspect of a healthy lifestyle and significantly aids in reducing stubborn belly fat. Aiming for around 9,000 steps per day is a good target, with benefits increasing up to 12,000 steps for disease prevention. Breaking up walks into multiple shorter sessions (2,500-3,000 steps each) throughout the day is more effective than one long session. Walking after meals is particularly beneficial for blunting post-meal glucose spikes, reducing the need for high insulin levels, and promoting fat burning. Research shows that even a brisk 15-20 minute walk after a higher-carb meal can significantly lower glucose levels. Furthermore, consistent walking improves the body’s ability to oxidize fat.

    8. What is the connection between deep sleep and visceral fat loss? Deep sleep is a critical phase of sleep where the majority of fat-burning hormones are activated, allowing the body to tap into stored fat for energy, including visceral fat. Aiming for approximately 90 minutes of deep sleep each night can significantly accelerate visceral fat reduction. Strategies to enhance deep sleep, such as maintaining a cool and dark bedroom, practicing nasal breathing through mouth taping, and ensuring adequate magnesium intake, can optimize this fat-burning process during sleep.

    Burning Visceral Fat: A Seven-Step Protocol

    Visceral fat is described as the nasty belly fat around your stomach. It’s problematic because it applies pressure to vital organs like your heart, kidneys, liver, and pancreas, potentially leading to chronic diseases such as fatty liver disease, obesity, cancer, and heart disease.

    According to Ben Azadi, the easiest diet to follow to reduce visceral fat in less than 14 days involves a seven-step protocol.

    Here are the seven steps for burning visceral fat outlined in the source:

    1. Lower Insulin: The primary hormone that signals fat storage, particularly visceral fat, is insulin. To lower insulin, the first step is to swap carbohydrates for protein and fat. Carbohydrates cause the highest insulin spike, followed by protein (moderate), while fat barely affects insulin levels.
    • It’s recommended to remove foods like oats and oatmeal, all cereals (even whole grain), bread, grains, fruit and fruit juices, quinoa, white and brown rice, potatoes and sweet potatoes, and all legumes. These foods can cause a significant glucose and insulin response. Fruit and fruit juices contain fructose and sometimes high fructose corn syrup, which can lead to fatty liver and visceral fat.
    • You should replace these with fat-burning, insulin-friendly foods such as cauliflower rice, squash rice, cabbage rice, whole eggs (with the yolk), red meat (beef and lamb), wild-caught salmon, organic poultry (chicken and turkey), and goat and sheep dairy (which contain more medium-chain triglycerides than cow dairy). Raw organic grass-fed cow dairy might be okay in moderation. Greens like arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower are also beneficial.
    • Ideally, aim to drop your total carbohydrates under 50 grams per day to facilitate a metabolic switch to fat burning.
    1. Stop Snacking: Snacking between meals raises glucose and insulin levels, even if it’s a healthy snack, disrupting your metabolism and preventing visceral fat burning. The average American eats 17 to 23 times per day due to grazing. You should aim for three meals a day initially and then work towards intermittent fasting.
    2. Sprints: Sprinting is considered the best exercise to blast visceral fat. High-intensity interval training like sprinting activates hormones such as human growth hormone, making your metabolism more efficient at using stored fat for energy. The protocol involves sprinting at an all-out effort for 20 seconds, followed by 90 seconds of rest, repeated for three total rounds, three times per week. This should only take about 5 to 7 minutes.
    3. No or Limit Alcohol: Alcohol is described as a poison and a toxin to the body that slows fat burning because the liver prioritizes metabolizing alcohol. Alcohol also stimulates appetite, decreases testosterone levels (which can last up to 24 hours), and can increase estrogen levels (especially beer), potentially contributing to an “estrogen belly”. It is recommended to avoid alcohol entirely or limit its consumption significantly.
    4. Walking: Getting at least 7,000 steps a day (ideally 10,000) is crucial. Walking after eating a meal is particularly beneficial because it blunts the spike in blood sugar and reduces the amount of insulin produced, allowing you to get into a fat-burning state faster. Studies show that a 30-minute brisk walk after meals improves the glycemic response. Interspersing walking throughout the day in exercise snacks (three or four 2,500-3,000 step sessions) can be more effective than one longer walk. Aiming for around 9,000 steps per day is a good target. Even a rigorous 15-20 minute walk after a high-carb meal can significantly reduce glucose levels.
    5. Intermittent Fasting: This has numerous benefits, including protecting against neurodegenerative diseases through autophagy, lowering insulin levels, increasing human growth hormone, reducing insulin resistance and blood sugar levels, reducing the risk of heart disease, boosting metabolism, extending lifespan, reducing inflammation, removing waste from cells, and helping with hormones like leptin and testosterone. The recommended schedule for visceral fat reduction is an 18/6 schedule, where you fast for 18 hours (consuming only water, electrolytes, supplements, coffee, or tea) and have a 6-hour eating window (e.g., 12:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m.) with 2 to 3 meals.
    6. 90 Minutes of Deep Sleep: Deep sleep is when you burn fat and visceral fat, and most fat-burning hormones are activated. Aiming for 90 minutes of deep sleep each night is recommended. Scientifically proven tips to improve deep sleep include drinking banana tea, keeping the bedroom cold (around 65°F), ensuring the bedroom is dark (using blackout curtains or a sleep mask), using mouth tape to encourage nasal breathing, and taking 400-600 mg of magnesium.

    The source also addresses the role of stress and protein intake in visceral fat reduction:

    • Stress: While insulin is the primary hormone for visceral fat storage, cortisol (the stress hormone) works with insulin. Chronic high levels of cortisol can lead to a “cortisol belly” and fat storage. Managing stress through optimizing sleep, addressing mental, emotional, physical, and chemical stressors is important. Activities that produce oxytocin (like hugging, watching something funny, hobbies, and practicing gratitude – “vitamin G”) can help combat high cortisol levels.
    • Protein Intake: The focus should be on protein intake when reducing carbohydrates. Prioritizing protein intake and eating it first during meals is recommended because protein is more metabolically costly to digest and assimilate compared to carbs and fat (20-30% of protein calories are used in digestion). Protein also helps you feel fuller for longer and can help with cravings. A general recommendation is to aim for 0.7 to 1 gram of protein per pound of your target or ideal body weight.

    Regarding measuring visceral fat, the source provides the following information:

    • An indirect way to measure visceral fat is through a fasting insulin blood test. A result over 10 may indicate insulin resistance and visceral fat storage.
    • The most accurate way to test is with an MRI scan. CT scans can also visualize visceral fat but involve radiation. DEXA scans quantify visceral fat but don’t allow for visualization.
    • Visualizing visceral fat on an MRI scan can have a significant emotional impact, which can motivate individuals to make lifestyle changes. On an MRI, fat appears white, while muscle appears dark.
    • While software exists to quantify visceral fat numerically, visualizing the amount of visceral fat may be more impactful for individuals.
    • It’s important to understand that doctors do not routinely read visceral fat on MRI or CT scans. Dr. Anna C. Rosa is mentioned as one of the first radiologists to routinely do so.
    • If you’ve had a CT scan of your abdomen, you can review the images to see the amount of visceral fat.
    • Repeat testing with MRI can be done every 3 to 6 months to monitor progress. The cost and time involved with MRI scans can be limitations.

    Insulin’s Role in Fat Storage and Reduction Strategies

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, let’s discuss insulin hormone levels.

    Insulin is the primary hormone in your body that signals fat storage, especially visceral fat. When insulin levels are elevated, a significant amount of fat is stored around your belly. This is a problem because this visceral fat puts pressure on vital organs and can contribute to chronic diseases like fatty liver disease, obesity, cancer, and heart disease.

    The source highlights that carbohydrates cause the most significant spike in blood insulin when you eat them. Protein results in a moderate insulin response, while fat barely affects insulin levels. This is described as basic human physiology verified by medical textbooks.

    When insulin levels are high due to carbohydrate consumption, your fat-burning hormones are suppressed and cannot function effectively. Insulin and fat burning essentially cannot coexist.

    Therefore, the first step to burning visceral fat, according to Ben Azadi, is to lower insulin levels. This is primarily achieved by swapping carbohydrates for protein and fat in your diet. The source recommends avoiding foods that cause high insulin spikes, such as:

    • Oats and oatmeal
    • All cereals, including whole grain
    • Bread and grains
    • Fruit and fruit juices (due to fructose and potential high fructose corn syrup)
    • Quinoa, white and brown rice
    • Potatoes and sweet potatoes
    • All legumes (beans, peanuts, lentils, and chickpeas)

    Instead, the source suggests replacing these with insulin-friendly, fat-burning foods like:

    • Cauliflower rice, squash rice, and cabbage rice
    • Whole eggs (with the yolk)
    • Red meat (beef and lamb)
    • Wild-caught salmon
    • Organic poultry (chicken and turkey)
    • Goat and sheep dairy (which have more medium-chain triglycerides than cow dairy)
    • Raw organic grass-fed cow dairy (potentially in moderation)
    • Greens like arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower

    The goal is to drop total carbohydrate intake to under 50 grams per day to lower insulin sufficiently and trigger a metabolic switch to fat burning.

    Beyond dietary changes, intermittent fasting is also presented as a method to lower insulin levels. During the fasting period, insulin levels naturally decrease, which is beneficial for burning visceral fat and has other health benefits like increased human growth hormone and reduced insulin resistance. The recommended schedule is an 18/6 fasting window.

    Furthermore, walking after meals helps to blunt the spike in blood sugar, which in turn reduces the amount of insulin required to clear glucose from the bloodstream. This allows you to get into a fat-burning state more quickly.

    The source also indirectly links stress and cortisol to insulin’s role in visceral fat storage. While insulin is the primary hormone, cortisol (the stress hormone) works with insulin to promote visceral fat accumulation. Managing stress can therefore have a positive impact on insulin regulation.

    Finally, an indirect way to measure visceral fat is through a fasting insulin blood test. A fasting insulin level over 10 may indicate insulin resistance, which is often associated with higher levels of visceral fat.

    Carbohydrates and Visceral Fat Reduction: A Protocol

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, let’s discuss carbohydrate intake in relation to visceral fat reduction.

    The source “01.pdf” emphasizes that carbohydrate intake plays a significant role in the accumulation of visceral fat. According to Ben Azadi, carbohydrates cause the highest blood insulin response compared to protein and fat. Elevated insulin levels are the primary driver of visceral fat storage around the belly.

    Therefore, the first and most crucial step in the provided protocol for reducing visceral fat is to significantly lower carbohydrate intake. The rationale behind this is that by reducing carbohydrates, you can lower insulin levels, which in turn signals your body to stop storing visceral fat and instead start burning it. The source explicitly states that when insulin is high from eating carbohydrates, your fat-burning hormones are suppressed and cannot effectively do their job.

    To lower insulin, the source recommends swapping carbohydrates for protein and fat in your diet. It provides a detailed list of foods that people often think are healthy but can actually contribute to visceral fat due to their high carbohydrate and sugar content:

    • Oats and oatmeal
    • All cereals, even whole grain varieties
    • Bread and grains
    • Fruit and fruit juices because they contain fructose and sometimes high fructose corn syrup, leading to a significant glucose and insulin spike and potentially causing fatty liver and visceral fat
    • Quinoa, white and brown rice
    • Potatoes and sweet potatoes
    • All legumes, including beans, peanuts, lentils, and chickpeas

    Instead of these foods, the source suggests replacing them with fat-burning and insulin-friendly options:

    • Cauliflower rice, squash rice, and cabbage rice as alternatives to white or brown rice
    • Whole eggs (with the yolk)
    • Red meat like beef and lamb
    • Wild-caught salmon
    • Organic poultry like chicken and turkey
    • Goat and sheep dairy (which are noted as being potentially better than cow dairy due to a higher content of medium-chain triglycerides)
    • Raw organic grass-fed cow dairy (suggested as possibly okay in moderation)
    • Greens like arugula, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower

    The source provides a specific target for carbohydrate intake, recommending that you ideally drop your total carbohydrate consumption to under 50 grams per day. This level is suggested to be low enough to significantly lower insulin and facilitate a metabolic switch from burning glucose to burning fat, including visceral fat.

    Our previous discussion on insulin hormone levels also highlighted the direct link between carbohydrate intake and insulin spikes [the previous turn]. We noted that carbohydrates have the most substantial impact on raising insulin levels compared to other macronutrients.

    Furthermore, the source connects carbohydrate intake to other recommendations for visceral fat reduction. For example, walking after meals is particularly emphasized for its ability to blunt the post-meal glucose spike that occurs even with lower carbohydrate intake. This reduction in glucose also means less insulin needs to be released. Similarly, intermittent fasting helps lower overall insulin levels, which is partly achieved by restricting the time window during which carbohydrates (and other foods) are consumed.

    In summary, the source posits that high carbohydrate intake is a primary driver of elevated insulin levels and subsequent visceral fat accumulation. To effectively reduce visceral fat, a significant reduction in carbohydrate intake to below 50 grams per day is recommended, along with the substitution of high-carbohydrate foods with protein and fat sources and insulin-friendly vegetables. Managing carbohydrate intake is presented as the foundational step upon which the other recommendations for visceral fat reduction are built.

    Intermittent Fasting for Visceral Fat Reduction

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, let’s discuss intermittent fasting as a strategy for visceral fat reduction.

    The source “01.pdf” presents intermittent fasting as the sixth step in its seven-step protocol for burning belly fat. It is described as having many benefits.

    How Intermittent Fasting Helps Burn Visceral Fat:

    • Lowers Insulin Levels: One of the primary ways intermittent fasting aids in visceral fat loss is by lowering insulin levels. As we discussed previously, elevated insulin is the main hormone that promotes the storage of visceral fat [1, our conversation history]. By abstaining from food for a significant period, insulin levels naturally decrease, which signals the body to start burning stored fat, including visceral fat.
    • Increases Human Growth Hormone (HGH): Fasting promotes a rise in human growth hormone. HGH is a key hormone that helps the body burn fat. The source mentions that studies suggest a significant increase in HGH hour after hour during a fast.
    • Promotes Autophagy: Intermittent fasting helps the body go through cellular cleaning processes called autophagy. Autophagy involves clearing out senescent (aged or damaged) cells.
    • Reduces Insulin Resistance and Lowers Blood Sugar: Fasting can help reduce insulin resistance and lower blood sugar levels. This is significant because insulin resistance is often linked to increased visceral fat storage.
    • Boosts Metabolism: Contrary to the misconception that fasting slows metabolism, the source states that it actually boosts metabolism.
    • Positively Impacts Other Hormones: Fasting can also help with hormones like leptin (the satiety hormone) and testosterone.

    Recommended Intermittent Fasting Schedule:

    The specific intermittent fasting schedule recommended in the source for burning visceral fat is the 18/6 schedule. This means:

    • 18 hours of fasting: During this time, no food is consumed. You can have water, electrolytes, supplements, coffee, and tea. Snacking is not allowed.
    • 6-hour eating window: This is the period during which you consume your meals. The example given is from 12:00 p.m. to 6:00 p.m.. During this window, you would typically eat two to three meals.

    The source emphasizes utilizing sleep as part of the fasted state by having an earlier dinner by 6:00 p.m..

    Connection to Previous Discussions:

    • Insulin: Our previous discussions highlighted that lowering insulin is crucial for visceral fat reduction and that carbohydrates are the primary driver of insulin spikes [our conversation history]. Intermittent fasting is presented as another effective method, alongside dietary changes, to achieve and maintain lower insulin levels.
    • Carbohydrate Intake: While intermittent fasting focuses on when you eat, the source also recommends what you eat during your eating window, which aligns with our discussion on lowering carbohydrate intake to manage insulin [2, 10, our conversation history]. Combining a lower-carbohydrate diet during the eating window with intermittent fasting is implied as a powerful strategy.

    In summary, the source “01.pdf” strongly advocates for intermittent fasting, specifically the 18/6 schedule, as a valuable tool for reducing visceral fat. Its benefits are attributed to its ability to lower insulin, increase HGH, promote autophagy, improve insulin sensitivity, boost metabolism, and positively influence other hormones. This recommendation aligns with the broader strategy of managing insulin levels discussed in the source and our previous conversations regarding the impact of carbohydrate intake on insulin.

    Walking for Visceral Fat Reduction: Steps and Timing

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, let’s discuss steps and walking in the context of visceral fat reduction.

    Walking as Step Five in the Protocol:

    The source “01.pdf” identifies getting at least 7,000 steps a day, with 10,000 steps being even better, as the fifth step in the protocol for burning visceral fat. It specifically highlights that walking after eating a meal is the most beneficial time to do this.

    Benefits of Walking, Especially After Meals:

    • Blunting Blood Sugar Spikes: When you eat food, your blood sugar levels will rise, even with a lower carbohydrate intake. This prompts the pancreas to release insulin to clear the glucose from the bloodstream. The more metabolically unhealthy you are and the more visceral fat you have, the higher this blood sugar spike can be, requiring more insulin. Walking after a meal helps to blunt this spike in blood sugars, requiring less insulin to be produced, and allowing you to get into a fat-burning state faster.
    • Study Supporting Postprandial Walking: The source references a study titled “the effects of postprandial walking on the glucose response after meals with different characteristics” which demonstrated that a 30-minute brisk walk after meals improves the glycemic response, even after high-carbohydrate meals.
    • Expert Opinion from Mike Mutzel: The source includes an interview with fat loss expert Mike Mutzel, who emphasizes that walking is a mandatory aspect of a healthy lifestyle, regardless of diet or fasting programs. He cites research suggesting a threshold of around 9,000 steps per day for overall health benefits and around 12,000 steps for preventing various diseases. A significant meta-analysis involving 1.3 million people found that at least 8,600 steps per day can help avoid and reduce the risk of developing conditions like sleep apnea, depression, high blood pressure, and improve metabolic health, including reducing visceral fat.

    “Exercise Snacks” – Breaking Up Walks:

    Mike Mutzel suggests breaking up your daily walks into “exercise snacks” of three or four 2,500 to 3,000 step sessions interspersed throughout the day, rather than one long bout of exercise. He argues that this approach can be more effective than a single longer walk.

    Research by Edward Coyle on Step Counts and Metabolic Health:

    The source discusses research by Edward Coyle at UT Austin, who found that:

    • Individuals walking less than 8,000 steps per day had an exaggerated postmeal level of blood triglycerides after a standardized high-fat test meal, which is a strong indicator of poor metabolic health and fat utilization.
    • There was a 30% reduction in fat oxidation in the low step count group (around 2,600 steps) compared to the high step count group (around 8,500 steps).
    • Interestingly, a 60-minute Zone 2 exercise session did not significantly increase fat oxidation in the low step count group, suggesting that daily walking activity is crucial for maximizing the benefits of structured exercise.

    Walking After “Cheat Meals”:

    Mike Mutzel suggests that even if someone has a higher-carbohydrate meal (like a “cheat meal”), going for a rigorous walk for 15-20 minutes can literally cut their glucose levels almost in half. This further reinforces the benefit of postprandial movement in managing blood sugar and insulin.

    Connection to Previous Discussions:

    • Insulin: As mentioned, walking, especially after meals, directly helps in managing blood glucose levels, thus reducing the insulin response. This aligns with our previous discussions about the importance of lowering insulin for visceral fat reduction [our conversation history].
    • Carbohydrate Intake: While lowering carbohydrate intake is the primary dietary recommendation, incorporating walking helps mitigate the glucose spike that can still occur even with a reduced carbohydrate load [4, 5, our conversation history]. The synergy between dietary changes and increased physical activity like walking is evident.

    In summary, the source strongly advocates for regular walking, aiming for at least 7,000 to 10,000 steps per day, with a particular emphasis on walking after meals to help blunt blood sugar and insulin spikes. Breaking up the total step count into smaller “exercise snacks” throughout the day may be more effective than a single long walk. Research indicates that achieving a sufficient daily step count is crucial for healthy postmeal metabolic responses and fat oxidation. This recommendation complements the dietary and fasting strategies for visceral fat reduction by directly influencing glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity.

    The World’s Easiest Diet For Visceral Fat Reduction In 14 Days | Ben Azadi

    The Original Text

    visceral fat is the nasty belly fat around your stomach I’m going to share with you in this lesson the easiest diet to follow to blast melt visceral fat in less than 14 days how do I know this can be done well this is a photo of me when I was 2050 lb 34% body fat I had a ton of visceral fat and I applied what I’m about to teach you and here’s what happened to me I went from 250 lb as you can see on the screen here to 170 lb right here here 34% body fat to as low as 6% body fat I had a lot of visceral fat those are signs of visceral fat you can see the love handles here and you can see what happened as a result before and after so you’re about to get the same results that I did I know this works because this guy right here me when I was 24 years old I was struggling with a ton of fat obesity I had pre-diabetes and high blood pressure and I tried so many different approaches and it wasn’t until I followed this approach that I’m going to share with you these seven steps to burn this fat that’s what I achieved in a short amount of time and I’m going to lay it all out for you right now the first step to burning visceral fat is to lower a hormone called insulin when this hormone insulin is elevated a ton of visceral fat gets stored around your belly this is a problem because that visceral fat applies pressure to your heart your kidneys to your liver and your pancreas and it creates chronic disease fatty liver disease obesity cancer heart disease insulin is the hormone that tells your body to pack on the visceral fat it’s the only hormone in your body that stores fat that’s pretty interesting because there’s over 600 hormones in the body but only one signal fat storage in that hormone is primarily the hormone insulin now cortisol works with insulin to do that but it’s insulin that’s causing this visceral fat all right now let’s unpack out of the three macronutrients out there which one causes the most insulin Spike well the research is clear when you eat carbohydrates you can see it creates the highest blood insulin response protein is number two but it’s a moderate insulin response and fat barely touches the dial on insulin this is basic human physiology all the medical textbooks verify this so if we know that it’s carbohydrates that Spike insulin the most that means the first step here in your protocol is to swap carbohydrates for protein and fat when insulin is high from eating carbohydrates you’re your fat burning hormones they go and they hide they cannot coexist with insulin so just to give you an example what are the foods people eat that they think are healthy but actually are causing visceral fat I’m going to show you some crazy stats right here these are some stats from chronometer doccom keto camp where you could input your food and it gives you the amount of grams of carbs protein fat it gives you all the calculations all the nutrition I input that into the system and I’m going to give you an example of the common foods people eat they think are healthy he but it’s causing weight gain it’s causing visceral fat so this is an example of an assai Bowl One assai Bowl from Jamba Juice how many teaspoons of sugar in that 20 teaspoons of sugar which equates to 99 gam of sugar that’s a huge blood sugar and insulin response all right Lucky Charms I know most people don’t think Lucky Charms are healthy but hey let’s look at the stats here in two servings of lucky charm so two bowls we have 12 teaspoons of sugar 60 g of sugar then we have oatmeal okay a lot of people try to lose visceral fat and they’re eating oatmeal they think oatmeal helps them lose weight does oatmeal cause an insulin Spike how much sugar is an oatmeal in just two servings of oatmeal there is 52 gam of sugar not to mention all the glyphosate and contaminants that’s usually found in oatmeal that’s besides the fact here orange juice people drink orange juice thinking they’re getting their vitamin C two cups of orange juice 16 o is 52 g of sugar therefore what you’re going to want to do to start tapping into visceral fat by lowering insulin is to remove the following Foods we have oats and oatmeal you want to get rid of that cereal that goes for all cereal even whole grain cereal all bread grains fruit and fruit juices because fruit and fruit juices contain fructose and sometimes high fructose corn syrup huge glucose and Insulin Spike that causes fatty liver and visceral fat you want to avoid quinoa white and brown rice you want to avoid potatoes and sweet potatoes all legumes including beans peanuts lentil and chickpeas ideally you want to drop your total carbohydrates under 50 gam total per day to lower insulin enough to make a metabolic switch to Fat metabolism fat burning where your body starts burning that visceral fat this is the first step that I did to start burning my visc fat now the question is what do I eat Ben you’re taking all my favorite stuff away there’s some really good food you can eat here’s what you want to swap them with you want to replace those foods with the following fat burning insulin Friendly Foods we have cauliflower rice squash rice and cabbage rice that’s a good replacement for white rice or brown rice we have eggs the whole egg with the yolk it’s amazing for insulin resistance fat burning amazing for fatty liver disease we have red meat like beef and lamb wild CAU salmon is amazing with its anti-inflammatory properties it has EPA and DHA it lowers inflammation allows your fat burning hormones to do their job we have poultry organic poultry ideally chicken and turkey I put eggs on there twice I guess I did that subconsciously because I love eggs so much goat and sheep Dairy would be better than Cow Dairy if you do cowery raw organic grass-fed cowery should be okay but the reason I put goat and sheep Dairy on this list as opposed to Cow Dairy is because goat and sheep Dairy contain 30% medium chain triglycerides which actually helps you get into a fat burning State faster than Cow Dairy greens like arugula which is a great bidder for your liver to detoxify and burn fat broccoli brussels sprouts cauliflower this is a good list of fat burning foods now there’s a lot more and I put together a recipe called the keto camp recipe of the week and these are recipes you can get by scanning the screen right there I’ll get out of the way for you uh or going to keto Camp recipes.com I’ll drop a link down below but these recipes I’ve worked with the food journalist for six months to put together insulin friendly fat burning recipes protein focused healthy fats low carbs and it takes all the guest work out of it so you just follow the recipes you get one a week in your email inbox and it’s easy and quick to make and it tastes pretty good all right Second Step here in your protocol is to stop snacking in between your meals every time you snack you raise glucose and then insulin even if it’s a healthy snack and here’s a crazy stat my colleague Dr Don Clum did a patient population study and he found out that the average American eats 17 to 23 times per day how is that possible it’s the grazing the handful of almonds the sip of the kombucha the protein shake every time you eat if it’s a snack or a full-on meal it doesn’t matter it’s a meal to your body it’s going to disrupt your metabolism it’s going to prevent you from burning visceral fat the example I always give is like this example here let’s say you’re in your office at home and you’re in a flow State working very productive and every 2 to three hours somebody bangs on your door and disrupts your your workflow that’s what’s happening to your metabolism when you eat every 2 to three hours your spiking glucose and insulin and you’re disrupting your fat burning workflow so the first step here along the Second Step I should say along with the first step is to eliminate the snacks you’re going to start by just having three meals a day and you’re going to work your way up to intermittent fasting which will discuss how that helps you burn visceral fat in a second the third step to burning belly fat are Sprints sprinting is the best exercise you can do to blast melt visceral fat I’ll share with you the protocol and it’s pretty easy by the way it might seem too little but I got to tell you it works like a charm but let me explain how this works when you do high-intensity interval training a Sprint at an allout effort and then you rest and recover and repeat that a few times you activate hormones in your body that like human growth hormone and others that really allow your metabolism to get more efficient and use stored fat for energy it’s a very energy demanding activity Sprints and you’re going to allow your your body to burn through your sugar reserves called your glycogen stores and then make that metabolic switch to blasting stored fat visceral fat for energy so the protocol is very simple you do this three times per week you’re going to Sprint all out effort for 20 seconds either outside or on a treadmill you could also do it on a bicycle by the way if you have bad knees all out effort like a lion is chasing you for 20 seconds time yourself then you’re going to rest for 90 seconds total ideally you want to sit down maybe lie down for 90 seconds allow your body to go back into a parasympathetic State and then you do it again 20 second all out Sprint you can do that for three total rounds and you’re only going to do that three times per week maybe it’s Monday Wednesday and Friday they should only take about 5 to 7 minutes you might want to warm up beforehand but 5 to 7 minutes what a wonderful way and a fast easy way to burn belly fat so sprinting is the third step here the fourth way to burn visceral fat sorry to be the be bad news but this is no alcohol or limit alcohol but if you go no alcohol even better look before I get into these stats here alcohol is a poison to your body it’s a toxin to your brain even if it’s the cleanest alcohol in the world the most expensive alcohol every sip will kill brain cells inside of your body but it’s not just that as it relates to visceral fat your liver is a very important organ not just for detoxification but for fat loss and when you have alcohol your liver and your metabolism needs to metabolize and prioritize getting rid of that toxin the alcohol before anything else before fat burning before any other detoxification processes so you slow fat burning and another reason why is alcohol stimulates appetite and decreases testosterone levels for up to 24 hours so you’re probably going to eat more carbohydrates eat unhealthy you’re going to have lower levels of testosterone and it can increase estrogen levels especially beer by 300% this is why they call it an Infamous beer belly it’s really just an estrogen belly biochemically the higher your levels of estrogen are the more readily you absorb alcohol and the slower you break it down it becomes a vicious cycle so have a mocktail that’s not sweetened have sparkling water this is what I do sparkling water with a Sprinkle of lemon sometimes I’ll put some drops of stevia monk fruit but no alcohol if you’re serious about burning visceral fat okay the fifth step here in your protocol is walking getting at least 7,000 steps a day 10,000 steps are even better but doing it after eating a meal after eating your meals is the best time to do this because when you eat food you’re going to have blood sugar Spike even with the lowering of carbs that we mentioned in the protein and fat there’s still going to be a rise in glucose and the more metabolically unhealthy you are the more visceral fat you have the higher that blood sugar Spike the higher that blood sugar goes after eating the more insulin is required from your pancreas to be pumped out to clear that excess glucose out of the bloodstream and into your cells that’s not good the more insulin the more you store fat so by going for a walk you blunt this big spike in blood sugars and you allow less insulin to become produced meaning you get into a fat burning State faster walking is one of the best things you can do and this study proves it and there’s numerous studies that show this but this study titled the effects of postprandial walking on the glucose response after meals with different characteristics so what this study did they took participants in three different groups one group ate a low carbohydrate meal one group ate a mixed meal of carbs and fat and protein and the other group had a straight up high carb meal and all three groups when they walked for 30 minutes after a meal saw positive results here’s what the study said although higher glucose levels were observed with High carbohydrate meal are finding show that a 30 minute post prandial meaning after eating brisk walk session improves the glycemic response after meals huge so 30 minute walk after all your meals and if you can’t do it after all your meals do it after your biggest meal of the day I interviewed a world renown expert uh Mike mutel who’s a fat loss Fitness expert and a good friend of mine and he’s going to share with you right now why walking is one of the best ways to burn fat visc fat overall body fat and extend your lifespan so check out this clip it’s going to blow your mind from Mike mutzel if people wanted to shed stubborn Fat Mike how can walking help with this and what is the right method of walking to make this more efficient Ben great question I think people need to think about walking as a mandatory aspect of their lifestyle irrespective of whatever diet or fasting program they’re doing uh various Studies have been emerging over the past I want to say five or six years finding that the threshold for the number of steps that we should be walking every day is right around 9,000 so that’s what people should aim for uh other studies show about 12,000 for preventing different diseases and these are common conditions there was a huge metaanalysis involving 1.3 million people finding that if you walk at least 8600 steps per day you can avoid and reduce your risk of developing all sorts of conditions from sleep apnea to depression to uh high blood pressure pressure improving metabolic Health producing visceral fat um so that’s really important but getting back to your question specifically about losing belly fat um we should be breaking our walks up into what I I consider and researchers talk about this exercise snacks so having three or four 2500 step sessions interspersed throughout the day so you know people are always wondering like well will coffee break my fast will this or that break my fast walking actually helps you uh trigger the the autophagy mechanisms that are some of the health benefits linked with fasting uh we can get into the the sort of synergy between exercise and autophagy and the parallels with fasting later but but to get real granular with this 3 to 4 2500 or 3,000 step sessions and so what that might look like is before you have uh breakfast in the morning a lot of people fast in the morning a lot of your listeners do that um just go out and get 2500 3,000 steps you know and then around after lunchtime after your first major meal um get another 3,000 steps and then after dinner you get 3,000 and if you do these little exercise breaks it’s actually more effective than just going to the gym and doing say 45 minutes on a treadmill or a 45 minute walk so interspersing exercise and walking throughout the day uh is better than just doing one bout of exercise and I like to share the research from a gentleman known as his name is Edward Coyle at UT Austin and he’s published many randomized control trials where uh they randomize subjects to either a low step count group medium step count and High Step count and to enumerate those step counts we’re talking 2600 steps for a whole day so just relegating people to a lab where they’re only walking with their pedometer 2500 steps and then they randomize people to either walk 4,500 steps or 9,000 steps and then what they do after just this is I think two and over the course of two and four days depending upon which study they published they’ve done a few of these different trials then after those interventions uh they will give the sub subjects a standardized high fat test meal and they’ll look at markers of fat oxidation as well as postmeal hypertriglyceridemia so I know you talk a lot about lipids and and biomarkers high postmeal triglycerides are a strong independent risk factor of future heart disease as well as metabolic deterioration and it’s a proxy of poor fat utilization and handling and poor fat oxidation so you don’t want a strong High postmeal triglyceride level would suggest that you have some degree of poor metabolic health and so what the investigators found is when people do not walk at least 8,000 steps per day after the standardized test meal they have an exaggerated postmeal level of their blood triglycerides which as I mentioned very problematic arguably worse than LDL cholesterol which we can get into later and the differential in fat oxidation between the low step count group again most people are just walking about 2,000 3,000 steps per day you know they get up they walk they go to the car they drive to work they get in the office they sit all day then they drive home and watch TV and so most people are pretty sedentary and there was a 30% reduction When comparing the high step count group around 8,500 steps compared to the 2600 step count so if we think about just two days and this is some people might be traveling going to Yos or Yellowstone with the family they’re in an RV wi AO they’re eating you know chips and hot dogs and things like that sitting around or on a on an airplane you know so we do this uh all people do this all the time and we wonder why we can’t lose fat and this just this is one very simple way uh to just improve your body’s ability to burn fat because going further what the study did is they also in one arm of the study they had individuals do a 60 Minute Zone 2 exercise session which as we know zone two is actually I don’t think it’s the best for long-term fat loss but when you’re doing Zone to low intensity cardio you tend to the body relies more upon burning fat for fuel to uh give your muscles energy during that exercise session there wasn’t a statistically signific significant increase in fat oxidation in the low step count group meaning that if people don’t walk a lot but they go to the gym they’re not getting the most mileage from that gym session because they’re not just doing these daily uh activities of daily living that are supporting fat oxidation so yeah to be very concise three to four sessions uh walking sessions of you know 250000 to 3,000 steps interspersed throughout the day and honestly Ben this is great for mental focus I mean you can only focus on a one you know finite task for a short period of time uh and so this just really helps break up the day you feel better you digest your food better we can get into the ciran Rhythm health because I encourage people to walk outside even on a cloudy day the uh the intensity of the Sun the Lux uh is is well over a thousand which really helps Toc entrain your circuiting clock system and Foster that sleep pressure later in the day so there’s a bunch of different health benefits uh but yeah it really helps people lose a lot more belly fat I’m sold I I have I have been sold for quite some time you broke it down so well and the evident this this research is clear that it’s beneficial especially when you chunk it out so 9,000 steps per day seems to be the target uh I tend to get around 12 or 13,000 on average per day and it’s chunked it’s not in one long workout so I tend to do that naturally with my day-to-day it’s the benefit of having a dog by the way it’s I walk him at least twice a day so I get outside you mentioned going for a walk after dinner I’d love for you to share the benefits of going for a walk after eating uh maybe a higher carve meal of what it does to kind of blunt that post pral glucose yeah this is amazing and and the way that I sort of figured this out I mean obviously there’s research you to show this but back when continuous glucose monitors the Abbott freestyle came on the on the market back in 2017 um you know I had been doing keto eating a low carb diet since 2014 got into it and I was like you know kind of curious like if I were to go to a vegan restaurant uh here in Seattle I went to I just Google the most popular vegan restaurant um my family went in there and we just said hey we’ve never been here before give us your your the most popular items on the menu and it was you know pizza and some Breads and some different things and I’m testing my glucose in real time I calibrated the glucose monitor and so forth and I could see my glucose start to continuously in increase to 185 Mig per deciliter and so for folks listening that is in the pre-diabetic range now I know that might sound alarming people are like well you’re diabetic it’s like no I had been used to eating a low carb diet for a while and research shows this when you get habitually accustomed to eating a low carb diet and then you have a very high carb meal your body can have an OV exaggerated response to that meal and that’s exactly what happened and you know I was like oh my gosh we need to go for a walk to get this down and no kidding Ben I went for my usual one mile walk with the dogs uh came back and my glucose went from 185 to 85 milligrams per deser and I I made a video on this and I was just blown away you know we hear all the time about exercise is good for fat loss exercise helps with blood flow exercise you know helps reduce glucose and and and improve the valley the Peaks and troughs and glucose levels but in real time I was able to see this and I thought wow this is really powerful and it really speaks to when go to other parts of the world you know I know some of your audience lives outside of North America but most are relegated to North America that’s just kind of how YouTube works and you know when you go to Europe and other places people just walk you know they don’t have cars and and things like this they have public transportation but you know people are walking in this but yet they’re eating bread and baguettes and pasta you’re like well why don’t we see the Obesity uh in parts of Europe where they do have a relatively High carbohydrate diet and my uh hypothesis is that they’re just walking more they’re just more active and and moving around more so that I think is really important so if someone does have a cheat meal someone listening is going to go to a birthday or a wedding or have a barbecue and there might be Temptations with a hot dog or some chips or some ice cream or whatever if you just go for a rigorous walk for 15 20 minutes that’s all it takes you can literally cut your glucose in half by doing that and obviously there’s many health benefits too because you insulin you know if you are normally low carb and then you have a high GL glucose or high calorie meal um you’re going to have an OV exaggerated insulin response to that and and we know there’s downsides to insulin in terms of uh facilitating AOS sclerosis and the formation of plaque in your arteries uh inflammation immune suppression there’s a a long list and so by just helping your body do what insulin would normally do and put glucose into your muscles by moving your muscles you’re causing them to absorb uh that glucose and and we already know this in the postmeal window about 80% of glucose is deposited in skeletal muscle so if you just add some stimulus there by walking because people don’t think about muscle as an organ it’s an organ just like your thyroid just like your liver just like your pancreas but in order for this organ to work it needs stimulation and so we need to stimulate this organ through activity and that’s where exercise really comes in and people don’t think that walking is an exercise but it really is you know you’re moving those muscles and I will tell you there’s research out of Copenhagen uh researchers in Denmark outside of Copenhagen have done uh studies finding that in diabetics the leg muscles become insulin resistant before the musculature in the upper body and I know people go to the gym they lift you know chest and biceps and and I do that stuff too I I like lifting weights but you you need a lot of stimulation in your legs because for some reason they become sort of disease likee before the musculature in the upper body and I would argue that part of that is because we have through natural collection and and just how humans are either hunting historically ancestrally hunting or gathering we’re moving we’re never meant to sit in our cars for three hours a day and and Rush our traffic or sit in desks we are always we should be moving and this is one of the things if you look at the Blue Zone research we’re hearing so much push about well you got to go on a plant-based diet because see these blue zones eat plant more plants than meat you know depending upon the Blue Zone so therefore the plant-based diet is the the key here it’s the sinanan of longevity well not so fast these Blue zone areas are are also characterized by a lot of recreational activity in Sardinia in parts of Costa Rica in Japan these people move they don’t sit in their cars they’re they’re you know moving throughout the day having these so-called exercise snacks so uh again if you have a cheat meal go for a brisk walk it will literally cut your glucose levels almost in half well there you have it I hope Mike Mel and I have inspired you to get at least 7,000 steps a day but get those steps after eating your meal for the best visc Al fat burning response your next tip number six is to practice intermittent fasting there are so many benefits to in fasting here are some of the benefits I love and there’s a typo right there just ignore that typo so here’s one of the benefits you protect against neurodegenerative diseases that’s because your body goes through the cellular cleaning process called autophagy where it clears these senescent cells insulin levels drop and human growth hormone increases that is key for burning visceral fat we already established we need a lower insulin obviously fasting does that but human growth hormone is one of the key hormones that helps you burn body fat and as you practice fasting you get a rise in human growth hormone studies suggest huge increase in human growth hormone hour after hour during a fast this is your body’s way of pumping you full of energy because it thinks you’re going through a famine it doesn’t understand this it’s just hard wired this way one of the other benefits you reduce insulin resistance and lower blood sugar levels obviously you reduce risk of heart disease you reduce blood pressure and overall lipids boost metabolism Because by the way it does not slow down your metabolism when you fast it does the complete opposite studies suggest it extends lifespan reduces inflammation removes waste from cells and also helps with hormones like leptin which is your satiety hormone and testosterone so the schedule you’re going to follow for intermittent fasting is an 186 schedule this is a great schedule for burning visceral fat something I do on a daily basis this means for 18 hours you’re in the fasted State no food what are you having in the fasted State just water electrolytes supplements coffee tea that’s it no snacking no food for 18 hours so that would mean you have a 6-hour eating window to get your food and your protein so for example from 12: to 6:00 p.m. you have your eating window you’re going to eat 2 to three meals between 12: and 600 p.m. this little window right here from 6:00 p.m. to 12:00 p.m. the next day day you can see from 6:00 p.m. to 12:00 p.m. the next day you’re in your fasted state so you’re using sleep as that fasted State you’re having an earlier dinner by 600 p.m. that is an 186 schedule that I want you to follow to tap into visceral fat the seventh step here in your protocol is to get 90 minutes of deep sleep there are four main stages of sleep each night you have well when you’re awake and then you have three main cycles of sleep light sleep deep sleep REM sleep all are important REM sleep is great for it’s called rapid eye movement it’s great for U consolidating short-term memory for long-term memory great for focus and mental Clarity but the deep sleep right here this is where you burn fat this is where you burn visceral fat this is where most of your fat burning hormones are activated and you’re really tapping into stored fat for energy and you want to aim to get 90 minutes each night of this deep sleep you could track that with like an aura ring I have an aura ring here I’ll put a link for it in the notes down below Apple watches fitbits bands there’s many devices I’ll drop links for many of them all of them down below in the notes for you to check out personally I like my my aura ring but if you could achieve 90 minutes of deep sleep this Delta sleep each night you’re going to accelerate your results with burning visceral fat so here are some scientifically proven tips to get more deep sleep starting tonight number one drink banana tea I call it Nature’s NyQuil now I got this from my colleague Dr Michael Bruce banana tea you grab a whole banana cut the ends off but you leave the peel on because the peel of the banana has more micronutrients like potassium and magnesium that help you calm down than the actual itself and you boil it for about 5 minutes and then pour that into a cup and just drink the tea great for somebody who has a racing mind at night drink some banana tea cold bedroom studies suggest that your room needs to be about 65° fahr to get that deep fat burning Delta Sleep set that thermostat to around 65 degrees Fahrenheit dark bedroom you don’t want anything with light at night don’t have the television on put your alarm clock far away put your phone out of the room or turn shut it off and if you can have blackout curtains that’s best but you could also just wear a sleep mask I use the one from bonch charge which I’ll drop a link for down below but you want to make sure no light going through your eyes or on your skin to get deep sleep at night mouth taping is a game Cher for deep sleep when you breathe through your mouth at night you are not going to get enough deep sleep you’re going to deplete nitric oxide and you’re going to feel groggy in the morning and it’s going to be hard to burn fat you want to breathe through your nose so I simply wear an adhesive a piece of tape from somnifix and I’ll drop a link for them down below every night I just put this on before bed and it trains my body to Brea breathe through my nose where you get more into a parasympathetic state so you get more deep sleep you increase nitric oxide which is very important for cell communication and something called Vaso dilation some mouth tape at night I’ll drop a link for them down below and then lastly take some magnesium 400 to 600 Mig of magnesium I’ll drop a link for my favorite one down below now let’s get into some of your questions here that you said submitted and by the way if you’re watching on YouTube keep submitting those questions cuz we use them for videos I want to address all your questions what role does stress play with visceral fat that’s the first question as I mentioned earlier insulin is the only hormone I should say the primary hormone that stores visceral fat but cortisol works with insulin cortisol is the stress hormone so it plays a huge role you want to make sure you’re mastering your stress and by optimizing your sleep that’s already going to help you master your stress but stress comes from three different areas mental emotional physical and chemical so address all three if you’re stressed out watching the news watching television seeing what’s happening in the world uh having toxic relationships I know it sounds like how could this cause visceral fat well it’s called a cortisol belly for a reason when you have high levels of cortisol chronically high levels of cortisol you’re going to create a cortisol belly and you’re going to store fat so yes master stress one of the best ways to combat high levels of cortisol is with the hormone oxytocin you you see oxytocin and cortisol have an inverted relationship when you produce oxytocin cortisol drops how do you produce oxytocin I’m glad you asked hugging your dog or another human being for 10 seconds or more will produce oxytocin watching something funny will produce oxytocin doing something you love like a hobby for me it’s basketball will produce oxytocin vitamin G is the best way to produce oxytocin you want to talk about the best supplements in the world for visceral fat and chronic stress and oxytocin production vitamin G is where it’s at now I don’t have an affiliate link or a coupon code for vitamin G because vitamin G is the practice of gratitude you can see here in my shirt vitamin G what you appreciate appreciates and I’m being serious studies show numerous studies that the more gratitude you have in your heart and I’ve named it that gratitude is strength training for your soul I love that line thought about it when I was walking my dog the other day put it in the comment section if you’re watching on YouTube gratitude is strength training for your soul you get an immediate benefit there’s no upper limit on vitamin G it’s free and vitamin G gratitude will activate cortisol and Gaba and dopamine and it combats cortisol helps you burn fat next question is how much protein should I have to burn visceral fat we established that you want to have less than 50 gram of carbs total per day the focus should actually be protein and I brought on JJ Virgin on the metabolic Freedom podcast and she’s going to give you a Master Class A short little tip here on how protein helps you burn visceral fat so check out this clip with JJ Virgin the first one I love so much because it’s going to solve a couple problems because if you’re trying to lose fat at some point you’re going to have to go into a caloric deficit and you’re going to have to achieve it one way or the other and if you’re hungry and having cravings that’s out the window so the easiest way to be able to get into that at some point which we will talk about but this is the first big rock is to eat protein first is to prioritize protein but I I say eat protein first because I have been at too many dinners and heard too many times from women that they get too full to eat their protein and I’m like well I just sat at dinner with you and I watched you have a salad with cranberry raspberry vinegarette glazed nuts you literally had it a sunde then you had some bread then you had some appetizer like calamari and then you say that you and I’m talking fried calamari so you’re mainly getting dough and fried right and then finally your meal comes and it’s like some kind of starch and veggie and a little protein and you eat the starch then you finally get over the protein of course you’re full so the easy way to solve this is to eat protein first now why do I want you to do this so when you look at our three macronutrients you know along with water that we must have to survive which it’s interesting we do not have to have carbohydrates to survive as you know you know protein and fat and water we must have we can live without carbs which it and I know this must make you crazy too Ben it’s like why did we design an entire diet based on the one thing that we can live without how is it working for us not good you know so you know let’s focus on the protein and the reason I love that is a couple things number one when you’re eating Whole Foods proteins like wild salmon grass-fed beef you’re going to get healthy fats too so you get everything you need and then drink a bunch of water with it the reason I want people to focus on protein first is protein compared to carbs and fat is so much more metabolically costly to digest and assimilate where fat really takes nothing to get on your body and be burned as fat or stored as fat and we have a great storage Depot pretty much unlimited for fat then carbs maybe 5 to 10% is the processing to either get them stored in your muscles as glycogen which is what we hope we have like liver and muscle or turned into fat which is what we hope we don’t do or just burned and then we’ve got protein 20 to 30% of the of the energy that we take in when we take in protein has to be used in the digestion and assimilation of protein how cool is that so 100 calories of protein is only really 70 calories probably or 75 contrast that with 100 calories of fat is 100 calories so that’s the first part of it the second piece of it and you would you would think and this has actually been shown is that if all you did initially this would help you initially it’s not going to be a long-term fix but initially if all you did was take some of the calories away from fat carbs and move them over to protein you would eat less overall because you wouldn’t be as hungry but You’ take in less calories overall too it’s not a huge effect but it does make a difference and everything counts but the second reason I love protein is because it’s going to make you feel Fuller longer everyone’s talking about glp 1es and I’m like all right we’ll just eat protein it’s one of the you know nature Nature’s little glp1 Agonist protein so protein not only helps us with Hunger but it also helps us with cravings and as you know those are two very different things and so you know now you’ve got the building blocks we turn over 300 plus uh grams of amino acids a day in our bodies and we need the protein we need the essential amino acids from the protein to make the other amino acids and then to make neurotransmitters that will help shut down our Cravings so we we’re not hungry we don’t have the Cravings we’ve got a better ther effect so that’s where I really like people to start because it just makes the rest of this easy and it’s something you can do whatever diet you’re following so I always do that like let’s like not get into some the diet religion and the diet Wars you could do this plant-based you can do this carnivore you can do it whichever way you do it but start with making protein 7 to one gram per pound of Target body weight you can even push it a little higher if you’re working on recomping and put that as your first thing that you eat before you eat anything else so that’s I was going to ask you how much do you recommend so 7 to one gram per ideal body weight can you share how somebody would calculate that based off of somebody who’s overweight right now they’re trying to lose weight yeah and I mean here’s the thing and this is what I used to do but it just got so complicated in the perfect world we would go get a dexa scan we’d find out our Target body weight that we’d really want to be but based on more of our skeletal muscle than dose it per skeletal muscle all right you know what the minute we start to make things hard then people have a reason why not to so you know that weight you feel good at right now I’m gonna I’m going to say that we always want to look past weight to what that weight’s made up of as the most important thing however let’s just not get into the weeds of should it be 140 pounds or 160 pounds pick a weight and then just look at that weight and let’s say it’s you know 150 pounds so you’re going to go 7times 150 would be how much is your lowest amount and then you could go up to 150 grams and really you can go higher I mean this you know there so much research has come out lately about protein intake because it used to be that don’t eat more than I I remember I got a DM you’ll love this I got a DM my manicur has told me that I should not eat more than 27 grams of protein at a meal because I’m like because what what will happen where will it go you know because I’m like it’s got to go somewhere it’s not going poof you know we can take protein and we could use it as fuel our body doesn’t want to so you know it’s like it’s going to try to use it more and break it into amino acids and use it to rebuild but if it had to use it it could turn it into sugar and you could use it for fuel or you could turn it then and put it into glycogen in the muscles or you could turn it into fat and store it so you can do any of those things it’s not GNA like turn into some evil rampaging monster in your body do not worry you know it’s like everyone’s worried about overeating protein I’m worried about you overeating sugar and damaged fats and Ultra processed food I don’t think we’ve ever seen anyone you know who’s in the hospital because they were you know they just had a really really uh Pig Out diet on wild salmine and they got no that doesn’t happen no one ever I mean even you know look at carnivore are you getting people sick because they’re eating grassed meat no we get sick because we eat Ultra processed foods you know that’s why we’re sick there you have it so I always say get one gram of protein per pound of your ideal body weight so if your ideal body weight your goal weight is 120 lbs you want to get about 120 grams of protein J to just establish how important that is for lean muscle mass visceral fat satiety and all the other benefits fourth question how do you measure visceral fat there’s an indirect way to measure visceral fat that’s with the fasting insulin it’s a blood test and if you see that over 10 you have insulin resistance you’re storing visceral fat cheap test to get got to ask for it from your doctor the most accurate way to test is with a skin and I brought on a visceral fat expert this guy has reviewed thousands of visceral fat scans he is the world leader on visceral fat and one of my dear friends Dr Shan Omar and he’s going to share with you how to actually measure visceral fat and if you’re listening on the podcast we’ll explain it in a way for you to understand what we’re sharing so check this out what are the best ways of measuring uh viseral fat you can measure it uh quite accurate through a dexa scan uh but let’s just be honest those of you um that are aware of somebody that’s kind of a dexus SC for the purposes of looking at visceral fat let me ask you a question uh what kind of effect or influence did that have so uh what happens when you get a dexus scan it gives you a number and when you get an MRI scan or you get a CT scan of your abdomen uh which you you can get a number because there’s software that can be uh that can quantify your visceral fat but uh I was just sharing with a radiologist of yesterday that runs A rad Radiology system that um it’s it’s not even important for me or a doctor to look at that MRI scan you know who’s the most important person look that scan the person who did it the the person yeah who went and got it so so you can see the visceral fat inside you because uh once you understand that visceral fat the enemy for what it is and how problematic it is then you don’t want to interpret your the the problem you have through a numeric reduction to a numeric figure and that’s what you you get when you do a dexus scan but when you stare at that the abundance of white that white Enemy Inside of You by an MRI scan or if it’s a CT scan your your adomen and uh the difference between CT scan and your MRI scan is uh they’re both about as good of resolution a higher resolution MRI but it’s it suffice suff it’s a sufficient uh modality to look at visceral fat by CT scan the downside to it is the radiation that’s required when you get a CT scan and an MRI scan doesn’t use any radiation at all it uses safe magnetic fields uh so uh from a standpoint of safety the MRI is higher resolution uh no radiation required uh but um CT is an important part of the discussion because uh women who are listening many of you have had CT uh down scans and you need to go back and take ownership of that and do two things one uh look at the report the report generated that will have been interpreted will be bereft and devoid of any mention of visceral fat no doctor ever reads visceral fat that’s starting to change Dr Anna C Rosa R OA is the first radiologist that I’m aware of who is now routinely reading visceral fat fat around the heart fat within the muscles and deep subcutaneous fat in the world wow nobody else is reading if you’re a radiologist I think you need to to grasp that you just like me as an MD it was kept from you in medical school and kept from you in Radiology residency it’s the largest part of the adomen in most people and is completely ignored and it’s because in my opinion it’s the influence of the curriculums in medical school from Big Pharma uh that’s keeping it out of our curriculum to teach doctors uh but you need to visualize the visceral fat insidey the M MRI is the best way uh to do that and uh it’s uh when when people visualize it I get lots of colorful language the f bomb is dropped all the time my my my office when that happens uh people get very upset uh I’ve had uh clients get so upset that one I remember thinking I may have to call the police because they were dropping the f bomb so much they couldn’t sit and they run around you know standing up walking around saying this is the last eff in time I changed my life you know and and there I had other clients out in the waiting room and I was like this is super embarrassing they were all sorts of colorful uh language well some sometimes that emotional impact is needed to make the change that’s your that’s your point you know you see that with the image seven years later that guy is still nice and lean and healthy now it changed his life completely around I’ve had other clients uh one one client that I’ve told the story literally passed out when he visualized how much viseral fat that he had inside and so for that reason now I require all my clients to sit down I don’t let them stand because this guy was standing and he fell he went unconscious right in front of me U because he was so upset when I showed how much visceral fat he had now keep in mind if you’re you know clients if you’re watch or patients are watching today that you have to understand what visceral fat is and so um can we so can can we um do you have images on your phone that you I do yeah so what we’re going to do for those watching on YouTube if you’re listening on the audio podcast uh we’ll explain it in a way where you can understand what we’re showing but it’s better for you to go to youtube.com/ Kamp maybe after you finish listening so we could see exactly for those watching the visual impact of somebody who has a lot of visceral fat and then somebody who has a healthy amount a small amount of visceral fat so we’ll show that to you in a second yeah so yeah it’s really important I think for people to understand a little bit about visceral fat they need to know what a good amount is and so when people come I spend probably about half hour you know going through good examples like of a people with a low amount of visceral fat and people that have a high amount of Vis start with good or bad what are we starting with uh so th this is both good and bad um yeah so we’ll put that on the screen as well but show and I can we’ll send these images so the top image is somebody has um just a a moderate amount of visceral fat so pretty good but the bottom image you can see this person is filled with a lot of white so on an MRI scan fat shows up as white so this is Gabe a friend of mine from the Army National Guard I use his example a lot and uh for a a relatively modest amount of visceral fat and then this is uh assf at the bottom image who has huge amount of viseral fat and you want to be mostly dark you know Gabe is mostly dark he’s got big muscles oev is mostly white and when you have a lot of white you have a small amount of dark because the white uh unfortunately uh causes atrophy sarcopenia so we see a a deposition a reduction and visceral fat and this is this is a great example that almost all dark this person has the the smallest amount of visceral fat I’ve seen in a female W and uh she’s on social media um this is Karen Lauser she gives me permission to show her image and uh God bless this woman I mean I show show her a picture you she’s got 600,000 followers she is a very healthy looking woman she she actually is very attractive she’s a model and the reason she’s so attractive is because um she’s never had visceral fat she it’s the influence of visceral fat not the presence of visceral fat that causes people to have disease so you can accumulate a lot of visceral fat in a very short period of time and look great or um you can have a small amount of visceral fat over a long period of time and that influence that trickle trickle trickle of all the inflammatory molecules that come from it deteriorate your level of health and your appearance so if you see somebody who’s older Carolyn is 59 wow she looks amazing yeah yeah and so I’ve been on her on her on her Instagram live with her and God bless her she is um very dedicated to her followers she takes her role as a social media influenc are very serious her and her husband uh frequently do uh shows together and so she is routinely promoting uh health and because she enjoys uh uh talking about the topic and she herself has you know a very healthy appearing body so um it’s it’s really necessary to understand um visual fat where it is uh within the abdomen this is the little tiny divot U right there at the top is belly button oh that’s her belly little divot at the top there got it is is it giving you a total percentage of visceral fat like a total body fat or is it giving you certain areas and their percentages or maybe not at all you’re just looking at the photo and stad yeah we’re for us we just have people look at um how much visceral fat they have there is software out there and it’s free by the way if you are a radiologist and you want to start um scanning and reading uh visceral fat and you want to both quantify it uh with a numeric value um uh as well as qualitatively share it uh with with patients they get through it uh there is free software that will actually quantify now when when we were studying our startup for the National Science Foundation uh we we were spending money on software development to do our own proprietary system to quantify we actually abandoned it we had the ability to to measure it and we stopped measuring it because it it didn’t have any uh demonstrable impact on our CLI it was you because you give them a number you really want to show them U that that bad amount of fat so uh here’s another example of somebody has a huge amount of visceral fat show it to the screen so camera knows what put on so uh in the top uh example here is somebody that has a very large amount of visceral fat oh we lost it oh uh very large amount I’m glad you picked that up um of visceral fat uh in that top image and these are their legs corresponding leg images you see all the white streaks and those um leg images are from fatty infiltration of a a fat within the skeleton muscle or it’s fatty replacement of muscle tissue or it’s also called adverse muscle composition or myosteatosis is the technical term for it so the more visceral fat you have the more of this in inflammatory infiltrating fat you have going on within your skeletal muscle and you know you can understand why your muscles would would stop be performing as well and nobody’s talking about it’s completely ignored by doctors when you when CTS are done MRIs are done they don’t talk about either visceral fat or those fatty infiltrates and then here’s another individual has mostly muscle inside very very small amount of visceral fat and their legs are very lean very dark they look like Fong there’s no marbling or fatty infiltration going on so very different between those two comparisons yeah I call them bricks and clouds difference uh that that uh this image up up up on the top Corner looks like human wagu wagu human skeletal muscle moralization of the skeletal muscle so um I think it’s really important to to uh to have good accurate uh imagery of of these targets and dexa scans don’t allow you to visualize it they quantify it uh CT scans allow you to visualize visualize it you can quantify it through CT scan but there’s radiation but one of the reasons why I talk about CTS again as I mentioned earlier is because so many people have had them you need to go back and and get that report but take a look at that image yourself you’re entitled to it that’s your record go and look at the amount of visceral fat uh that you have within your CT skan of your abdomen or if you’ve had uh scans of your extremities take a look at fatty infiltration and see where you’re at and you could if you particularly if you changed your diet or change your lifestyle you can measure the impact the interval change how often should we be retesting well I recommend I for my my clients I scan anywhere from 3 to 6 to 9 months I have some clients who will only do it once a year because they have such low levels of atopos either a visceral fat or fat within their skeletal muscle that once a year is adequate for them but I would say for the majority of people you probably want to be doing it um every 3 to six months what is the limitation um one is time takes a little bit of time you got to drive there and go get it get it done as MRI scan of the adom and scanning time is about anywhere 9 to 10 minutes or so um but the cost is uh often times a limitation for other people uh for for a lot of people because that it ranges by state to state it does yeah excellent point so uh MRI in in one location like Los Angeles um they the cheapest I’ve seen about $240 uh some places in Florida where we’re where we’re at today uh you can actually get MRI scans in the Miami area for around $250 uh but then up in my area um couple hours north of where I live that same mrri scan uh cash pay discounted uh will still cost you $2,000 900 for single a difference I know so you you’re better off flying to Miami enjoying the weekend here getting a scan done and then going back to Minnesota right that’s exactly yeah so you should shop around um and I have a course uh some videos um what’s your weite on uh just my uh just my name http://www.d a n m.com Dr sha.com we’ll put it down below as well and and I have a educational Community is just uh uh Dr shauna. podia p o d a.com and so you can join my educational Community where I do a lot of educational videos and courses and things even teaching people how to read their own MRI why because doctors don’t know how to read it they won’t read it and uh so very often if you if you question an MRI you know to to uh uh to look for visceral fat they want even do it so you know you should put it put on indication why you’re requesting MRI say chronic belly pain or diverticular disease or something else because they’ll they won’t do it they Vis fat they you I have one client that actually in Florida it’s a great story he goes he he requests an MRI scan for a visceral fat the front desk approves it the technician goes and does the the downal MRI scan the report shows up with the request for the radiologist now and he goes I don’t know how to read visal fat he goes oh my God you got to cancel this scan give the patient their money back so literally the the client got it all his money back from the MRI scan and uh got a free MRI and of course I I could read it and and the client knows how to read it because it’s follow-up scan and I teach all my clients how to read their own SC so it worked out well for them so just be careful about what you what request is if you if you want to try to get a MRI scan for uh to to look at your visceral fat if you say viscal fat um the doctors are they’re going to they’re going to cancel your request and you’re never going to get your scan there you have it the easiest diet simple steps seven steps here to burn visceral fat follow it and let me know how it works for you and share this episode with a friend if you enjoy this video you’re going to love a recent video I just published on Foods 10 foods that put you in a fat burning State I just discuss a few of them today but there are a few others that I get into in this video check out this clip I’ll see you in that next video there are two types of food that we eat foods that cause weight gain and foods that cause fat loss numerous studies show how beneficial olive oil is not just for your health but for fat loss weight loss resistance insulin resistance and also diabetes the findings showed that the group consuming the olive oil was more effective

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Building a Full-Stack AI Chatbot with TypeScript, Express, Vue, and OpenAI

    Building a Full-Stack AI Chatbot with TypeScript, Express, Vue, and OpenAI

    The source material provides a comprehensive guide to constructing a full-stack AI-powered chat application. It details the technologies employed, including Vue.js and Node.js, TypeScript, OpenAI’s API, Stream Chat, and a Neon Postgres database. The text outlines the development process, from setting up the backend API and frontend UI to implementing real-time chat, AI interactions with context, and database integration for persistent data. Deployment to Render for the backend and Vercel for the frontend is also covered, creating a complete development-to-deployment workflow.

    Study Guide: AI-Powered Chat Application

    Quiz

    Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.

    1. What are the primary front-end and back-end technologies used in this chat application project? The front end utilizes Vue.js with Pinia for state management, while the back end is built with Node.js and Express. Both the front end and back end are developed using TypeScript for type safety and enhanced development experience.
    2. Explain the role of the OpenAI API in the Chat AI application. The OpenAI API is crucial for the artificial intelligence capabilities of the application. Specifically, it uses the completions API with the GPT-4 model to process user messages and generate intelligent and context-aware responses, providing the AI-powered chat functionality.
    3. What is Stream Chat, and what aspects of the application does it handle? Stream Chat, provided by getstream.io, is a service used for implementing the real-time chat features of the application. It handles aspects such as messaging, user management, and channels, abstracting away the complexities of building a real-time communication system.
    4. Why is a PostgreSQL database with Neon used in addition to Stream Chat’s features? While Stream Chat stores chat logs, the project sets up its own PostgreSQL database with Neon for persistent storage of users and chat history. Neon offers a serverless, scalable PostgreSQL solution with features like branching, giving the developers more control over their data.
    5. Describe the purpose of Drizzle ORM in this project. Drizzle ORM (Object-Relational Mapper) is used to interact with the PostgreSQL database provided by Neon. It simplifies database operations by allowing developers to work with JavaScript/TypeScript objects instead of writing raw SQL queries, and it’s also used for defining database schemas and running migrations.
    6. What are the key steps involved in setting up the back-end project using Node.js and TypeScript? Setting up the back end involves initializing a Node.js project with npm init, installing necessary dependencies like Express and TypeScript, configuring TypeScript with a tsconfig.json file, and defining scripts in package.json for development, building, and starting the server.
    7. Explain the purpose of environment variables and how they are used in this project. Environment variables are used to store configuration settings such as API keys (for OpenAI, Stream, and Neon) and the database URL, keeping sensitive information separate from the codebase. The dotenv package is used to load these variables from a .env file into the application’s process environment.
    8. Outline the process of registering a new user with Stream Chat in the back end. Registering a user involves creating an instance of the Stream Chat client using API keys, receiving the user’s name and email from the front end, generating a unique user ID (often derived from the email), checking if the user exists in Stream Chat, and if not, using the upsertUser method to create a new user with the provided details.
    9. Describe the flow of a user sending a message and receiving a response from the AI. When a user sends a message, the front end sends it to the back end’s /chat endpoint along with the user ID. The back end retrieves the user’s past messages for context, sends the conversation to the OpenAI API, receives the AI’s response, saves the interaction in the Neon database, and finally sends the AI’s reply back to the front end.
    10. What is the role of Pinia and the pinia-plugin-persistedstate in the front-end application? Pinia is a state management library for Vue.js that helps manage the application’s data in a centralized and reactive way. The pinia-plugin-persistedstate is used to automatically save and reload Pinia stores across page reloads, ensuring that user sessions and other relevant data persist.

    Essay Format Questions

    1. Discuss the advantages of using a full-stack approach with technologies like Vue.js, Node.js, TypeScript, and cloud services like OpenAI, Stream, and Neon for building a real-time AI-powered chat application. Consider aspects such as development efficiency, scalability, and maintainability.
    2. Analyze the architectural design of the Chat AI application, focusing on the separation of concerns between the front end, back end, and the various third-party services integrated. Explain how these components interact to deliver the overall functionality.
    3. Evaluate the choice of using Stream Chat for the real-time messaging features versus building a custom solution. Consider the trade-offs in terms of development time, complexity, scalability, and the features provided by Stream Chat.
    4. Explore the process of integrating artificial intelligence into a web application using the OpenAI API. Discuss the steps involved, the role of the API key, the structure of the API requests and responses, and the importance of managing API costs and usage.
    5. Compare and contrast the use of a serverless PostgreSQL database like Neon with a traditional relational database setup. Discuss the benefits and potential drawbacks in the context of a modern web application like the AI-powered chat app, considering factors like scalability, cost, and operational overhead.

    Glossary of Key Terms

    • Full-Stack: Refers to the development of both the front-end (client-side) and the back-end (server-side) components of an application.
    • AI-Powered Chat App: An application that uses artificial intelligence to understand and respond to user messages in a conversational manner.
    • Vue.js: A progressive JavaScript framework used for building user interfaces and single-page applications.
    • Node.js: A JavaScript runtime environment that allows JavaScript to be executed on the server-side.
    • TypeScript: A statically typed superset of JavaScript that adds optional types, classes, and interfaces to JavaScript.
    • OpenAI API: A service that provides access to advanced AI models, such as GPT-4, for various tasks including natural language processing and generation.
    • Stream Chat: A platform that offers SDKs and APIs for building real-time chat, video, and audio functionalities into applications.
    • Neon Database: A serverless PostgreSQL database platform designed for scalability and developer convenience.
    • Pinia: A state management library for Vue.js, providing a reactive store for application data.
    • State Management: The process of managing and organizing the data that drives an application’s user interface.
    • Express: A minimal and flexible Node.js web application framework, providing a robust set of features for building web and mobile applications.
    • API Key: A unique identifier used to authenticate and authorize access to an API service, such as OpenAI or Stream.
    • Completions API (OpenAI): An endpoint in the OpenAI API that generates text based on a given prompt.
    • GPT-4: A powerful large language model developed by OpenAI, capable of understanding and generating human-like text.
    • SDK (Software Development Kit): A collection of tools, libraries, documentation, code samples, and processes that allow developers to create software for a specific platform or service.
    • ORM (Object-Relational Mapper): A programming technique that converts data between incompatible type systems using object-oriented programming languages, simplifying database interactions.
    • Drizzle ORM: A lightweight and type-safe ORM for TypeScript and JavaScript, used for interacting with SQL databases.
    • Schema: A blueprint or structure that defines how data is organized within a database, including tables, columns, and their properties.
    • Migrations: Scripts used to manage changes to a database schema over time, such as creating or altering tables.
    • Serverless: A cloud computing execution model in which the cloud provider dynamically manages the allocation and provisioning of servers, allowing developers to focus on writing code without worrying about server infrastructure.
    • Render: A cloud hosting platform used to deploy and host web applications and back-end services.
    • Vercel: A platform for deploying and hosting front-end web applications and static sites.
    • vite: A build tool and development server for modern web projects, known for its speed and efficiency.
    • dotenv: A zero-dependency module that loads environment variables from a .env file into process.env.
    • CORS (Cross-Origin Resource Sharing): A mechanism that allows restricted resources (e.g., fonts, JavaScript, etc.) on a web page to be requested from another domain outside the domain from which the first resource served.
    • Middleware: Functions that have access to the request object (req), the response object (res), and the next middleware function in the application’s request-response cycle.
    • Asynchronous Function: A function that can pause its execution while waiting for an operation to complete (like an API call) without blocking the main thread.
    • Promise: An object representing the eventual completion (or failure) of an asynchronous operation and its resulting value.
    • JSON (JavaScript Object Notation): A lightweight data-interchange format that is easy for humans to read and write and easy for machines to parse and generate.
    • Postman: An API client used to test and interact with HTTP APIs.
    • Regular Expression: A sequence of characters that define a search pattern, used for matching and manipulating text.
    • State (Front-end): The data that represents the current condition or mode of the user interface.
    • Action (State Management): Functions that modify the state in a state management system like Pinia.
    • Mutation (Implicit in Pinia with Actions): The actual modification of the state in response to an action.
    • Getter (State Management): Functions that derive computed values from the state without modifying it.
    • Ref (Vue.js Composition API): A reactive and mutable reference that holds a value, used to track changes in data.
    • Reactive Variable: A variable whose changes trigger updates in the user interface or other parts of the application.
    • Component (Front-end): A reusable and self-contained building block of a user interface.
    • Route (Front-end Routing): A mapping between a URL path and a specific view or component in a single-page application.
    • Router (Vue Router): The official router for Vue.js, used for navigating between different views or components.
    • Composition API (Vue.js): A set of additive, function-based APIs that allow flexible composition of component logic.
    • Options API (Vue.js): The traditional way of structuring Vue.js components using options like data, methods, and computed.
    • Emit (Component Communication): A mechanism for a child component to send events up to its parent component.
    • Props (Component Communication): Data passed from a parent component down to its child component.
    • HTTP Request: A message sent by the client (e.g., a web browser or application) to a server to request a resource or trigger an action.
    • HTTP Response: A message sent by the server back to the client in response to an HTTP request.
    • API Endpoint: A specific URL that represents an entry point for accessing resources or functionalities provided by an API.
    • Context (in AI): The history of previous interactions or information that an AI model uses to understand and respond to the current input more effectively.
    • Chat History: A record of past messages exchanged between the user and the AI.

    Briefing Document: AI-Powered Chat App Development

    This document provides a detailed review of the main themes and important ideas presented in the provided source, which outlines the development of a full-stack AI-powered chat application named “Chat AI.” The application utilizes Vue.js and Pinia for the frontend, Node.js and Express for the backend, TypeScript for both, OpenAI’s API (GPT-4) for AI capabilities, Stream Chat for real-time messaging, and Neon Database for a serverless PostgreSQL database. The document includes relevant quotes from the source.

    Main Themes

    1. Full-Stack Development: The project encompasses the entire development lifecycle, from setting up the frontend and backend to database integration and deployment.
    • “hey what’s going on guys so I got a really cool project for you today we’re going to be building a full stack AI powered chat app called chat Ai”
    1. Integration of Multiple Technologies: The application leverages a diverse set of modern technologies for different aspects of its functionality.
    • Frontend: Vue.js (framework), Pinia (state management), TypeScript (language).
    • Backend: Node.js and Express (framework), TypeScript (language).
    • AI: OpenAI API (GPT-4 completions).
    • Chat: Stream Chat (real-time messaging SDK).
    • Database: Neon Database (serverless PostgreSQL), Drizzle ORM.
    • Deployment: Render (backend), Vercel (frontend).
    1. AI-Powered Chat: The core functionality revolves around enabling users to interact with an AI for information and conversation.
    • “we’re going to be building a full stack AI powered chat app called chat Ai”
    • “for the whole artificial intelligence aspect we’re using the open AI API uh the completions API using gp4”
    1. Real-time Messaging: Stream Chat is employed to handle the real-time aspects of the chat application, including users, channels, and messaging.
    • “for the whole chat aspect we’re using stream chat at getstream.io so stream offers sdks for powerful applications that Implement real-time chat as well as video and audio”
    1. Serverless Database: Neon Database provides a scalable and easy-to-set-up serverless PostgreSQL solution for storing user data and chat logs.
    • “we’re going to set up our own database our postgres database with neon so neon offers serverless postgres databases that you can literally set up in like 10 seconds”
    1. DevOps and Deployment: The project covers the deployment process to platform-as-a-service providers.
    • “at the very end we’re going to deploy the back end is going to go to render … and then the front end The View application will go to versel”
    1. Learning by Doing: The presenter encourages viewers to follow along with the tutorial as the best way to learn.
    • “I would suggest you follow along with me I think that’s the best way to learn”

    Most Important Ideas and Facts

    • Application Demo: The presenter provides a quick demo showcasing user login (name and email), sending questions to the AI, maintaining conversation context, and saving chat history upon logout and return.
    • “if I just say simply who was the 12th it’s going to know what I’m talking about”
    • “if I were to log out or leave the chat and then come back with the same email my chat will be saved”
    • Technology Stack Breakdown: A detailed list of technologies used on both the frontend and backend is provided.
    • Frontend: Vue.js, Pinia, TypeScript.
    • Backend: Node.js, Express, TypeScript.
    • AI: OpenAI API (GPT-4 Completions API).
    • Chat: Stream Chat (getstream.io).
    • Database: Neon (serverless PostgreSQL), Drizzle ORM (for database interaction).
    • Deployment: Render (backend), Vercel (frontend).
    • External API Documentation: The presenter highlights the websites where documentation for the key technologies can be found:
    • Stream Chat: getstream.io (Developers -> Chat Messaging -> Node.js).
    • Neon Database: neon.pdf (implied to be accessible).
    • OpenAI: platform.openai.com.
    • API Key Management: The project requires generating and managing API keys for OpenAI, Neon, and Stream Chat.
    • “we are going to have to generate API keys for open AI for neon and for stream so you might want to just just keep these websites open”
    • Backend Setup:Project structure involves separate folders for the backend (chat-AI-API) and frontend (chat-AI-UI).
    • npm init is used to initialize the Node.js backend.
    • ES Modules (“type”: “module” in package.json) are used.
    • Key backend dependencies include: express, cors, dotenv, stream-chat, openai, typescript, tsx, drizzle-orm, drizzle-kit, @types/node, @types/express, @types/cors.
    • tsx is used to execute TypeScript on the backend.
    • drizzle is the ORM for PostgreSQL, and drizzle-kit is its CLI.
    • A tsconfig.json file is configured to specify TypeScript compilation options (ES Modules, target, output directory, source directory, strict mode).
    • npm scripts are defined for development (dev: tsc –noEmit && tsx watch ./src/server.ts), build (build: tsc), and production start (start: node ./dist/server.js).
    • A basic Express server is set up in server.ts with middleware for CORS, JSON parsing, and URL-encoded data.
    • .env file is used to manage environment variables (e.g., PORT).
    • Initial Git setup with .gitignore (excluding node_modules and .env).
    • Register User Route (/register-user – POST):Registers a user with Stream Chat.
    • Expects name and email in the request body.
    • Uses the Stream Chat client (stream-chat library) initialized with API key and secret from environment variables.
    • Generates a unique user ID from the email (replacing non-alphanumeric characters with underscores).
    • Checks if the user exists in Stream Chat using chatClient.queryUsers.
    • If the user doesn’t exist, it adds the user to Stream Chat using chatClient.upsertUser with the generated ID, name, email, and role (‘user’).
    • Returns the user ID, name, and email.
    • Send Message to AI Route (/chat – POST):Handles sending a message to the AI (OpenAI).
    • Expects message and user ID in the request body.
    • Initializes the OpenAI client (openai library) with the API key from environment variables.
    • Verifies if the provided user ID exists in Stream Chat.
    • Uses the OpenAI Chat Completions API (openai.chat.completions.create) with the gpt-4 model.
    • Sends an array of messages to OpenAI, including the user’s message with the role ‘user’.
    • Extracts the AI’s reply from the response (response.choices[0].message.content).
    • Returns a JSON response with the AI’s reply.
    • Database Integration (Neon and Drizzle):Installation of drizzle-orm, @neon-database/serverless, and drizzle-kit.
    • Database configuration in src/config/database.ts using Neon and drizzle, connecting to the database URL from .env.
    • Schema definition in src/db/schema.ts using pgTable, defining chats and users tables with their respective columns (ID, user ID, message, reply, created at for chats; user ID, name, email, created at for users).
    • Type inference for insert and select operations using Drizzle.
    • Drizzle configuration file (drizzle.config.ts) in the root directory, specifying the schema location, migrations folder (./migrations), dialect (‘postgres’), and database URL.
    • Generating and running migrations using npx drizzle-kit generate and npx drizzle-kit migrate.
    • Integrating database operations into the /register-user route to save user information in the Neon database after successful Stream Chat registration.
    • Integrating database operations into the /chat route to save the chat message and AI reply in the Neon database.
    • Get Messages Route (/get-messages – POST):Retrieves chat history for a specific user from the Neon database.
    • Expects user ID in the request body.
    • Uses Drizzle’s db.select().from(chats).where(eq(chats.user_id, userId)) to fetch messages for the given user ID.
    • Returns an array of messages in the JSON response.
    • Contextual Conversations: Implementation on the backend to fetch the last 10 messages for a user and include them in the prompt sent to OpenAI, enabling contextual conversations. The chat history is formatted for OpenAI, and the latest user message is added. The role for the AI in the conversation is specified as ‘assistant’.
    • Frontend Development (Vue.js):Project creation using npx create-vue.
    • Installation of frontend dependencies: vue, vue-router, pinia, pinia-plugin-persistedstate, axios, tailwindcss, @tailwindcss/aspect-ratio.
    • Tailwind CSS setup involving importing tailwindcss in vite.config.js and @tailwind base, @tailwind components, and @tailwind utilities in src/style.css.
    • Router setup in src/router/index.ts with routes for home (/) and chat (/chat) views.
    • Pinia store setup in src/stores/user.ts for managing user ID and name with actions to set and clear the user, and persistence enabled.
    • Home view (src/views/HomeView.vue) with a form for name and email, connected to the backend’s /register-user endpoint using Axios and updating the user store upon success, then redirecting to the chat view.
    • Header component (src/components/Header.vue) with a logout button that clears the user store and redirects to the homepage.
    • Chat store (src/stores/chat.ts) using the Composition API to manage chat messages, loading state, and functions to load previous chat history (/get-messages) and send new messages (/chat).
    • Chat view (src/views/ChatView.vue) displaying messages, handling scrolling, and using a ChatInput component.
    • Chat input component (src/components/ChatInput.vue) with an input field and a send button, emitting the message to the parent component.
    • Formatting AI messages in the frontend (formatMessage function using regular expressions) to improve display of lists, bold text, etc., using v-html.
    • Deployment:Backend deployment to Render: Configuring the build command (npm install && npm run build), start command (node dist/server.js), and environment variables from .env.
    • Frontend deployment to Vercel: Selecting the Git repository, with automatic build settings (using Vite), and configuring the environment variable VITE_API_URL with the Render backend URL.

    This detailed overview captures the comprehensive nature of the project, highlighting the interconnectedness of various technologies to build a modern AI-powered chat application.

    Chat AI Application: Overview and Functionality

    General App Overview

    1. What is Chat AI? Chat AI is a full-stack AI-powered chat application built to demonstrate how various technologies can be integrated to create a real-time conversational experience with an AI. Users can log in by providing their name and email, engage in chats with an AI, and their chat history is saved and persists across sessions using the same email.
    2. What are the main technologies used in Chat AI? The application utilizes a range of modern web development and AI technologies. On the front end, it employs Vue.js for the user interface and Pinia for state management, both written in TypeScript. The back end is built with Node.js and Express, also using TypeScript. For the AI aspect, it leverages the OpenAI API, specifically the gpt-4 model via the Completions API. Real-time chat functionality is provided by Stream Chat (getstream.io). The application also uses a Neon serverless PostgreSQL database to store user information and chat logs, interacting with it through the Drizzle ORM. Deployment is handled by Render for the back end and Vercel for the front end.

    Core Functionality and Features

    1. How does user registration work in Chat AI? User registration in Chat AI is a straightforward process. Users provide their name and email through a form on the front end. This information is sent to the back end, which then registers the user with Stream Chat, assigning them a unique ID derived from their email. Additionally, the user’s ID, name, and email are stored in the Neon PostgreSQL database. No traditional password-based authentication is implemented in this demonstration.
    2. How does Chat AI handle the conversation with the AI? When a user sends a message, the front end transmits the message and the user’s ID to the back end’s /chat endpoint. The back end then retrieves the recent chat history for that user from the Neon database to provide context to the AI. It sends this context, along with the new user message, to the OpenAI API (using the gpt-4 model). The AI’s response is then sent back to the front end and also saved in the Neon database, associated with the user’s ID.
    3. Does Chat AI remember previous messages in a conversation? Yes, Chat AI is designed to maintain context within a conversation. Before sending a new user message to the OpenAI API, the back end fetches the recent chat history for that user from the Neon database. This history, along with the current message, is sent to OpenAI, allowing the AI to consider previous turns in the conversation when generating its response.
    4. How is chat data and user information stored in Chat AI? Chat AI uses a Neon serverless PostgreSQL database to persist data. When a user registers, their user ID (derived from their email), name, and email are stored in a users table. Every message sent by a user and the corresponding AI reply are stored as a record in a chats table, linked to the user by their ID. This ensures that chat history is saved and can be retrieved for ongoing conversations and across user sessions.

    Development and Deployment

    1. How are the front end and back end of Chat AI structured? The Chat AI project is structured with a clear separation between the front end and back end. The front end UI, built with Vue.js, resides in a chat-ai-ui folder, while the back end API, using Node.js and Express, is located in a chat-ai-api folder. This separation allows for independent development, testing, and deployment of each part of the application.
    2. How is Chat AI deployed? The back end of Chat AI is deployed using Render. The Render configuration specifies the build command (npm install && npm run build) to compile the TypeScript and the start command (node dist/server.js) to run the server. Environment variables, such as API keys for OpenAI, Stream Chat, and the Neon database URL, are configured in Render. The front end, built with Vue.js, is deployed using Vercel. Vercel automatically handles the build process (vite build) and serves the static assets. The API URL for the back end (the Render-provided URL) is set as an environment variable in Vercel.

    Chat AI: Development and Deployment of an AI Chat App

    The sources detail the development and deployment of an AI-Powered Chat App called Chat AI. This full-stack application allows users to log in by providing their name and email, and then engage in conversations with an AI. The AI can answer questions and maintain context within a single chat session. User chats are saved, so if a user logs out and returns with the same email, their previous chat history is retained.

    Here’s a breakdown of the technologies and functionalities involved:

    Functionality:

    • User Interaction: Users can input text-based questions or statements.
    • AI Response: The app uses the OpenAI API, specifically the completions API with the GPT-4 model, to generate responses to user input.
    • Context Management: The backend is designed to retain conversation history within a user’s session, allowing the AI to understand follow-up questions. This is achieved by fetching past messages and including them in the prompt sent to OpenAI.
    • Chat Interface: The app utilizes Stream Chat from getstream.io to handle the messaging aspect, including users and channels.
    • Data Persistence: User information and chat logs are stored in a PostgreSQL database hosted on Neon, a serverless platform. The Drizzle ORM is used to interact with this database, manage schemas, and run migrations.
    • User Registration: When a user enters their name and email, the backend registers this user with Stream Chat and also saves their information in the Neon database. A unique user ID is generated based on the user’s email.
    • Chat History Retrieval: The backend provides an endpoint to retrieve the chat history for a specific user from the Neon database.
    • Deployment: The backend, built with Node.js and Express, is deployed to Render. The frontend, built with Vue.js, is deployed to Vercel.

    Technologies Used:

    • Frontend:
    • Vue.js: A JavaScript framework for building the user interface.
    • Pinia: For state management on the frontend, allowing for a global store to manage user and chat data. Pinia Persisted State is used to persist the user’s login status across page loads.
    • TypeScript: Used for type checking on the frontend.
    • Vite: A build tool and development server for the Vue.js application.
    • Vue Router: For handling navigation between different views (homepage and chat page).
    • Axios: An HTTP client for making API requests to the backend.
    • Tailwind CSS: A utility-first CSS framework for styling the application.
    • Backend:
    • Node.js: A JavaScript runtime environment for the backend.
    • Express: A web application framework for Node.js used to build the API.
    • TypeScript: Used for type checking on the backend. TSX is used to execute TypeScript code.
    • CORS: Middleware to enable cross-origin requests between the frontend and backend.
    • dotenv: To load environment variables from a .env file.
    • Stream Chat (getstream.io): A platform providing SDKs for implementing real-time chat features. The Node.js client library (stream-chat) is used to interact with Stream Chat’s API for user management and channel creation.
    • OpenAI API: For the artificial intelligence capabilities, using the openai Node.js client to interact with the completions API and the GPT-4 model.
    • Neon Database: A serverless PostgreSQL database used for storing user data and chat logs.
    • Drizzle ORM: A TypeScript ORM used to interact with the PostgreSQL database, define schemas, and perform database operations. Drizzle Kit is used as a CLI for Drizzle to generate migrations.

    AI Implementation:

    • The backend receives user messages and sends them to the OpenAI API using the gpt-4 model.
    • Previous chat messages for a user are fetched from the database and included in the prompt sent to OpenAI to maintain context. The conversation history is formatted according to the OpenAI API’s requirements, with roles specified as “user” and “assistant”.
    • The AI’s response is then sent back to the frontend and also stored in the Neon database along with the user’s message.

    Chat Implementation:

    • Stream Chat is used to manage users and create channels for conversations.
    • When a user registers, they are also registered as a user in Stream Chat.
    • When a user sends a message, a unique channel is created or retrieved for that user (identified by chat- and their user ID).
    • Both the user’s message and the AI’s response are sent as messages within this Stream Chat channel.

    This project demonstrates a comprehensive approach to building an AI-powered chat application, covering frontend development with Vue.js, backend development with Node.js and Express, integration with AI and chat service providers, database management, and deployment.

    Chat AI Application: A Full-Stack Development Example

    Based on the sources and our previous discussion about the Chat AI application, full-stack development refers to the process of building a complete web application that encompasses both the frontend (client-side) and the backend (server-side), as well as the database that supports them. A full-stack developer is proficient in working with all these layers of the application.

    The development of the Chat AI application serves as a practical example of full-stack development. The project involved building:

    • The Frontend (Chat AI UI): This is the user interface that users interact with directly in their web browsers. It was built using Vue.js, a JavaScript framework for building user interfaces. Key aspects of the frontend development included:
    • Creating the user interface with components for the homepage (login/registration) and the chat page.
    • Managing the application’s state using Pinia. This included managing user information (user ID, name) and chat messages. Pinia Persisted State was used to ensure user login status persists across page reloads.
    • Handling routing between different pages (homepage and chat) using Vue Router.
    • Making API calls to the backend using Axios to register users, send messages, and retrieve chat history.
    • Styling the application using Tailwind CSS, a utility-first CSS framework.
    • Using TypeScript for type checking to improve code quality and maintainability.
    • Using Vite as a build tool and development server.
    • The Backend (Chat AI API): This is the server-side logic that handles requests from the frontend, interacts with the database and external APIs (OpenAI, Stream Chat), and sends responses back to the frontend. It was built using Node.js and Express. Key aspects of the backend development included:
    • Setting up API endpoints using Express to handle user registration (/register-user), sending chat messages (/chat), and retrieving chat history (/get-messages).
    • Handling cross-origin requests using CORS to allow communication between the frontend and backend running on different domains.
    • Loading environment variables using dotenv to manage API keys and database connection strings securely.
    • Integrating with Stream Chat to manage users and channels for the chat functionality. This involved registering users with Stream Chat and creating unique channels for each user’s AI conversations.
    • Integrating with the OpenAI API to generate AI responses to user messages using the GPT-4 model. This involved sending user prompts along with conversation history to maintain context.
    • Interacting with the Neon PostgreSQL database using the Drizzle ORM to store and retrieve user data and chat logs. This included defining database schemas, running migrations using Drizzle Kit, and performing database queries.
    • Using TypeScript for type checking on the backend, along with TSX for executing TypeScript code.
    • The Database (Neon PostgreSQL): This is where the application’s data is stored and managed. In the Chat AI project, Neon, a serverless PostgreSQL platform, was used. The database stored user information and the history of conversations between users and the AI. The backend interacted with this database to persist and retrieve data.

    Finally, full-stack development also includes deployment, making the application accessible to users over the internet. In the Chat AI project, the frontend was deployed to Vercel, and the backend was deployed to Render.

    Therefore, the Chat AI application is a clear example of full-stack development, requiring the integration of various frontend and backend technologies along with a database to deliver a complete and functional user experience.

    Chat AI Application: Real-Time Features via Stream Chat

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, the Chat AI application incorporates real-time chat features through the use of Stream Chat from getstream.io. The source explicitly states that Stream Chat offers SDKs for powerful applications that implement real-time chat.

    Here’s a breakdown of how real-time chat features are relevant to the Chat AI application based on the provided information:

    • Stream Chat as the Foundation: The application uses Stream Chat to handle the entire messaging aspect. This includes managing users and channels, which are fundamental components of a chat system.
    • Real-time Capabilities: Stream Chat is designed to provide real-time communication. While the current implementation described in the source focuses on a turn-based interaction with the AI (user sends a message, AI responds), the underlying technology of Stream Chat is capable of supporting more interactive and real-time scenarios if needed.
    • Abstraction of Complexity: By using Stream Chat, the developers of Chat AI likely leveraged Stream’s SDKs to abstract away the complexities of building a real-time messaging infrastructure from scratch. This includes handling things like message delivery, user presence (if implemented), and channel management.
    • Backend Integration: The backend of the Chat AI application (built with Node.js and Express) integrates with Stream Chat using Stream’s JavaScript client library (stream-chat). This allows the backend to register users with Stream Chat and create channels for the conversations.
    • Potential for Expansion: Although the initial version focuses on AI interaction, the use of Stream Chat provides a foundation for potentially adding features like multi-user chat or other real-time communication elements in the future, as Stream Chat also offers video and audio capabilities.

    In summary, Stream Chat is the key technology chosen for the Chat AI application to provide robust and scalable real-time chat features, even though the current implementation primarily showcases a single-user interaction with an AI. The use of Stream Chat simplifies the development of the messaging aspects of the application by providing pre-built SDKs and handling the underlying complexities of real-time communication.

    Chat AI: Serverless PostgreSQL with Neon

    Based on the sources and our conversation history regarding the Chat AI application, a serverless PostgreSQL database is a fully managed database service hosted in the cloud that offers on-demand scaling, automated management, and billing based on actual usage. The Chat AI application utilizes Neon as its serverless PostgreSQL database.

    Here’s a breakdown of the discussion around Neon and its role as a serverless Postgres database within the context of the Chat AI project:

    • Neon as the Chosen Database: The project explicitly states that it uses Neon for its cloud PostgreSQL database. It’s described as offering serverless PostgreSQL databases that can be set up very quickly, “literally in like 10 seconds”.
    • Key Features and Benefits of Neon (as mentioned in the source):
    • Easy Setup: Neon allows for a very rapid setup of a PostgreSQL database.
    • Branching: Neon offers features like database branching, similar to code branching with Git, which is useful for development and testing new features without affecting the main database.
    • Scalability: It is highlighted as being extremely scalable, implying that it can handle varying workloads automatically without requiring manual intervention.
    • Data Persistence: The Chat AI application is configured to save user information and chat logs directly in the Neon database.
    • Cloud-Based: Neon is a cloud postgres database, offering the benefits of cloud infrastructure such as reliability and accessibility.
    • User-Friendly Interface: Neon provides an easy-to-use interface for setting up and managing databases. This includes the ability to run straight SQL queries directly through the interface.
    • Integration with the Chat AI Application:
    • The backend of the Chat AI application connects to the Neon database using a connection string. This connection string, including the database URL and password, is stored as an environment variable (DATABASE_URL) for security and configuration.
    • The Drizzle ORM is employed to interact with the Neon PostgreSQL database. Drizzle is a TypeScript-based ORM that simplifies database operations.
    • Drizzle Kit is used as a command-line interface (CLI) for Drizzle to create database schemas and run migrations. The schema, defining the structure of the chats and users tables, is created in TypeScript, and Drizzle Kit uses this schema to generate and apply the necessary SQL to the Neon database.
    • The backend API includes endpoints to save user data into the users table and store chat logs (user messages and AI replies) in the chats table within the Neon database.
    • Another API endpoint (/get-messages) retrieves the chat history for a specific user from the Neon database by querying the chats table.

    In essence, Neon serves as the persistent data storage layer for the Chat AI application, providing a scalable, easily manageable, and feature-rich PostgreSQL database in a serverless environment. This allows the developers to focus on the application logic rather than managing the underlying database infrastructure. The integration with Drizzle ORM further streamlines database interactions within the TypeScript-based backend.

    Cloud Deployment of a Chat AI Application

    Based on the sources and our conversation history, the Chat AI application was deployed to the cloud using two separate platforms for the frontend and the backend.

    Here’s a breakdown of the deployment process discussed in the source:

    • Backend Deployment to Render:
    • The backend, built with Node.js and Express, was deployed to Render (render.com).
    • The deployment process on Render involved connecting the Render service to the GitHub repository containing the backend code (chat AI API).
    • Specific build and start commands were configured for the Render deployment:
    • Build Command: npm install && npm run build. This ensures that the dependencies are installed and the TypeScript code is compiled into JavaScript before running the server.
    • Start Command: node dist/server.js. This specifies how to start the backend server, pointing to the compiled JavaScript file located in the dist folder.
    • Environment variables crucial for the backend’s operation were configured in Render. This included the Stream API key and secret, the OpenAI API key, and the Neon database connection URL (DATABASE_URL). These environment variables allow the deployed backend to securely access necessary services and the database.
    • After configuring these settings, the backend was deployed as a web service on Render. The source mentions that the deployment process can take a few minutes.
    • Once deployed, Render provides a live URL (domain) for the backend API, which can then be accessed by the frontend. This was verified by making a request to the /get-messages endpoint using Postman and successfully retrieving data from the deployed API.
    • Frontend Deployment to Vercel:
    • The frontend, built with Vue.js, was deployed to Vercel.
    • Similar to the backend, the deployment on Vercel involved connecting the Vercel platform to the GitHub repository containing the frontend code (chat AI UI).
    • Vercel automatically handles the build process for Vue.js applications, typically using vite build as the build command, although the source indicates that the default settings were largely kept.
    • An environment variable specific to the frontend, VITE_API_URL, was configured in Vercel. This variable was set to the live URL of the backend API deployed on Render, ensuring that the frontend communicates with the correct backend endpoint in the cloud. The VITE_ prefix is convention for Vite to expose environment variables to the frontend code.
    • After configuring the API URL, the frontend application was deployed to Vercel. The source notes that the frontend deployment can also take a short amount of time.
    • Upon successful deployment, Vercel provides a live URL for the frontend application, making it accessible to users via a web browser. The deployed frontend was tested by logging in, initiating a chat, and verifying that it could communicate with the backend and display responses.

    In summary, the Chat AI application utilized a microservices-like deployment strategy, with the frontend and backend deployed independently to platforms optimized for their respective technologies. Render was chosen for the Node.js backend, providing a platform for running server-side applications with support for environment variables and custom build/start commands. Vercel was chosen for the Vue.js frontend, offering streamlined deployment for modern web applications with easy configuration of environment variables for API integration. This approach allows for independent scaling and management of the different parts of the full-stack application in the cloud.

    Build & Deploy An AI-Powered Chat App | Vue, Node, TypeScript, Open AI, Stream & Neon Database

    The Original Text

    hey what’s going on guys so I got a really cool project for you today we’re going to be building a full stack AI powered chat app called chat Ai and I’m just going to give you a quick demo before I explain anything so we just log in and and you just have to put your name and email and then we can go ahead and say something we’ll say like um we’ll say who we’ll say who was the 10th president of the US okay so it says AI is thinking and get back the 10th president of the US was John Tyler now it’s going to keep the context so if I just say simply who was the 12th it’s going to know what I’m talking about so the 12th President uh was Zachary Taylor all right and if I were to log out or leave the chat and then come back with the same email my chat will be saved all right now to achieve this we’re going to be using VJs and pinea for State Management on the front end and no. JS and Express on the back end and we’re using typescript on both the front end and backend now there’s a bunch of technologies that we need to incorporate to achieve this for the whole artificial intelligence aspect we’re using the open AI API uh the completions API using gp4 and then for the whole chat aspect we’re using stream chat at getstream.io so stream offers sdks for powerful applications that Implement real-time chat as well as video and audio and and this is just one of the many ways to use stream chat so like I said it’s going to handle the whole messaging aspect the users the channels now even though stream does store your chat logs and stuff we’re going to set up our own database our postgres database with neon so neon offers serverless postgres databases that you can literally set up in like 10 seconds and there’s features like branching it’s extremely scalable and we’re going to set it up so that our our project saves the users and the chats in the neon database and then we’ll be using the drizzle orm to interact with the database uh as well as create schemas run migrations and so on and then at the very end we’re going to deploy the back end is going to go to render so render doc um and then the front end The View application will go to versel all right so this is just an all-in-one Dev to deployment project I have the repositories for both the front end UI and the back backend API in the description so I would suggest you follow along with me I think that’s the best way to learn so let’s jump into it all right so I just want to quickly go over some of the websites where you can find the documentation for different parts of this project so first off we have stream chat which we’ll be using for all the chat aspects and you can find the docs at getstream.io if you go to Developers and we’re using the chat messaging there’s also video and audio capabilities if you want to check that out but if we go to chat messaging there’s all these platforms that we can choose from and we’re using it on the back end so you want to choose the the node.js option and then from here you have all different topics like users tokens permissions um creating channels and all that good stuff so that’s for stream chat and then for neon which is our Cloud postgres database you can go to neon.pdf here and then finally we have openai which is at platform. open.com and this is what we’re using for the whole AI aspect of it and we are going to have to generate API keys for open AI for neon and for stream so you might want to just just keep these websites open so let’s go ahead and just open up a terminal and just navigate to wherever you want to create this project and we’re going to have two separate folders for the back end and front end the back end will be chat AI API and the front end will be chat AI UI that’ll be the vue.js back end will be the node and expr Express so I’m going to put both in a parent folder so let’s create that so I’m going to say make directory and chat Ai and then CD into that chat AI folder and make another directory called chat AI uh- API and that will be our back end and I want to open that up in in vs code so I’m going to say code and then chat AI API and of course if you want to use a a different text editor that’s absolutely fine okay I’m going to be using my integrated terminal so I’ll go ahead and open that up and we just want to run npm in nit of course you need to have no JS installed and let’s go through this so package name version that’s good description let’s say this is going to be a backend for uh we say for an AI chat application and then s uh entry point I’m going to call server say server.js and then author you can put your own name if you want and MIT for the license so type I’m going to be using ES module so we want to put module instead of commonjs I mean if you want to use commonjs you can but um we’ll be using import all right so now that we’ve done that let’s install our dependencies and I just want to quickly go over what our backend dependencies are going to be so we have Express of course which is our backend web framework cores which which allows access to resources from a different origin that’s because our front end and back end will be on different domains EnV allows us to use environment variables from a EnV file stream chat is the official JavaScript client to work with stream chat in nodejs or in JavaScript and then open AI is the client to work with the open AI API typescript we’re going to be using on both the back end and front end a little bit more to the setup in the the back end but it’s not too bad we’re going to be using something called TSX to execute our typescript because even though with node.js version I think 23 um typescript is supported but all it really does is is strip your types it doesn’t actually compile it doesn’t execute it so that’s where TSX comes in if you want to use TS node or something else you can and then drizzle is the OM to interact with our postgis database and then drizzle kit is a CLI for drizzle and we’ll install the drizzle stuff a little later but let’s install some of these dependencies now so let’s say npm install Express we want what else cores we want EnV um stream chat so stream Das chat and also open AI I think that’s I think that’s all I want right now as far as regular dependencies now for for Dev dependencies let’s say npm install D- uppercase D and we want typescript and I’m also going to install TSX to execute the typescript and then for types we’ll do types SL node let’s say at types SL Express and also types slash cores now as far as uh as our typescript config goes we’re going to create our TS conf fig with npx and let’s say TSC D- init and I’m going to open that up and there’s I have a configuration that I’m going to use if you want to use the same one you can just get it from the link in the description the the GitHub repo but I’m going to paste this in so it’s pretty simple we’re going to I want to use es modules and all that all the latest features so using node next for module and module resolution and Es next for the Target our output directory when we compile our typescript is going to be slash and then our root directory where we write our code is going to be SL Source okay we’re using strict mode or strict type checking U and then we’re allowing importing commonjs modules we’re allowing importing of Json files as modules and we’re skipping the Declaration files in the node modules folder to speed up compilation so pretty simple setup we’ll go ahead and save that file and and then we want to create our scripts in package.json so we want a Dev script and of course with our Dev script we want to compile our typescript so we’re going to use TSC so the typescript compiler and then we’re going to add– no emit because we don’t actually want to produce JavaScript files when we run this we’re just running our Dev server and we just want to compile our typescript and we also need to run TSX as well and we’re going to run that in watch mode okay so no need for like node Monon or anything like that and then that’s going to be source and then server. TS will be the entry point so that’s what we want to run okay and then to build our project out to just compile we want to run just TSC and then the start script so to run in production is just going to be node and then it’ll be in a disc folder and it’ll be called server.js so that’s all we need for uh for our npm scripts all right so now let’s create a folder in the rout called Source that’s where we will write all of our code and let’s create our entry point which is going to be server. TS I mean if you don’t want to use typescript that’s fine we’re not doing too much as far as typescript goes so even if you’re not familiar with it you should be all right Honestly though it’s really becoming the standard so I mean you’re going to be creating TS files and TSX files all the time so I mean I would suggest learning the basics of typescript if you don’t know it so let’s just create a basic Express server so we want to import Express from Express and we want to import uh let’s see we want to import cores as well and we also want to import EnV and then we want to call env. config and then we’ll initialize our Express app so set that to express okay we need have some middleware to add so cores requires us to add an app.use and we’re also going to do app.use express. Json because we want to be able to um when we send a request we want to be able to send Json in the body we also want to be able to send form data so let’s also do app.use and say Express and then URL encoded and then just pass in an object with extended and set that to false all right and then we want to create our Port variable and I’m going to set the port in the EnV so I’ll say process. env. port or then use 5000 and then let’s just uh take our app and let’s listen on that Port whoops listen on Port and then when that happens we’ll just run a console.log and put in some btics here and we’ll say the server server running on and then output that Port variable all right so let’s um let’s create ourv so that’s going to go in the rout not in the source folder and from here we’ll say port and for now I’m just going to set it to 8,000 because I want to make sure that it’s actually reading this value so down at the bottom here at the terminal or wherever your terminal is let’s run npm run Dev okay so server running on 8,000 and it’ll compile any typescript we have obviously we don’t have any right now and before we start to add our route I just want to make my my first commit so I’m going to open up a new terminal here and let’s run and get a knit and then we’ll create our do get ignore uh CU you definitely don’t want to push thatv so let’s add not node modules and Dot EnV all right so I’ll say get add all get commit oh what’s this don’t care get commit and we’ll just say initial Express setup set up our initial Express and TS setup all right so now what we want to do is have make our first route and what this is going to do is it’s going to reach out to to stream chat and it’s going to register a user with stream okay because you can actually log into to your stream dashboard and you can see the users that were registered for um what is this doing here for your for your application and it when I say register it’s not traditional authentication where you’re going to have a password and stuff basically you come to the the app and you put in your name and email and then from there you get sent to the you know the the form to interact with the AI so let’s start by just creating a route now since we’re using typescript we’re also going to bring in from Express we want to bring in uh request and response uppercase R and let’s create our first route we’ll go down here let’s say I’ll put a comment let’s say register user with stream chat and it’s going to be a post request so app post and for the endpoint we’ll call this excuse me we’ll say SL register D user and then we’re going to have an async function here okay and then as far as what this returns will be a promise and we’re just going to add any to this and then it’s going to take in the request and response and we want to set those to those types so request and then res which will be response and then just to test it I’ll do a res. send and we’ll just say test okay so now we have our first endpoint now as far as how you test your endpoints it’s it’s really up to you I I like to use Postman and I have the postman extension for vs code so if I click on this icon right here I can make a a new HTTP request and it just opens up in a new tab which is nice so I’m going to make a post request to http and we want Local Host and I have it running on 8,000 and we want to do register Das user and you’ll see I get a 200 response and I get test so we know that that that route is working we also want to send an a name and email so why don’t we do a little bit of validation here we’ll say if or first of all let’s get the name and email so that’ll be in the request body so let’s say cons and then we’ll destructure the name and email from requestbody and then we’ll say if not name or not email then we want to send back an error so so we’ll return res Dot and let’s do a status of 400 which is a user error and then we’ll attach the Json uh let’s just put an error here and we’ll say name name and email are required and then after the if I’ll just do a res. status say 200 and Json message success all right so let’s try that out so if I just send as is I get the error but if I send a name and email in the body I can either do Json data or I can use the form URL encoded so I’m just going to add name and email and then send and I get success all right so now we want to start to work with stream we installed that you should have the stream client so if you just look in your dependencies you should have stream chat that’s what we’re going to use now in order to create an instance we have to we we need our API key so we’re going to have to go to the getstream.io and just you can log in with with either GitHub or Google so I’m already logged in I’m going to go to my dashboard and you don’t have to pay anything or enter any credit card info for this we want to create a new app and this has to be unique so I’m just going to say chat Dash uh we’ll say chat Ai and I’ll just do das Brad you could put your own name whatever it just it has to be unique and then just choose the locations for the the chat and video storage and feed storage that’s closest to you and click create app and then you’ll have your keys right here we have a key and a secret we need both of these so I’m going to copy the key I’m going to go into myv and we’re going to add stream API key and set that to the key and then we also want the stream API secret which we can get from right here just going to copy that okay so I’ll paste that in now that we have that we should be able to create an instance so let’s bring in the library so import or the client and that’s called stream chat and then we’re going to create it or initialize it right above our row let’s say initialize initialize the stream stream chat or stream client so we’ll say const we’ll call this chat client and I’m going to set that to the the stream chat stream chat Dot and then it’s get instance and then that’s going to take in your API key and your API secret so let’s say process Dov Dot and then stream API key and I’m going to put a bang on the end of this which is a nonnull assertion so I’m basically telling typescript that this is it’s not going to be null or undefined it’s definitely there and then we’ll do the same with the secret that gets passed in as well okay so now we should have our chat client initialize now we can use it in our route and the first thing I want to do is is create an ID because when you create a user it needs to have a unique ID and it’s up to you on what you want that ID to be I mean you could install a package like uuid but what I want to do is take the email you don’t have to type this out but let’s say that the email is Brad gmail.com then I want the ID to be brador gmailcom so that way we have a unique ID but it’s also readable it’s understandable all right so let’s um let’s do that so I actually want to after we do the if here let’s wrap this in a TR catch and I’ll move this this success I’m going to move that into the try and then let’s copy it and then in the catch if something goes wrong then I’m going to send a 500 error so let’s change the status to 500 and for the message we’ll just say or it’s actually going to be error so error we’ll say internal server error all right now in the try let’s generate the ID so we want to say user ID and we have access to the email that they enter so we’re going to use replace and replace takes in it’ll take in what we want to replace and what we want to replace it with so and we pass in a regular expression I know a lot of you guys and including myself hate regular Expressions but this is pretty simple so in Brackets we’re going to use the uh the carrot so basically we’re saying if not if it doesn’t match whatever I type here which is going to be a lowercase A to Z so a low lowercase letter or an uppercase A to Z or 0 to9 or an underscore or a dash if it’s anything other than that I want to replace it with an underscore and I want this I want it to be Global so I’m going to put SLG so the second argument you pass in is what you want to replace it with which in our case is going to be an underscore okay so that’ll generate the user ID in fact we can go ahead and do a console log of user ID just to check and then if I make a request again with this Brad at Gmail and I send if we look down in the console brador gmailcom and again if you want to do something different for IDs you can so yeah let’s get rid of the console log and now I want to check to see if the user exists in stream chat so let’s say check if user exists and we can do that let’s put this in user response and this is a synchronous so we want to do await and then chat client and then there’s a method called query users so we want to use that and then what we can do is pass in an object where we want to match the ID and we set that to an object with this money sign EQ so we’re saying if it equals the user ID and we can do a console log of that as well and then just go ahead and send and if we look down here you see it gives us an object with a duration and the user’s array which is empty because that the user doesn’t exist that um in my case it would be the Brad gmailcom doesn’t exist so what we can do after that after we check if the user exists or after we set that variable we’ll say if not user response. users. length so we’re saying if that array is empty then we want to add new user to stream so we can do that with the uh there’s a few different methods we can use I’m going to use upsert user which will create or update a user so let’s say chat client. upsert we want to do it’s just a single user so upsert user and then we’re going to pass in an object I’m going to assign the ID to the user ID which will be that formatted email the name set that to name and the email and then I’m also going to add the role of user because there’s there’s different roles there’s an admin user as well in fact if we look at the the docs here if I search for roll permissions let’s see yeah so right here buil-in roles so user is a default user role you have guest um you have admin which is a role for users that can perform administrative tasks with elevated permissions so we just want a a regular user now I should also mention that this is where you you can also generate a token so let’s see um we could call right here create token however we’re we’re using this on the server side with an API key so we don’t need to do this but if you were using this from you know react or view or some kind of front end then you would want to create a token and you’d want to save that and then send that with your um you know the rest of your requests so but we don’t have to do that so yeah I just want to return now basically just return the user ID the name and the email so let’s go right under that if actually we already have this we might as well just use that um yeah we’ll get rid of the message and let’s send the user ID the name and email and I think that should do it so we can try it out now so I’m going to come back here I’m going to register the user Brad gmail.com let’s click Send and I get back a 200 I get back my that’s my user id formatted from my email my name and the actual email now you should be able to actually log into your dashboard so if I go to my chat AI app here and under chat messaging if I go to Explorer you can see I have my chat AI Brad app has an app ID app name if I click users I got Brad 90 not sure where that came from but right here is the the user that I just created and it has all these fields it has the ID the name language role created at updated that if the user banned if they’re online if they’re invisible so lots of information uh and you can delete users too in fact I’ll delete that Brad 90 user oh it’s an original dashboard user okay so I can’t delete that all right so we’re able to to register users now for the chat and later on we’re also going to implement our neon postgres database so that it saves users there as well and it also saves all the chats all the logs but before we do that let’s create our chat route chat route so that we can send a question or or whatever it is we want to send to the AI and use the open AI API to respond to that so let’s first of all bring in the open AI client so up at the top here we’ll say import and it’s going to be open AI from open Ai and then we need to initialize open AI here as well just like we did with stream so right here I’ll say initialize open AI now we are going to need an API key so why don’t we do that real quick I’m going to jump over to platform. openai and log in so from here if we click on settings go to API Keys you should see them here um I’ll just create a new one let’s say chat and for project I’ll just use um project one okay so I’m going to copy that and then I’m going to go ahead and add that to myv so here let’s say opencore AI uh actually no let’s do open AI underscore and then API uncore key and then set that okay so now what we can do is initialize here let’s say const open a excuse me open AI set that to new uppercase o Open Ai and then pass in our API key which is going to be process.env do open aore API key okay so that’ll initialize that now let’s create our our chat route so I’m going to go under the register user and let’s say um what should I say here let’s say send message to Ai and this is going to be a post request as well so app post and the route is going to be just slash chat and then let’s say async okay I’m going to return say promise and any and then we’re going to pass in the request and res response all right so the first thing I want to do is get from the body there should be a message and there should be the user ID because when you register a user you get the ID and then you’re going to send that along to the chat route so let’s say const and let’s get the message and the user ID from the request. body and then we want to just make sure that that exists so we’ll say if not message or not user ID then we’re going to want to return let’s say status 400 and Json we’ll say message and user are required all right then we’re going to go under that if statement and let’s open up a TR catch and in the catch we’re going to I’ll just copy this response here except we’re going to change this to a 500 and then for the error for the error we’ll just say internal server error and in the try first thing we’re going to do is let’s say verify user exists so we’ll say const user response we want to set that to a wait on the chat client and then we’re going to use Query query users pass in an object we want the ID to match the user ID okay after we do that let’s check that response we’ll say if not user response remember it has an array called users so we’re going to check that we’re going to check the length and basically if it’s an empty array then we know the user isn’t hasn’t been found it doesn’t exist so let’s return res. status and four we’ll do 404 because it’s a not the user’s not found and then we’ll we’ll do Json and let’s pass in an error and for the error we’ll say user not found and we’ll say please register first all right now before we do anything else let’s just let’s just check if that works so we’ll just do a simple res. send and just say success okay so when we make our request now to slash chat it should reach out to stream and uh in the body I don’t have uh I don’t have anything so I should get this message and user are required so let’s add in the message I’m going to say what is the capital of Massachusetts and then for the user ID for the user ID I’m going to put a user that doesn’t exist I’ll just do one two three and if I send that I get user not found please register first now we know that the user ID for me brador gmailcom we know that that exists so let’s try that out and we get success so so far so good now what we want to do is start to work with open Ai and we’re going to use the chat completions API which will work like chat GPT you send it a prompt and it sends you a response so let’s go right here where I have the res. send and delete that and let’s send the message to open Ai and we’re going to be using the gp4 model so we’ll say con response and set that to await open AI and it’s going to be chat dot completions Dot and then create and then we want to pass in an object that has the model that we want to use which in this case is going to be GPT you have all these different options we’re going to do gp-4 so that’s the model we want and then we send messages which is going to be an array and we’re going to pass in an object here with a rle of the user and then the content is going to be the message all right so whatever we add in the message which in my request is just what’s the capital of Massachusetts now I want to show you what that gives us so why don’t we just do a console log of the response and then as far as what we return I’ll just let’s just do uh yeah we’ll just say res. send success okay I just want to see what what this gives us so let’s come back over here and I’m going to send the same response with the message and the correct user ID we get success but let’s take a look in the in the console here and we get this object has an ID blah blah blah what we care about is this right here this a choices array and there’s an one object in there with a message and we can’t see it here we just see object um yeah I don’t think we can see that so why don’t we log that so we got console log response and then it’s going to be dot choices which is an array we want the first and only item in that array and we want the message okay let’s send it again and there we go so we get an object with the role is assistant okay so it’s the the AI That’s responding has a role of assistant and then content is what we’re looking for the capital of Massachusetts is Boston all right so it’s as easy as that to to create a prompt and get back a response so now obviously we want to return that response from the endpoint so let’s come back in here we know how to access it now right with this it’s actually message. content that will give us the exact you you know what we’re looking for so let’s get rid of the console log here around this and let’s put this into a variable we’ll say const AI message and um let’s type that it’s going to be a string and set it to that so response choices message content now I am going to use um optional chaining here for for uh message so just add a question mark there and then we also want to use a nullish coalescing operator because if that happens to be null or whatever then we’re just going to make it no response from AI that’ll get rid of any typescript errors now before we actually send this AI message back from this endpoint we need to create a channel which is used for managing conversations in fact if we go to the docs here and we search for Channel and then creating channels so it shows us how to do that we store a reference in a variable using our client and then. channel pass in the type which is going to be messaging okay there’s different types if we come down here and look at type you have um live stream messaging team gaming Commerce messaging is is for like you know one-on-one conversations or group chats um that’s uh typical type for things like that and we’re having a one-on-one chat with it’s just not with a user it’s with the AI so that’s what we’re going to use and then once we store the reference we can then call channel. create and then we can actually do channel. send message as well which will send the message through through the channel it’ll get stored and so on so let’s um let’s do that let’s go right below the AI message and let’s say actually I’m going to just put a comment here let’s say create channel or it’s actually create or get channel and we’re going to create the reference with our chat client. channel the type is going to be messaging and we can also pass in a unique ID which I’m going to use back ticks and then just say chat Dash and then the um the user ID so that’ll be a unique identifier and then we want to pass in an object with the name of the channel which I’m going to call we’ll call it AI chat and then we also need to add this created uncore byor ID which if you were chatting with another user then it would be that user but since we’re using an AI we’re going to call it AI bot all right so that will will create the reference now we need to call channel. create like I just showed you in the docs and then after that we can do uh sorry this needs a wait and then after that we can do await channel. send message and pass in an object with the text which will be the AI message so AI message and then the user ID and make sure you do user uncore ID that’s what the key is it’s not camel case it’s underscore and then that’s going to be the AI bot that sends this message okay now as far as what we want to respond with let’s do res. J actually we’ll do status 200. Json and then pass in um an object oops passing an object with a reply and that reply will be the AI AI message oops not Al message AI okay so yeah that should do it and then I just want to do a console log here as well if there is an error let’s put um error generating AI response and then also the error all right cool so let’s try that out I’m going to come over here and I have I have my message I have my user id let’s go ahead and send and we get an object with the reply the capital of Massachusetts is Boston and what’s cool is now if we go back to the stream dashboard and if we go to you know chat messaging Explorer we have the AI bot user here and you can see under channels we have messaging so it’s that’s the type and then we have the unique identifier which is chat D Brad Gmail com because I set that right here right that’s the unique identifier and then we should be able to see any messages that are in through that channel so we have one message here and it shows the text which is the capital of Massachusetts is Boston so whatever the AI sent us back so pretty cool now what I’d like to do is Implement our own database I mean we do have the the you know you can see the chats and using stuff through stream but a lot of times you want to do more with it so you’ll want to store the chat logs in your own database so I want to expand this to to do that and also store our users so you want to create uh a postgres database through neon so I’m going to go ahead and log in here all right and then we’re going to go to well yeah I guess we’ll create a new project so once you log in and this interface is is so easy to use and it’s so easy to set up a database it’s basically just a couple clicks so I do want to create a new project I’ll call this uh tutorial and you can choose your postr G version I’m going to stick with 17 your database name I’m going to call this chat chat Aid DB and I’ll just choose AWS and then create and you can do a lot from this interface I mean you can run straight SQL queries there’s branching so just like you have branching with GitHub with your code you have branching with your databases so if you want to whatever add a new feature and you don’t want to affect the main branch you can just create a new Branch work with that once that’s all set and you know that’s what you want to use then you can merge the branches so really cool and what we want to do now is just click connect and that will give us our connection string so right here we want to copy this and actually let’s click show password too and then copy and we want to store that that uh reference to the the database the database string in ourv so let’s go in there and let’s call this database uncore URL and go ahead and paste that in all right right so now that we have that we need a way to interact with our database and that’s where drizzle comes in drizzle is an OM it’s typescript base it’s really easy to use um but one thing we do have to do since we’re using neon is use the neon database serverless adapter so we do have to install that as well so let’s come down to the terminal here and let’s run npm install and we want drizzle Das omm and then we also want to install at neon database SL serverless okay so it just allows us to to use um drizzle and to use this with with uh neon’s infrastructure and then we also want to install drizzle kit as a a Dev dependency so let’s say npm install Das uppercase D and then drizzle dkit and this is a CLI and we can run migrations from it and stuff okay so now that those are installed a couple things we have to do a few files we need to create so one is going to be our database config file which I’m going to put in the source folder I’ll create a new folder called config and then in that config we’ll have a database. TS file and this is where we configure That Neon database adapter so let’s go ahead and import a couple things here first one is going to be Neon and that’s going to be from this right here neon database SLS serverless then we want drizzle so import drizzle and let’s see we’re going to bring that in from drizzle omm and then it’s going to be slash neon HTTP and then we want to bring in from the dotv package we want to bring in the config function because we’re going to be using environment variables so let’s go ahead and load environment variables and we do that by calling config and then since I have this in you know in the source folder than in the config folder I’m just going to specify the path to the EnV file you can do that by passing in an object like this just say the path and it’s justv because it’s in the root okay cuz that’s going to start in the root all right then we just want to check for the database URL so if not process. env. database uncore URL then let’s throw a new error and we’ll say database uncore URL is undefined okay so we got that um next thing we want to initialize the neon client so actually going to put a comment here so init the neon client and we’re going to put that in a variable called SQL so we set that to Neon and that’s going to get passed in the database URL so process. EnV do database URL and then we need to initialize drizzle and that’s going to be exported because we’re going to be using this in other files so we’re going to call this uh variable of DB and then we set that to drizzle and that gets passed in the SQL variable which is the neon client so we can close that file up and now we want to create our schema and if you’ve used like Mongoose or SQL eyes or Prisma we create a a model or a schema of our data and then we can use drizzle kit to run the migration looking at that schema and it will create the tables for us so I’m going to put this um in let’s see we’ll have in the source folder I’ll have a folder called DB and then in DB will have a schema. TS file all right so let’s start off by importing what we need from drizzle so we need PG table which is going to create post postres tables for us and that’s going to come in from drizzle o/ PG core so in addition to that any Fields any field types that you want to use you bring in here so for instance serial which is what our primary key IDs are going to be and then text and then timestamp I believe those are the only ones we need so what we do now is export for any any table we want to create we export uh uh PG table function that takes in the name of the table and then all the fields we want to use so for instance for the chats let’s say const chats and we want to set that to PG table and the name of the table will be chats and then we pass in an object with all the fields that we want so for instance the ID is Going to Be A Serial type serial field and that’s going to be named ID and then I want that to be the primary key so we can tack on do primary key next thing we want is the user ID so that’s going to be text and user undor ID uh and then let’s see we’re that’s going to also be not null so we’ll tack that on then we have the message so let’s say message of the chat and this will be message as well then we want the reply which will be the you know the message that’s sent back from um from the the AI so that’ll be text as well and reply and not null all right and then the last thing I want here is created at so created at is going to be a Tim stamp and that’s going to also be called Crea underscore uh at and let’s add on to that I’m going to use default now which will do the current time stamp and that should also be any parenthesis there that should also be not null all right so that’s our our chats now let’s do the users because I want to store users as well so we’ll say con users not exports so cons user set that to um PG table and the name of the table will also be users and then we want to pass in all of our Fields so first thing is going to be the user ID which will be text and user ID for the column name and this is going to be the primary key so we want to add that all right then we get the name so name will be text as well name for the column name and not null all right then we got email so let’s change this and this to email and then we want a created at so I’m just going to copy this one because it’s the same thing okay so that those are the two schemas and the two tables we want to create now drizzle is is really great when it comes to typescript we can have our type inference in inference for drizzle queries so basically when we insert a chat for instance it’s going to be structured in a specific way with a specific type and we can add that here the type inference for the chat insert for the chat select for the user insert and for the user select so we want to export the so we can use them outside of this file and we’re going to say type and then chat insert and we want to set that to type of and then chats and we want this infer insert okay money sign infer insert and then we want to do the same for the chat select which is going to be infer select and change this to chat select okay and then we want to do the same thing for users so what I’ll do is just uh whoops what I’ll do is just grab both of these and copy those down and then we’re going to change this first one here to user insert and make sure we change this to users and then this one here change that to users and this one is going to be users select like that okay so that takes care of the type inference for those types for insert and selects now we want to create a config file for for drizzle or for drizzle kit because it needs to know where the scheme is are it needs to know um where the migrations will go things like that so that this is going to go in the root because that’s where it looks so in the root not in the source but in the root we’re going to create a drizzle. config dots all right and we want to import let’s see we’re going to be using EnV so we want to bring in the config from that so that’s going to be from EnV and then we’re going to import Define config and that’s going to come from drizzle kit and then let’s just run uh let’s say config because we’re going to be using the environment variables to get the database URL and again I’m just going to specify path and it’s just in the root. the EnV okay and then we want to export as default Define config and then that’s going to get passed in a couple things so first is going to be schema and that’s going to point to what we just created which is going to be from the root in the source folder and then in the DB and then schema schema. TS okay so that’s our schema um then we have out so this is going to be the migrations folder so just uh it’s going to be slash migrations all right then we have the dialect so dialect I mean you can use drizzle with different databases MySQL Etc we’re using postgres in fact you can see the options here so we’re going to use postgres and then the for the DB credentials that that’s going to be an object and we just need to provide the URL which is going to be our process uh process. env. database URL and let’s just add a bang on the end of that all right so that’s our config so we can close that up now since that drizzle config is in the root directory we are probably going to have an issue with typescript because it’s compiling the The Source folder right so we can run into an issue there so what we can do is exclude that file so under compiler options right so it ends right here so under compile options we’re going to add exclude and it’s going to be an array and we just want to add in that file so we want uh drizzle what is it drizzle. config dotx yes and that just cleared up that error that was there okay so now we have our schema created so that means that we’re ready to create our migration and when we create our migration we first generate it and then we we do drizzle kit generate and then drizzle kit migrate and that should actually create our tables for US based on this based on the schema so let’s try that let’s come down here and let’s run or we need npx and drizzle dkit and then we want to do generate first okay so your your SQL migration file so it created that here and then and you’ll see there’s a migrations folder here now then to actually migrate we want to do npx drizzle kit migrate all right so let’s see you can only connect to remote super B instances through web socket not exactly sure why it’s saying that it is a warning so let’s go to our neon dashboard and let’s check it out so if we go to tables and we have our chats yep chats table you can see the fields here ID user ID message and we have our users table okay so that worked I’m not exactly sure can only connect to remote neon versel postgress through a web socket um I guess I’m just not going to worry about that right now because it did work it created our tables from our schema which is what should have happened so now let’s integrate the database into our endpoints into the register user and into the chats because again we want to save the users we want to save the chats actually let’s bring in up top what we need to First okay so we’re going to import we want our DB right so DB which is going to come from our database now this is something that I want to mention when you’re using typescript with node with with TSX and you have the configuration that we do when you import a file because this is the first file that we’ve imported the rest have just been you know package modules so you it says JS even though it’s a TS file okay you can’t do import TS that’s not going to work it’s going to give you an error so even though it says JS everything to do with typescript compilation everything is just it still works fine this is just the syntax we have to use so in addition to that we want to bring in our schemas so chats and users and that’s going to come in from slash DB and then slash schema and again we’re going to do schema JS even though it’s a TS file and then let’s see what else do we need um there’s a utility called EQ to to basically compare values to compare the users and so on so that’s going to be EQ from drizzle omm and then what else do we have here uh the oh the chat completion message pram type so we’re going to bring that in as well so chat completion I don’t see it here completion message right here so that’s going to come from openai resources MJS actually we don’t need the MJS I don’t think yeah that should work okay so now that we we have our Imports let’s figure out where we actually want to use the database so we have our register user right so that creates a user with stream but again we want to also save the users in our own database so I’m going to go down right above the the response okay after we deal with all the stream stuff and let’s check for existing user in the database I know we checked for if it’s in stream but we also want to check in our own database so let’s say const existing user and I’m just going to close that up and we want to set that to a wait and this is where use the DB right so DB from our config file database config and then I’m going to call a few different methods on this one is Select so I want to select from the users table where so do where this is just the syntax of drizzle which I I like pretty clean so where now this is where we use that EQ utility so we want to pass in EQ and we want to see where users do user ID is equal to the user ID okay and that the user ID would be you know what we create from the email when a user is registered so it’s going to check for that and well it’s going to put it in this variable now let’s come down under it and let’s say if not existing user uh we’ll say if not existing user. length then let’s just um we’ll first off we’ll just do a console log and I’ll put some back ticks in here and we’ll say user and then the user ID uh we’ll say does not exist in the database and we’ll say adding them because that’s what we’re going to do all right so under that line let’s await DB and then we’re going to call insert and we want to insert into users where values okay so the values we want to add pass in an object here with the user ID the name and the email all right and that should be it so let’s save it now and I’m going to come back to uh to postman so let’s send a request so I’m going to make a post request to http we want to do register user and in the body for form data let’s add a name and an email okay so I’m going to go ahead and send that all right so I get back what I’m supposed to to now we want to check the database so let’s go to uh to Neon just going to reload this and there’s the user so user ID which is also the primary key the name email and the created ad so now not only are we do we have the users in the chat Explorer and stream we have it in our own database which we can do whatever we want with right and I had deleted the the user before so there it is again all right so in addition to the users in the database we also want to store the chats so let’s go back to server TS and let’s go down to the chat endpoint and figure out where we want to use the database here so let’s see we’re getting the user response here right then we check the user response so let’s go right under that and we’ll say check check user in database so again we’re going to do const actually I can just copy the the line of code I just put here okay so we’ll add that here and then um actually we can take what we put after that too which is this except we’re not going to create the user so we do have to change that so right under where we check the user let’s paste that and uh we’re going to get rid of this insert we don’t want to do that and then for the actually we’re not even going to do a console log we want to return an error if the user isn’t there so let’s say return and then res. status and we’ll do uh 404 and let’s do Json error and we’ll set the error we’ll say user not found in database please register first okay so we’re making it so that if the user isn’t in our postres database our neon database then it’s still it’s not going to let it happen right it has the user has to exist in stream and it has to exist in our database so now let’s go under where we get the AI message message and store that and let’s say save we’ll say save chat to database so to do that we can just say await db. insert we want to insert into the chats or the chats U table and then for values we’re going to add the user ID we want the message the reply uh actually reply we’re going to set that to AI message okay so we’re just taking whatever this is right and we’re just storing it as reply and that’s it so now we can try that out so I’m going to come over here and let’s go let’s make a request to slash chat and we’re going to change the stuff here so let’s say message and let’s do something different um Let’s do let’s do something a little more difficult like create a simple let’s see what should we do we’ll say create a simple rest API with python so that’s our message and then for the user ID I’m going to put my user which is going to be brador gmailcom so let’s try that out and it might take a couple seconds obviously the the more difficult the the answer the longer it’s going to take okay so we got our reply and it has a bunch of you know new line characters and stuff for formatting and we’ll we’ll when we create our UI with view we’ll have this displaying nicely so here’s a simple example on how to create a rest API using flask a microweb web framework in Python and it goes through and gives us the steps all right so we know that’s working now let’s make sure that that got saved to the database so we’ll go to Neon and I’m going to go to chats and there it is message create a simple rest API reply there’s the reply now since we implemented a database I’d like to add one more route to to get the messages of a specific user okay and we’re going to need that for our UI because obviously when you’re you know sending messages as a user you only want your messages so let’s create a new route we’re going to come down here and let’s say we want to get chat history for a user so app. poost and let’s see the the endpoint is going to be SLG get- messages and we want to do a sync return promise any okay I’ll pass in here our request so request Andre which will be response all right so what I’m going to do first is get it’s going to take a user ID so we’ll destructure the user ID from request. body because that needs to be sent with the body and then let’s check for the user ID or check if not you user ID and if not then we’re going to return res. status and we’ll do 400 and we’ll pass in an error and say user ID is required all right so if the user ID is there then let’s open up a try catch and let’s create a variable here we’ll call it chat history so chat history and then we want to await DB and then we’re going to select I’m going to go on the next line here so db. select and from okay we want to select from chats and let’s say where so where and we’re going to use EQ here CU we’re comparing so we want to to say where the chats. user ID is equal to the user ID and then we’re going to return actually we can just do res res. status 200. Json and let’s pass in we’ll do messages messages and set that to the chat history okay and then if there’s an error then we’re going to res. status 500 and let’s uh we’ll pass in an error and we’ll say internal server error and then I do want to just do a a console log as well so we’ll say um actually let’s do quotes and say error fetching chat history and we’ll output the error okay so that’s our get messages so let’s try that out I’m going to come over here post request to SLG get- messages and then we just want the user ID in the body so I’m going to go ahead and send and now it gives me back an array and you see we have id1 user ID message and then the apply I should have my other one here actually no I deleted the other one so let’s make another um let’s do another chat and then for the message make sure we check that let’s say what is the most popular JS framework send as of 20 okay so the 2021 is the cut off for this um it says the most popular JavaScript framework is react all right so now if I were to go back to get Dash messages with the user ID I should have both so create a simple rest API and what is the most popular JS framework okay so we have three routes we can we register a user we use that user to to chat to ask a question to the AI and then we have a an endpoint to to get all the messages of a specific user so that’s pretty much it as far as the back end there there’s a couple things later on while we’re doing the front end that I want to add to the back end but I think that I’ll be able to explain it better once we have the UI and I know that backend development like this can be a little tricky and can be a little weird because you don’t you’re not looking at like a user interface for your are the results of what you’re doing you’re just seeing a bunch of data so it can be can be tough for for some people so um if you if you’ve been confused through this don’t worry about it I mean it happens as you do more of it it’ll kind of Click but now what I’d like to do is jump into the front end create a whole new folder for our our chat AI UI and start to use vuejs okay so now we’re going to get into our front end and like I said we’re going to be using vue.js version three um we’re going to be using a couple other dependencies so let me just show you those real quick so view we’re using vit for our Dev server and environment we’re using pinf for our state management Library so we’ll be able to create a store for our users for our chats uh we’ll be able to have our actions and our state in those stores axios I’m using for my HTP Library although if you want to use fetch that’s fine too really doesn’t matter it’s just preference and then Tailwind CSS I’m using for The Styling so we will be be adding quite a bit of Tailwind classes to make it look nice view router we’re using the official router for view uh and we’re just going to have two routes two pages one is going to be the homepage with the form that has the email and the name so that you can you know enter your name to start chatting and then of course the chat route chat page where you interact with the AI and then typescript which we don’t have to set up at all it just works out of the box with vit so those are our frontend dependencies now I have the backend running so you definitely want to have that um this is just something I was testing out but you can see it’s mine’s running on Port 8000 and then I’m going to go into the chat AI folder and you can see I have the the back end that’s what’s running over here I want to create a folder alongside of this in my chat AI folder not inside the API folder that’s the back end this is completely separ separate so alongside that let’s go ahead and run npx and then I’m going to use create V and let’s call this chat D ai- UI okay this is the user interface part of our application and then we’re going to choose view I’m going to choose typescript although if you you want to use JavaScript that’s fine too and I mean even if you don’t know typescript it’s we’re not doing that much so you should be fine and and we already used it in the back end um and it’s much easier to set up I mean there really is no setup in the front end it just works so now let’s go ahead and CD into chat ai- UI and then let’s run our npm npm install to install our initial dependencies that come with v and then we’ll install a couple other dependencies as well all right so let’s go npm install and view- router we want pinf for our state management and there’s also a plugin called uh persisted State and we want to use this because we want our state our user to persist across page loads so we’re going to install pinea Das plugin Das persisted State and then also axios so those are our front end those are our regular dependencies and then for Dev dependencies it’s just tailwind and the plug-in for V for Tailwind so let’s do Dash uppercase D and then Tailwind CSS and then also at uh what is it at Tailwind CSS SLV and Tailwind version 4 is super easy to get set up with v okay so now that we have our dependency set up I’m going to actually just open this folder up in vs code and I’m going to run the dev server from the integrated terminal so from here let’s say NP say npm run Dev and it’s going to be 5173 for the port by default and I’m just going to make this going to just bring this over here make this a little smaller okay so this is just a landing page we’re going to get rid of the the boiler plate um what I do want to do is set up Tailwind which is really easy we just need to go into our V config first and we’re going to import uh Tailwind CSS from and then it’s going to be this at tailwind cssv and then we just need to add the plugin to the array here so Tailwind CSS parentheses and then the only other thing we need to do is go into our main stylesheet so in the source folder I want to go into style CSS and we can get rid of all this other stuff and just simply do at import and then in quotes take Tailwind CSS and that’s it and you can see Tailwinds working because there’s it’s all the same font size there’s no padding or or margin on the body so Tailwind is working all right now let’s just clear this up a little bit I don’t want the hello world component so we can completely delete that okay and then in the app. view we don’t want that I’ll leave the script tag there and then in the template uh actually we can get rid of this the scope style and then in the template for now let’s just have oops let’s just have an H1 and we’ll just say my app okay so just kind of clear everything out and in the assets we don’t need the view SVG you can get rid of that now I do have a little robot icon and logo that I want to use so let me just find that real quick you guys can get this from the the GitHub repository that that’s in the description let me just find it real quick uh let’s see Dev I’m just trying to find it off screen where we chat AI UI all right so it’s going to be in you have the fabicon which is in the root so just bring that over to your root and then you have um in the source assets folder there’s a robot PNG you’re going to bring that into your assets folder so it’s just this little robot guy all right now to add the fabcon we can go into the index HTML in our um in the root and I’m just going to change the page title to let’s do chat Ai and then for the fabicon we’ll just add a link and let’s change the real to Icon We’ll add a type of image slash it’s an Ico and then slash favicon Ico and then you should see the little robot in the tab all right so right off the bat I just want to set up routing okay because we’re using view router we’re going to have the home route we’re going to have a chat route so let’s start by creating those pages or those views so in the source we’re going to create a folder called views and then in there we’re going to create a file file called home let’s call it home view. viw Vue and then let’s create another file called chat view. viw okay and then I’m just going to have a script tag and then we’re going to add our setup so as far as vuejs goes this is not an intro to view I’m not going to explain the the basics um I have a view course A View crash course on YouTube that I just did it like a couple months ago so it’s really up to date if you don’t know anything or you know very little about VJs I would suggest watching that I mean you can watch it after if you want so you can kind of understand what you did but I would suggest watching it before but basically with the composition API which is a kind of a more Modern Way of of building view components you basically have to have in your script you would export uh a setup function right and then you do all your JavaScript all your state stuff you would do in here but you can do a shortcut by just adding setup here that’s why I’m doing that and then I’m also just going to add Lang and since I’m using typescript I’m going to add Lang TS and then I’m not even going to put anything in there for now then we have our template so basically the HTML we want to show on this in this component or in this page which right now I don’t really care we’ll just do an H1 and we’ll just say chat or chat page all right and then for the home view I’m just going to grab that and we’ll just change this to homepage all right because I I just want to get these created so that we can create set up our router so we can close those up for now and then for the router we’re going to have a folder in the source folder called router and then in that will have a file called index.ts and this is where we set up our routes now to do that we need to import a couple things so first off we need create router from view router and then we also want a function called create web history which allows us to use the the HTML 5 history API to to do routing instead of you know actual page loads and then we also want to bring in any views or any components that we want to load so that would be the home View and that would be the chat view okay then what then what we do is create an array for our routes so we’ll set that to an array and each route will have an object with a a path so in this case I want this to be just slash for the homepage and then we can load a component which our views are our components so let’s set that to the home View all right and then we’ll do the same thing for the chat view so let’s make this slash chat and this will be for the component chat view then what we want to do is export const router so this is what we bring into other files and this is where we want to set this to create router which is going to take in an object with history and we want to set that to the create web history again that’s going to use the the HTML 5 history API and that’s a function so you want your parenthesis and then you just want to pass in your routes as well all right and that’s it for that file now couple other things we need to do before we can actually use our router we need to initialize it in the main.ts file which is basically our entry point so in this file uh let’s see we’re going to bring in let’s bring in in and we want create router uh I’m sorry not create router just router we already used that in our router file that we just created and that’s what we’re bringing in here so router from. SL router now we have to use that so where we have this create app which bootstraps the entire application it mounts it to this this element with app um I’m going to just put this in a variable and then we’ll mount it down below so we’ll take this and we’ll do app. Mount here instead and that way we can take that app that app object and we can call use and then we can use the router okay so we got that done now the last thing to be able to see the routes on the page in the main app. view where we have this H1 we want to replace that with router View save that and now we see homepage because we’re on the the Home Route if I go to SL chat then we’re on the chat page and if you want to create just a quick navigation we can do nav and then we can use router link okay so router link we can add a two attribute here to slash and then we’ll have one to chat slash chat and then we should be able to click on chat takes us to the chat page home takes us to the the homepage now we do need to set up our store but before we do that let’s just get the form displayed on the hom page uh and we can get rid of this nav we don’t need that okay so let’s go into Let’s see we want to go into the home View and I’m going to bring in the that robot image because that’s going to be our logo so let’s import robot image from and then it’s going to be dot dot slass assets slash and then robot.png okay so we’ll bring that in and then let’s just start to add some of the the elements down here and use our Tailwind classes so we’re going to have a div that wraps everything get rid of this um div and then for classes here we’re going to do h- screen let’s make this a flex box and align everything to the center so items Das Center and justify Center I’m not going to explain what every Tailwind class does I have Tailwind crash courses I have a premium course if you want that but it’s pretty obvious what most of these classes do background we’re going to make gray let’s do 900 for the shade and then we’re going to do text white okay so that just gives us this dark background then inside that I’m going to have another div with a class of pad let’s do padding 8 and I’m going to do BG gray 800 make get a little lighter and rounded large let’s do shadow shadow large and let’s make it width Dash full and a Max width of medium all right whoops I don’t know what what happened oh need to do this all right so there’s our container for the form so in that div let’s have an H1 we’ll do text Dash let’s do 2XL for the sizing we’ll say font Das semibold let’s do uh margin bottom four and text Center and in that we’ll say welcome to chat AI all right oh I forgot the robot so let’s actually put above the the H1 I’m gonna have my image now since the source is going to be pointed to a variable right it’s Dynamic we need to bind it so we could either do a v-h on or we can just put a colon here and then set it to something Dynamic such as the robot image variable and then I’m just going to add a couple classes on this as well so let’s do MX so margin on the X Access Auto width 24 height 24 and then let’s do a margin bottom four and there we go so now I have the little robot guy and then let’s go under the H1 and we want to have our inputs so for the classes here we’re going to do Dash uh with Dash full let’s do padding two for margin bottom two and then I’m going to do a BG gray 700 so make it a little lighter the text will be white um let’s say round rounded Das large and then I’m also going to add a focus style so on Focus I want outline Das none okay uh yeah and then let’s add a couple other things so in addition to whoops what did I do here that should be there so I want to add a placeholder and it’s going to say name and then we want to buy this name to uh a reactive variable we want to we want to have a a piece of component State called name and we do that with v- model and we we’ll set that to name and we want to create that name variable up top here in the script so let’s say con name and we set that to ref okay we’re creating a reactive value so ref and then whatever the default is will go in here which is going to be an empty string now that ref we do have to import that from view so let’s bring that in that should be lowercase R okay there we go so now that gets bound to that if I put in you know hello here it’s going to show here because that is bound to that input okay and then we’ll have some other values here as well like the the uh email and let’s see do I want to add the rest of the stuff now um yeah uh might as well just copy this down so we’re going to have a loading state so basically when we reach out to our API we’re going to set loading to true and then when we get the result it’ll be set to back to false so let’s set this to ref default value will be false um and then I also want for ER if we have an error I want to have that in our state as well that’ll just be an empty string by default as well and then let’s come back down let’s create our email input so I’m going to take this copy it down let’s change the type to email and let’s see we’ll change placeholder to email and the V model to email so now this input is going to pertain or is going to be bound to this variable if I save it we see the email and then let’s create the button okay so right here let’s say say button and as far as classes go let’s do with- full let’s do padding to we’ll do BG blue Das 500 and rounded large all right and inside that I want it to say start chat but if it’s loading then I want it to show logging in okay and it’s not actually a login but you know what I mean creating the user or just getting the user so if you want to show something Dynamic uh within your view template you use double curly braces so here I can put a JavaScript expression like if it’s loading then show logging in dot dot dot else then show start chat so now we have our start chat button and then I also want to make this button disabled if loading is true so it’s going to be um Dynamic so I’m going to do colon disabled because what I’m setting this to is a is a variable right it’s loading so if I were to set loading up here I know a lot of you guys know this stuff but for those of you that are kind of new to view if I set that now it’s disabled and it says logging in so I’ll set that back to false all right now let’s see um for the error I want to show that down here in a paragraph So in the paragraph we can use a v if directive which is just like an if statement whatever I put in here in here will only show if this is true so for V if we just want to set that to error so if error is true then I just want to show the actual error and we’ll just add a class uh let’s add a class of text Dash red we’ll do red 400 and text Center and let’s do margin top two okay so if I have an error which we can test out by just putting something in here then it will show like that all right cool now that button is going to call a function so let’s go to the button here we’ll say at click so when we click this we’re going to call call a function called create user which doesn’t exist yet so we’re going to go up here and we want to create we want to create the create user function so here let’s say const create user we’ll set that to async an async function and let’s let’s check for the the name and email so we’ll say if not name and we can access the value with DOT value or if not email. value okay so if either one of those are not you know not added then I want to set an error so we’ll say error. value and we’ll set that to let’s say name and email are required and then we’ll just return okay and then I think you know what what I think that’s as far as I want to go because we don’t have our store yet cuz what we’re going to do is send a request to well we could you know what we’ll send the request I’m trying to think of how I want how the order I want to do this in do we want to do the store first yeah you know what before we do the request let’s do the store I mean we can test out this little validation if I were to click Start chat without putting anything then it’s going to give us an error but yeah let’s create our store so so basically when the data comes back from SL register user from our back end it’s going to be stored in our user store which we have yet to create so we’re using pinea which means we have to initialize it so we’re going to go into our main.ts which is right here and couple things we need to do um yeah we’ll go right here and let’s import here create pinea from pinea and then we also need that plugin which is pinea plugin persisted State that’s going to come from oops it’s going to come from uh this right here okay so we want to bring those in and then let’s go above this app let’s say const pinea set that to the create pinea function and then we should be able to take that pinea object and say do use and we can use the plugin so pinea plugin persisted State we want to pass that in and then the only other thing we need to do is use it just like we did the router so copy that down and pass in pinea okay I don’t have the code right in front of me but I’m pretty sure that’s that’s right all right so we’ll close that up now to create our store let’s go into the source folder create a folder called stores and for each resource we’ll have a file so I want to create a file called user. TS so this is where our Global State goes as well as any actions which are going to be functions that mutate the state in some way um so what we’re going to do is import Define store and that’s going to be from pinea all right and then we’re going to export let’s export const and we’re going to call this use user store and we want to set that to that defined store and then that’s going to take in a name of our of our store so user and then we pass in an object and this is where we can Define our state which is going to be set to an arrow function and some and it’s going to be set to an OB it’s going to return an object in that object we’re going to have our user ID and we’re using typescript so I’m going to say null as string or null so what we’re doing is using a type assertion and we’re defining it as null to begin with but we’re saying it can be null or string and then we’re going to do the same thing with the name okay so if you remember when we hit that register user route it sends back the user ID the name and the email we don’t need the email um in the the the project so I’m not going to store it in the in the store if you want to you can but I’m just going to leave it out for now so in addition to our state we want to have our actions so let’s put a comma here and then actions and actions is an object with functions in it to manipulate the state in some way so let’s create a function called set user and set user is going to take in a data object so for the type it’s going to be an object that has a user ID which will be a string and also name which will be a string and we can a access this right these values in our state we can access with this keyword so we can say this. user ID is going to be set to the user ID that’s passed in here uh I’m sorry it’s going to be be data. user ID okay and then we’ll do the same thing with the name so this set that so this.name is going to equal data. name then let’s go under set user because we also want to have a log out because we need we need a way to clear this state so here we’ll say this. user ID is equal to null and then this do name is equal to null and then the last thing we’re going to do is persist the state meaning that it’s going to the user will stay even if the page refreshes or reloads so we’re going to go right here put a comma and we can add in here persist and we’re just going to set that to true and I’ll put a little comment here and just say keep user logged in across um across page reloads and that yeah that should do it so that’s our user store and we’ll have a chat store later on so now let’s go back to our home View and we’re going to import the we want to import the use user store that we just created that’s going to be from and then dot dot slash stores sluser okay and then we’re going to be redirecting the user as well so we’re also going to import use router from view router now we have to initialize these two things so right here let’s say const user so user store set that to uh use user store um why is that oh it’s just I just haven’t used it right yeah okay so then also the router so let’s say cons router set that to use router all right now we have access to the user store so let’s make our request down here in the create user so after this if statement let’s first off set the loading value and set that to true because we’re now loading because we’re we’re making a request and let’s just make sure the error value is clear and then I’m going to use a tri catch for the request now for as far as the URL that we make the request to for me it’s going to be HTTP Local Host 8000 but when you go into production obviously that’s going to change so we should put that in an environment variable so let’s go into the root not the source but in the root and let’s create a EnV and here we’re going to say vit under so these are going to be prefixed with vit and then API URL and we’ll set that to http Local Host 8000 if you ran it on a different port make sure you put that all right so that way we can just have one central place for that URL now let’s make the request and I’m using axios by the way so I have to import that as well uh let’s see so import axios and then let’s say const I’m going to destructure the data if you’re using fetch then you would do that here but I’m going to await on axios.com API URL okay so that’s where we want to go and then slash so after the the closing curly brace SL register Das ususer so we’re making a request to our backend now we also want to pass in after that backtick uh a comma and then we want to pass in the data that we’re sending which is going to be our name and we remember we access that with name. value and then email so this will be email email. value and then once we do that we can then set the this the user data in our store to the data that we get back okay so let’s do that we’re going to say user store and then we’re going to call our set user action we’re going to pass in the user ID set that to the data. userid and then we want to do the same thing with the name so this will be name oops name and then it’ll be data. name okay so we’re setting it to our store and then the last thing we want to do in the try is just redirect so router. push and we want to go to slash chat and then in the catch let’s do uh we’ll say error. value and set that to we’ll just say something went wrong and we’ll say please try again okay uh let’s see did I set this oh you know what this let’s make this e r r because we can’t have that being error and the state being error error all right and then we want to set the loading to false no matter what whether it’s an error or not so we can add a finally so right here finally and then we’ll set the loading do value to false okay so that should do it right so again just to kind of reiterate we click the button it calls create user and checks the name and value inputs sets loading to true then we make our request to our backend which we already created send the name and email we get back the user ID the name and email and we’re storing the user ID and the name in our state right in our frontend UI State then we’re just redirecting to chat and we’re setting loading back to false so let’s try this out uh I’m going to come over here I’m just going to refresh the page here and then let’s do like I’ll say John Doe or just John and John gmail.com start chat says logging in redirects me to the chat page right now I should be able to check I can check this in a few places I can check stream or I can check um uh neon so we’ll do both going to go back here to my Explorer and stream and if we look look at users you’ll see right here John gmailcom so that’s what that’s who I just registered as right and then if we go to our neon console and go to users John gmailcom so now our front end is connecting to our backend sending a request signing up with both you know setting it in stream sending it to our own database so that we have our own uh store of users for what whatever you want to do with them um sets a channel and that’s it now what we need to do is create this chat page so that we can interact with the AI however before we do that I’d like to have a header at the top because we do need um we do need a way to log out I say log out but it’s not actual authentication but you know what I mean just make the user know right the user ID and the email so let’s create a component we’re we going to go into the components folder and let’s create a header. viw file okay and we’re going to add our script let’s add our setup so setup and for the Lang set that to TS and then we’ll have our template okay so in our template I’m going to have a div with padding y let’s do py4 px-6 BG Das gray 800 let’s do Shadow DMD make this a flex box we want to justify uh justify between and let’s do items Das Center all right so within that div I’m going to have the robot image which I need to bring in so up here just close that up so up here let’s import that so import robot image and that’s going to be from dot dot SL assets SL robot.png all right so for the source I’m going to just add a colon here since this is a dynamic variable it’s a robot image and let’s see just a couple classes on this so so class is going to be W so width d8 and height -8 and we’ll just say for the alt chat AI now we want to bring this header in uh it’s not finished yet but I just want to be able to see it so it’s only going to be on the chat page it doesn’t have to be on the homepage so we’re not going to put it in you know the main app file we’ll put it right in chat so in the chat view let’s go ahead and import header and let’s see we’ll just get rid of this uh H1 here I do want to have a div though with just a couple classes so let’s do Flex I’m going to do flex-all h- screen BG let’s do gray 900 and text- white and then in that we’ll put our header and there we go so looks pretty good so back to let’s see home view we can close up but back in the header let’s finish this up I’m going to put under the image here an H1 with a class of text large and font semibold and we’ll say AI or chat AI now it’s way it’s way over on the right because I have justify between so all the spaces in between but I’m going to put a log out button so this will be pushed over into the middle and the log out button will be on the end so let’s add button and I’m going to do text Gray 400 and also on Hover so hover will make text- white and inside of it will’ll say log out okay so there’s that now when we click it let’s go ahead and add an event handler so we want to click so when we click it’s going to call a function called logout now the log out function is the action in the store right if I go to my user store we have this log out action so we can bring this into to our our header and use it so up at the top here let’s let’s import and whenever you want to use the user store you need to bring in use user store all right so we’re bringing that in um I’m also going to bring the the user use router in so use router from view router and then we need to initialize both of those so let’s say const use or user store set that to use use user store and then let’s say cons router set that to use router and then for the log out uh what we’re going to do is if it first calls a logout function here so we’ll create that and then from there we want to then take the user store and we want to call the logout action and we can do that just simply by doing Dot user store. logout then we just want to redirect so router. push and we want to redirect to the homepage the home view okay so when we call that log out it’s going to clear the state because again in our user store it’s going to set the user ID and the name to nulls so when we log in we hit our backend we get the data back it sets it when we log out it clears it so let’s do it let’s say log out and now there we go so now we want to do the the chat right we want to be able to actually interact with the AI so I’m going to log back in as John so I should be able to just do John on at gmail we want to work on getting the the messages which right now John is a new account so he doesn’t have any so I’m just going to add some so I’m going to go to my to postman or open whatever HTTP client you want let’s make a post request to chat and then in the body you want to include your user ID which for me is going to be johore gmailcom that should be lowercase ID and then we want to send a message and for the message I’ll just say what is the capital of um say Maine and let’s send okay so capital of main is Augusta let’s send another another message here what do I want to ask it um say what is the what is the most popular programming language curious to see what it says oh most popular language is Javascript however it’s very it it may vary based on the specific industry or use case Python and Java are also widely used all right so we have uh some chats now so we want to get these and we want those to display here so what I’m going to do is create a new store for chats so in stores let’s create a file called chat. TS now you can set your store up in different ways in the user store we use the object style where we have a state you know State we have an object with State action and uh just any other options but we can also use the composition API and we can use reactive variables with ref like we did in our components so that’s what I’m going to do with chat the chat store because it’s a little more complicated so let’s start off by importing Define store okay so we want to bring that in from paa and then let’s also import ref because I’m going to be using reactive variables that’ll be from View and then I’m going to bring in axios because I’m also going to do the the fetch from here or the HTTP request and then let’s do what else we also want the user store okay because we’re going to need the user ID the the user that’s logged in so let’s say use user store bring that in from do/ user all right now we’re going to be formatting our chat messages a certain way so meaning the message that we send as well as the message we get back and I’m going to use an interface for that okay so this is a typescript interface and it’s basically just like a type where we Define certain fields that it has to match so let’s call this chat message and chat message has to have a message which is going to be a stream Str and has to have a reply which will be a string so that’s our chat message let’s do another interface of formatted message and formatted message is going to have a role because when we get our messages back we need to know which which one is the the user and which one is the AI so the role is going to be a string of either user or AI okay it has to be one of those and then we’ll have the content which will be either the message or the reply so that’s going to be a string so those are our interfaces and you could put those in separate files if you want but there’s only two Fields so I’ll just keep them here and then let’s export const and let’s say use chat store just like we did use user store set that to our Define store which is going to take in the name which which we’ll call chat and then we’ll have our function yeah actually this yeah we don’t want an object here you can use an object like we did in the use uh user the user store but I’m going to have a function and we can use the composition API here so let’s create a variable for messages and set that to ref so it’s going to be a reactive variable and I’m going to use typescript generics here to Define what a message should be which is going to have a roll which will be a string and content which will be a string and it’s going to be an array messages so we also want to have after the curly brace here our brackets and uh ref is a function so we want to have our parentheses and the default value goes in here which is an empty array okay and then the other thing that I want to have is is loading and and set that to ref which is going to be false by default then we want to initialize our user store because we need that user ID so let’s say const user store and set that to use use user store right and then we need to have a function that will load previous chat messages so let’s say load previous chat messages and we’ll call this load chat history and this is going to be asynchronous okay and first thing I’m going to do here is check for the the user the user ID so we’ll say if the user store do user ID or rather we want to say if not the user ID then we just want to return okay then we’re going to open up a try catch and we want to make our request and the the end point we’re making the request to is get messages right because we want to get our messages so let’s say const and we’re going to destructure the data from axios so let’s say await axios Dot and it’s going to be a post request and then we have our API URL which is in the the EnV file so let’s use some back ticks here and we’ll say um to access that we can do import. meta Dov and then Vore apiurl and then outside of the curly brace we want to do SLG get- messages okay so we’re going to hit that endpoint and then we want to pass in an object because we need to send the user ID with it to get the user’s messages so it’s a user ID and then user store. user ID all right and then uh let’s see so the way that the messages come back right in fact we can just we can just check this out so if I say new new request and I want to hit I want post and then the get messages and in the body I’m going to add my user id which is johore gmailcom if I do that I get back my messages the me the two that I just sent right so it comes back in an array called messages and then an object that has ID user ID message reply created at where message is what I sent reply is what the a sent now I want to I want to manipulate this data into basically into an array that has the role which will be either the AI or the user and the content which will be either the message or the reply based on if it’s the AI or the user right we want to match this right here so this this interface so we have to uh basically map through and and return an array with those two Fields um and we also have to flatten it because what we what we can do by using map right if we map through we can get like an array with the the roll so it would be like user and then content would be just whatever right and then we’d have another array like that and we don’t want that we want we want an array that has objects in it like this so we want to flatten it so the the method we can use to do that is called flat map okay which is just a JavaScript method so that’s what we’re going to do we’re going to come down here and we’re going to take messages which is our reactive variable that we set up above and I want to set the value of it it right so value and I want to set it to the data. messages which comes back which looks like this initially it’s going to look like this an array of of those objects so on this we want to run our DOT our flat map just going to go on the next line here so let’s say um flat map and then that takes in a function and for this we’re going to say MSG so for each message which is going to be formatted as the chat message interface and then what that’ll return so right here we want to put a colon and what that’ll return is a formatted message array okay that has that matches this right here the U the role and the content okay so it gets passed in the chat message we want it to return the formatted message and the way we do that um actually we just want to set this right to an array and pass in an object and say roll so roll user and then the content will be the MSG Dot and then message because we the me remember what we’re getting back here the message field is the user what the user says the reply is what the AI says so we want to do that and then let’s copy that down and then the rooll for AI will be the reply so MSG do reply and then I want to just filter filter it because all I want is the content that’s what we want to show right is the message and the replies which is now going to be in content we don’t want to show the ruler so the ruler the role so I’m going to filter that out so let’s go on the next line and say filter and pass in uh let’s say MSG so MSG which will now be the formatted message okay no brackets because it’s not an array we’re we’re going through each one so each one will be a formatted message and we just want to return from that we want to filter out just the content which will be the reply or the me and the message and then for the error so in the catch here let’s just do a console do error and we’ll say error loading chat history and then show show the error Okay cool so we have our chat store and we have our load chat history so now we want to call this right we want to call this within our um chat view so let’s go to chat View and we want to bring in couple things here so up at the top let’s import now we want this to happen when the component mounts and we can do that by using on mounted so I’m going to bring in on mounted I’m also going to bring in a function called Next tick and what that does is it allows us to wait until the Dom finishes loading before it does something so we’re going to do that and that’s going to both of those are going to be from View and then we want to bring in both stores so let’s say use user store and then we also want to import the use chat store and while we’re at it let’s bring in use router from view router and I think that should do it for now now we need to initialize a couple things so the user store set that to use user store then we have the chat store set that to use chat store and then the router so const uh router set that to use router and then I want to make sure that the user is logged in so uh let’s just say Ure user is logged in and again I know I’ve said this but if you want to incorporate actual authentication with a password you can do that but I didn’t really want to focus on authentication because that’s you know that’s such a huge thing I wanted to focus on the whole AI aspect of it so yeah let’s just check if not so if not user store. userid then we’re just going to take the router and we’re going to push to slash and then I also want to scroll to the bottom right so because we’re going to be able to scroll through the chats I want it to to scroll to the bottom so let’s say autoc scroll to bottom so I’m going to create a function here called scroll to bottom all right and then in that um this is where we’re going to we’re going to use next tick which again we’ll wait until the Dom has been updated and that takes in a function and then to scroll to the bottom let’s get the chat container which we haven’t created yet we don’t have that you know down in the output but we will so we’ll say chat container and we’re going to set that to document. getet element by D and it’s going to have an ID of chat Dash container okay so then under that I’m going to just check for chat container and then we’ll take chat container and we’re going to set the scroll Top Value to the scroll height so chat container. scroll height okay now like I said when when we the component mounts right we come to the page the component mounts that’s when we want to call the load chat history that we just created in the store so let’s go under that scroll to bottom and let’s say on mounted okay so this is how we use this we just pass in a function and then we’re going to call chat store and then load chat history which returns a promise so I’ll just use a DOT then um and then we want to scroll to the bottom so scroll to bottom like that all right and let’s see why is this does not exist on type store did I not save it um oh I didn’t return this oh so at the bottom here we want want to return an object and we’re going to return the messages the is loading the load chat history and that’s it for now okay good so now that error should go away now we want to add the output so let’s go right under the header and I’ll say chat messages so we’re going to have an ID of chat Dash container and let’s add a couple classes here as well so for classes we’re going to do Flex das1 let’s say overflow on the Y AIS Auto let’s do padding so P4 and space- y-4 now in here we’re going to have a div with a V4 so the V4 attribute will allow you to Loop over something in our case the the chat messages and output um elements based on you know on those messages so let’s have um let’s do a div I’m just going to add a class of flex onto this and then items Dash start okay so on this div I’m going to add a v-4 directive and set that to the way we do this is open up some parentheses and say MSG so MSG we can also get the index in and then whatever we want to Loop over which is going to be this the chat store. messages so we Loop over those we also need to add a unique key so let’s bind so colon key and we’re going to use the index as the key and then uh let’s see we’re going to add we’re going to have some we’re going to have a a conditional class because if it’s a user I want to align it a certain way and if it’s a AI I want to align it a certain way so the way we do that is in addition to class we can do colon class to make this Dynamic and then we can put basically a JavaScript expression in here I’m going to say if the message. roll if that is equal to user then I want to add add the class of justify Das end else I want to add the class of justify Dash start okay so that’ll add some conditional styling and then inside that div we’re going to have another div and let’s do a class of we’ll say Max let’s do Max with uh extra small so Xs and I’m going to do p padding on the xaxis 4 padding on the Y I 2 and let’s do rounded large and then I also just want to add on medium screens and up then let’s do a Max width of medium okay and then I want this to have a conditional class as well because I want to have a different color based on if it’s the user or the AI so just like we did above we’re going to do colon class for conditional uh styling and let’s say If the message. roll is equal to user then I’m going to have the class BG Das blue- 600 with text- white else then I’m going to have the class of BG Das gray- 700 and text- white and then let’s put in here we want the content so MSG do content which will be either the reply if it’s the ai’s message or message if it’s the user’s message okay so hopefully that makes sense um yeah let’s go ahead and try that there we go so looks pretty good what’s the capital main capital main is Augusta it’s the most popular programming language gives us the answer cool now the next step is to be able to actually ask something because right now we’re just seeing the messages that are there so let’s go back to our chat store and we’re going to have a new function to do this so let’s see we’re going to go under this one and let’s say send new message to Ai and we’re going to create a function called send message set that to async and it’s going to take in a message which is going to be a string okay then in our function I’m going to check for let’s say if we’ll say if not message and I’m just going to add trim onto that to trim the whites space or not user store. userid then we want to return okay so if there’s no message or if there’s no user then we just want to return then we’re going to take our messages right so messages is our reactive value up here right so our messages and I want to push onto that so let’s say messages. value. push I want to add to that an array not an array an object with a rle of user because it’s coming from the user and then the content of message okay okay and then this is where we’re going to use that is loading so I’m going to set is loading to True okay because uh actually that needs to be is is loading. value set that to true because we’re about to make our request all right so let’s add a try catch and in the try we’re going to make our request so we’ll destructure the data from await axios dopost and the endpoint we’re hitting is the chat endpoint so let’s do our back ticks and then we’re going to add the import. meta Dov we want the Vore API URL and then slash chat so that’s the end point and then we want to pass in the data that we want to send which is going to be the message and the user ID which is going to be set from the user store. userid okay now let’s come down here and let’s take the messages value and push on to that and this time it’s going to be the role of AI because this is the response right so role is going to be Ai and then content is going to be the data dot in the rep reply CU again the it’s going to look like well this is get messages but when we send a chat it it’s formatted the same way basically all right so we do that and then in the error let’s let’s just return a message we’ll have a message but it’ll just say like unable to process so let’s take our messages and let’s well first off you know what let’s let’s just console. error and we’ll say error Sending message and we’ll put the error okay and then as far as the messages go let’s say value. push and we’re going to pass in an object with the role which is going to be Ai and then the content which will say error unable to process request okay and we want to set the is loading to false so for that we can add a finally and then we’ll set is loading the dot value set that to false and then we want to make sure that we return the um send message okay so now ready to use that so let’s go back to our chat View and let’s see we’re going to go so we got our message content and we want to go under under the second closing div here and we’re going to have uh a div let’s do Flex so flex and justify Dash start and then this is going to have an if because I want to check for that loading state so let’s say a vif and set that to chat store Dot and then is loading okay so if it’s loading then I just want it to say AI the AI is thinking so let’s actually put a div with a a background we’ll do gray 700 and text- white PX4 py 2 and let’s do rounded large okay and then in that div we’ll have a span and I’m going to use the animate Das pulse class and we’ll say ai ai is thinking dot dot dot okay so that’s if it’s loading and then we want to put the input the chat input uh under Let’s see we got one two 2 three so just above the last div is where I want to put the chat input now I want this to be in its own component so let’s uh let’s do that let’s create a new component in the components folder and we’ll call this chat input. view okay and then we’re going to add our script and our setup and our Lang of TS okay and we’re going to import we’re going to import ref from View and I want to set a message variable here so let’s say cons message set that to ref it’s going to be empty by default and then we have to send this up a level right because we’re embedding the chat input component into the chat View and we need the message to be sent up so we need to emit it so we’re going to say const Emit and the way we do this is we can use Define emits and then we’re going to pass in an array and it’s going to be called send Okay um now here we want to have our send message and set that to an arrow function okay and then that’s what we’re going to call when we submit the input put so before we do that let’s create our output our template so in our template we’ll have a class of padding padding four let’s do BG Das gray 800 and flex and then in that div we’re going to have our input add a couple classes here Flex one padding to rounded large uh BG gray 700 text white and then I want to have a focus class as well so at the end here we’ll say Focus colon and I just don’t want to have an outline so outline none all right and then in this input we’re going to bind it to that message variable so we use V model for that so V model to message and then we’ll add a placeholder as well so say send a message make that lowercase so send a message and then I want to be able to call the send message function when we hit enter with we’re going to have a button too but I also want to be able to hit enter so I’m going to add here let’s say at and then we can do key up and the key that I want is enter so we can just say do enter and then set that to send message all right and then underneath the input just going to put a slash there so underneath the input we’ll have the button so here let’s say button and give it some classes margin left we’ll do margin left two PX -4 py2 I’m going to do a color of BG blue 500 and rounded large okay and the button will just say send and of course when we click this we want it to call send message so let’s say at click set that to send message all right and that should do it now we just have to add our send message here and all we really need to do is emit the the message up to the to the chat view so let’s first off check we’ll say if not if not message. value and then we’ll just trim it so if not message then we want to return okay and then we want to use that emit and we want to emit send and we want to send along with it the message. value and then we’ll just clear the value so message. value set that to an empty string all right now we need to embed the chat uh the the chat input into the chat view so let’s import it so right here we’re going to import chat input and we’re going to come down here and go right above the last div and let’s embed it so chat input and then we want to pass here we want to say at send because remember we from the chat input we emitted a custom event called send so when that’s called basically when we hit the button or we hit enter then that event is going to get called so we need to add a Handler to it and the Handler is simply going to be the chat store. send message whoops chat store. send message and that’s it so now we have our input down at the bottom here so let’s try it out we’ll say who who was the who is the 10th president of the us so AI is thinking and then it comes back 10th president was John Tyler so yeah I mean this is working now one thing that I’d like to add and we’re going to have to do this in the back end is context because you’ll see if I say now uh we’ll say what year what years was he president okay so I’m going to send that a i is thinking to respond to your query I need to know the specific person so it doesn’t have context right it doesn’t know it doesn’t look back and and see that I just asked about John Tyler so we have to add that functionality in the back end I’m actually going to go let’s see so this is the back end here I’m going to open up vs code in the back end okay so this is now my my Express API and we’re going to go to the uh let’s see the server TS and the where we want to do this is going to be the chat endpoint and if you want to break these up into separate files you can I know that this is kind of a long file um but yeah so this is the chat endpoint and let me just figure out where where I want to put this um so we we check for the message the user ID we query users check make sure the user’s there check the user in the database and let’s see then we set our response so let’s go after we check the user in the database and before we send the response so we’re going to go right here and we what we want to do is fetch users past um p pass messages for context and what we want to do here is essentially instead of sending back because right now when we hit slash chat it sends back this it sends the the an object with the role the user rle and then whatever the message is all right uh I’m sorry that’s not what it sends back that’s what we’re sending it and then it sends back down here it sends back the reply but what we want to do is instead of of us sending it only the current message we want to send it we want it to also have context of the last whatever 10 20 messages however however many you want to set it you want to input that into open AI as well as the current message so that way it has context and it can look back and when we say you know what years did he serve then they can look back at the last few messages and respond with that context so to fetch the users um not fetch the users fetch the the users messages we can come down to get messages and right here the chat history we can just copy this this block of code okay and then we’ll put that here so right before we send the the request to open Ai and we’re just selecting from the chats where the user is the user ID I’m going to get rid of this semicolon because I also want to just add order by and we want to order by chats Dot and then create at and then I’m also going to limit it to the last 10 messages if you want to put more that’s fine but just remember the more you put the longer the request is going to take all right so we have that now like I said we need to send not just the current message but but the last the chat history so what I’m going to do is create a variable for actually let’s put a comment here let’s say format the chat history for open AI okay because it has to be formatted in a certain way so I’m going to call this conversation because that’s what it is a bunch of messages in context is a conversation and for the type we’re going to use this uh chat what is it chat completion message param so we want to use that and it’s an array so put some brackets on there and uh I believe we have to bring that in so up at the top oh it was brought in okay so this comes in from open AI resources all right so back to where we were so we’re going to set that and we’re going to use flat map because it needs to be a flattened array so let’s say chat history and then flatmap pass in our function and say for each chat we want to return an array so actually this can be just brackets so we want to return an array that has uh it should look like this right so it should have the role so the user R will have the content of chat. message and the AI role will have the chat reply because we need both we need our messages and the ai’s messages in the conversation in order to have context so now let’s go under that and let’s say uh we’ll put a comment here we’ll say add latest user messages to the conversation okay so we can do that by saying conversation. push and we’re going to push onto it the latest which is this right normally or or what we were doing is just passing this in we still want to pass that in along with this stuff so we’re pushing this onto this so we’ll just put that in there like that all right now we should be able to come down here and instead of for messages instead of doing this we’ll say conversation as and then the chat completion message param array uh let’s see content oh so this right here this this shouldn’t be AI this should be assistant because when you’re dealing with open AI there’s a couple different types that you can use for role there’s user um we’re dealing with assistant here the AI is is the assistant so that should clear up that error all right so now that we’ve done that it should have the context we shouldn’t have to change anything in the front end because it’s still returning the same thing you know that’s still returning the AI response but it should have context now so let’s go ahead and run the back end because I did I stopped it so I’m going to do npm runev all right so now I’m going to come back over here and I’m going to say who was the who was the 11th president of the US okay James K pul now let’s say what years did he serve there we go James K poke served as the president March 4th in 1845 1849 cool so now we have context and I think that’s something that’s you know really important you don’t want to just ask one question and that’s it you want to be able to conversate all right so we’re we’re just about done this one other thing I want to do so let’s say I I was to do like um give me give me a list of the the top five cities in the US when it comes to crime rate and you could take I guess I could interpret that as low lowest crime or best or you know least crime it answers but it’s not formatted very nicely we have number one here Albuquerque number two Baton Rouge so I want this to actually show in a nice list so what we can do is just add a simple format message function in our chat view so let’s go to our chat View and we can use regular Expressions to replace certain um certain tags and so on so let’s uh let’s see where do I want to put this we’ll put it right above the scroll to bottom and let’s say format format AI messages for better display so we’ll call this format message and that’s going to take in text which is going to be a string okay and then we just want to check if there’s no text if there’s no text then we’re just going to return an empty string all right and then we’re going to return a bunch of replace methods with some regular expression and I’m not going to type this out I’m going to paste it in and you guys can get it from the repo if you don’t want to type this stuff in but basically we’re going to preserve line breaks we’re going to bold text um so we’re looking for like new lines and replacing it with a a line break HTML tag bold text inline code um bullet points Etc so the way that we use this is down here where we output the content instead of outputting it in the div inside of these curly braces we’re going to use the the V HTML directive on the div right so this div right here let’s add v- HTML and then we can just set that to the the format message function and then pass in our MSG do content and now as you can see the list is nice and clear all right all right so that’s yeah that’s pretty much it guys um if I were to log out and log in as I think I have some messages with this with uh what was it Brad at Gmail and you can see the code when I asked for a rest API I mean it’s not the best if I make it a little bigger you can see it better it’s not formatted the best but it’s readable you know um but yeah so that’s it we now have a an AI a AI chat bot that works pretty well and will give you you know gp4 powered data now the last thing I’d like to do is actually deploy this and since we have our back end and front end completely separate we’re going to be hosting our back end with render and we’re going to host our front end with versel all right so let’s get into that all right guys so we’re going to go ahead and deploy this project and we have the back end which we’re going to be deploying to render.png all right so I’m going to go to render.jpg sub repos I’m going to choose chat AI API and then there’s just some options that we need to add here so for one um the build Command right so if we look at our package.json we’re using typescript and we need to compile that typescript so we’re going to do that on the server so we need it to run this npm run build in addition to npm install so right here we’re going to say and run npm run build and then the other thing is the the start it’s the server.js is going to be in the disc folder so here instead of node server JS we’re going to say node disc SL server JS all right then we just have some environment variables so in ourv copy everything but the port and then we can say add from. EnV paste that in add those variables and that’s it now we’ll click deploy web service and this can take like a minute or two all right so it says your uh build successful your server is live this is the domain here and we can test this real quick so I can go into Postman and make a new request post request to this that’s not it it didn’t copy there we go all right so we want to do this domain right and then we’re going to do slash and let’s do get Dash messages and then in the body we’re going to add user ID and let’s do johore gmailcom and send and there we go so we’re getting the messages so we know that that the API is now live so now we want to do the front end so I’m going to go to verel and log in with GitHub okay and then we’re going to click add new project we’re going to select chat AI UI this time and let’s see so V build and output settings I believe leave everything we can just leave as is um for environment variables though we want to add the Vore aior key not key what am I doing API underscore URL right because this is going to be our endpoint and we don’t want to use Local Host 8000 or whatever we want to paste in the the render endpoint or the render URL and yeah I think that’s it so let’s click deploy again this can take like a minute or two all right so that took like 10 seconds and then we’re going to continue and let’s check it out if we just click on that and you can see we’re at the live site now and I’m going to log in as let’s say John and John at Gmail start chat and I should see my chats because remember we’re using the same database and let’s try it out I’ll say what is the capital of Texas AI is thinking the capital of Texas is Austin so we have this fully deployed and you can see just how easy that that was all right but that’s it hopefully you guys enjoyed this I may do another video where we create a react front end uh or I might save it for my react course I’m really not sure yet um and I may add on to this we may add actual authentication with you know protect um protection of the actual messages and adding password authentication and so on but I think that this is a really good start and hopefully you guys learned quite a bit from this and thanks for watching if you liked it leave a like and I’ll see you next time

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Rules to Teach Your Kids While They’re Young

    Rules to Teach Your Kids While They’re Young

    The lessons we teach our children in their early years shape the adults they will become. Good manners, personal responsibility, and empathy are not just virtues but essential life skills that pave the way for success and positive social interactions. Parents who instill these habits early on help their children grow into respectful, responsible, and well-adjusted individuals. As Aristotle famously said, “Good habits formed at youth make all the difference.”

    Teaching kids foundational rules is not just about discipline—it’s about equipping them with a moral compass that will guide their decisions for life. Children are like sponges, absorbing behaviors, attitudes, and ethics from their surroundings. When parents and caregivers set clear expectations and model good behavior, they create an environment where respect, honesty, and responsibility become second nature. Books like “The Whole-Brain Child” by Daniel J. Siegel highlight how early childhood experiences shape brain development, making these formative years crucial for instilling lasting values.

    In this guide, we explore 30 essential rules that every child should learn while they are young. These principles will help them navigate social situations, develop strong character, and foster a sense of responsibility. By integrating these rules into daily routines, parents can nurture independent, compassionate, and well-mannered individuals who contribute positively to society.


    1 – Never take what isn’t yours

    Teaching children the importance of respecting others’ belongings is one of the first moral lessons they should learn. Understanding the difference between borrowing and stealing lays the foundation for integrity and trustworthiness. When kids learn that taking something without permission is wrong, they begin to develop a sense of honesty and accountability. Encourage them to ask before using anything that doesn’t belong to them and explain why returning borrowed items is just as important. Aesop’s fable “The Boy Who Cried Wolf” illustrates how dishonesty can lead to a loss of trust, reinforcing the lesson that respect for others’ property is crucial.

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    Parents can reinforce this rule by setting clear boundaries at home. If a child takes a sibling’s toy without asking, use the moment to teach empathy by asking, “How would you feel if someone took your favorite toy without asking?” By helping children see situations from others’ perspectives, they begin to understand why fairness and respect matter in everyday interactions.


    2 – Close what you open

    Small habits, like closing doors, drawers, and bottles after using them, teach children responsibility and consideration for others. Leaving things open or unfinished can lead to accidents or unnecessary messes. When kids learn to complete small actions, they also develop the discipline needed for bigger responsibilities. As Benjamin Franklin wisely stated, “Small leaks sink great ships.” Teaching attention to detail through simple tasks prepares children for lifelong organization and accountability.

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    Parents can encourage this habit by making it a part of daily routines. For instance, turning it into a fun game—”Who can close the cupboard the fastest?”—can reinforce the lesson playfully. Consistency is key; gentle reminders and modeling the behavior yourself will ensure children internalize this practice over time.


    3 – Put things away when you’re done

    A tidy space leads to a tidy mind. Teaching children to clean up after themselves fosters responsibility, discipline, and respect for shared spaces. When kids develop the habit of putting things back where they belong, they also build a sense of order that will serve them well in school, work, and life. Marie Kondo’s book “The Life-Changing Magic of Tidying Up” emphasizes how organization improves mental clarity and reduces stress, making this an essential rule for children to adopt early.

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    One way to instill this habit is through positive reinforcement. Praising a child when they clean up after playtime encourages them to keep up the good work. Additionally, creating a designated place for toys, books, and clothes makes it easier for children to follow through with the habit.


    4 – Say “please” and “thank you”

    Politeness is a fundamental social skill that sets the tone for positive interactions. Teaching children to use “please” and “thank you” instills a sense of gratitude and respect. Studies in psychology suggest that gratitude fosters happiness and strengthens relationships. In “Raising Grateful Kids in an Entitled World”, author Kristen Welch emphasizes how simple manners shape a child’s worldview and emotional intelligence.

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    Parents can reinforce polite language by modeling it themselves. When children see their caregivers expressing appreciation, they naturally adopt similar behaviors. Role-playing exercises, where kids practice polite interactions, also help them internalize this important rule.

    5 – Treat others how you want to be treated

    The golden rule—treating others with kindness and respect—lays the foundation for strong relationships and emotional intelligence. When children learn to empathize with others, they develop compassion and social awareness. Teaching this principle early helps them understand the impact of their words and actions. As philosopher Confucius said, “Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.” This timeless wisdom fosters a culture of kindness and fairness.

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    Parents can reinforce this lesson through real-life examples and storytelling. Asking questions like, “How would you feel if someone excluded you from a game?” helps children recognize the importance of treating others with dignity. Encouraging small acts of kindness, such as helping a friend or sharing a toy, strengthens their ability to practice empathy in everyday situations.


    6 – Finish what you start

    Teaching children the value of persistence builds resilience and work ethic. When kids learn to complete tasks—even when they become difficult—they develop self-discipline and a sense of accomplishment. According to Angela Duckworth’s book “Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance”, the ability to push through challenges is a key predictor of success.

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    Parents can encourage perseverance by celebrating small victories. Whether it’s finishing a puzzle or completing homework, recognizing their efforts reinforces the habit of following through. If a child wants to quit an activity, guide them to reflect on their progress and encourage them to set realistic goals. Teaching children to persist, even in the face of challenges, prepares them for adulthood.


    7 – Listen when others are speaking

    Active listening is a crucial social skill that fosters respect and understanding. When children learn to truly listen instead of just waiting for their turn to talk, they develop stronger relationships and become better communicators. Research in “How to Win Friends and Influence People” by Dale Carnegie highlights how listening attentively makes others feel valued and respected.

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    One way to cultivate this habit is through modeling. When children speak, give them your full attention, making eye contact and nodding to show you’re engaged. Encourage them to do the same when others are talking. Simple exercises, such as repeating back what someone said before responding, can reinforce the importance of listening actively.


    8 – Apologize when you’re wrong

    Owning up to mistakes is a sign of maturity and integrity. Teaching children to apologize sincerely helps them develop accountability and fosters trust in relationships. According to psychologist Brené Brown in “The Gifts of Imperfection”, vulnerability—including admitting faults—strengthens emotional connections and self-awareness.

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    Parents can help children understand that apologies are not just about saying “sorry” but about making things right. Encourage them to express what they did wrong and how they plan to fix it. For example, instead of a simple “I’m sorry,” guide them to say, “I’m sorry for taking your toy without asking. I’ll ask next time.” This approach teaches genuine accountability.


    9 – Share with others

    Sharing teaches generosity, cooperation, and social harmony. Children who learn to share develop better friendships and emotional intelligence. Studies in child psychology show that early lessons in sharing lead to better conflict resolution skills later in life. In “Mind in the Making”, Ellen Galinsky discusses how sharing fosters cognitive and social growth.

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    To encourage sharing, parents can create positive reinforcement systems. Praising a child when they willingly share reinforces the behavior. Using storytelling—such as reading books like “The Rainbow Fish”, which highlights the joy of sharing—can also help instill this habit.


    10 – Respect other people’s space and belongings

    Teaching children to respect personal boundaries is essential for developing healthy relationships. This includes understanding that others may not want to be touched, that their belongings should be left untouched, and that personal space matters. Psychologist Dr. Henry Cloud, in “Boundaries with Kids”, emphasizes how teaching respect for personal space helps children develop emotional intelligence and self-control.

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    One practical way to teach this is through role-playing scenarios. For example, parents can ask, “How would you feel if someone barged into your room without knocking?” By discussing personal experiences, children gain a clearer understanding of why respecting others’ space and belongings is important.


    11 – Say “excuse me” when interrupting

    Politeness and patience go hand in hand. Teaching children to say “excuse me” before interrupting instills respect and consideration for others. This small phrase helps them understand the importance of waiting their turn to speak, reinforcing social etiquette. As Emily Post, a pioneer in etiquette, once said, “Manners are a sensitive awareness of the feelings of others.”

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    Parents can practice this rule through gentle reminders. If a child interrupts, calmly pause and say, “Let’s wait until I’m finished talking. Then you can have your turn.” Over time, children will naturally adopt this habit, leading to more respectful communication.


    12 – Be honest

    Honesty is the foundation of trust. When children learn the value of truthfulness, they develop integrity and strong moral character. Research in “The (Honest) Truth About Dishonesty” by Dan Ariely reveals that small lies can snowball into bigger deceptions, highlighting the importance of honesty from a young age.

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    Encouraging honesty requires creating a safe space for children to tell the truth without fear of harsh punishment. Parents should praise honesty, even when the truth is difficult. Instead of reacting with anger, use mistakes as learning opportunities by discussing how honesty builds trust and strengthens relationships.

    13 – Take care of your own things

    Responsibility starts with taking care of one’s belongings. Teaching children to be mindful of their possessions helps them develop a sense of ownership and accountability. When they learn to keep their toys, clothes, and school supplies in order, they cultivate habits that will serve them well into adulthood. As psychologist Dr. John Rosemond emphasizes in “Parenting by The Book”, giving children responsibility for their belongings fosters independence and self-discipline.

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    Parents can encourage this habit by making organization a daily routine. Assigning children small tasks, such as making their bed or putting away their toys, helps them develop a structured mindset. Reinforcing the idea that taking care of their belongings means they last longer also instills a sense of value and appreciation.


    14 – Wait your turn

    Patience is a virtue, and waiting one’s turn is a key social skill. Whether in conversations, games, or waiting in line, learning to wait teaches children respect, self-control, and consideration for others. Studies in child development suggest that delayed gratification is a strong predictor of future success. In “The Marshmallow Test”, psychologist Walter Mischel explains how children who learn to wait for rewards tend to perform better academically and socially.

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    Parents can help children develop patience through everyday activities. Playing board games, where each participant must wait their turn, is a practical way to reinforce this rule. Another method is using a timer to help children visualize waiting periods, making patience more tangible and manageable.


    15 – Do your best in everything you do

    Excellence is a habit, not a one-time effort. Teaching children to put forth their best effort in school, hobbies, and daily tasks fosters perseverance and a strong work ethic. In “Mindset”, Carol S. Dweck explains how a growth mindset—believing that effort leads to improvement—helps children develop resilience and ambition.

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    Parents should emphasize the value of effort over perfection. Encouraging children to take pride in their work, whether it’s a school project or a chore, builds confidence. Praise should focus on hard work rather than just the outcome, reinforcing the idea that persistence is more important than immediate success.


    16 – Wash your hands before eating

    Basic hygiene is a crucial lesson in self-care. Teaching children to wash their hands before meals helps prevent illness and instills lifelong healthy habits. Studies by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) highlight how proper handwashing reduces the spread of germs and infections.

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    One effective way to reinforce this habit is by making it routine—washing hands before every meal, after using the restroom, and after playing outside. Parents can also use fun songs or timers to make handwashing enjoyable for younger children, ensuring the habit sticks.


    17 – Leave places better than you found them

    A sense of responsibility extends beyond personal spaces. Teaching children to clean up after themselves, whether at home, school, or public places, fosters respect for the environment and community. Environmentalists like Rachel Carson, in “Silent Spring”, stress the importance of small actions in creating a cleaner world.

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    Parents can model this behavior by demonstrating simple habits, like picking up trash at the park or wiping down a table after use. Encouraging children to take pride in leaving spaces neat reinforces the idea that everyone has a role in maintaining a respectful and clean environment.


    18 – Be on time

    Punctuality is a sign of respect for others’ time and a key trait of responsible individuals. When children learn to be on time, they develop discipline, reliability, and time management skills. In “Atomic Habits”, James Clear emphasizes that small habits, like showing up on time, build a foundation for success.

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    Parents can instill punctuality by setting structured routines, such as leaving for school at a specific time every morning. Teaching children to plan ahead—laying out clothes the night before or setting alarms—helps them take responsibility for their schedules.


    19 – Help others when you can

    Acts of kindness enrich both the giver and the receiver. Teaching children to help others, whether through small gestures or bigger acts of service, fosters empathy and social responsibility. Studies in “The How of Happiness” by Sonja Lyubomirsky show that helping others contributes to personal happiness and fulfillment.

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    Parents can encourage helpfulness by creating opportunities for children to assist at home, such as setting the table or helping a sibling. Volunteering as a family at community events also reinforces the value of giving back and making a positive impact.


    20 – Keep your promises

    Trust is built on keeping one’s word. When children learn that promises are meant to be kept, they develop integrity and reliability. In “The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People”, Stephen Covey explains that following through on commitments builds credibility and self-respect.

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    Parents can demonstrate this lesson by honoring their own promises, whether it’s a planned family outing or a bedtime story. Teaching children that broken promises lead to disappointment helps them understand the importance of being dependable.


    21 – Eat your vegetables

    Good nutrition starts early. Encouraging children to eat their vegetables helps develop lifelong healthy eating habits. Research in “The Omnivore’s Dilemma” by Michael Pollan highlights the long-term health benefits of a balanced diet, emphasizing whole, unprocessed foods.

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    Parents can make vegetables more appealing by involving children in meal preparation or presenting them in fun ways, such as colorful plates or creative shapes. Positive reinforcement—like praising them for trying new vegetables—also encourages healthier eating habits.


    22 – Ask before borrowing

    Respecting others’ belongings includes asking for permission before using something that isn’t yours. This simple rule teaches children the importance of consent and boundaries. In “Boundaries: When to Say Yes, How to Say No” by Dr. Henry Cloud, the concept of personal ownership is emphasized as a fundamental social skill.

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    Parents can reinforce this rule by setting a household standard—if a child wants to borrow a sibling’s toy, they must ask first. Practicing polite requests, such as “May I use this?” helps children internalize this respectful habit.


    23 – Respect animals and nature

    Teaching children to respect animals and the environment instills compassion and responsibility. Studies show that children who grow up caring for pets or spending time in nature develop stronger empathy and environmental awareness. Jane Goodall, in “Reason for Hope”, discusses how fostering a love for animals helps create a more compassionate society.

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    Parents can encourage this respect by involving children in pet care or outdoor activities. Teaching them to pick up litter, avoid disturbing wildlife, and treat animals gently reinforces the value of respecting all living things.


    24 – Use your indoor voice inside

    Learning when and where to use different tones of voice teaches children social awareness. Speaking softly indoors shows consideration for others and helps maintain a peaceful environment. In “NurtureShock”, Po Bronson highlights how teaching self-regulation from an early age improves emotional intelligence.

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    One way to reinforce this habit is through gentle reminders. Parents can establish “quiet time” routines where children practice speaking softly, helping them develop volume control in different situations.


    25 – Look people in the eye when speaking

    Eye contact is a key aspect of confident communication. Teaching children to look at others when speaking helps build self-assurance and respect. Research in “The Charisma Myth” by Olivia Fox Cabane shows that eye contact enhances credibility and social connection.

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    Parents can practice this by engaging in face-to-face conversations with their children. Role-playing exercises, where they practice maintaining eye contact during greetings or discussions, can make this habit second nature.

    26 – Don’t talk with your mouth full

    Table manners reflect respect for others and personal etiquette. Teaching children not to talk with their mouths full helps them develop good dining habits that will serve them in social and professional settings. According to etiquette expert Emily Post, proper table manners create a positive impression and show consideration for those around us.

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    Parents can reinforce this rule by modeling good behavior during family meals. If a child forgets, gently remind them to finish chewing before speaking. Fun activities, like role-playing a fancy dinner, can make learning etiquette enjoyable while reinforcing the importance of mindful eating.


    27 – Help clean up, even if it’s not your mess

    Responsibility extends beyond personal belongings. Teaching children to help clean up, even if they didn’t create the mess, fosters teamwork and accountability. Research in “The Montessori Method” by Maria Montessori emphasizes that children develop a sense of community and responsibility when they participate in shared tasks.

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    Parents can encourage this habit by making cleaning a group effort. Instead of saying, “Pick up your mess,” try, “Let’s clean this up together.” Praising children when they take the initiative to tidy up reinforces their willingness to contribute.


    28 – Speak kindly to others

    Words have power. Teaching children to choose kind words helps build strong relationships and emotional intelligence. Dr. Marshall Rosenberg, in “Nonviolent Communication”, explains how mindful speech fosters empathy and prevents conflicts.

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    Parents can set an example by speaking kindly themselves. Encouraging children to use phrases like “That was a great job!” or “I appreciate you” helps them recognize the impact of positive words. If unkind words are used, discussing how they make others feel reinforces the importance of speaking with kindness.


    29 – Be a good sport

    Winning and losing with grace is an essential life skill. Teaching children sportsmanship—whether in games, school, or social situations—helps them handle challenges and setbacks with resilience. In “Raising Resilient Children”, Dr. Robert Brooks emphasizes that learning to lose gracefully builds emotional strength and character.

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    Parents can reinforce this by praising effort over outcome. Instead of focusing on winning, encourage children to reflect on what they learned from the experience. Modeling good sportsmanship—such as shaking hands after a game—helps them adopt this behavior naturally.


    30 – Take care of your own health

    Good health is a lifelong priority. Teaching children to maintain their physical and mental well-being fosters long-term self-care habits. Dr. Benjamin Spock, in “Baby and Child Care”, highlights that children who learn self-care early are more likely to make healthy choices as adults.

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    Parents can support this by creating routines around healthy habits—regular exercise, balanced meals, and sufficient sleep. Encouraging children to listen to their bodies, such as drinking water when thirsty or resting when tired, helps them develop an awareness of their own well-being.


    Conclusion

    Teaching children these fundamental rules while they are young sets them up for success in adulthood. These lessons go beyond simple instructions—they shape character, foster social skills, and build a foundation of responsibility, empathy, and integrity. As Aristotle once said, “Good habits formed at youth make all the difference.” By reinforcing these principles through daily practice and parental modeling, children grow into thoughtful, respectful, and well-rounded individuals.

    Raising children with these values is a long-term investment, but the rewards are invaluable. They will not only navigate the world with confidence but also contribute positively to their communities. Ultimately, these small lessons create a ripple effect, shaping not just one child but an entire generation of responsible and kind individuals.

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog

  • Best Snacks to Eat if you’re Trying to Lose Weight in 2025

    Best Snacks to Eat if you’re Trying to Lose Weight in 2025

    Losing weight doesn’t mean giving up on snacking—it just means making smarter choices. The right snacks can curb hunger, boost metabolism, and keep your energy levels steady throughout the day. With 2025 ushering in new trends in health and nutrition, it’s more important than ever to choose snacks that align with your weight loss goals while providing essential nutrients.

    Many people struggle with weight loss because they focus only on cutting calories rather than choosing nutrient-dense foods. Research suggests that high-protein, fiber-rich, and healthy fat-containing snacks can help you feel full longer, reducing overall calorie intake. According to Dr. Michael Greger, author of How Not to Diet, “It’s not about eating less; it’s about eating right.” By incorporating the healthiest snacks into your diet, you can maintain steady weight loss without feeling deprived.

    This guide will explore the best snacks to eat if you’re trying to lose weight in 2025, from protein-packed nuts and seeds to fiber-rich fruits and vegetables. Whether you’re looking for a quick bite between meals or a satisfying post-workout snack, these options will help you stay on track. Let’s dive into the best snacks to keep you full, fueled, and focused on your weight loss journey.


    1 – Try Adding These Healthiest Snacks for Weight Loss into Your Daily Food Plan

    Snacking strategically can be a game-changer when it comes to losing weight. Rather than reaching for highly processed, calorie-dense foods, selecting nutrient-rich snacks can support satiety and prevent overeating at meal times. Studies show that snacks high in fiber, protein, and healthy fats contribute to better appetite control and metabolic balance. Experts recommend choosing whole, minimally processed snacks that align with your nutritional needs and energy levels.

    Including weight-loss-friendly snacks in your daily routine doesn’t have to be complicated. Planning ahead and keeping healthy options on hand can prevent impulse choices that derail progress. A well-balanced snack can keep blood sugar levels stable, preventing energy crashes and excessive hunger. By incorporating these smart snacking habits, you can make weight loss more sustainable without feeling restricted or deprived.


    2 – Best Snacks for Weight Loss

    The best snacks for weight loss are those that keep you full while providing essential nutrients. Protein-rich snacks help maintain muscle mass, while fiber-packed options aid digestion and satiety. Healthy fats, such as those found in nuts and seeds, also play a key role in keeping cravings at bay.

    Choosing the right snacks means focusing on whole foods rather than processed alternatives. Instead of sugary granola bars or empty-calorie crackers, opt for nutrient-dense choices like Greek yogurt, fresh fruit, or air-popped popcorn. By making mindful decisions about what you eat between meals, you can enhance your weight loss efforts while still enjoying delicious and satisfying snacks.


    3 – Nuts and Seeds

    Nuts and seeds are powerhouse snacks packed with protein, fiber, and healthy fats. Studies have shown that consuming nuts in moderation can support weight loss by reducing hunger and preventing overeating. Their nutrient density makes them an excellent choice for keeping energy levels steady and cravings under control.

    Almonds, walnuts, and pumpkin seeds, for example, are rich in omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants, which benefit both brain health and metabolism. While nuts are calorie-dense, their combination of protein and fiber ensures that a small portion is satisfying. To maximize their benefits, choose raw or dry-roasted varieties without added salt or sugar.


    4 – Avocado

    Avocados are often called a “superfood” for a good reason. They are loaded with heart-healthy monounsaturated fats, which have been linked to weight loss and improved metabolic health. According to Dr. Joel Fuhrman, author of Eat to Live, “Healthy fats from whole plant sources support weight loss by promoting satiety and reducing cravings for unhealthy foods.”

    A simple way to enjoy avocados as a snack is by spreading them on whole-grain toast, adding them to smoothies, or making guacamole with fresh vegetables. Despite their higher calorie content, avocados can help regulate appetite and prevent overeating when consumed in moderation.


    5 – Yogurt

    Greek yogurt is a protein-packed snack that supports weight loss by keeping you full longer. Its high protein content helps preserve muscle mass while reducing hunger hormones, making it an excellent choice for those trying to shed pounds. Additionally, probiotic-rich yogurt improves gut health, which plays a role in metabolism and digestion.

    To get the most benefits, choose plain, unsweetened Greek yogurt and add natural sweeteners like fresh fruit or a drizzle of honey. Many store-bought yogurts contain hidden sugars that can counteract their health benefits. For an extra nutrient boost, top your yogurt with chia seeds or nuts.

    6 – Popcorn

    Popcorn is a surprisingly effective weight-loss snack—if prepared correctly. Unlike butter-laden movie theater popcorn, air-popped popcorn is low in calories and high in fiber. A single serving can help you feel full without excess fat or artificial additives. Studies indicate that fiber-rich snacks like popcorn help regulate appetite and prevent overeating.

    To keep it healthy, opt for air-popped popcorn and avoid excessive butter or flavored toppings. A sprinkle of nutritional yeast can add a cheesy flavor without extra calories, while a dash of cinnamon or paprika can enhance taste without compromising health benefits.


    7 – Chickpeas

    Chickpeas are an excellent source of plant-based protein and fiber, making them a great snack for weight loss. A study published in Obesity found that people who consumed legumes regularly had better weight management and lower body fat levels. Roasted chickpeas provide a crunchy, satisfying texture, making them an ideal alternative to processed chips.

    You can roast chickpeas at home with olive oil and spices or blend them into hummus for a protein-rich dip. Their slow-digesting carbohydrates prevent energy crashes, keeping you full for longer. Whether eaten on their own or paired with fresh vegetables, chickpeas are a nutrient-dense snack that supports weight management.


    8 – Hard-Boiled Eggs

    Hard-boiled eggs are a convenient, protein-rich snack that can support weight loss efforts. Eggs contain high-quality protein and essential amino acids, which help maintain muscle mass while promoting satiety. Research in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition suggests that consuming eggs for breakfast can reduce overall calorie intake throughout the day.

    Pairing hard-boiled eggs with a side of vegetables or whole-grain crackers enhances their nutritional value. Adding a sprinkle of black pepper or chili flakes can boost metabolism, making this simple snack even more beneficial for weight loss.


    9 – Edamame

    Edamame, or young soybeans, are a protein-packed snack ideal for weight management. These green pods are rich in plant-based protein and fiber, which help regulate hunger and stabilize blood sugar levels. Studies have shown that soy protein can aid in fat loss while preserving lean muscle mass.

    A small bowl of steamed edamame with a pinch of sea salt makes for a satisfying snack. They can also be tossed into salads or blended into dips. Their balance of protein and fiber makes them a perfect addition to any weight-loss meal plan.


    10 – Oatmeal

    Oatmeal is often associated with breakfast, but it also works as a filling snack. Its high fiber content, particularly beta-glucan, promotes feelings of fullness and stabilizes blood sugar levels. A study published in The Journal of Nutrition found that whole grains like oats can support healthy weight loss by improving digestion and reducing hunger.

    For a weight-loss-friendly snack, choose unsweetened oatmeal and add natural toppings like cinnamon, fresh fruit, or nuts. Instant flavored oatmeal packets often contain added sugars, which can counteract its benefits. Overnight oats with chia seeds and almond butter provide a nutrient-dense, satisfying option.


    11 – Dried Fruit

    Dried fruit can be a great snack when consumed in moderation. Unlike processed sweets, dried fruits contain natural sugars along with fiber, vitamins, and antioxidants. However, portion control is key, as dried fruit is calorie-dense.

    Opt for unsweetened varieties of dried fruit and pair them with nuts for a balanced snack. Dates, figs, and dried apricots provide a natural energy boost while supporting digestion. Reading ingredient labels is crucial to avoid added sugars or preservatives.


    12 – Kale Chips

    Kale chips are a nutrient-rich alternative to traditional potato chips. Kale is packed with fiber, vitamins A and C, and antioxidants that support weight loss and overall health. Unlike fried snacks, baked kale chips provide crunch without excess oil or empty calories.

    You can make kale chips at home by tossing fresh kale leaves with olive oil and seasoning before baking them at a low temperature. Adding a sprinkle of nutritional yeast enhances their flavor while providing extra protein and B vitamins.


    13 – Almonds

    Almonds are a classic weight-loss snack due to their healthy fat content, protein, and fiber. Research published in The International Journal of Obesity suggests that incorporating almonds into a calorie-controlled diet can enhance weight loss and metabolic health.

    For the best results, opt for raw or dry-roasted almonds instead of salted or sugar-coated varieties. A small handful can help curb hunger and provide long-lasting energy without causing spikes in blood sugar.


    14 – Walnuts

    Walnuts are an excellent source of omega-3 fatty acids, which support brain function and heart health. Their combination of protein and healthy fats makes them a filling snack for weight loss. Studies have shown that regular walnut consumption can help regulate appetite by activating areas of the brain linked to hunger control.

    Eating walnuts in moderation can help prevent overeating. Pair them with dried fruit or sprinkle them on Greek yogurt for a nutrient-dense snack.


    15 – Cashews

    Cashews are creamy, nutrient-rich nuts that provide healthy fats, magnesium, and protein. They are lower in fiber than some other nuts but still contribute to feelings of satiety.

    Enjoying cashews in small portions can help satisfy cravings without leading to excessive calorie intake. They work well in homemade trail mixes or as a topping for salads and smoothie bowls.


    16 – Pistachios

    Pistachios are one of the best nuts for weight loss due to their lower calorie content and high protein and fiber levels. A study in Nutrients found that eating pistachios can lead to improved weight management and reduced body fat.

    One unique advantage of pistachios is that they require shelling, which slows down consumption and promotes mindful eating. Choosing unsalted, in-shell pistachios can help prevent overeating.


    17 – Macadamia Nuts

    Macadamia nuts are rich in monounsaturated fats, which have been linked to improved metabolism and heart health. Although they are calorie-dense, their healthy fat profile makes them a satisfying snack when eaten in moderation.

    Pair macadamia nuts with dark chocolate or coconut flakes for a balanced and indulgent yet weight-loss-friendly treat.

    18 – Chia Seeds

    Chia seeds are a nutritional powerhouse that supports weight loss due to their high fiber and omega-3 content. When soaked in liquid, they expand, creating a gel-like consistency that helps with satiety and digestion. A study in Nutrition Research and Practice found that consuming chia seeds can promote fullness and reduce overall calorie intake.

    Adding chia seeds to yogurt, smoothies, or oatmeal can enhance their nutritional profile. You can also make a chia pudding by mixing them with almond milk and letting them soak overnight. This versatile seed provides long-lasting energy and aids in stabilizing blood sugar levels.


    19 – Flaxseeds

    Flaxseeds are packed with fiber, protein, and healthy fats, making them an excellent addition to any weight-loss plan. Research published in Obesity Reviews suggests that flaxseeds can help reduce appetite and improve metabolic health. Their lignan content also supports hormone balance and digestion.

    To get the most benefits, grind flaxseeds before consuming them, as whole flaxseeds may pass through the digestive tract undigested. Sprinkle them over salads, blend them into smoothies, or mix them into oatmeal for an easy nutrition boost.


    20 – Hemp Seeds

    Hemp seeds are a complete source of plant-based protein, containing all nine essential amino acids. They are also rich in omega-3 fatty acids and fiber, which support satiety and metabolic health. Studies suggest that consuming hemp seeds can help regulate appetite and reduce unhealthy cravings.

    You can easily incorporate hemp seeds into your diet by sprinkling them over yogurt, salads, or oatmeal. Their mild, nutty flavor makes them a versatile addition to many dishes.


    21 – Pumpkin Seeds

    Pumpkin seeds are a nutrient-dense snack that provides protein, fiber, and essential minerals like magnesium and zinc. Their combination of protein and healthy fats makes them particularly effective for keeping hunger at bay. A study in Appetite found that including pumpkin seeds in the diet can support weight management and prevent overeating.

    Raw or roasted pumpkin seeds make a convenient snack, or they can be added to trail mixes and granola. Avoid varieties with excessive salt or added flavors to keep them as healthy as possible.


    22 – Sunflower Seeds

    Sunflower seeds are a great source of vitamin E, healthy fats, and protein. Their high fiber content helps promote satiety and digestive health, making them a smart choice for weight loss.

    To maximize their benefits, opt for unsalted sunflower seeds and enjoy them in moderation. They can be eaten on their own or sprinkled over salads and yogurt for extra crunch.


    23 – Raisins

    Raisins offer a natural source of energy while providing fiber, antioxidants, and iron. While they contain natural sugars, they can be a healthy snack when consumed in small portions. Pairing raisins with nuts helps balance their sugar content with protein and healthy fats.

    Look for unsweetened raisins with no added oils or preservatives. Adding them to oatmeal or homemade trail mix can provide a quick energy boost without causing blood sugar spikes.


    24 – Dried Cranberries

    Dried cranberries are packed with antioxidants and fiber, but they are often sold with added sugar. Choosing unsweetened varieties ensures you get the benefits without excess calories.

    Cranberries pair well with nuts, seeds, or yogurt, making them a versatile addition to weight-loss-friendly snacks. Their tart flavor can satisfy cravings for something sweet without resorting to processed sugar.


    25 – Dried Apricots

    Dried apricots are high in fiber and essential vitamins like vitamin A and potassium, which support digestion and hydration. Their natural sweetness makes them a great alternative to processed candies or desserts.

    Eating dried apricots in moderation can help control sugar cravings while providing beneficial nutrients. Pairing them with almonds or walnuts adds protein and healthy fats, making for a balanced snack.


    26 – Dried Pears

    Dried pears are another fiber-rich snack that supports digestion and satiety. They provide a natural sweetness while offering a good amount of antioxidants and vitamins.

    To keep your snack as healthy as possible, choose unsweetened dried pears with no added preservatives. Enjoy them with nuts or yogurt for a more balanced nutritional profile.


    27 – Dried Strawberries

    Dried strawberries are a nutrient-dense snack full of vitamin C and fiber. Unlike fresh strawberries, their dried form is more concentrated in natural sugars, so portion control is key.

    Adding dried strawberries to oatmeal, yogurt, or homemade granola can enhance their nutritional benefits. Opt for freeze-dried versions without added sugar for the healthiest choice.


    28 – Banana Chips

    Banana chips can be a crunchy, satisfying snack, but many store-bought versions are fried and coated in sugar. Choosing baked or dehydrated banana chips without added sweeteners is a better option.

    Pairing banana chips with nuts or dark chocolate can help balance their natural sugars with protein and healthy fats. Eating them in moderation ensures they remain a weight-loss-friendly choice.


    29 – Don’t Replace Meals with Snacks

    While healthy snacks can support weight loss, they should never replace well-balanced meals. Skipping meals in favor of snacking can lead to nutrient deficiencies and unstable energy levels. Experts emphasize the importance of structured eating patterns to maintain a healthy metabolism.

    Instead of relying on snacks as meal substitutes, use them to complement your daily food intake. A well-balanced diet includes proper meals with protein, healthy fats, and complex carbohydrates, alongside mindful snacking.


    30 – Enjoy Your Food

    Losing weight doesn’t mean depriving yourself of enjoyable food. Eating should be a pleasurable experience, and choosing delicious, nutrient-dense snacks can make the process more sustainable. Mindful eating practices, such as savoring each bite and focusing on flavors, can help prevent overeating.

    According to The Joy of Eating by Jane Hirschmann, cultivating a positive relationship with food is key to long-term health. By appreciating the taste and texture of healthy snacks, you can stay committed to your weight loss goals without feeling restricted.


    31 – Exercise Regularly

    Snacking alone won’t lead to significant weight loss without physical activity. Exercise plays a crucial role in burning calories, building muscle, and improving overall metabolism. According to Dr. Mark Hyman, author of Food: What the Heck Should I Eat?, “Movement is medicine for weight management and long-term health.”

    Pairing nutritious snacks with an active lifestyle ensures better results. Whether it’s strength training, cardio, or yoga, regular movement helps maintain a balanced approach to weight loss.


    32 – Eat More Plants

    A plant-based diet is linked to sustainable weight loss and overall well-being. Fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and whole grains provide essential nutrients while being naturally lower in calories. A study in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that plant-based eaters tend to have healthier body weights and better metabolic health.

    Incorporating more plant-based snacks, such as hummus with veggies or fruit with almond butter, supports both weight loss and long-term health. Prioritizing whole, unprocessed foods ensures you get the most nutrients per calorie.


    33 – Be Patient

    Weight loss is a journey, not an overnight transformation. It takes time for the body to adjust to new eating habits and for results to become visible. Patience and consistency are key to sustainable success.

    Dr. Jason Fung, author of The Obesity Code, emphasizes that “long-term weight management is about making gradual lifestyle changes rather than relying on quick fixes.” By focusing on nourishing snacks and balanced meals, you can achieve lasting results without frustration.


    Conclusion

    Choosing the right snacks is a powerful tool in your weight-loss journey. By opting for nutrient-dense, high-protein, and fiber-rich options, you can keep hunger at bay, stabilize blood sugar, and support metabolism. Whether it’s nuts and seeds, yogurt, or dried fruit, the key is balance and moderation.

    Beyond snacking, adopting a holistic approach that includes mindful eating, regular exercise, and patience will yield the best results. As nutrition experts emphasize, sustainable weight loss comes from long-term habits, not temporary restrictions. With these smart snacking strategies, you can achieve your health goals while still enjoying delicious food.

    By Amjad Izhar
    Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
    https://amjadizhar.blog