The source is a collection of essays examining the metaphysics and epistemology of Bertrand Russell. It engages with Russell’s work across different periods of his career, including early analytic philosophy and later writings. The essays investigate themes such as mathematics, logic, ontology, and the nature of knowledge. They consider Russell’s theories on topics like denotation, descriptions, and the relationship between language and the world. The compilation also reflects on criticisms and developments stemming from Russell’s philosophical contributions.
A Study Guide to Bertrand Russell’s Metaphysics and Epistemology
I. Key Concepts and Themes
Russell’s Philosophical Development: Trace the evolution of Russell’s thought from his early engagement with idealism to his embrace of logical atomism and later empiricism. Identify the key influences and turning points in his intellectual trajectory.
Theory of Knowledge: Explore Russell’s attempts to develop a theory of knowledge grounded in acquaintance and description. Consider his views on sense-data, perception, judgment, and belief.
Logic and Mathematics: Understand Russell’s logicist project, his attempt to derive mathematics from logic. Examine the concepts of types, propositional functions, and ramification, as well as his struggles with paradoxes.
Metaphysics of Matter: Analyze Russell’s views on the nature of matter and the relationship between physics and experience. Consider his phenomenalist phase and his later exploration of events and particulars.
Analysis and Language: Assess Russell’s commitment to philosophical analysis and his views on the nature of language. Study his theory of descriptions and its implications for ontology and meaning.
Indexicals and Knowledge: Review the concept of indexicals and how it relates to scientific knowledge.
Paradoxes: Familiarize yourself with Russell’s paradox and his reasons for the theory of ramification.
Ramification: Understand the motivations for and the details of Russell’s theory of ramification and Russell’s reasons for it.
II. Quiz
Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.
What was Russell’s logicist project, and what was its primary goal?
Explain the distinction between “acquaintance” and “description” in Russell’s theory of knowledge.
What is Russell’s theory of descriptions, and how does it address problems related to reference and meaning?
What is logical atomism, and what are its main tenets according to Russell?
Describe Russell’s notion of sense-data and their role in his epistemology.
What is Russell’s paradox, and how does it arise?
Explain Russell’s theory of types and its purpose in addressing logical paradoxes.
What is the ‘preabandonment doctrine’ and how does it relate to data?
What are the five features of indexicals according to Russell?
How did Wittgenstein criticize Russell’s work in “Theory of Knowledge”?
III. Answer Key
Russell’s logicist project aimed to demonstrate that mathematics could be derived from logic. The primary goal was to show that mathematical truths were ultimately logical truths, thereby establishing mathematics on a secure foundation.
Acquaintance is direct, unmediated knowledge of something through immediate experience, while description is knowledge of something indirectly through a description that uniquely identifies it. Russell believed that all knowledge ultimately rests on acquaintance with sense-data or universals.
Russell’s theory of descriptions analyzes definite descriptions (e.g., “the king of France”) by breaking them down into logically simpler components. It eliminates the need to posit nonexistent entities as referents of these descriptions, resolving philosophical puzzles about existence and reference.
Logical atomism is a philosophical view that holds that the world is composed of simple, independent facts, and that language should mirror this structure. It asserts that complex propositions can be analyzed into simpler, atomic propositions that correspond to these atomic facts.
Sense-data are the immediate objects of perception, such as colors, sounds, and textures. Russell argued that our knowledge of the external world is based on inferences from sense-data, which are the building blocks of our empirical knowledge.
Russell’s paradox arises from considering the set of all sets that do not contain themselves. The paradox occurs when asking whether this set contains itself, leading to a contradiction regardless of the answer.
Russell’s theory of types is a hierarchical system designed to avoid logical paradoxes by restricting the kinds of statements that can be made about sets and properties. It asserts that a statement about all statements of a certain type must be of a higher type than the statements it refers to.
The ‘preabandonment doctrine’ refers to the sense-data having indubitable, infallible, and immediate properties as data from empirical knowledge. This position is subtlety and then less marked following the formulation.
The features of indexicals are: the designatum of indexicals constantly changes; indexicals designate without description; the designatum of an indexical is directly sensed; indexicals designate particular things; indexicals designate particulars.
Wittgenstein’s criticism at the time argued that in order to judge, one needs to be acquainted with the constituents of the proposition. It was thought that such acquaintance makes the judgment intensional.
IV. Essay Questions
Trace the evolution of Russell’s epistemology, highlighting the key shifts in his views on sense-data, perception, and the nature of knowledge.
Analyze Russell’s logicist project, evaluating its strengths, weaknesses, and lasting impact on the philosophy of mathematics.
Discuss the significance of Russell’s theory of descriptions for ontology, meaning, and the resolution of philosophical puzzles.
Compare and contrast Russell’s early idealism with his later commitment to logical atomism, exploring the reasons for his philosophical transformation.
Evaluate Russell’s attempts to reconcile science and experience, considering his views on the nature of matter, perception, and the relationship between the physical world and our subjective awareness.
V. Glossary of Key Terms
Acquaintance: Direct, unmediated knowledge of something through immediate experience.
Description: Knowledge of something indirectly through a description that uniquely identifies it.
Sense-Data: The immediate objects of perception, such as colors, sounds, and textures.
Logicism: The philosophical view that mathematics can be derived from logic.
Theory of Types: A hierarchical system designed to avoid logical paradoxes by restricting the kinds of statements that can be made about sets and properties.
Propositional Function: A linguistic expression containing a variable, which becomes a proposition when the variable is replaced by a constant.
Ramification: The modification of the theory of types to involve orders to avoid predicative paradoxes.
Theory of Descriptions: Russell’s analysis of definite descriptions, breaking them down into logically simpler components.
Logical Atomism: The philosophical view that the world is composed of simple, independent facts.
Indexical: A word or phrase that refers to something in relation to the context of the utterance, like “I” or “here”.
Paradox: An argument that seemingly derives self-contradictory conclusions by valid deduction from acceptable premises.
PM (Principia Mathematica): Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead’s three-volume work attempting to derive mathematical truths from logic.
TK (Theory of Knowledge): A manuscript Russell suppressed, partly due to Wittgenstein’s criticisms.
Sense-datum: Qualities or particulars sensed without being understood, immediately known in perception.
Preabandonment: Russell’s early idea of considering certain sense-data to be more reliable.
Rereading Russell: Metaphysics and Epistemology
Okay, here is a briefing document outlining the main themes and important ideas from the provided excerpts of “Rereading Russell: Essays on Bertrand Russell’s Metaphysics and Epistemology.”
Briefing Document: Rereading Russell – Essays on Bertrand Russell’s Metaphysics and Epistemology
Overview:
This briefing summarizes key themes and arguments presented in the excerpts from the book “Rereading Russell: Essays on Bertrand Russell’s Metaphysics and Epistemology.” The book covers various aspects of Russell’s philosophical work, from his early idealism to his later analytic philosophy, focusing on metaphysics, epistemology, and the philosophy of science. The essays delve into specific topics such as Russell’s theory of descriptions, logical atomism, theory of types, and his evolving views on sense-data and perception.
Main Themes and Ideas:
Evolution of Russell’s Philosophy: The collection highlights the significant changes and development of Russell’s philosophical views throughout his career. The editors state, “One aim of this volume is to direct attention to Russell’s later metaphysics and epistemology… However, the later work cannot be properly understood except as a development of the earlier, and so we have prepared a volume that deals with Russell’s metaphysics and epistemology in all its phases.” The book examines his shift from idealism to logical atomism and his later modifications of these views. It acknowledges that Russell revised his views often, driven by problems or solutions and remarks by Wittgenstein.
The Theory of Descriptions: Several essays engage with Russell’s theory of descriptions, as presented in his famous paper “On Denoting.” The significance of this theory is emphasized as a turning point in 20th-century analytic philosophy. One essay aims to examine what this article holds “in the consequence of that view in OD, not in Russell’s reasons for coming to hold that view.” The core of the theory is to provide an explanation for the meaning and generality of descriptions without needing to posit the existence of described entities.
Russell’s Logicism and Ramification: The book addresses Russell’s logicist project of deriving mathematics from logic, particularly as presented in Principia Mathematica. One essay considers “Russell’s reasons for ramification,” an intricate part of Russell’s theory of types. The ramified theory of types attempts to resolve paradoxes by introducing a hierarchy of functions and propositions, but was also criticized for its complexity and its apparent deviation from pure logicism. One author concludes that the project, though ambitious, faced several issues and contained “mathematical content.”
Logical Atomism and the Nature of Facts: The book explores Russell’s logical atomism, which posits that the world is composed of simple, atomic facts. Complex facts are constructed from these atomic facts through logical connectives. This theme is present in the essays discussing his theory of types and the analysis of sentences into their logical forms. “The philosophy of Logical Atomism is Russell’s presentation of analytic philosophy… analyzing entities and sentences into their logical atoms.”
Sense-Data and Perception: Russell’s evolving views on sense-data and perception are a central topic. The essays trace his changing position on the certainty and role of sense-data in knowledge. One essay discusses Russell’s “preabandonment doctrine of sense-data” and how it evolved into his later views on experience and perception. There is exploration of the degree to which sense-data were ultimately abandoned as indubitable, immediate elements of experience.
Indexicals and Scientific Knowledge: An essay is devoted to Russell’s treatment of indexicals (words like “I,” “here,” “now”) and their relationship to scientific knowledge. The book examines Russell’s claim that indexicals are ultimately eliminable in favor of objective, spatio-temporal coordinates in scientific descriptions of the world. This claim touches upon the nature of subjectivity and objectivity in knowledge.
Russell’s Theory of Types: One essay focuses specifically on “Russell’s Theory of Logical Types and the Atomistic Hierarchy of Sentences.” The essay explores the development of this theory, particularly as it relates to the resolution of logical paradoxes and the structure of language and reality.
Specific Quotes and Supporting Details:
On the scope of the book: “The volume thus covers the entire body of Russell’s metaphysics, epistemology, and philosophy of science; and it reveals continuities running through the often noted differences among various phases of his philosophy.”
On Russell’s method: “Bertrand Russell produces a new system of philosophy each year or so.” This highlights the dynamic nature of Russell’s philosophical system.
On ramification: “Ramification of a domain of abstract entities is the result of requiring that legitimate specifications of such entities be predicative.” This explanation encapsulates the essential motivation of ramification.
On the nature of logic: “Russell took logic to be completely universal. Logic is constituted by the most general laws about the logical furniture of the universe: laws to which all reasoning is subject.”
On Russell’s view on philosophy: “…in philosophy we follow the inverse direction: from the complex and relatively concrete we proceed towards the simple and abstract by means of analysis-seeking, seeking in the process, to eliminate the particularity of the original subject-matter.”
Potential Areas for Further Exploration:
The specific criticisms leveled against Russell’s philosophy by Wittgenstein and other thinkers.
The connections between Russell’s philosophical views and his work on mathematical logic.
The relevance of Russell’s ideas to contemporary philosophical debates.
The impact of Russell’s personal life and political activism on his philosophical work.
Conclusion:
“Rereading Russell: Essays on Bertrand Russell’s Metaphysics and Epistemology” offers a comprehensive examination of Russell’s philosophical contributions. The book highlights the evolution, complexity, and enduring significance of his ideas, while also engaging with criticisms and alternative interpretations of his work. It aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of Russell’s philosophy and its lasting impact on the field.
Russell’s Philosophical Concepts: An Overview
Russell FAQ
What are the major periods in Russell’s philosophical development?
Russell’s philosophical work is often divided into several periods. These include:
The pre-analytic period (1893-1899), influenced by Kantian and German idealist philosophy.
The logical period (1900-1910), where he developed symbolic logic and began working on Principia Mathematica (PM).
The early analytic period (1911-1918), characterized by the application of logical analysis to metaphysical and epistemological problems.
The middle analytic period (1919-1927), during which Russell applied his analytic methods to problems in physics and perception.
The later period (1927 onwards) which emphasized empiricism and scientific philosophy.
What was Russell’s “theory of descriptions” and why was it important?
Russell’s theory of descriptions, introduced in “On Denoting,” is a method for analyzing definite descriptions (phrases like “the king of France”). He argued that these phrases don’t refer to nonexistent entities, but rather contribute to the meaning of the entire proposition. This theory was crucial as it allowed Russell to avoid accepting nonexistent entities into his ontology and provided a powerful tool for logical analysis.
What is the significance of Principia Mathematica (PM)?
Principia Mathematica (PM), co-authored with A.N. Whitehead, is a landmark work in logic and mathematics. It aimed to derive mathematics from logic, establishing a formal system based on axioms and inference rules. PM is important because it demonstrated the power of symbolic logic and significantly influenced the development of both logic and the foundations of mathematics.
What is Russell’s theory of types, and what problem was it intended to solve?
Russell’s theory of types was developed to resolve paradoxes like Russell’s paradox, which showed that the unrestricted comprehension axiom in set theory leads to contradiction. The theory introduces a hierarchy of types to avoid self-referential statements. It restricts what sets can contain other sets so self-membership is disallowed. This ensures that definitions don’t create classes that include themselves, thus blocking Russell’s paradox.
What was Russell’s view on sense-data, and how did it evolve throughout his career?
Russell initially held that our knowledge of the external world is based on sense-data (immediate experiences like colors, sounds, etc.). He later “postabandoned” the idea that sense data are infallible and immediate data, integrating them into the causal process of perception. He moved from viewing them as the foundations of knowledge to seeing them as parts of a complex, inferential process. In his later works, they are replaced with neural excitations or events in a more neutral-monist framework.
What role does the concept of “acquaintance” play in Russell’s epistemology?
“Acquaintance,” in Russell’s epistemology, refers to direct and immediate knowledge of something. For Russell, we are acquainted with sense-data and perhaps universals. Knowledge by acquaintance is contrasted with knowledge by description, which involves knowing about something without direct experience. Acquaintance is foundational for Russell, as it is the basis upon which all other knowledge is built.
What is “ramification” in the context of Russell’s logic?
Ramification refers to the imposition of restrictions on ranges to arise from the universality of logic, especially from the idea that anything expressible at all can be expressed inside his framework. Any additional quantifiers affects the order of ramification that would arise from a constraint of predicativity.
How did Russell’s views on indexicals (words like “I,” “here,” and “now”) evolve and what impact did this have on his epistemology?
Russell initially dismissed indexicals as unnecessary for knowledge, advocating for their replacement with objective space-time coordinates. He tried to eliminate what he called egocentric particulars. Later, he recognized the importance of indexicals as expressing a unique relationship between sensory experience and point of view, though without fully resolving their place in his system.
Bertrand Russell: Epistemology and Metaphysics
Russell’s contributions to epistemology and metaphysics are substantial, and his views evolved considerably throughout his career.
Key aspects of Russell’s theory of knowledge include:
1913 Theory of Knowledge Manuscript: David Pears examines Russell’s suppressed manuscript, particularly due to Wittgenstein’s criticisms concerning the development of logical atomism. This manuscript reveals Russell’s attempt to explain a subject’s ability to understand contingent propositions or judgments using acquaintance.
Acquaintance: Reliance on what Pears calls extensional acquaintance leads Russell to extend from bringing S’s intention or knowledge of types of objects into the explanation.
Theory of Descriptions: According to Peter Hylton, Russell introduces the theory of generality and emphasizes its importance to logic and mathematics. The theory of descriptions allows for the elimination of certain assumptions and provides a method for analyzing denoting concepts.
Logical Atomism: The status of objects as complex single entities that can be named was important in Russell’s 1910-13 work. According to Nino Cocchiarella, Russell concluded by 1913 that only particulars can be named and that facts cannot be named. Russell’s logical atomism is what determines what Russell described as the atomistic hierarchy.
Sense-Data: C. Wade Savage discusses sense-data as the ultimate data in a standard foundationalist account of empirical knowledge. Russell used “awareness” or “acquaintance” to denote the object of sensory acquaintance and was convinced William James had been right in denying the relational character of sensations.
Indexicals: Janet Farrell Smith writes about Russell’s stance on indexicals, which are logically strict names, and scientific knowledge. Russell considered “this,” “that,” and “here” as logical atoms or words for particulars.
Structural Realism: According to William Demopolous and Michael Friedman, the heart of the theory of The Analysis of Matter is the claim that our knowledge of the external world is purely structural.
Inference: R. M. Sainsbury writes about induction and Russell’s postulates, with HK (Human Knowledge) claiming that a priori knowledge of contingent propositions is needed to know anything other than our own data.
Russell’s Logical Atomism: Key Principles and Components
Russell’s logical atomism is a key component of his philosophical system, particularly prominent in his work from 1910-1913.
Key aspects of Russell’s logical atomism:
Atomic Propositions and Facts: Logical atomism posits that the world is ultimately composed of simple, independent facts, mirroring the structure of language. These facts are atomic in that they cannot be broken down into simpler facts.
Rejection of Single Entities: By 1913, Russell concluded that only particulars can be named, but facts cannot be named.
Atomistic Hierarchy: Russell’s logical atomism determines what he describes as the atomistic hierarchy.
Particulars as Logical Subjects: Russell’s ontology in 1910-11 included particulars, described as “ultimate dualism” of universals and particulars. He called the division of particulars as “objects” or complex single entities.
Impact on Logical Syntax: Events from 1914 to 1940, were simple particulars of Russell’s atomist ontology, with ordinary physical objects being complex.
Relation to acquaintance: Russell’s logical atomism includes the idea that we are “directly acquainted” with physical objects.
Molecular Propositions: Molecular propositions are compounds of atomic propositions connected by logical connectives. The truth value of a molecular proposition is determined by the truth values of its constituent atomic propositions.
Russell’s “On Denoting”: Theory of Descriptions and Logical Form
Bertrand Russell’s “On Denoting,” published in 1905, marks a significant change in his philosophical views and is a crucial article in twentieth-century analytic philosophy.
Key aspects and significance of “On Denoting”:
Shift in Ontological Commitment: According to Russell’s earlier views, to say that “the golden mountain does not exist” implies that the golden mountain has some kind of being. “On Denoting” allowed Russell to avoid the need for denoting concepts to correspond to objects.
Theory of Descriptions: The theory of descriptions is applied by Russell not only to definite descriptions such as “the present king of France,” but also to ordinary proper names, such as “Aristotle” and “Mont Blanc”. The descriptive phrases associated with names are not necessarily analytic, and different speakers might associate different descriptive phrases with the same name.
Elimination of entities: The theory of descriptions eliminates the need to assume that there are classes, or that we need to define objects or classes of classes.
Generality: Russell introduces the theory of generality, holding it to be essential to logic and mathematics.
Analysis and Logical Form: According to Peter Hylton, the significance of “On Denoting” lies in its emphasis on analysis and the development of logical form. The article represents a crucial step in the development of analytic philosophy. The grammatical form of a sentence can be misleading regarding its logical form.
Denoting Concepts: Russell explains that a denoting concept is a term or combination of terms that may be connected with words and things through a relation. A proposition containing a denoting concept may be about things that it doesn’t contain.
Incomplete Symbols: The notion of an incomplete symbol has an ontological significance, allowing for the elimination of classes.
Problems and Puzzles: Russell’s reasons for developing the theory of denoting came from a passage of the preface of Principles. The theory helped him solve puzzles that arose from his attempt to reduce mathematics to logic.
The King of France Example: The phrase “the present king of France” exemplifies how sentences containing denoting phrases can be meaningful even if the entity they seem to refer to does not exist. The proposition expressed by “The king of France is bald” does not contain the present king of France, but rather contains a denoting concept.
Quantifiers and Variables: The theory explains how “any” is presupposed in mathematical formalism and elucidates the theory of the infinite.
Critique of Meinong: Russell’s theory allows him to critique Meinong’s view that there is something that you are saying does not exist when you say that the golden mountain does not exist.
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The text is an introduction to the life, philosophy, and political activism of Bertrand Russell. It covers his early life and education, his groundbreaking work in logic and mathematics (especially Principia Mathematica), and his engagement with empiricism and language. The text also explores Russell’s evolving theories of meaning, his pacifism and activism against nuclear war, and his views on society. Figures who influenced Russell are explored, like Wittgenstein. It touches on his personal life, including his marriages and relationships, and his views on religion and education. Finally, the document assesses Russell’s lasting impact on philosophy and his role as an intellectual icon.
Bertrand Russell: A Study Guide
Quiz
What were some of the childhood experiences that contributed to Russell’s feelings of isolation and fear of madness?
Russell experienced a sense of loneliness throughout his childhood and often felt like a “ghost.” He was also terrified of going mad, potentially influenced by his uncle’s incarceration in an asylum and his aunt’s mental instability.
What was Russell’s initial attraction to mathematics, and how did the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries affect him?
Mathematics offered Russell a pure and perfect world, an escape from the uncertainties of reality. However, the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries, based on different axioms, challenged his desire for absolute and unquestionable truth in mathematics.
Describe Russell’s experience at Cambridge University and the intellectual liberation he felt there.
At Cambridge, Russell felt intellectually liberated, able to discuss mathematics, metaphysics, and politics openly. He joined the “Apostles,” an exclusive debating society, and formed friendships with other great thinkers.
Explain the Platonist and Formalist views of mathematics.
Platonists believe that mathematics exists independently of human minds and that mathematicians uncover its truths. Formalists, on the other hand, claim that mathematics is a human invention, constructed from axioms.
Summarize Russell’s “logicist” quest and its ultimate goal.
Russell aimed to demonstrate that mathematics is essentially based on logic, with mathematical notions defined in terms of logical ones. He wanted to derive the axioms of mathematics from a logical system.
What was Russell’s paradox, and how did it challenge the foundations of mathematics?
Russell’s paradox showed a contradiction within set theory. It concerned the “class of all classes that are not members of themselves,” revealing a logical flaw in the foundations of mathematics.
How did Russell attempt to resolve his paradox with the theory of types?
Russell introduced a hierarchy of types to limit what could be sensibly said, ruling out statements that contradicted the rules. For instance, I can say “Socrates is a famous philosopher” but not “A group of Athenians is a famous philosopher”.
What is Logical Atomism and what does it entail?
Logical Atomism is Russell’s philosophical approach of breaking down knowledge into its smallest components (“logical atoms”) and then reassembling them logically. Sense-data are the logical atoms of the universe, and everything must be reduced to those, of which we can be absolutely sure.
What is the essence of Russell’s theory of descriptions, as presented in his essay “On Denoting?”
Russell denies that proper names (or “definite descriptions”) ever refer. The confusions that arise when existence is regarded as a “property” of things disappear, and logic no longer has to be based on the Subject-Predicate form.
What is Neutral Monism, and how did it influence Russell’s view of mind and matter?
Neutral Monism is the idea that all talk of mind and matter can be reduced to “events”, which are phenomena that are neither intrinsically material nor mental. Russell proceeded to show how unclear the concept of “mind” is using this idea.
Answer Key
Russell experienced a sense of loneliness throughout his childhood and often felt like a “ghost.” He was also terrified of going mad, potentially influenced by his uncle’s incarceration in an asylum and his aunt’s mental instability.
Mathematics offered Russell a pure and perfect world, an escape from the uncertainties of reality. However, the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries, based on different axioms, challenged his desire for absolute and unquestionable truth in mathematics.
At Cambridge, Russell felt intellectually liberated, able to discuss mathematics, metaphysics, and politics openly. He joined the “Apostles,” an exclusive debating society, and formed friendships with other great thinkers.
Platonists believe that mathematics exists independently of human minds and that mathematicians uncover its truths. Formalists, on the other hand, claim that mathematics is a human invention, constructed from axioms.
Russell aimed to demonstrate that mathematics is essentially based on logic, with mathematical notions defined in terms of logical ones. He wanted to derive the axioms of mathematics from a logical system.
Russell’s paradox showed a contradiction within set theory. It concerned the “class of all classes that are not members of themselves,” revealing a logical flaw in the foundations of mathematics.
Russell introduced a hierarchy of types to limit what could be sensibly said, ruling out statements that contradicted the rules. For instance, I can say “Socrates is a famous philosopher” but not “A group of Athenians is a famous philosopher”.
Logical Atomism is Russell’s philosophical approach of breaking down knowledge into its smallest components (“logical atoms”) and then reassembling them logically. Sense-data are the logical atoms of the universe, and everything must be reduced to those, of which we can be absolutely sure.
Russell denies that proper names (or “definite descriptions”) ever refer. The confusions that arise when existence is regarded as a “property” of things disappear, and logic no longer has to be based on the Subject-Predicate form.
Neutral Monism is the idea that all talk of mind and matter can be reduced to “events”, which are phenomena that are neither intrinsically material nor mental. Russell proceeded to show how unclear the concept of “mind” is using this idea.
Essay Questions
Discuss the influence of Russell’s personal life, including his childhood, relationships, and political activism, on his philosophical development.
Explain Russell’s contributions to logic and mathematics, focusing on his “logicist” quest and the challenges he faced.
Compare and contrast Russell’s Logical Atomism with other philosophical approaches, such as Idealism, Empiricism, and Phenomenalism.
Analyze Russell’s theory of meaning, considering his views on reference, description, and sense-data.
Evaluate Russell’s political and social philosophy, addressing his views on war, nationalism, and world government.
Glossary of Key Terms
Axiom: A self-evident truth that requires no proof.
Idealism: The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual.
Empiricism: The philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience.
Logical Atomism: Russell’s philosophical approach of breaking down knowledge into its simplest components (“logical atoms”) and then reassembling them logically.
Sense-Data: Immediate sensory experiences, such as patches of color and shapes.
Phenomenalism: The view that only phenomena that we experience exist.
Referential Theory of Meaning: The idea that words get their meaning by referring to things in the world.
Definite Description: A phrase that begins with the definite article “the” (e.g., “the present Queen of England”).
Theory of Types: Russell’s hierarchical system to avoid paradoxes in logic and mathematics.
Neutral Monism: The philosophical view that reality is composed of a single substance that is neither mental nor physical.
Logicism: The philosophical project of reducing mathematics to logic.
Formalism: The view that mathematics is a human invention and a construction of all that follows from a few axioms.
Platonism: The view that mathematics is based on a pre-existing reality that humans discover.
Incompleteness Theorem: Kurt Gödel’s theorem that showed inherent limitations in mathematical systems; any system that could produce basic arithmetic was inherently incomplete.
Analytic Philosophy: A philosophical approach that emphasizes logical analysis and the clarification of language.
A Priori Knowledge: Knowledge that is independent of experience (e.g., mathematical truths).
Induction: The process of reasoning from specific observations to general principles.
Universals: Abstract qualities or properties that can be predicated of multiple objects (e.g., “whiteness”).
Monism: The view that reality is ultimately composed of only one kind of substance.
Dualism: The view that reality is composed of two distinct substances, typically mind and matter.
Conscientious Objector: One who opposes bearing arms or serving in the armed forces on moral or religious grounds.
Introducing Bertrand Russell: A Briefing
Okay, here is a briefing document summarizing the main themes and important ideas presented in the provided excerpts from “Introducing Bertrand Russell”:
Briefing Document: Bertrand Russell
Subject: Overview of the life, philosophy, and impact of Bertrand Russell.
Source: Excerpts from “Introducing Bertrand Russell” by Dave Robinson and Judy Groves
Main Themes:
Russell as a multifaceted figure: The source paints Russell as a philosopher, mathematician, logician, political activist, and social commentator. He was a prominent figure in the 20th century. “Everyone has heard of Bertrand Russell. He was a great thinker, an agitator imprisoned for his beliefs, and a man who changed Western philosophy for ever.”
The Quest for Certainty: A driving force in Russell’s intellectual life was the search for absolute certainty, particularly in mathematics and logic. He sought to establish a perfect system of guaranteed truths. He thought mathematics was something that “had to be a perfectsystem’of guaranteed truths about the world, and that it had a real ‘Platonic’ existence – numbers were ‘realll and not just a matterof humanconvenience.”
Logic and Mathematics: A significant portion of Russell’s philosophical work revolved around the relationship between logic and mathematics. He believed that mathematics could be grounded in logic, a pursuit that led to the development of symbolic logic and the Principia Mathematica. “Russell became convinced that mathematics is essentially based on logic in some way… But in order to pursue this “logicist” quest, Russell had to invent a whole new kind of “symbolic logic” and define mathematical notions in terms of this logic, both of which he proceeded to do.”
The Problem of Knowledge and Perception: Russell grappled with fundamental questions about knowledge, perception, and the relationship between language and reality, influenced by empiricists like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume. He explored the nature of “sense-data” and the limitations of human knowledge. “Russell makes the old philosophical problem of perception sound technical and scientificby referring to “sense-data”ratherthan “ideas”or ‘impressions’ – but his empiricism lsrrt greatlydifferent from Hume’s.”
Political Activism and Social Commentary: Russell was actively engaged in social and political issues, advocating for pacifism, nuclear disarmament, and social reform. His views were often controversial and led to imprisonment and public criticism. He protested against the senseless slaughter of World War I and against nuclear weapons, which he thought would eventually destroy us all.
Influence of Wittgenstein: The text highlights the profound impact that Ludwig Wittgenstein had on Russell’s thinking, particularly regarding language and meaning. Wittgenstein’s ideas challenged Russell’s own philosophical views and contributed to a shift in the direction of philosophy. He said to show that there were severe limits to what language could say.
The Paradoxes of Set Theory: Russell’s paradox, which arises from considering the set of all sets that do not contain themselves, is a key moment in his intellectual development. It highlights the potential for contradiction within seemingly well-defined systems and motivated his work on type theory.
Russell’s “Logical Atomism”: The text introduces Russell’s theory of Logical Atomism, which attempts to break down complex propositions into their simplest components (“logical atoms”) and reconstruct them logically to achieve certainty.
The Nature of Meaning: The author emphasizes that Russell had many diffierent theories of Meaning – one that involves reference, another version of empiricism, his ‘Atomist’ theory, and even one leaning toward behavorial.
Key Ideas and Facts:
Early Life and Influences: Russell experienced a solitary childhood and a fear of madness. Mathematics provided an early escape and a pursuit of perfection. He is quoted, saying “THE MOST VIVID PART OF MY EXISTENCE WAS SOLITARY. •• THROUGHOUT MY CHILDHOOD I HAD AN INCREASING SENSE OF LONELINESS. I SELDOM MENTIONED MY MORE SERIOUS THOUGHTS TO OTHERS, . AND WHEN I DIDI REGRETTED IT. IT BECAME SECOND NATURE TO ME TO THINK THAT WHATEVER I WAS DOING HAD BETTER BE KEPT TO MYSELF.”
Cambridge and Intellectual Liberation: Cambridge University provided an environment for intellectual freedom and the development of important philosophical relationships (e.g., with G.E. Moore).
Platonism vs. Formalism: The text contrasts the Platonist view (mathematics uncovers truth) with the Formalist view (mathematics constructs interesting patterns).
The “Logicist” Project: Russell’s attempt to derive mathematics from logic is a central theme, culminating in the Principia Mathematica.
Russell’s Paradox: The paradox of the class of all classes that are not members of themselves devastated Russell and prompted his development of type theory. “Fairlyobviously, mostclasses aren’tmembers of themselves – the classof cats isn~ itselfa cat. So. it is possible to conceive of a ratherlarge, if oddclass: the classof all classes thatare (likethe cat one)not members of themselves. But then something odd happens: If the classof all classes that are not members of themselves is a member of itself, then.it isn’t;and if it lsrrt, then it is.”
Theory of Types: Russell introduced a hierarchy of types to avoid paradoxes by limiting what can be said about sets and their members.
“On Denoting” (1905): This essay is considered Russell’s most famous and influential, revolutionizing the philosophy of language.
Logical Atomism: The text describes Logical Atomism as reducing everything to its simplest components and reassembling them logically.
Sense-Data: Russell’s focus on “sense-data” as the ultimate foundation of meaning and knowledge is highlighted.
Influence on Analytic Philosophy: Russell’s work is credited with founding analytic or linguistic philosophy, which emphasizes the analysis of language.
Russell’s Theory of Meaning: A constant issue that Russell considered was meaning in language. He considered referential, ideational, and atomist theories of meaning.
The Problems of Philosophy (1912): This book introduced key philosophical problems to a wider audience.
Opposition to World War I: Russell’s pacifism and activism against conscription led to imprisonment.
Neutral Monism: Russell’s theory of mind, influenced by William James, posits that mind and matter can be reduced to “events”.
Later Life and Political Activism: The briefing covers his work with CND, his views on world government, and his involvement with controversial figures like Ralph Schoenman.
Assessments of Russell’s Work: The text acknowledges that some of Russell’s work is no longer influential but emphasizes his lasting impact on logic, mathematics, and the direction of Western philosophy. “But there’s little doubt that RusseWs workdrastically changed the direction and s.ubject matterof Westem philosophy for ever.”
Quotes:
“THE MOST VIVID PART OF MY EXISTENCE WAS SOLITARY.”
“HE WANTED GEOMETRY TO BE BEAUTIFULLY PERFECT AND TOTAUY TRUE.”
“The world of mathematics… is really a beautiful world; it has nothing to do with life and death and human sordidness, but is eternal; cold and passionless… mathematics is the only thing we know that is capable of perfection.”
“ATOMISM MEANS THAT YOU BREAK THINGS DOWN INTOTHEIR SMALLEST COMPONENTS, IF YOU WANT TO UNDERSTAND THEM.”
“DEVOTION TO THE NA TION IS PERHAPS THE DEEPEST AND MOSTWIDESPREAD REliGION OF THE PRESENT AGE.”
Conclusion:
Bertrand Russell was a complex and influential figure whose work spanned diverse fields. His pursuit of certainty in mathematics and logic, his exploration of knowledge and perception, and his political activism left a lasting mark on the 20th century and continue to be relevant today.
Bertrand Russell: Life, Philosophy, and Activism
Here is an 8-question FAQ based on the provided source:
1. Who was Bertrand Russell and what were some of his major beliefs and activities?
Bertrand Russell was a highly influential 20th-century philosopher, logician, mathematician, writer, and political activist. He was known for his profound skepticism, his commitment to reason as a tool for solving problems, his opposition to war and totalitarianism, and his advocacy for nuclear disarmament. He also contributed significantly to mathematical logic, the philosophy of language, and epistemology. Russell was imprisoned for his pacifist beliefs during World War I and was a prominent figure in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND).
2. How did Russell’s early life and experiences shape his intellectual development?
Russell experienced a sense of loneliness and alienation during his childhood. He found solace and a sense of perfection in mathematics, particularly Euclidean geometry. However, the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries challenged his assumption that there was a single perfect system. This led him to value reason and question unjustified beliefs, impacting his religious views and personal desires. He later felt liberated at Cambridge, where he could openly discuss intellectual topics and form friendships.
3. What was Russell’s “logicist” project and what were its aims?
Russell aimed to demonstrate that mathematics was fundamentally based on logic. This “logicist” project sought to redefine mathematical notions in terms of logical ones and derive mathematical axioms from a logical system. He developed a new kind of symbolic logic and theory of classes to pursue this project. He became convinced that the relation of the whole to its parts was similar to the relation of a class to its members. This was a shift from conceiving of all ducks as an “unwieldy ‘whole” to the understanding that this class was simply a logical conclusion.
4. What was Russell’s Paradox and how did he attempt to resolve it?
Russell’s Paradox arose from his theory of classes. It concerned the class of all classes that are not members of themselves. If this class is a member of itself, then it isn’t, and if it isn’t, then it is. To resolve this, Russell introduced the Theory of Types, establishing a hierarchy of types to limit what could be meaningfully said about sets. For instance, he could say “Socrates is a famous philosopher” but not “A group of Athenians is a famous philosopher.” This hierarchy ruled out the possibility of a “set of all sets” and sets that contained themselves as members.
5. What is Logical Atomism and what are its key tenets?
Logical Atomism is Russell’s philosophical system that argues the way to understand complex things is to break them into their simplest components, or “logical atoms,” and then reassemble them logically. He identified “sense-data” (private sensory experiences) as these ultimate, irreducible elements and the foundation of meaning. He believed that all knowledge is ultimately derived from our experience of sense-data, and that our references to them are the basis for meaning.
6. How did Russell’s theory of descriptions attempt to address problems of language and reference?
Russell’s theory of descriptions, outlined in his essay “On Denoting,” argues that referring expressions, including proper names and definite descriptions, are not directly referential but are, rather, coded descriptions of properties. For example, he thought that most expressions are coded descriptions of properties and that it was not necessary for there to be a living president of France for the expression to have meaning. This approach aimed to resolve paradoxes related to non-existent entities and to clarify the relationship between language and reality.
7. What were Russell’s views on knowledge, truth, and the limitations of philosophy?
Russell was an empiricist who believed that nearly all knowledge by description is reducible to knowledge by acquaintance. He argued that truth is independent of psychological states and depends on facts. While philosophy can reveal the limits of our knowledge and lead to uncertainty, it is nonetheless a worthwhile activity. Despite his emphasis on logic and reason, Russell acknowledged that there are limits to what language and philosophy can definitively establish about the world.
8. How did Russell’s political and social activism reflect his philosophical beliefs?
Russell’s commitment to reason, individual freedom, and human welfare led him to become a prominent activist. He was a vocal opponent of war, nationalism, and nuclear weapons. He advocated for world government and internationalism to prevent global conflict. His activism, particularly his involvement in the CND, demonstrated his willingness to apply his philosophical principles to real-world issues, even at personal risk. He believed individuals should challenge conventional politics.
Bertrand Russell: A Life of Philosophy, Activism, and Logic
Bertrand Russell, born in 1872, came from a distinguished and affluent British aristocratic family. His father was Viscount Amberley, and his grandfather, Lord John Russell, had been Prime Minister. Philosopher John Stuart Mill was his godfather.
Early Life and Education: Russell’s parents, who were radical supporters of the Liberal Party and advocates for women’s suffrage, died when he was young. He was raised in the oppressive atmosphere of his grandmother’s house, Pembroke Lodge, and was rigorously educated with a strong sense of religious and social duty. Russell received private tutoring and had a formative experience learning geometry from his brother Frank.
Personal Struggles: Russell experienced feelings of alienation and feared going mad, as his uncle was institutionalized and his aunt was mentally unstable. He felt intellectually liberated upon arriving at Cambridge University, where he openly discussed mathematics, metaphysics, theology, politics, and history, and joined the “Apostles,” an exclusive debating society.
Relationships: Russell’s personal life was complex. He had an affair with Lady Ottoline Morell and corresponded with her extensively, confessing feelings of loneliness and alienation. He married multiple times, including to Alys Pearsall Smith, Dora Black, and Patricia Spence.
Principia Mathematica: Russell, with A.N. Whitehead, aimed to reduce the whole of mathematics to logical terms in Principia Mathematica. The work took nine years, and they had to cover part of the publication costs.
Social and Political Activism: Russell condemned the senseless slaughter of World War I and protested against totalitarian dictatorship and nuclear weapons. He was a public speaker and leading light in the No-Conscription Fellowship. Russell’s pacifist activities led to imprisonment.
Later Life and Recognition: Russell received the Nobel Prize in 1950 for his varied and significant writings championing humanitarian ideals and freedom of thought. He was involved in the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and the Committee of 100, advocating for British neutrality in the Cold War.
Death: Russell died of bronchitis on February 2, 1970, and his ashes were scattered on the Welsh hills.
Logical Atomism: Russell’s Theory of Meaning and Reality
Logical Atomism is a philosophical theory developed by Bertrand Russell, particularly emphasized in his work Lectures on the Philosophy of Logical Atomism (1918). It combines empiricism with a unique approach to logic and meaning.
Key aspects of Logical Atomism include:
Atomistic Reduction The core idea is to understand complex things by breaking them down into their smallest, simplest components. This “atomism” involves reducing both the world and our language to their most fundamental elements.
Logical Analysis Emphasizes logical reassembly over guesswork to ensure certainty in thought.
Sense-Data as Ultimate Elements Russell refers to “sense-data” rather than “ideas” or “impressions,” but his empiricism is not greatly different from Hume’s. All that humans can ever experience are appearances, broken down into fleeting and private “atoms” or bits that are indubitable.
The World as a Logical Hypothesis: The real world is a hypothesis inferred from clusters of sense-data.
Theory of Meaning and Metaphysics: Logical Atomism extends beyond perception into theories of meaning and metaphysics.
Rejection of Traditional Functions of Language: Russell denies that proper names or definite descriptions ever refer.
Logical Form and Language: Russell claims puzzling expressions in ordinary language are complex when logically analyzed.
Emphasis on a Pure, Logical Language: Logical Atomism seeks to create a perfect logical language free from ambiguities of ordinary language. The goal is to have this language mirror the deep structures of reality.
Elementary Sentences and Names: When a sentence is analyzed to its simplest logical form, elementary sentences containing names are revealed. These names correspond to objects in the world, and the arrangement of names in sentences mirrors the arrangement of objects.
Truth and Meaning: What matters most is whether a statement is true or false, not just what it means.
Criticisms: Criticisms focus on its theory of perception, reference, and meaning. Questions arise whether humans experience sense-data or the world directly, whether sense-data are elemental, and whether they are truly indubitable.
Russell’s theory aims to reduce statements about objects to statements about sense-data, suggesting meaning is essentially private.
Russell’s Theories of Meaning
Bertrand Russell developed several theories of meaning throughout his career, grappling with how words relate to the world and our understanding of it.
Key aspects and shifts in Russell’s theories of meaning:
Words Refer to Things in the World: Early on, Russell believed that words get their meaning because they refer to things in the world. This seemingly attractive theory, as pointing to things and associating them with a word is how meanings are commonly learned, presents problems such as the idea that nouns must always stand for something. This encourages the creation of abstract entities to ensure words have meaning. Russell tried to solve this through his “Theory of Descriptions”.
Words Refer to Ideas: Russell also explored the empiricist view that words gain meaning by referring to ideas, where words are used as “marks” to convey pre-linguistic ideas. If ideas are internal mental images, it is unclear if thoughts are visual and not verbal, and it is not guaranteed that the receiver will get the same “idea” as the sender.
Atomist Theory: Russell’s “Atomist” theory suggests that language can only have meaning if it refers, and each individual must be directly acquainted with what is referred to. Only the rapidly changing series of phenomena, “sense-data”—the most elementary sensory experiences—can be referred to rather than described. Statements about objects must be reduced to statements about sense-data. This raises the question of whether meaning is essentially private, and communication is only approximate.
Behavioral Theory: Later, Russell was drawn to a “behavioral” theory where a theory of meaning must focus on the speaker’s “intentions” and the “effects” on a listener to produce certain behavioral responses. This theory restricts meaning to observable human behavior.
Frege’s Sense and Reference: Russell knew of Frege’s claim that meaning has two elements: sense and reference, where sense is a public phenomenon based on conventional agreement.
Wittgenstein, one of Russell’s students, believed that the search for “meaning” is a mistake. Wittgenstein claimed philosophers can only examine how language is used by people in different contexts, and that language “floats free” of the world, so studying its structure cannot reveal anything about the world’s configurations.
Bertrand Russell: Political Views and Activism
Bertrand Russell held varied and evolving political views throughout his life.
Key aspects of Russell’s political views:
Early Liberalism: Russell’s parents were radical supporters of the Liberal Party and advocated for women’s suffrage.
Opposition to World War I: Russell condemned the war between civilized states like Britain and Germany as madness. He became a leading figure in the No-Conscription Fellowship and was imprisoned for his pacifist activities.
Experiences with Bolshevism: Invited to Russia in 1920, Russell criticized the Bolsheviks’ oppressive, centralized state and their use of violence. This experience made him deeply suspicious of state socialism.
Guild Socialism: Russell proposed a British form of anarcho-syndicalism, known as “Guild Socialism.” In this system, government would be partly constituted by trade unions, ensuring a reasonable standard of living for most people and preventing over-centralization of power.
Warning Against Nationalism: Russell cautioned against the dangers of nationalism, fearing it could provoke a third world war and destroy Western civilization. He advocated for internationalism as crucial for civilization’s survival.
World Government: Russell advocated for a World Government with a monopoly over weapons of mass destruction to enforce solutions to disputes between nations. He suggested America should threaten Russia with nuclear annihilation shortly after World War II, although he later denied this.
Frustration with Party Politics: Despite standing for Parliament multiple times, Russell grew frustrated with political intrigue and compromise, preferring extra-parliamentary activities focused on single-issue campaigns.
Views on Nuclear Weapons: Russell believed scientists were best positioned to persuade governments to abandon nuclear weapons. He warned against the effects of McCarthyism and the dangers of nuclear war.
CND and Committee of 100: Russell became president of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) and joined in protests, including a sit-down protest outside the Ministry of Defence in 1961.
Involvement in Third World Politics: Russell and his secretary, Ralph Schoenman, became involved in the politics of Third World countries, supporting the Cuban Revolution and opposing American influence.
Critique of American Imperialism: Russell and Schoenman formed the Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation and viewed American world imperialism as an obstacle to world peace.
Views on Religion Russell expressed anti-religious sentiments and criticized organized religion for discouraging free inquiry and inhibiting social change.
Bertrand Russell: Philosophical Influence and Legacy
Bertrand Russell’s philosophical influence is vast and multifaceted, significantly shaping the course of Western philosophy.
Key aspects of his influence include:
Revolutionized Logic: Russell helped to show that traditional logic was only a very small part of a much bigger system. He was one of the founders of modern symbolic logic and developed a new kind of “mathematical logic”. His work in logic, including the Principia Mathematica with A.N. Whitehead, revolutionized the field and paved the way for modern logicians.
Analytic Philosophy: Russell’s essay On Denoting helped construct a new form of “predicate logic” and found the “analytic” or “linguistic” school of philosophy. This approach emphasized examining language and analyzing its logical components, influencing many 20th-century philosophers to view philosophy as an analytic activity rather than a body of knowledge.
Logical Atomism: Russell’s logical atomism, with its emphasis on reducing complex ideas to their simplest components and reassembling them logically, has had a lasting impact on how philosophers approach problems of knowledge and meaning. Though Russell’s specific theories within logical atomism faced criticisms, the method of analysis remains influential.
Influence on the Vienna Circle: Russell’s radical empiricism, advocacy of science, and belief in logical analysis influenced the Logical Positivists of the Vienna Circle.
Theory of Descriptions: Russell’s “Theory of Descriptions” led some to believe that the primary function of philosophy was to dissect and analyze concepts rather than engage in metaphysical speculation.
Emphasis on Science: He insisted on the importance of philosophy and science to each other. Russell saw science as a means to solve human problems through rationality.
Focus on Language: Russell’s work highlighted the importance of language in philosophical inquiry. Although his own theories of meaning evolved and faced criticism, he spurred the development of analytic philosophy and linguistic analysis.
Challenges to Empiricism: Russell’s attempts to ground his theories in empiricism led him to continually qualify his earlier work, and he eventually conceded that certain knowledge might be unattainable.
Influence on Wittgenstein: Russell’s interactions with his student Ludwig Wittgenstein profoundly impacted both philosophers. Russell grappled with Wittgenstein’s ideas and incorporated some into his own philosophy, while Wittgenstein’s critiques challenged Russell’s views.
Impact on Computer Age: Russell is recognized as one of the founders of the modern computer age.
Public Intellectual: In the popular imagination, he was the man with an enormous brain, who therefore had the right to speak out and be listened to.
Political and Social Protests: Russell helped set the tone for future protests and encouraged young people to challenge entrenched political and social ideologies. He had no respect for authority and encouraged everyone to share his distrust of conventional politics and politicians.
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These excerpts detail React development concepts and practices through hands-on challenges. The text introduces core concepts like components, JSX syntax, and rendering. It explains props and state for building reusable, data-driven UIs, including handling complex data like arrays and objects. Various challenges focus on practical skills like styling components, managing events, and fetching data from external APIs. The final segments involve Capstone projects designed to reinforce all concepts, including game building as a method to solidify React skills. The overarching theme is learning React through active participation and iterative problem-solving.
React Fundamentals Study Guide
Quiz
1. How do you typically select the DOM node where React will insert its content?
You can select a DOM node using standard JavaScript DOM selection methods such as document.getElementById() or document.querySelector(). The selected node serves as the root for the React application.
2. What does the createRoot method do, and where does it come from?
The createRoot method creates a root instance that allows React to manage and render content within a specific DOM node. It is imported from react-dom/client.
3. What does the render method do?
The render method takes React components or elements (JSX) and displays them inside the specified root DOM node, managed by createRoot.
4. What is JSX?
JSX is a syntax extension to JavaScript that allows writing HTML-like structures within JavaScript code. It is transformed into regular JavaScript function calls by tools like Babel.
5. Why is it important to export components from their respective files?
Exporting a component allows it to be used in other files within the application. This promotes modularity and code reusability. It can be accomplished using export default or named exports.
6. What is the difference between a default export and a named export?
A default export allows you to import a module under any name, while a named export requires you to import a module using its specific name.
7. What is the purpose of using a build tool like Vite?
Build tools like Vite streamline the development process by providing features like fast development servers, module bundling, and optimization for production. They handle the complexities of modern JavaScript development, such as JSX transpilation and dependency management.
8. What is the purpose of React fragments, and what do they look like?
React fragments allow you to group a list of children without adding extra nodes to the DOM. They are represented by empty tags <></> or the <React.Fragment> component.
9. What are props in React?
Props (short for properties) are a mechanism for passing data from a parent component to a child component. They enable components to be dynamic and reusable.
10. How do you pass a value to a component that is not a string?
When passing non-string values via props, enclose the value in curly braces. For example: `<Component upvotes={10} isPun={true} />`.
Essay Questions
Discuss the benefits of using components to build user interfaces, and explain how React facilitates component-based development.
Explain how JSX simplifies the process of writing React user interfaces compared to using vanilla JavaScript. Provide examples to illustrate your points.
Describe the steps involved in setting up a React development environment using Vite. Explain the role of Node.js and npm in this process.
Explain the difference between state and props in React, and why both are important for creating dynamic user interfaces. Provide examples.
Discuss the importance of accessibility in web development, and describe some of the techniques that can be used to make React applications more accessible.
Glossary
DOM (Document Object Model): A programming interface for HTML and XML documents. It represents the page so that programs can change the document structure, style, and content. React uses a virtual DOM to efficiently update the actual DOM.
Component: A self-contained, reusable piece of code that represents a part of the user interface. React applications are built by composing components together.
JSX: A syntax extension to JavaScript that allows you to write HTML-like code in your JavaScript files.
createRoot: A method in React that creates a root object for rendering a React component into a specific DOM node.
render: A method used to display React elements or components within a specified DOM node.
Module Bundler: A tool that takes JavaScript and its dependencies and packages them into a single file or a set of files for use in a browser.
Vite: A fast build tool that serves your code during development and bundles it for production.
Node.js: A JavaScript runtime built on Chrome’s V8 JavaScript engine, which allows you to run JavaScript on the server-side.
npm (Node Package Manager): A package manager for JavaScript that allows you to easily install and manage dependencies in your projects.
Props (Properties): Data passed from a parent component to a child component. Props are read-only from the child component’s perspective.
State: Data that is managed within a component. Unlike props, state can be changed by the component itself, triggering a re-render of the component and its children.
Event Handler: A function that is called when a specific event occurs (e.g., a button click).
Conditional Rendering: A technique used in React to display different content based on certain conditions.
Accessibility (a11y): The practice of designing and developing websites that are usable by people with disabilities.
aria-label: An HTML attribute used to provide a descriptive label for an element, especially for assistive technologies like screen readers.
clsx: A tiny utility for constructing className strings conditionally and concisely.
key: A special string attribute you need to include when creating lists of elements. Keys give the elements a stable identity.
useEffect: A React Hook that lets you perform side effects in function components. Data fetching, setting up subscriptions, and manually changing the DOM in React components are all examples of side effects.
Side Effect: Operations that affect something outside the scope of the current function being executed, such as directly manipulating the DOM, or fetching data from an API.
Spread syntax: A modern javascript feature that allows you to copy all or part of an existing array or object into another array or object.
Ternary Operator: A Javascript operator that is a shorthand way to write an if…else statement in one line. condition ? expressionIfTrue : expressionIfFalse
React Fundamentals: A Practical Introduction
Okay, here’s a briefing document summarizing the main themes and ideas from the provided source:
Briefing Document: React Fundamentals and Setup
Overview:
This document summarizes a lesson focused on introducing the fundamentals of React development, including rendering content to the DOM, working with JSX, setting up a local React development environment using Vite, component creation, styling, props, state and conditional rendering. The lesson employs a hands-on approach, encouraging the learner to actively rewrite and modify code through challenges.
Main Themes and Ideas:
Rendering with React:
React uses a “root” to insert its content into the DOM. This is achieved using createRoot from react-dom/client.
The render method of the root is then used to display content, which often looks like HTML within JavaScript (JSX).
Quote: ” …up is going to be like the root of our application it’s the one place where react will insert everything so what I need to pass to the create root method is this Dom node and I can get it by doing any regular Dom node selection I can say document. getet element by ID for example and pass in the ID of root and now that I have a so-called root I can call a method on that route called render…“
Quote:“…I’m going to pass what looks an awful lot like HTML inside of my JavaScript…”
JSX Syntax:
JSX allows writing HTML-like structures within JavaScript code.
It is crucial to use the .jsx extension for files containing JSX so that Vite can compile it correctly.
JSX allows developers to lean on a familiar HTML syntax.
Quote: “…we’re starting to see one of the benefits of using react is we can lean on a familiar syntax in HTML with a couple tweaks here and there that we’ll be discovering as we go through this course…“
Setting Up a Local React Environment with Vite:
Vite is recommended as a fast build tool for React projects.
It requires Node.js and npm to be installed. NVM (Node Version Manager) is suggested for easy installation and updates.
The command npm create vite@latest is used to scaffold a new React project.
Quote: “…We’re going to be using the recommended build tool called vit and yes it is pronounced vit that’s French for quick or fast…“
Components:
React applications are built using components.
Components can be moved into their own files for better organization and reusability.
JSX elements need to be enclosed by a single top level or parent element.
Components are exported and imported using export default and import. When using export default, you do not need to surround the component name when importing.
Quote: “…moving these components into their own files is a really simple task…“
Styling:
The lesson encourages practicing CSS styling to customize the appearance of React applications.
Opportunities are given to put design tweaks on the projects and post them in the Scrimba Discord community.
Styling can be controlled with CSS files, including font families, padding, colors and flexbox properties.
Quote: “…I want this to be not only an opportunity to practice playing in the code which is probably why you’re here on scrimba in the first place but also to give you an opportunity to interact with the scrimba community…“
Props
Props are a mechanism for passing data from a parent component to a child component.
Props use a similar concept to attributes in HTML.
Props can be of any JavaScript data type, not just strings.
JSX allows switching into Javascript mode by using curly braces, and in this mode developers can pass props that aren’t of the string data type.
Props can have default values, using props.propertyName || defaultValue if a certain condition exists, react gives the developer the control to conditionally render things on the page.
State
useState is a React hook that allows components to manage and update their own data.
The useState hook returns an array with two elements: the current state value and a function to update it (the “setter” function).
There are two options for what you can pass into the State Setter function. One, is the new version of state. And two, is a callback function.
The callback function receives the old version of state as a parameter.
The useState hook allows developers to make the page dynamic.
Conditional Rendering
Conditional rendering enables displaying different content based on specific conditions.
Different ways to apply conditional rendering are: if/else statements, the ternary operator, and the && (AND) operator.
The ternary operator can be used in JSX, allowing you to write concise conditional logic inline.
React using JavaScript under the hood allows developers to use native Javascript APIs and techniques to help display things on the page.
Side Effects and useEffect
The useEffect hook is used to perform side effects in functional components (e.g., interacting with the browser API, fetching data).
It’s important to clean up side effects when a component unmounts to avoid memory leaks and unexpected behavior.
Returning a function from the useEffect callback allows you to specify cleanup logic.
Focus on Practice and Learning by Doing:
The lesson emphasizes the importance of actively rewriting code and completing challenges to reinforce learning.
Taking quizzes like the one included is scientifically proven to improve the developer’s ability to retain information and recall it at a later time.
Key Quotes Emphasizing Active Learning:
“I really want you to try this challenge to the best of your abilities before you just simply click the button and move on you’ll hear me say it a million times but you really will just be shorting your own education and your own practice if you decide to take the easy way out…“
“…doing that Discovery process is going to be much better for your long-term memory and your skill building in writing react code then it will be to just skip this Challenge and move forward…“
“…get that muscle memory in get the repetitions in and remember to take breaks along the way throughout this course…“
In Summary:
The lesson provides a practical introduction to React development, covering essential concepts and techniques. It places a strong emphasis on active learning through coding challenges and encourages the learner to experiment and explore further.
React Fundamentals: A Concise Overview
### What is React and how does it work at a high level?
React is a JavaScript library for building user interfaces. It allows developers to create dynamic and interactive UIs by breaking them down into reusable components. Under the hood, React manipulates the DOM (Document Object Model) efficiently to update the view when data changes.
### What is `createRoot` and what does the `render` method do?
`createRoot` is a function from the `react-dom/client` library that creates a root for your React application. You pass a DOM node (usually an element with an ID like “root”) to `createRoot`, indicating where React should insert its content. The `render` method, called on the root, then takes a React component and renders it into that DOM node, effectively displaying the UI defined by that component.
### How do you write what looks like HTML inside of JavaScript in React?
React uses JSX (JavaScript XML), a syntax extension to JavaScript. JSX allows you to write HTML-like code within your JavaScript files. This code is then transformed into regular JavaScript function calls by a tool like Babel, ultimately creating the DOM elements that make up your UI.
### How can you set up a React project locally on your machine?
The recommended tool for setting up a React project locally is Vite. You need to have Node.js and npm (Node Package Manager) installed first. Then, you can run the command `npm create vite@latest` in your terminal. This will guide you through a wizard to create a new project, select React as the framework, and choose a variant (like JavaScript). After the project is created, you `cd` into the project directory, run `npm install` to install dependencies, and then `npm run dev` to start a local development server.
### How do you separate parts of your app into different components?
To create a React component, you typically create a new `.jsx` file. You then define a JavaScript function that returns JSX, representing the UI for that component. To use the component in another file (like `index.jsx`), you need to `export` it from its file (usually using `export default`) and `import` it into the other file.
### How can you add styling to your components?
You can style your components using CSS. You can either link an external CSS file or use inline styles. Class names can be applied to JSX elements to connect them to CSS rules defined in your stylesheet.
### What are props and how do you use them to pass data between components?
Props are a way to pass data from a parent component to a child component. They are similar to HTML attributes. You pass props to a component when you use it in JSX, like `<MyComponent name=”John” age={30} />`. Inside the `MyComponent` function, you access these props through the `props` object (e.g., `props.name`, `props.age`). Prop values can be strings, numbers, arrays, objects, or even functions.
### What is state in React and how do you update it?
State is a way for React components to manage and store data that can change over time. You initialize state using the `useState` hook, which returns two values: the current state and a function to update that state (the “state setter”). When you update the state using the state setter, React re-renders the component, reflecting the changes in the UI. When updating state that depends on the previous state value, use the callback function version of the state setter.
React Components: Structure and Functionality
React components are fundamental building blocks for creating user interfaces. They are reusable and composable pieces of code.
Here’s a breakdown of key aspects:
Composability and Reusability: Custom components can encapsulate code, allowing you to render them multiple times throughout a document. For example, a custom component called my awesome navbar can include all the code for a navigation bar, and each time you render this component, you’ll get a copy of the navigation bar. If a change is made to the original component, it is reflected everywhere that component is used.
JSX Syntax: React utilizes JSX, which looks like HTML within JavaScript, to describe the user interface. Although it looks like HTML, it is actually syntactic sugar on top of react.createElement and returns JavaScript objects. These objects describe what React should place on the page.
Pascal Case: Custom components in React must be defined using Pascal case (e.g., TemporaryName). When rendering a custom component, it is typically enclosed in angle brackets, similar to HTML elements (e.g. <TemporaryName />).
Declarative Nature: React is declarative, meaning you describe what should be done, and React handles the how. This contrasts with imperative programming, where you need to specify every step.
React Elements: React components are functions that return React elements. React elements can be thought of as the React version of HTML elements. JSX syntax is converted into calls to react.createElement, which then turns them into JavaScript objects. React interprets these JavaScript objects and turns them into real DOM (Document Object Model) nodes.
Props: React components can receive information in the form of data, and use that to produce reusable components on the page. This is where the concept of “props” comes into play. Props are properties passed down into a component to configure it. Components are not allowed to modify props, as props are immutable or unchangeable.
State: State refers to any values that are managed by the component itself. The user interface is a function of the state of your component. React will only run a component if the props that it’s receiving change or it has a state value that changes.
Fragments: Fragments are a built-in component from React that allow you to group multiple elements without introducing an extra DOM node. They can be written as <Fragment></Fragment> or with a shorthand <></>.
Side Effects: React components should avoid side effects, meaning they should not affect any outside system. An example of a side effect would be making a post request to add an item to a list in a database every time a component runs.
Rendering: When React renders a component, it runs the function of that component. This involves executing the code within the component, such as setting up state, defining functions, and returning JSX.
React State Management: An Overview
State refers to any values that are managed by the component itself. The user interface is a function of the state of the component, and React will run a component if the props that it’s receiving change or it has a state value that changes. In React, you describe what should be done, and React handles the how. All that is required is to keep the data, or state, of the application up-to-date, and React will handle the rest by updating the view and changing parts of the DOM in reaction to the state change.
Key aspects of state management:
State and Re-rendering A component’s primary job is to take input (props) and return what should be displayed on the screen. React re-renders a component when its state changes.
Immutability It is a no-no in React to directly modify the state. Whenever there is a need to change the state, it will never be changed directly.
useState Hook To set up a variable that React will place in the view and re-render whenever that state changes, it is necessary to pull in that function from React. A common way to do this is to import a destructured useState Hook from the React library. This function returns an array where the first value is undefined and the second value is a function.
Updating State The function that is returned from react.useState, if called and provided with a new value, will re-render the page. This will successfully update the state and trigger React to re-render the page with the new state displayed. When setting state, it is possible to pass the new version of state to replace the old version. The other way is to pass a callback function to the setState function; this callback function will return what the new value of state should be and will receive the old version of state as a parameter.
There are tools such as Context, Redux, and Zoo that can help avoid having to pass props many levels down in an application.
React Event Handling: A Comprehensive Guide
Event handling is a crucial aspect of creating interactive web applications in React, allowing users to interact with elements on the screen.
Here’s a breakdown of event handling in React:
Event Listeners: React implements event listeners through properties that are added to React elements.
Naming Convention: Event handler names are camel-cased (e.g., onClick). The syntax is similar to how it is done in HTML.
Function Expressions: Instead of setting the attribute equal to a string of a function, it can be set to a JavaScript expression that you want to run.
Event Object: Event handler functions have access to the event object, which contains information about the event that was fired. The event object can be used to access data from the element that triggered the event.
Adding Event Listeners
Event listeners can be added as properties to React elements.
Instead of using addeventListener to select elements and add a listener, event listeners are added directly in the JSX.
It’s possible to define a function outside of the element and then call it in the element. It’s also possible to define a function directly in the element.
Form Events
Forms have their own internal state-holding ability.
Forms can use the onSubmit event to handle form submissions.
The event.preventDefault() method can be used to prevent the default form submission behavior, such as page refresh.
Form data can be accessed using the FormData API.
Accessibility
When disabling elements, it’s important to also set the aria-disabled property to improve accessibility for users with assistive technologies.
For dynamically rendered content, use aria-live regions to announce updates to assistive technologies.
Controlled vs Uncontrolled Components
A controlled component is one that React is in control of and does reflect the current value of state.
An uncontrolled component is one that React is not in control of and doesn’t reflect the current value of state.
React Props: Component Data Passing
Props in React are a mechanism for passing data from parent components to child components, facilitating the creation of reusable and dynamic user interfaces. Props allow components to receive and utilize data, similar to how parameters are passed into a function.
Key aspects of props passing:
Purpose of Props: Props enable the creation of reusable components by allowing them to receive data and customize their behavior. They are a primary means of achieving reusability in React components, making components more flexible and adaptable.
Passing Props: Props are passed to components in a way that is similar to passing attributes to HTML elements. For example, if you have a component, you can pass a prop like this: <MyComponent title=”Hello” />.
Custom Props: In React, custom props can be defined and passed to components. This differs from HTML elements, where the attributes are predefined by the HTML specification. With React, you have the flexibility to choose the names and types of props that your components accept.
Receiving Props: Inside a component, props are received as an object. This object contains all the properties that were passed to the component. It is common to name this object props, but this can be named whatever you want. The data on the props object can be accessed with regular JavaScript using props.name, props.title, and so on.
Data Types: Props can accept any JavaScript data type, including strings, numbers, arrays, objects, and even functions. This flexibility allows you to pass complex data structures to components and control their behavior in various ways.
Immutability: Components are not allowed to modify props, as props are immutable or unchangeable.
One-Way Data Flow: Data can only flow downwards, from a parent component down to its children.
Object Destructuring: Object destructuring can be used to extract values from the props object directly within a component. Instead of accessing props using props.name, you can destructure the object to access the name directly const { name } = props;.
Spread Syntax: The object spread notation can be used to pass all properties of an object as props to a component. For example, if you have an object called entry, you can pass all its properties as props to a component like this: <MyComponent {…entry} />. React will take all of the individual properties of the entry object and create a new prop that matches each of the properties of this entry object.
Props enable developers to create modular, reusable, and data-driven components, which are key to building complex and maintainable React applications.
Code Refactoring: Improving Software Structure and Maintainability
Code refactoring is the process of restructuring existing computer code without changing its external behavior. It is intended to improve the nonfunctional attributes of the software.
Here are key considerations for code refactoring, based on the sources:
Reasons for Refactoring: One reason to refactor code is to clean it up and make it easier to reason about. Refactoring can reduce the amount of code in a component. After refactoring, code should be easier to maintain.
Componentization: During refactoring, it may be helpful to move sections of code into their own components. This can make the code easier to reason about.
State Considerations: Refactoring may require critical thinking about how to communicate between parent and child components. This includes deciding whether state needs to move down to a child component or live in the parent component.
Single Direction of Data Flow: When refactoring, it is important to set up a React-like way where there is a single source of truth and data flows in one direction, being passed down through props to the components that need it.
State Location: It is best practice to keep state as locally defined as it needs to be.
Derived State: Take advantage of derived state (state that is computed or derived from existing state) to reduce the need for useState. Ask whether a value needs to be saved in state, or whether it can be derived, and avoid synchronizing data in a side effect using useEffect.
Accessibility: While refactoring, keep accessibility in mind when choosing which elements to put on the page. Also, it is important to consider how React is dynamically rendering or removing things from the page, and how to cater the code to those needs.
Learn React JS – Full Beginner’s Tutorial (2024) & Practice Projects
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The text comprises excerpts from a discussion about Pakistan’s history and its current political and social landscape. Participants analyze the country’s formation, highlighting the role of the military and its influence on political decisions. The discussion explores the interplay between religious ideology, national identity, and economic factors in shaping Pakistan’s trajectory. Concerns about political instability, economic challenges, and potential internal conflict are central themes. The speakers offer various perspectives on Pakistan’s past and future, debating potential solutions and the possibility of democratic reform.
Pakistan: A Nation Under Scrutiny
Study Guide
Quiz
Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.
What is the “gairjin state metaphor,” and how is it used to understand the need for defense in the source material?
According to the text, how did Pakistan’s nuclear weapons capability affect its domestic and international politics?
What is the connection between the ideology of the “fort of Islam” and the recruitment of Pakistan’s armed forces?
How did America’s relationship with Pakistan change after the Korean War, according to the text?
Explain the 1965 war with India according to the perspective of the military leadership presented in the text.
How does the source material describe the concept of a “National Security State” and how does it relate to the military’s involvement in Pakistan?
What role does fear play in maintaining the military’s position and power in Pakistan, according to the source?
According to the text, how have the military and politicians in Pakistan used the threat of India to consolidate power?
What is meant by the term “hybrid rule” in the context of Pakistani politics, and what are its perceived consequences?
What is the argument made for a caretaker government of “the best minds” and what prompts this recommendation?
Quiz Answer Key
The “gairjin state metaphor” suggests that a state needs to maintain a strong defense due to the internal threat it perceives. This defense is not just physical but also ideological, aiming to protect the state’s values and territory.
Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program created a false sense of invulnerability and led to financial bankruptcy. It also influenced domestic politics by making it a factor in political direction and an incorrect statement of its dominance.
The “fort of Islam” ideology is used to justify the recruitment and expansion of the army. It is not an actual colony, but rather an idea used for nationalistic and ideological purposes.
After the Korean War, America shifted its focus from India to Pakistan due to India’s non-alignment policy. This shift led to a military alliance and increased aid to Pakistan.
The 1965 war with India was initiated by Pakistan with an attack in the Rann of Kutch, followed by sending Mujahideen to Kashmir, believing India would not attack. The war was preceded by a planned scheme which the military did not share with all senior military officials.
The text describes a “National Security State” as one where the military, due to perceived threats, extends its power beyond defense, influencing political leadership, education, and business. The military uses fear as a way to hold onto its place in society.
The constant fear of external threats, particularly from India, is used to justify a strong military and to discourage questions about its role and authority. This is maintained through continuous narratives of war.
Both politicians and the military have used the fear of India to their advantage. This is used to justify military dominance, gain political support, and silence opposition.
“Hybrid rule” refers to a system that combines civilian and military control, often leading to instability and a lack of success. The military is seen as dominating through this form of governance.
The idea of a caretaker government of “the best minds” is proposed as a solution to Pakistan’s corruption and inefficiency. The suggestion comes from a belief that the current democratic system has failed and that expert leadership is needed to rectify the situation.
Essay Questions
Instructions: Choose one of the following questions to answer in a well-organized, multi-paragraph essay. Provide specific examples and reference the provided source material to support your argument.
Analyze the role of ideology in the formation and function of the Pakistani state, as discussed in the source material. How has ideology been used to define national identity, justify military actions, and shape domestic policy?
Discuss the complex relationship between the military and civilian leadership in Pakistan, according to the text. How has this relationship evolved over time, and what impact has it had on the country’s political, economic, and social development?
Critically evaluate the argument that Pakistan is a “garrison state” based on the provided material. What evidence supports or refutes this claim, and what are the implications of viewing Pakistan through this lens?
Explore the role of external actors, such as the United States and India, in shaping Pakistan’s political and military history, as presented in the text. How have these external relationships influenced Pakistan’s domestic policies and international relations?
What is the argument made about the long term economic health of Pakistan and the possible future trajectories of the nation according to the source?
Glossary of Key Terms
Gairjin State Metaphor: A concept used to describe a state that is always in a defensive posture, focused on internal and external threats to its existence and values.
Fort of Islam: An ideological concept used in the source to justify the expansion of the Pakistani military and nationalistic fervor.
Mujahideen: Fighters, specifically referring to those sent to Kashmir by Pakistan to fight in the 1965 war.
National Security State: A state in which the military and security apparatus play a dominant role in politics, economics, and society, often due to perceived threats.
Hybrid Rule: A form of governance in Pakistan where there is a mix of military and civilian involvement, often with the military holding the dominant position.
Caretaker Government: A proposed system where a government is formed from the best minds of the nation to address its core issues. It is suggested due to the failure of traditional democratic systems.
Kyarjan State: A term used by an American political scientist to describe a state that has a focus on aggression to protect its own interests.
Balconization: The division of a country into several smaller states, often due to internal conflicts.
Line of Control: The border between the Indian and Pakistani controlled parts of Kashmir.
Porous border: A border that is open to the movement of people and goods.
Rentier state: A country that relies on the export of natural resources as its primary source of income.
Westphalia: Treaty that established modern concepts of state sovereignty.
Ethicism: A focus on ethnic or cultural identity as the primary basis for political and national identity.
Pakistan: A Critical Analysis
Okay, here is a detailed briefing document reviewing the main themes and important ideas from the provided text:
Briefing Document: Analysis of “Pasted Text” on Pakistan
Introduction
This document analyzes a transcribed discussion, likely from a podcast or panel, focusing on the history, politics, and societal issues of Pakistan. The discussion features multiple speakers offering diverse perspectives on the country’s past and present. The document highlights key themes and quotes that reveal core tensions within Pakistan’s development.
Main Themes and Important Ideas
The “Garrison State” and the Military’s Dominance:
Concept: The discussion repeatedly returns to the idea of Pakistan as a “Garrison State” or “National Security State,” where the military holds immense power, often at the expense of civilian institutions.
Characteristics: This includes military control over businesses, a culture of fear perpetuated to maintain the army’s power, and a tendency to view the world through the lens of national security threats.
Quote: “…the military is Van of D Major what do they say tripnews in pakistan And he runs many businesses and his The claim is also that our contract These are the ones in defense, we are the owners If we do then the characteristics of the state isn’t it just the fear of foreigners it also K Democracy Means Nothing Effective”
Ideology and the Justification of Military Power:
Use of Ideology: The Pakistani military has used different ideologies, including Islam and anti-communism, to justify its actions and expand its influence.
Defense vs. Expansion: The discussion reveals how these ideological narratives have been used for both defense and expansionist goals, with the state positioned as a defender of an ideological border.
Quote: “The ideology has been used a lot Wherever he raised his army, Well, Balajasti has been there, of course it is not Islam ho means the fort of Islam which we are General There was no colony in the name of the fort of Islam I made it but take another idea”
The Illusion of Nuclear Power and National Security:
False Sense of Security: Pakistan’s acquisition of nuclear weapons was initially seen as a guarantee of safety and a way to gain international respect but has proven to be an illusion.
Economic impact: The speakers discuss how the nuclear program has led to economic devastation and has not changed Pakistan’s strategic dependence and vulnerability.
Quote: “The world’s only nuclear power, now we are one We have grown so much that no dirty eye can stop us from seeing us… This After getting involved in dillusion we You are financially bankrupt my friend”
The US-Pakistan Relationship: From Alliance to Dependence:
Cold War Alliance: The discussion highlights the close alliance between the US and Pakistan during the Cold War, where Pakistan was seen as a bulwark against communism.
American influence: The US played a role in the creation of Pakistan and heavily influenced politics in the country through funding and military support.
Shifting Alliances: This relationship has shifted over time, with Pakistan’s support being used in the US war on terror, and the country ultimately falling out of favor due to its internal instability and external policies.
Quote: “Keiji America played a lot in the creation of Pakistan who has played the leading role this is exactly like this Work Co-operation which was the American understanding… Then America said friend it’s not India Give Let’s Try Pakistan and Pakistan Then they started giving it a military air”
The Kashmir Conflict and its Impact on Pakistan’s Domestic and Foreign Policy:
Root Cause: The discussion recognizes Kashmir as a central issue shaping Pakistan’s identity and its relationship with India.
Proxy War: The use of mujahideen in Kashmir is discussed as a tactic leading to an escalation in tensions and the distortion of truth.
Quote: “Later we sent our Mujahideen to Kashmir… You can get the stomach by sending Mujahideen to Kashmir Think about this, India He is from Lahore, Pakistan, he is not”
Internal Conflicts and Fragility of the State:
Weak civilian government: Civilian governments have been historically weak and prone to military intervention
Lack of national unity: The discussions reveal deep-seated divisions within Pakistani society, including ethnic, regional, and sectarian tensions, that undermine the state’s stability.
Quote: “Pakistan was created by all the feudal lords And rule in Pakistan after 47 till 58 was going towards civil war”
The Role of Land Ownership and Socio-Economic Inequality:
Feudal System: The persistence of large land ownership is seen as a factor in maintaining a feudal power structure that undermines democracy and development.
Lack of land reform: Land reform was implemented in India but not Pakistan. This difference is seen as a reason for the divergent trajectories of both nations
Quote: “Reforms are needed, and no matter which came from the democratic consensus building or The way you said maybe one of the tutors D Corner formed a government of some competitive people… because when If Pakistan is in power then land reforms It happened in India, not in Pakistan”
The Failure of Democracy and the Need for Reform:
Flawed System: Speakers discuss how democracy has failed to deliver stability and progress and argue for a technocratic government to oversee reforms.
Corruption and Mismanagement: Concerns are raised about corruption and mismanagement, along with a need to prioritize the rule of law.
Quote: “i Think Pakistan Needs Care Tech taker government in which de best mines you like scholars me ok i can understand people disagree with me but having seen them Democracy has been lost”
The Importance of Truth, Education, and Self-Reflection:
Honest self assessment: The speakers highlight the need for a critical evaluation of the past and present of Pakistan, free from distortion and propaganda.
Reform in education: The speakers highlight that the way that education is conducted, and that the state ideology is passed onto the next generation via education needs to be examined.
Quote: “The real thing is that this and for this the whole Where the friend is not just a fortune because through my education also If there is a connection then you will see whatever comes your way from which direction the education was put and this This is not a matter of today and this is Jiya Allak’s”
The Path Forward:
Regional Cooperation: Some speakers argue for a peaceful relationship with India with enhanced trade and cooperation.
Structural Changes: The need for structural changes, including democratic reforms and socio-economic equality is discussed.
Quote: “Pakistan should get bail Its patterns have done them all out now About there was support which was money If you do this, it is on dollars and this and china this is that everybody is fed up with this Unreliable nature of the Pakistani ruling”
Conclusion
The discussion reveals a profound sense of unease and a critical analysis of the historical and current state of Pakistan. The speakers discuss a litany of issues including military dominance, the failure of democracy, economic challenges, and the complex relationship between ideology, power and national security. The overwhelming sentiment is that Pakistan needs a new direction, one rooted in truth, self-reflection, and a commitment to meaningful reform and regional stability.
Pakistan: Garrison State and its Future
FAQ: Key Themes and Ideas from the Provided Text
1. What is the “Garrison State” metaphor and how does it apply to Pakistan? The “Garrison State” metaphor, as discussed in the text, describes a state where the military holds a dominant position, not just in defense but also in economic and political life. This is often justified by a perceived need for security, creating a state of constant fear and vulnerability. In Pakistan, this manifests as the military’s significant role in business, education, and overall governance. This has resulted in an overdeveloped military establishment that exerts considerable influence across all sectors of society. The idea is that a constant state of fear is created (by external threats), so citizens are more willing to support an outsized military.
2. How has ideology, particularly religious ideology, influenced the Pakistani state and its military? Ideology, particularly religious ideology, has played a significant role in shaping the Pakistani state and its military. The text discusses the concept of “fort of Islam,” implying that the military was established not only for defense but also to uphold and expand an ideological vision. This has been used as a justification for military actions and has reinforced the idea that Pakistan exists to defend a specific ideology. This has led to a system that is different from a normal state that protects its territory. Instead, it’s a system based on ideological interest and expansion of that ideology, and it has made Pakistan susceptible to being influenced by outside powers.
3. How did the relationship between Pakistan and the United States develop, and what were its consequences? The relationship between Pakistan and the US evolved from a strategic alliance against communism during the Cold War. Initially, the US sought a partner in South Asia to counter the Soviet Union and found common ground with Pakistan. This resulted in military and economic aid to Pakistan. However, this alliance was primarily about strategic interests, with the US focusing on containing communism rather than supporting Pakistan’s development. The text highlights instances where the US made it clear that the weapons were for defense against communism and not for use against India, despite Pakistan’s intentions. The reliance on this relationship has led to Pakistan’s military adventures and a dependency on foreign powers, and this complicated relationship has often prioritized military interests over other aspects of nation-building. The aid was primarily used by the military, and the state’s structure did not allow for the establishment of a strong civilian base.
4. How has the pursuit of nuclear weapons impacted Pakistan’s domestic and international position? The acquisition of nuclear weapons by Pakistan is portrayed as a point of national pride and a symbol of power, yet it has also had negative consequences. It has led to a state of delusion about Pakistan’s role on the world stage. It has been unable to use this as an advantage in global politics due to the economic implications. The illusion of being an unchallengeable nuclear power has masked its financial weaknesses, and it has not prevented the country from facing challenges like political instability, financial bankruptcy, and internal strife. The text argues that rather than making Pakistan a powerful player, nuclear weapons have led to a false sense of security, and it has done little to improve conditions within the state, and it has isolated Pakistan from international cooperation.
5. What is the “Kyarjan State” concept and how has it affected Pakistani society? The “Kyarjan State” concept, as mentioned in the text, describes a state of permanent aggression where the state constantly reinforces fear among the population and the need for military protection. It promotes the idea that only the military can protect society and has made people dependent on the military. This is what has happened in Pakistan, and it means that the military has had access to huge financial benefits and that the military is involved in numerous business enterprises. This constant state of fear has also hindered progress by making people more accepting of military rule. Also, this narrative about an external threat prevents scrutiny of the military and diverts attention away from the actual problems facing the country. This has made it impossible to develop other important parts of the society.
6. How has the military’s involvement in Pakistani politics affected the country’s democratic process? The military’s extensive involvement in Pakistani politics has profoundly undermined the democratic process. The text describes instances of military intervention in politics, including the imposition of martial law and the manipulation of civilian governments. This has created a situation where civilian rule is often subordinate to the military and the state is controlled through force rather than democracy. Even when civilian leaders are in power, they are under the constant threat of military interference. The text shows how this constant interference has undermined civilian institutions and prevented the establishment of a truly democratic system, and this system is not only military vs. civilian, but also civilian vs. civilian.
7. What are some of the key historical events or periods that have shaped Pakistan’s current state? Several historical events have shaped Pakistan’s current state, including the partition of India in 1947, the military alliances in the 1950s, the wars with India, the nuclear weapons program in the late 1990s, and more recently, the war on terror, the hybrid governments, and the rise of Imran Khan. These events highlight a pattern of military intervention in politics, a reliance on foreign powers, and a failure to develop strong civilian institutions. Also, the loss of East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1971 also highlights the internal tensions and weaknesses of the Pakistani state, and this created a pattern of an unstable and violent state, and each event is tied to the Garrison state’s inability to create a peaceful and stable government.
8. What are the potential future scenarios for Pakistan, and is there hope for positive change? The future of Pakistan is uncertain, with the text suggesting multiple potential scenarios. These include a continued decline into economic insolvency and civil unrest, a further reinforcement of the military’s grip on power, or a possible Balkanization of the country. While the situation seems dire, there is still hope for positive change. The text emphasizes the need for a national consensus, the empowerment of civil society, and meaningful reforms in sectors like land and education. The idea of a “Cabinet of Talents” is floated as a potential solution, however, it is argued that this has already been tried, as it was the model used to create the current state. The key is that there is a strong civilian base of support, not a few people at the top. The need is for open dialogue and debate, similar to the discussions being held in the Black Hole to find the path forward for the country, and this will need the cooperation of all citizens.
Pakistan’s Troubled Trajectory: From Partition to Present
Okay, here is a detailed timeline and cast of characters based on the provided text:
Timeline of Main Events:
1947:
Partition of India and creation of Pakistan. The seeds of future conflict were sown, with the Muslim League positioning itself in the service of US interests against the Soviet Union and communism.
Initial discussions of using Pakistan as an ideological and geographical bulwark against communism.
Discussions about Pakistan’s strategic value to the West because of its location and the interest in utilizing Pakistan as an ally in South Asia due to its position bordering the Soviet Union and its access to oil routes.
Pakistan’s first leaders, the landed elite and military hierarchy, took power. Pakistan was left with little civil administrative capacity and this led the military to increase its power.
Pakistan is used as an anti-communist countermeasure by the United States
1947-48:
First Kashmir War begins.
General Gracy, the British commander of Pakistan’s army, is criticized for his perceived lack of aggression in the conflict.
1949:
The Objective Resolution of 1949 established that sovereignty over the universe belongs to God but is delegated to the people of Pakistan, and Sharia Law is established as the law of the land. This laid the groundwork for the continued ideological positioning of the state
Early 1950s:
Pakistan seeks alliances with the West, particularly the United States, leveraging its anti-communist stance.
The US was originally hesitant to ally with Pakistan, but changes its view after Nehru and India’s non-aligned movement takes shape.
Pakistan received military aid from the US, officially meant for defense against communism, but not to be used against India except in the event of a conflict India instigated.
Pakistan joins CENTO and SEATO, cementing military alliances with the US and the West.
1955-1958:
Sikander Mirza tries to maintain political power against an increasing tide of civilian representation, with political unrest increasing in the lead up to 1958
1956:
Pakistan declares itself a republic in its first constitution.
1957-58
The National Party is formed as an army party that seeks to displace the relatively secular Muslim League party and its associated civilian interests.
Political instability increases in Pakistan leading to military intervention.
1958:
First Martial Law imposed by Ayub Khan. The imposition is initially popular with civilians who are frustrated by existing political corruption.
The army begins to take control of businesses and institutions in Pakistan.
Ayub Khan declares the existing civilian government as untrustworthy, claiming they were “blood sucking” black marketers who had betrayed the country.
1960s:
Ayub Khan institutes Sharia law and reforms women’s rights in marriage and inheritance.
Ayub Khan creates a modernizing government with the goal of creating a strong middle class with investment opportunities.
Pakistan launches an infiltration operation into the Rann of Kutch which results in military skirmishes with India.
General Asghar Khan learns of the plan and resigns, stating that he was not informed or consulted.
1965:
Second war with India, initiated by Pakistan, who sent Mujahideen to Kashmir.
Air Marshal Asghar Khan resigns in protest over the war’s management and failure to include him in the decision making.
Pakistan fails to meet expectations in the conflict, due to lack of preparation and intelligence.
1971:
East Pakistan secedes from Pakistan and becomes Bangladesh.
1970s – 1980s
Zia-ul-Haq comes to power, starting a period of renewed Islamic focus, where the army begins to increase its power.
1988:
Benazir Bhutto becomes Prime Minister of Pakistan.
1989:
Rajiv Gandhi and Benazir Bhutto meet at a conference in Islamabad, seeking to improve relations.
Religious parties, such as Jamaat-e-Islami, protest the meeting and call for the continuation of conflict with India.
Benazir Bhutto visits Azad Kashmir and claims she will rule India for 1000 years.
1990s:
Nawaz Sharif continues political maneuvering with anti-Indian sentiment as political capital.
1998:
Pakistan conducts nuclear weapons tests. This leads to a belief in invincibility that is unfounded, as Pakistan is bankrupt.
Pakistan is no longer taken seriously by the international community.
Late 1990s:
Nawaz Sharif attempts rapprochement with India, visiting Lahore, and is met by Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee, but this attempt falls apart.
1999:
Nawaz Sharif is removed from power by a military coup.
Pakistan initiates Kargil conflict with India.
Early 2000s:
Musharraf comes to power, continuing the tradition of military rulers in Pakistan
Terror attacks and the war on terror lead to a crisis of legitimacy for Pakistan in the international arena.
2010s:
The 18th amendment is completed in Pakistan.
Pakistan continues to face challenges with political instability and the relationship between the civilian government and the army.
Increased tensions with India lead to frequent border skirmishes and conflict.
China becomes a major ally.
2019
Pakistan was told that it would be exporting energy by this date.
Recent Years:
Hybrid rule emerges in Pakistan, where the military and civilian government share power.
There is a sense that the army is weakened due to its failures in governing.
Imran Khan comes to power.
There are calls to form a technocratic government.
Cast of Characters:
Ayub Khan: General who seized power in 1958, imposing martial law. He was seen as a modernizing influence. He instituted reforms in law and women’s rights, but also consolidated military power. His rule was originally popular but later became unpopular.
Jinnah (Quaid-e-Azam): Leader of the Muslim League and founder of Pakistan. He sought to convince the US that Pakistan would be a valuable ally in South Asia, citing Pakistan’s Muslim identity and geographic location near the Soviet Union.
Jawaharlal Nehru: First Prime Minister of India. Leader of the non-aligned movement, which put India at odds with the United States.
Nawaz Sharif: Prime Minister of Pakistan, who was removed in a coup and attempted peace with India.
Musharraf: General who came to power after the removal of Nawaz Sharif.
Benazir Bhutto: Prime Minister of Pakistan, who attempted rapprochement with India but also engaged in anti-India rhetoric.
Rajiv Gandhi: Prime Minister of India who attempted rapprochement with Pakistan.
General Gracy: British general who was in command of the Pakistan military during the Kashmir War.
Asghar Khan: Air Marshal who resigned in protest over the 1965 war with India, as he was not consulted on the plans.
Sikander Mirza: Pakistani politician who was the Governor General of Pakistan. He tried to hold on to power.
Ghulam Mohammed: Governor General of Pakistan, appointed by the British Queen.
Liaquat Ali Khan: First Prime Minister of Pakistan. His death led to a leadership void.
Justice Munir: Involved in the Pakistani government’s decision making after its first assembly is dissolved.
Vajpayee: Prime Minister of India who engaged in peace talks with Nawaz Sharif.
Imran Khan: Later Prime Minister of Pakistan who was removed from office.
This timeline and character list should provide a good overview of the main events and people discussed in your source. Let me know if you have other questions.
Pakistan’s Army: Power, Politics, and Society
Pakistan’s army plays a significant role in the country’s history, politics, and society [1-3]. Here are some key aspects of the army discussed in the sources:
Defense and Ideology: The army is seen as the defender of the country’s borders and ideology [2]. This includes an ideological or religious aspect, where the army is seen as expanding its influence and protecting the state [1, 2]. The concept of “logical borders” and the use of ideology to recruit and maintain the army are mentioned [2].
Garrison State: Pakistan is described as having a “garrison state” mentality, where the military is a major force [3]. The army has a strong influence on the country’s political and economic systems [1, 3]. The idea of a “kyarjan state” is presented, where specialists on violence claim that only the military can save society [3]. This also involves the military’s control over businesses and its claim to ownership of defense contracts [3].
Historical Role: The army has been involved in politics since the creation of Pakistan [4, 5]. The army’s involvement is linked to a lack of strong civilian institutions and the army’s role in modernizing the country [5]. The army is seen as a powerful institution that can manipulate political situations [6].
Relationship with the US: The army has had a close relationship with the United States since the early days of Pakistan, which includes military alliances and aid [4]. This relationship was established to counter communism, and the US has provided military support [4].
Nuclear Weapons: Pakistan’s acquisition of nuclear weapons is a significant factor in its national identity and defense strategy [7]. The idea that nuclear weapons would deter conflict and reduce the need for conventional weapons was initially propagated, but the reality is that conventional weapons have not been reduced [8].
Public Perception: The army has enjoyed public support at times, but this support can wane when the army is perceived to be interfering in politics [9]. There’s a narrative that the army protects the country from external threats, and this has been used to maintain public support and justify the army’s size and influence [3, 8]. However, there is also public awareness that this narrative has been created to maintain fear [10].
Internal Conflicts and Operations: The Pakistani army has been involved in conflicts within the country, including in Afghanistan [7]. They have also been involved in operations in Kashmir [1, 11]. The army has also faced internal criticism for its actions and involvement in politics [12].
Economic Role: The army is involved in various businesses in Pakistan [3]. It also receives significant economic and military aid [9]. There is an argument that Pakistan is economically insolvent [13].
Civil-Military Relations: The relationship between the army and civilian leaders has been fraught with tension, with the army often intervening in politics [5, 6]. There’s an ongoing debate about the primacy of civilian rule versus the influence of the military [6, 14].
Reforms: There is discussion about the need for reforms in Pakistan, including land reforms [15]. Some believe that these reforms are necessary to address the country’s problems [15]. However, the existing power structure is seen as resistant to such reforms [14].
Modernization: The army is seen as a modernizing force in Pakistan, with the idea that it can play a historical role in leading society and bringing education to the masses [5]. However, if the army stays in politics for too long it becomes “craftier” [6].
Overall, the sources paint a picture of the Pakistan army as a complex and powerful institution with a deep impact on various aspects of the country. The army’s role in defense, politics, and the economy is frequently discussed. There’s also a sense that this influence needs to be addressed for Pakistan to move forward [14, 16].
Pakistan’s Garrison State: Military Dominance and its Consequences
The concept of a “garrison state” is used to describe Pakistan, highlighting the significant role and influence of the military in the country’s political, economic, and social structures [1, 2]. Here’s a breakdown of the key aspects of the garrison state in Pakistan, as described in the sources:
Military Dominance: The core idea of a garrison state is that the military is the dominant institution in the country [2]. This dominance extends beyond defense to include significant influence on political decision-making and economic activities [2, 3].
“Kyarjan State” Concept: The term “kyarjan state” is used to describe the idea that specialists on violence, i.e., the military, believe that only they can save society [2]. This belief justifies the military’s control and intervention in various aspects of governance [2].
Defense and Ideology: The army sees itself as the protector of the state’s “logical borders” and its ideology [1, 4]. This ideological role is used to justify the army’s actions and its expansion of influence within the country and sometimes beyond [1].
Business and Economic Control: The military in Pakistan has significant economic interests and is involved in many businesses [2]. They also claim ownership of defense contracts, further solidifying their economic and political power [2].
Justification of Power: The military uses the idea of external threats and internal instability to justify its large size, budget, and its interventionist role in politics [2, 5]. They cultivate a constant sense of danger to maintain public support and suppress dissent [2, 5].
Fear and Control: A key characteristic of the garrison state is the instillation of fear in the population, which makes them more willing to accept military rule and sacrifice for the military [2]. This constant fear is used to prevent people from questioning the army’s power and policies [2, 5].
Suppression of Democracy: In a garrison state, democracy is often undermined or made ineffective [2]. The military’s influence limits the power of civilian institutions and politicians [2, 6]. This can lead to a cycle of military interventions and a lack of a strong, functioning civilian government [6, 7].
Historical Context: The garrison state concept has historical roots in Pakistan, with the military becoming increasingly involved in politics and governance over time [3, 6]. The army’s involvement has been linked to the lack of strong civilian institutions and their role in modernizing the country [3, 6].
Consequences: The garrison state has contributed to a cycle of instability and a lack of effective governance [2, 6]. The constant focus on military spending and control has led to neglect of other important sectors, like education and the economy [5, 8].
Civilian Leadership: The sources highlight the weakness of civilian leadership, suggesting that they have not developed the capacity to create a parallel structure to challenge military dominance. This has allowed the military to continue its interventions in political and economic affairs [9, 10].
In summary, the “garrison state” in Pakistan refers to a situation where the military is not just a defense force, but a dominant power that controls the political and economic landscape, often at the expense of democracy and civilian rule [1, 2]. The concept highlights a deep-seated pattern of military intervention, justified through a narrative of threat and the necessity of military control [2, 5]
Pakistan’s Nuclear Program: Pride, Delusion, and Peril
Pakistan’s acquisition and deployment of nuclear weapons is a significant topic discussed in the sources, impacting its national identity, defense strategy, and international relations. Here’s an overview of the key points:
National Pride and Security: The development of nuclear weapons was seen as a major achievement for Pakistan, fostering a sense of national pride [1]. It was also viewed as a crucial step in ensuring the country’s security, particularly in the face of perceived threats from its neighbors and other world powers [1]. The idea was that having nuclear weapons would deter potential aggressors.
Incorrect Statement: It’s noted that calling Pakistan “the world’s only nuclear power” was an incorrect statement, but it became a factor in turning the direction of politics in the world [1]. The sources also discuss the perception that Pakistan, as a nuclear power, had “grown so much that no dirty eye can stop us from seeing us,” indicating a sense of invincibility and deterrence [1].
Deterrence and Defense: The main idea behind acquiring nuclear weapons was to act as a deterrent against conventional attacks, particularly from India. It was believed that nuclear weapons would make large-scale wars unnecessary or less likely [2]. There was a notion that with nuclear capability, the need for conventional weapons would be reduced [2].
Delivery System: The sources emphasize that having a nuclear weapon isn’t enough; it’s the delivery system that matters [1]. The focus isn’t just on the weapon itself, but on the weapon system that delivers it. Pakistan’s nuclear capabilities are compared to those of the United States, France, and England, with the conclusion that its delivery systems are not comparable [1].
Delusion of Power: Despite the nuclear capability, there’s a criticism that Pakistan became delusional about its power. The sources argue that the country’s leaders wrongly believed that nuclear weapons would allow them to “throw our weight in world politics” [1]. This led to a state of financial bankruptcy and a weakening of the country’s international standing [1].
Economic Consequences: The pursuit of nuclear weapons, along with other military expenditures, is linked to Pakistan’s economic problems. There is a recognition that Pakistan has become “financially bankrupt,” and that the resources spent on nuclear weapons could have been used elsewhere [1].
Narrative and Deception: The sources discuss a narrative that was propagated, stating that after the creation of the atom bomb, conventional weapons would be less necessary [2]. The reality, however, is that conventional weapons were not reduced [2]. This shows how the nuclear program was used to deceive the public and maintain the military’s power.
Public Opinion: The public was led to believe that the atom bomb would lead to security and a reduction in the need for conventional warfare. However, this was not the case as conventional weapons were not reduced [2]. The sources point out that when the atom bomb was made, a narrative was created to control public opinion, making people more accepting of the military and their decisions [2].
International Perception: Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program is viewed with concern by the international community, with the fear that these weapons could fall into the wrong hands [3]. There are mentions of international concerns and potential consequences of Pakistan’s nuclear capabilities, including fear of the weapons being used irresponsibly or falling into the hands of terrorists [3].
In summary, Pakistan’s nuclear weapons program was initially seen as a source of national pride and a tool for deterrence, but it also led to a state of delusion about the country’s power, significant economic challenges, and international concerns. The program was part of a narrative that was used to maintain the military’s influence and control.
Pakistan’s Political Instability
Political instability in Pakistan is a recurring theme in the sources, with various factors contributing to a complex and volatile situation. Here’s a breakdown of the key aspects of political instability as discussed in the sources:
Civil-Military Relations: A significant cause of political instability is the uneasy relationship between the civilian government and the military. The military has historically intervened in politics, often undermining civilian rule and democratic processes [1-3]. This constant tension between the two has led to frequent changes in government and a lack of consistent policies. The sources note that the army has been involved in politics since the creation of Pakistan [1, 4].
Military Interventions: The sources describe multiple instances where the military has directly taken control of the government through coups, further disrupting the political process [3, 5]. This has created a cycle of military rule followed by attempts at civilian government, often leading to further instability. The army’s involvement in politics has been linked to the lack of strong civilian institutions [6].
Weak Civilian Institutions: The lack of robust and independent civilian institutions is another critical factor contributing to political instability [6]. Weak political parties, a corrupt bureaucracy, and an ineffective judiciary make it difficult for the country to establish a stable and functioning democracy. The absence of a strong middle class also plays a role, as this class often provides the backbone of stable democracies [6].
Ideological Conflicts: The sources indicate that ideological divisions within the country have also contributed to instability. The use of religion and ideology in politics has been a divisive factor, making it difficult to achieve a national consensus [1, 7, 8]. There have been internal conflicts, such as the fight between communism and Islam, that have shaped the country’s political landscape [7].
Economic Instability:Economic challenges, including financial bankruptcy and a reliance on foreign aid, have further exacerbated political instability [9, 10]. The country’s economic woes make it vulnerable to external pressures and internal unrest. Pakistan’s economic instability is also linked to the high spending on the military and nuclear weapons [9, 11].
Regional and Ethnic Tensions: The sources discuss regional and ethnic tensions that have contributed to the country’s instability [12, 13]. These tensions are sometimes exploited by political actors, further fueling divisions and unrest. The uneven development of the country, with some regions benefiting more than others, is also mentioned [14].
Public Disillusionment: There is a sense of public disillusionment with the political system, with many people feeling that the government is not serving their interests [11, 12, 15]. This has led to a lack of trust in political leaders and institutions, creating a space for instability and radical change. The constant fear of external threats that is instilled by the military also serves to control public opinion and suppress dissent [2, 16].
Lack of Consensus: The sources indicate a lack of consensus among the political elite on the way forward, with different factions pursuing their own interests [17]. This lack of unity makes it difficult for the country to address its challenges.
External Influences: External factors such as the involvement of the US in the creation of Pakistan, and the US-Pakistan relationship are noted as contributing factors to the ongoing instability [4]. The influence of external powers has also contributed to political instability, with foreign actors having their own agendas and using Pakistan for their own purposes [4, 11].
Hybrid Regimes: The concept of “hybrid regimes,” where the military and civilian governments share power, is also mentioned as a source of instability [18]. These arrangements are often short-lived and do not lead to lasting stability, indicating that power-sharing is not a successful long-term solution.
Failure to Learn from History: The sources also suggest that Pakistan has a pattern of repeating the same mistakes and failing to learn from its history [18]. This lack of institutional learning contributes to the ongoing political instability and inability to establish a stable political system.
In summary, political instability in Pakistan is a result of a combination of factors, including the tension between the military and civilian government, weak institutions, ideological divisions, economic woes, regional tensions, public disillusionment, and the constant interference of external actors. The country has had difficulty breaking a cycle of military interventions, and has struggled to establish a functional democracy.
Land Reform in Pakistan: A History of Resistance
Land reform in Pakistan is a complex issue with historical, social, and political dimensions, and it is discussed in the sources as a potential area for reform but also as an area where change has been resisted. Here’s a summary of how land reform is presented in the sources:
Lack of Implementation: The sources note that unlike India, Pakistan has not implemented significant land reforms [1]. This is mentioned as a factor contributing to the country’s current socio-political problems. The absence of land reforms is a significant issue that has been left unaddressed [1].
Feudal System: The sources suggest that the existing land ownership structure is dominated by feudal lords who have significant political and economic power [2]. These powerful landowners have historically resisted land reforms that might threaten their privileged position. The power of these feudal lords is a major impediment to equitable land distribution.
Uneven Development: The sources note that the absence of land reform has contributed to uneven development in the country [3]. Some regions, like Punjab, have benefited from the existing power structures, while others, like Sindh and Balochistan, have been marginalized [3]. This unequal development is a direct result of the existing land ownership system.
Political Resistance: The existing political and economic power of large landowners means there is consistent resistance to any meaningful reform. The political clout of these feudal lords makes any significant land reform difficult. Any political change will have to overcome this powerful group [1].
Social and Economic Consequences: The absence of land reform has led to social inequalities, with a vast majority of the population having little or no land ownership [1]. This contributes to poverty, economic instability and social unrest. The social and economic consequences of unequal land ownership patterns are serious.
Calls for Reform: There are calls for land reforms as part of a broader effort to modernize the country and address inequalities [1]. These calls are often part of a larger discussion about the need for a more equitable and just society. The need to address the long-standing inequities is acknowledged by some.
Potential for Change: While it hasn’t happened yet, the sources suggest that land reform is a crucial step to address the root causes of political and social unrest in Pakistan. Addressing the unequal distribution of land is considered vital for social and political stability [1]. The idea is that genuine reform could be a significant step toward stability.
Link to Political Power: The sources suggest that land ownership is closely tied to political power, meaning that those who own the land also have political influence. Land ownership and political influence are intertwined, making any changes difficult to implement [1]. Land reform is not just about land; it is also about political power.
Historical Context: The sources trace the problem to the initial creation of Pakistan, when feudal lords were given a great deal of power, which they have maintained. The current situation is rooted in the historical development of Pakistan, where feudal lords have maintained their power.
In summary, the sources depict land reform in Pakistan as an essential but largely unaddressed issue, with deep historical, social, and political roots. The power of feudal lords, coupled with the lack of political will, has consistently prevented meaningful land reform, perpetuating social inequalities and political instability. There are calls for land reform as a necessary step towards a more equitable and stable society, but this will require overcoming deeply entrenched resistance.
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These articles from the Al Riyadh newspaper cover a variety of topics, showcasing the breadth of content in a Saudi Arabian daily publication. One prominent theme is the extensive development and organization surrounding the annual Hajj pilgrimage in Mecca, detailing infrastructure projects, safety measures, technological integrations, and the provision of services for millions of visitors. Another key area of focus is the increasing role and empowerment of women within the Kingdom, particularly in the service of the Two Holy Mosques, while also acknowledging remaining challenges. The publication also features reports on Saudi Arabia’s growing economic sectors, such as the non-profit sector exceeding 100 billion riyals in contribution and the burgeoning lithium market, alongside governmental initiatives to promote investment. Additionally, the newspaper provides international news, including the situation in Ukraine and historical perspectives on the region, as well as sports updates, cultural pieces, and lifestyle content addressing social issues and health concerns.
Saudi Arabia: Vision 2030, Pilgrimage, and Global Themes
Comprehensive Study Guide
I. Core Themes:
The significant infrastructure development in Mecca and Medina to accommodate increasing numbers of Hajj and Umrah pilgrims, driven by Saudi Vision 2030.
The growing role and economic impact of the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia, also aligned with Vision 2030.
The importance of the Hajj season for Saudi Arabia’s religious, political, and humanitarian standing globally.
The empowerment of women within the Two Holy Mosques and its positive impact on service quality and Saudi society.
Historical perspectives on Mecca and the evolution of traditions.
The significance of the camel in Saudi culture and the natural world.
The development of Saudi youth football and the nation’s hosting of major international sporting events.
Global trends in the lithium market and their potential impact.
Geopolitical events and their consequences, as illustrated by the Syrian conflict and the situation in Ukraine.
The importance of strategic communication and its role in promoting Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and cultural heritage.
Insights into human potential, creativity, and the pursuit of societal advancement.
The dangers of drowsy driving and the importance of prioritizing sleep.
The evolution and recognition of Islamic arts.
II. Key Concepts and Ideas:
Saudi Vision 2030: A comprehensive plan for the Kingdom’s economic and social development, with specific goals related to religious tourism, the non-profit sector, and women’s empowerment.
Two Holy Mosques (Al-Haramain Al-Sharifain): The sacred mosques in Mecca (Al-Masjid Al-Haram) and Medina (Al-Masjid An-Nabawi), central to Islam and the focus of significant development efforts.
Hajj and Umrah: Islamic pilgrimages to Mecca, attracting millions of Muslims annually.
Non-Profit Sector: Organizations operating for social benefit rather than profit, playing an increasingly vital role in the Saudi economy and society.
Women’s Empowerment: Initiatives to increase women’s participation and leadership in various sectors, including within the Two Holy Mosques.
Strategic Communication: A planned and purposeful communication approach to achieve specific goals, crucial for conveying the aims of Vision 2030 and promoting cultural exchange.
Infrastructure Development: Large-scale projects to expand and modernize facilities and services for pilgrims in Mecca and Medina, including mosque expansions, transportation networks, and accommodation.
Technological Advancement: The application of smart technologies, AI, and big data to manage crowds, ensure safety, and provide guidance during the Hajj season.
Cultural Heritage: The historical, artistic, and traditional elements of Saudi society, efforts to preserve and promote which are underway.
Lithium Market: The global industry related to lithium extraction, production, and use, particularly in electric vehicles.
Geopolitics: The interplay of geography and politics on international relations, exemplified by the conflicts discussed.
Human Potential and Creativity: Exploration of the sources and nature of human innovation and its role in societal progress.
Drowsy Driving: The significant risks and consequences of operating a vehicle while fatigued.
Islamic Arts: The diverse artistic expressions that have developed within Islamic cultures throughout history.
III. Areas for Review:
Specific projects undertaken to expand the Grand Mosque in Mecca and its surrounding areas. Pay attention to the increased capacity, new facilities (like tunnels and service stations), and the technologies used for climate control and sound systems.
The growth and targets of the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia according to Vision 2030. Note the increase in economic contribution, the number of organizations, and the focus on financial sustainability and volunteerism.
The key roles of Saudi Arabia during the Hajj season. Understand its religious leadership, logistical responsibilities, and humanitarian efforts.
The specific steps taken to empower women within the Two Holy Mosques. Focus on the restructuring of the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques, the appointment of women in leadership roles, and the impact on service quality.
The historical context of Mecca during the caliphate of Yazid bin Muawiya. Understand the political instability and its effects on the city.
The cultural and historical significance of the camel in Saudi Arabia.
The initiatives and successes of Saudi youth football, leading to participation in international tournaments. Understand the development programs and the historical achievements.
The current state and future trends of the global lithium market. Be aware of supply and demand dynamics, technological advancements in extraction, and geopolitical factors.
The narratives surrounding Maher al-Assad and the Fourth Division in Syria. Understand their role in the conflict and alleged involvement in illicit activities.
The key messages and goals of Saudi Arabia’s strategic communication efforts related to Vision 2030.
The perspectives presented on human creativity and the factors that influence it.
The data and dangers associated with drowsy driving.
The influences and characteristics of Islamic arts as reflected in the historical context of Mecca.
Short-Answer Quiz
According to the article, what is a key goal of Saudi Vision 2030 concerning the Hajj and Umrah pilgrimages, and what major infrastructure projects have been undertaken to achieve this?
What significant milestone did the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia achieve in terms of economic contribution, and what percentage of the GDP did this represent, according to the report?
In what key areas does the Hajj season demonstrate Saudi Arabia’s global importance and responsibility? Provide at least two examples from the text.
Describe two specific actions taken by the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques to empower women, and what has been the reported impact of these changes?
According to the historical excerpts, what was a significant characteristic of Mecca during the rule of Yazid bin Muawiya, and what contributed to this situation?
Based on the brief mention, what cultural significance does the camel hold, as indicated by the Quranic verse cited?
What key program did the Saudi Arabian Football Federation launch in 2019, and what was its aim in relation to youth football development?
What is a major factor driving the increasing global demand for lithium, and what potential challenges does the lithium market face in the near future?
Based on the provided excerpts, describe the role and reputation of Maher al-Assad and the Fourth Division within the Syrian context.
According to the interview, what are the four pillars of Saudi media for the year 2024, and how does Vision 2030 function as a strategic communication plan?
Answer Key
A key goal of Saudi Vision 2030 is to accommodate a greater number of Hajj and Umrah pilgrims. Major infrastructure projects undertaken include the expansion of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the development of the Haramain High-Speed Railway, and the construction of extensive road networks and service facilities.
The non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia surpassed 100 billion riyals in economic contribution, representing 3.3% of the Kingdom’s Gross Domestic Product, according to the King Khalid Foundation report “Prospects of the Non-Profit Sector 2025.”
The Hajj season demonstrates Saudi Arabia’s global importance in its role as the custodian of the Two Holy Mosques, providing services and ensuring the safety of millions of pilgrims (religious and humanitarian), and it strengthens its standing as the Qibla for Muslims (religious and political).
Two specific actions include the appointment of two female vice-presidents for the first time and the assignment of over 30 women to leadership positions within the agency’s various departments. These changes have reportedly led to improved service quality and highlighted the competence of Saudi women in diverse roles.
Mecca during the rule of Yazid bin Muawiya was a major center of tension and opposition to his caliphate. This was due to a number of prominent figures among the Companions and Followers refusing to pledge allegiance to him.
The Quranic verse “Do they not look at the camels, how they were created?” (Al-Ghashiyah: 17) indicates that the creation of the camel is considered a sign (Ayah) of God, prompting reflection and contemplation on its unique attributes and adaptation to the harsh desert environment.
In 2019, the Saudi Arabian Football Federation launched a comprehensive program to develop competitions and structure national teams, targeting players born in 2005 and 2006. This included the introduction of under-15 and under-13 leagues for the first time for these age groups.
A major factor driving the increasing global demand for lithium is the shift towards the production of electric vehicles. Potential challenges include the risk of supply shortages in the future, the environmental impact of lithium extraction, and fluctuating market dynamics influenced by production, demand, and geopolitical tensions.
Maher al-Assad led the Fourth Division, which is portrayed as the “iron fist” of the Syrian regime and associated with numerous atrocities. The division allegedly infiltrated many aspects of the country, acting like a privileged “mafia” involved in seizing assets and engaging in illicit trade.
The four pillars of Saudi media for 2024 are numbers, initiatives, passion, and impact. Vision 2030 is considered a strategic communication plan because its foundation includes clear strategic goals, central messages, targeted audiences, communication channels, and tools, all aimed at conveying the Kingdom’s aspirations and achievements.
Essay Format Questions
Analyze the interconnectedness between Saudi Vision 2030’s goals for religious tourism and the significant infrastructure developments in Mecca and Medina. Discuss the potential long-term impacts of these developments on the Kingdom’s economy and global standing.
Evaluate the significance of the non-profit sector’s growing economic contribution to Saudi Arabia in the context of Vision 2030. Discuss the strategies being implemented to ensure the sustainability and effectiveness of these organizations and their role in social development.
Discuss the multifaceted importance of the Hajj season for Saudi Arabia, considering its religious, political, and humanitarian dimensions. Analyze how the Kingdom manages the challenges and leverages the opportunities presented by this annual global gathering.
Examine the initiatives aimed at empowering women within the Two Holy Mosques and analyze the broader implications of this development for Saudi society. Consider the challenges that remain and the potential for further progress in women’s roles in various sectors.
Based on the provided excerpts, discuss the key trends and challenges facing the global lithium market. Analyze the factors that could influence the future supply and demand of lithium and the potential geopolitical implications of this critical resource.
Glossary of Key Terms
Haramain High-Speed Railway: A high-speed rail line connecting the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, facilitating the transportation of pilgrims and residents.
Saudi Vision 2030: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s strategic framework to reduce its dependence on oil, diversify its economy, and develop public service sectors such as health, education, infrastructure, recreation, and tourism.
Al-Masjid Al-Haram (Grand Mosque): The most sacred mosque in Islam, located in Mecca and housing the Kaaba.
Al-Masjid An-Nabawi (Prophet’s Mosque): The second holiest mosque in Islam, located in Medina and the burial place of the Prophet Muhammad.
Hajj: The annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the five pillars of Islam, obligatory for all able-bodied Muslims who can afford to undertake the journey.
Umrah: An Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca that can be undertaken at any time of the year, not obligatory but highly recommended.
Non-Profit Sector: Organizations whose primary purpose is not making a profit but rather supporting or actively participating in activities of public or private interest without any commercial or monetary profit purposes.
GDP (Gross Domestic Product): The total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period.
Qibla: The direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays during Salat. It is the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca.
Fourth Division (Syria): An elite formation of the Syrian Arab Army, historically commanded by Maher al-Assad, known for its significant power and alleged involvement in various aspects of the Syrian conflict and economy.
Lithium: A soft, silvery-white alkali metal, highly reactive and flammable, used in batteries for electric vehicles and other applications.
Strategic Communication: The purposeful use of communication by an organization or entity to fulfill its mission.
Islamic Arts: The arts developed in Islamic cultures. It covers a wide range of artistic disciplines including calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others.
Drowsy Driving: Operating a motor vehicle while being sleepy or fatigued, which significantly impairs reaction time, judgment, and overall driving ability.
Saudi Arabia: Developments and Global Impact
Briefing Document: Analysis of Provided Sources
Date: October 26, 2023 (Based on the latest article date provided) Subject: Review of Key Themes and Information from Al-Riyadh Newspaper Excerpts (March 7-8, 2025) Sources: Excerpts from “20708.pdf” of Al-Riyadh Newspaper, dated March 7-8, 2025.
Executive Summary:
This briefing document summarizes the main themes and significant information presented in the provided excerpts from Al-Riyadh newspaper. The articles cover a diverse range of topics, primarily focusing on the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s development, particularly concerning the Two Holy Mosques, Hajj and Umrah services, the non-profit sector, the empowerment of women, historical perspectives on Makkah, Islamic arts, and various social and developmental initiatives. Key themes include infrastructure development for pilgrims, the strategic importance and growth of the non-profit sector aligned with Vision 2030, the increasing role and empowerment of women in the Two Holy Mosques and broader society, historical insights into Makkah, and discussions on Islamic thought and practice.
Main Themes and Key Ideas/Facts:
1. Enhancing Services for Pilgrims at the Two Holy Mosques:
Massive Infrastructure Projects: The Kingdom has undertaken extensive expansion projects at the Two Holy Mosques and the Holy Sites to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims. This includes airport expansions in Jeddah and Madinah, road projects in Makkah and Madinah, and the Jamarat facility. The total cost of these projects exceeds hundreds of billions of Saudi Riyals (tens of billions of US Dollars).
Seasonal Mobilization: Government and private sectors mobilize annually to serve Hajj and Umrah pilgrims, working in harmony to ensure their comfort and safety. This includes deploying over 100,000 security personnel in Makkah and the Holy Sites.
Technology Integration: Smart cameras and artificial intelligence are used to monitor pilgrim flow and manage crowds safely. Emergency plans are activated for swift responses. Millions of free meals and water are distributed during the season.
Ongoing Enhancements: Continuous efforts are made to improve the infrastructure, including the Saudi Third Expansion of the Grand Mosque, aiming to increase the capacity of worshippers to 1,287,474. This expansion covers building areas, bridges, service buildings, and courtyards, significantly increasing the space for prayer and facilities like ablution areas and water fountains.
Advanced Climate Control and Sound Systems: The Grand Mosque utilizes one of the world’s largest cooling systems and a sophisticated sound system with thousands of speakers to ensure comfort and clear audibility of prayers and sermons.
2. The Growing Role of the Non-Profit Sector in Line with Vision 2030:
Strategic Importance: The non-profit sector is seen as a strategic pillar for boosting the economy and developing society, aligning with Saudi Vision 2030. The vision aims to transform the sector into a more sustainable driver of development, focusing on innovation and social investment.
Key Objectives: Vision 2030 targets for the non-profit sector include raising its contribution to the GDP to 5% by 2030 (it reached 3.3% in 2025), increasing the number of active non-profit organizations, encouraging volunteering to reach one million volunteers annually, and enhancing the financial sustainability of these organizations through endowments and social investments.
Significant Economic Contribution: For the first time in its history, the non-profit sector’s economic contribution surpassed 100 billion Riyals, equivalent to 3.3% of the total GDP in 2025.
Growth Across Sub-Sectors: Endowments contributed 48 billion Riyals, non-profit organizations spent 47 billion Riyals, volunteering activities were valued at 5 billion Riyals, and cooperative societies contributed 2 billion Riyals. The sector is projected to reach the Vision 2030 target of 5% GDP contribution ahead of schedule.
3. Promoting Unity and Moderation within the Islamic World:
International Conference: The Muslim World League is organizing an international conference in Makkah titled “Building Bridges Between Islamic Schools of Thought,” with the participation of senior muftis and scholars from over 90 countries.
Objectives: The conference aims to foster unity among Muslims, coordinate stances to address shared challenges, and establish a methodological discourse that strengthens moderation and refutes extremism. It seeks to build upon the outcomes of the first edition of the conference.f moderation.
4. The Significance and Organization of the Hajj Season:
Global Event: The Hajj is presented as a global event of religious, political, and humanitarian importance for the Kingdom. The state prepares annually to ensure a safe and easy pilgrimage for millions of Muslims.
Kingdom’s Role: As the land of the Two Holy Mosques, Saudi Arabia bears the responsibility of serving pilgrims and caring for the Holy Sites, reinforcing its religious and global leadership.
Comprehensive Services: The Kingdom provides extensive services, including over 100 emergency centers in the Holy Sites, advanced ambulance fleets, rapid response teams, and air ambulances for critical cases. Preventive measures, disease control programs, and vaccination campaigns are implemented.
Smart Transportation and Crowd Management: Intelligent transportation systems, smart traffic management, and AI-powered crowd tracking are utilized to ensure efficient and safe movement of pilgrims. Drones are used for aerial monitoring.
Guidance and Awareness: The Kingdom provides scientific and da’wah (invitation to Islam) bodies comprising qualified scholars to answer pilgrims’ inquiries in multiple languages. Field teams offer free guidance, and dedicated offices for fatwas (religious edicts) and consultations are available. A unified fatwa hotline and electronic applications are also in place, along with real-time translation of sermons.
5. Empowerment of Women in the Two Holy Mosques and Saudi Society:
Significant Progress: The Kingdom has witnessed significant progress in empowering women, particularly within the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Grand Mosque and the Prophet’s Mosque. Women are no longer limited to traditional roles but have become key partners in providing services and holding leadership positions.
Leadership Roles: The President General for the Affairs of the Two Holy Mosques appointed female assistants and over 30 female leaders in various agencies and departments, reflecting a comprehensive development process to enhance services for pilgrims.
Investing in Talent: These changes are part of the largest restructuring in the Presidency’s history, focusing on investing in young talents and enhancing performance according to the highest quality and excellence standards, in line with Vision 2030.
Positive Impact: Saudi women have demonstrated competence in various assigned tasks, contributing to achieving best practices within the female sector in the Two Holy Mosques, supporting youth empowerment, and fostering a forward-looking vision characterized by competence and ambition.
Challenges and Future Development: Despite successes, challenges remain, including the demanding nature of work in the Holy Mosques, rapid technological advancements requiring continuous training, and societal acceptance of women in leadership roles. Future development will focus on enhancing training programs, leveraging digital transformation, creating flexible work environments, and fostering collaboration with academic and research institutions.
Broader Societal Impact: The empowerment of women in the Two Holy Mosques has had a wide-ranging impact on Saudi society, challenging traditional perceptions of women’s roles and demonstrating their leadership and innovation capabilities.
Reinforcing the Message of the Two Holy Mosques: Empowering women contributes to presenting a bright image of authentic Islamic culture and reinforces the Kingdom’s commitment to serving Islam and Muslims, enhancing its role as the capital of the Islamic world.
Essential Part of Operations: Women have become an essential part of the operational system within the Two Holy Mosques, holding leadership and administrative roles that contribute to improving the quality of services for all pilgrims, especially women.
6. Historical Context of Makkah:
Political Instability during Yazid bin Mu’awiyah’s Rule: The article briefly touches upon the period following the succession of Yazid bin Mu’awiyah in 60 AH, noting a new phase of political and administrative changes in Makkah, which became a center of opposition to his rule.
Makkah’s Central Role Despite Conflicts: Despite the political conflicts, Makkah retained its pivotal status and became a major focus of the changes that the Islamic state witnessed during that period.
Impact of Yazid’s Death: The sudden death of Yazid in 64 AH led to further instability in Makkah, particularly with the growing conflict between the Umayyads and Abdullah bin Al-Zubayr, who declared himself Caliph in Makkah.“
7. Islamic Arts and their Cultural Significance:
Reflection of Cultural Diversity: Islamic arts in Makkah reflected the diversity of cultures through their decorations, influenced by commercial interactions and the integration of different civilizations.
Preservation of History: Islamic art in Makkah, including mosques and educational institutions, serves to preserve a cultural and historical legacy.
Contrast with Pre-Islamic Practices: The article briefly notes the shift from previous nations’ worship of idols and associating partners with God, implying Islamic art represents a departure from these practices.
8. The Camel as a Sign of Divine Creation:
Quranic Reflection: The creation of the camel is highlighted as a sign of God’s wonders, referencing the Quranic verse (Al-Ghashiyah: 17) that encourages reflection upon how the camel was created.
Adaptation to Harsh Environments: The camel’s ability to thrive in the harsh desert environment is presented as a testament to its miraculous creation.
9. Development and Modernization in Al-Baha Region:
Discovery of Archaeological Sites: The Heritage Authority announced the discovery of architectural features and a diverse collection of artifacts at the Al-Ma’malah site in the Al-Aqiq Governorate of the Al-Baha region in 2023.
Historical Significance of Al-Baha: The Al-Baha region is described as rich in historical heritage, including numerous ancient sites and landmarks dating back thousands of years.
Importance of Archaeological Excavation: Archaeological efforts are seen as essential for understanding human civilizations and the history of the nation, with the Kingdom paying significant attention to this field through the establishment of the Heritage Authority.
10. Development of the Non-Profit Sector (Reiteration with More Detail):
Vision 2030 Catalyst: The transformation witnessed by the non-profit sector in recent years is directly aligned with Saudi Vision 2030, launched by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman.
Shift Towards Sustainability: The vision aims to shift the sector from primarily relying on donations and aid to one that is more sustainable, based on social investment and innovation.
Government Support and Targets: The Kingdom has adopted a new approach to enhance the sector’s contribution to economic and social development, improve governance, increase community participation, and encourage financial sustainability through endowments and investments. Key targets include raising the GDP contribution to 5% by 2030 and increasing the number of active NGOs to over 10,000.
Financial Performance in 2024: The non-profit sector exceeded 100 billion Riyals in economic contribution in 2025 (as mentioned earlier), representing 3.3% of GDP. Endowments contributed significantly, followed by NGO spending and the value of volunteer work.
Sectoral Contributions: Endowments contributed 48 billion Riyals, NGOs spent 47 billion Riyals, volunteering was valued at 5 billion Riyals, and cooperative societies contributed 2 billion Riyals.
Revenue and Expenditure: The report also noted over 19 billion Riyals in revenue for the non-profit sector and over 15 billion Riyals in expenditure, with healthcare organizations leading in expenditure due to the transformation of government assets. Culture, entertainment, and social service organizations led in employment rates.
Philanthropy and Volunteering: The spirit of giving and volunteering, rooted in Saudi values, is being institutionalized, strengthening social cohesion among community members. The non-profit sector is experiencing continuous growth in the number of organizations and volunteers, as well as enhanced governance.
Focus on Empowerment: The non-profit sector also plays a role in empowering families by funding productive households.
11. Approval of the Saudi Authority for Investment Marketing:
Boosting Investment: The Council of Ministers, chaired by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, approved the organization of the Saudi Authority for Investment Marketing. This move is expected to enhance the Kingdom’s position as a leading investment destination, attract more investment, and strengthen cooperation between public and private sectors.
12. The Lithium Market and Future Prospects:
Driven by Electric Vehicles: The global lithium market is experiencing rapid growth, primarily driven by the shift towards electric vehicles due to stringent government regulations on carbon emissions from the automotive industry.
Saudi Arabia’s Growing Market: Saudi Arabia is leading growth in the Middle East and Africa markets for lithium carbonate, achieving revenues of approximately $673.8 million in 2024 and projected to reach $1.4 billion by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate of 13.5%.
Asia-Pacific Leadership: The Asia-Pacific region is the largest contributor to the global market with a CAGR of 22.5%, driven by widespread use in energy, electronics, chemicals, and materials.
North and Latin America Growth: North America is also expected to see a CAGR of 22.3% until the end of the current decade, while Chile, which holds 70% of global lithium reserves, is opening its doors to significant market focus.
Competitive Landscape and Innovation: The lithium market is highly competitive, with major players investing heavily in R&D to improve production processes and achieve high-purity lithium for growing end-use sectors like electric vehicles.
Concerns about Supply Shortages: Despite a recent surplus leading to price declines, demand for lithium is expected to grow ninefold in the next 15 years if Paris Agreement climate goals are met. Extraction from rocks and brines can be lengthy and environmentally damaging, leading to efforts to develop more efficient and less harmful production methods like direct lithium extraction (DLE).
Saudi Arabia: Vision 2030, Pilgrimage, and Emerging Sectors
Frequently Asked Questions
What are the primary goals of Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 concerning religious tourism and the holy sites?
Vision 2030 aims to significantly increase the capacity to host pilgrims and visitors to the holy sites in Mecca and Medina. This includes expanding the Grand Mosque in Mecca to accommodate over 1.2 million worshippers, enhancing infrastructure around the holy sites such as airports (Jeddah, Medina), roads, and facilities like the Jamarat complex. The goal is to provide a seamless, comfortable, and safe experience for an anticipated 30 million Umrah pilgrims, reflecting Saudi Arabia’s commitment to serving the “Guests of Allah.”
How is Saudi Arabia leveraging technology and infrastructure to manage the increasing number of pilgrims?
Saudi Arabia is investing heavily in advanced technologies and infrastructure to manage the large influx of pilgrims. This includes the use of smart cameras and artificial intelligence for crowd monitoring and management, rapid response systems for emergencies, and the deployment of over 100,000 security personnel to ensure safety and order. The infrastructure development includes expanding prayer areas, sanitation facilities, and providing efficient transportation networks. Furthermore, technologies like the “Nusk” app, e-pilgrim cards, and real-time translation services are being implemented to guide and assist pilgrims.
What is the significance of the “Building Bridges Between Islamic Sects” conference organized by the Muslim World League?
The “Building Bridges Between Islamic Sects” international conference in Mecca, attended by senior scholars and Muftis from various Islamic schools of thought across 90 countries, aims to foster unity and cooperation among Muslims despite their different interpretations. Under the patronage of King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud and the leadership of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, the conference seeks to strengthen Islamic solidarity, coordinate stances against shared challenges and threats, and promote a moderate Islamic discourse while countering extremism and sectarianism. It emphasizes the foundational unity of Muslims based on the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), aiming to bridge divides and serve the interests of the entire Ummah.
How has the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia evolved in line with Vision 2030?
The non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia has undergone a significant transformation in line with Vision 2030, shifting from primarily relying on donations to a more sustainable model based on innovation and social investment. The sector’s economic contribution has surpassed 100 billion riyals, equivalent to 3.3% of the GDP, a substantial increase from pre-Vision levels. Key objectives include increasing the number of active non-profit organizations, encouraging volunteerism to reach one million volunteers annually through digital platforms, and enhancing financial sustainability through endowments and social investments, thereby reducing dependence on direct donations.
What steps have been taken to empower women within the Two Holy Mosques and what impact has this had?
Significant steps have been taken to empower women in the General Presidency for the Affairs of the Grand Mosque and the Prophet’s Mosque. This includes the appointment of female assistants to the President General for the first time and the placement of over 30 women in leadership positions across various agencies and departments. This empowerment aims to enhance the quality of services provided to pilgrims, particularly female visitors. Saudi women have demonstrated competence in their assigned roles, contributing to improved practices within the women’s sector of the Holy Mosques. This reflects a forward-looking vision to incorporate qualified individuals into the operational and administrative structures, aligning with Vision 2030’s goals for comprehensive development and women’s empowerment. This move has not only improved services but also positively influenced societal perceptions of women’s roles in public spheres.
What are the key challenges and future development areas for women’s empowerment in the Two Holy Mosques?
Despite the significant progress, challenges remain in fully empowering women within the Two Holy Mosques. These include the demanding nature of the work environment, especially during peak pilgrimage seasons, which requires continuous readiness and specialized training. Technological advancements necessitate ongoing training for women in modern systems, including AI for crowd management. Societal acceptance of women in leadership roles is also an ongoing process requiring continued achievements and public awareness efforts. Future development will focus on enhancing training and qualification programs, leveraging digital transformation to improve operational efficiency, creating flexible organizational environments that accommodate women’s professional and personal responsibilities, and fostering collaboration between relevant entities to develop new approaches for women’s advancement.
What are the key findings regarding the lithium market and Saudi Arabia’s potential role?
The global lithium market is experiencing rapid growth driven by the increasing demand for electric vehicles and energy storage. Saudi Arabia is emerging as a significant player in this market, with its lithium carbonate market revenues projected to reach $1.4 billion by 2030, exhibiting a compound annual growth rate of 13.5%. While the Asia-Pacific region currently dominates the global market, North America and Latin America (particularly Chile) also hold substantial lithium reserves and growth potential. The market is characterized by high competition and innovation focused on improving extraction processes and producing high-purity lithium. Challenges include potential supply shortages, environmental concerns related to traditional extraction methods, and the need for more efficient and sustainable production technologies like direct lithium extraction. Recent market dynamics also indicate a shift from oversupply to a more balanced market, influenced by production adjustments and increasing demand.
What was the significance of Saudi Arabia winning the bid to host the 10th Asian Winter Games in NEOM in 2029?
Saudi Arabia’s successful bid to host the 10th Asian Winter Games in NEOM in 2029 is a landmark achievement, marking the Kingdom as the first West Asian country to host this prestigious event. This win signifies Saudi Arabia’s growing prominence in the global sports arena, supported by the ambitious goals of Vision 2030 and the unwavering support of the Kingdom’s leadership. Hosting the Games in the futuristic city of NEOM underscores the Kingdom’s commitment to innovation and development, even in non-traditional sporting domains. This event is expected to elevate the performance and competitiveness of Saudi athletes in winter sports, attract international attention to NEOM, and further establish Saudi Arabia as a hub for major international events across various sports.
Mecca and Medina Haram Expansion Projects
The sources discuss several حرم expansion projects undertaken by the Saudi government to accommodate the increasing number of pilgrims and worshippers.
One of the most significant projects mentioned is the expansion of the Holy Mosque in Mecca, which has exceeded a cost of $53.3 billion (200 billion Saudi Riyals). This expansion aims to increase the capacity of the Haram to host more visitors, especially during peak seasons like Ramadan and Hajj.
In addition to the Haram expansion itself, there have been substantial infrastructure developments in the holy cities:
Airport expansions in Jeddah and Medina have cost $26.7 billion (100 billion Saudi Riyals). These expansions are crucial for facilitating the arrival and departure of millions of pilgrims.
A total of 68 billion Saudi Riyals ($18.1 billion USD) has been invested in road projects in Mecca, Medina, and Jeddah to improve transportation between the holy sites and within the cities.
The Jamarat facility, used during the stoning ritual in Hajj, was built at a cost of approximately 4 billion Riyals.
The opening of the “Masateb” (terraced platforms) in the northern and western courtyards of the Holy Mosque is a recent example of the Haram expansion in action. These platforms, dedicated to prayers, significantly increased the mosque’s capacity and were well-received by worshippers, helping to manage large crowds, especially during Tarawih prayers in Ramadan.
Furthermore, the development of luxurious tunnels in Mecca, like the Jarwal tunnel, plays a vital role in managing the immense crowds of pilgrims, residents, and worshippers, by separating pedestrian and vehicular traffic and improving overall flow.
These continuous efforts to develop the infrastructure of the holy sites reflect the Kingdom’s commitment to serving pilgrims in the best possible way. The use of advanced infrastructure and technology is a key aspect of these preparations. The expansion projects are not just about increasing physical space but also about improving the quality of services and ensuring a safe and comfortable experience for the visitors of the Two Holy Mosques.
Hajj and Umrah: Organization, Significance, and Technology
The sources provide extensive information regarding Hajj and Umrah, highlighting their significance, the large-scale efforts to manage them, and the technologies employed to serve the millions of pilgrims.
Significance and Importance:
Hajj is a global event of immense religious, political, and humanitarian importance for the Kingdom.
It is the fifth pillar of Islam and one of its most important religious rituals.
The Kingdom, as the land of the Two Holy Mosques, bears a historical and leadership responsibility to serve the pilgrims of Allah and care for the holy sites.
Hajj strengthens the Kingdom’s leading role in the Islamic world and reinforces its position as the qibla for Muslims.
It is a global gathering of Muslims from different cultures and nationalities in an atmosphere of faith and brotherhood.
Hajj promotes the values of peace, cooperation, and tolerance among Islamic nations, as everyone participates in the rituals with a spirit of unity.
The Hajj season is an annual test of the infrastructure and governmental services, which helps in developing systems and services year after year.
The Kingdom’s preparations for Hajj and Umrah reflect a great commitment to ensuring the comfort and safety of pilgrims from all over the world.
Hajj is considered an annual opportunity.
Organization and Management:
The Kingdom has implemented extensive projects in the Two Holy Mosques and the holy sites to accommodate the large numbers of Hajj and Umrah pilgrims.
There is an integrated system for managing Hajj and Umrah to serve millions.
Advanced infrastructure and technology are utilized to serve the guests of Al-Rahman.
A comprehensive network of transportation services is in place to ensure easy and safe movement.
The safety and security of pilgrims during Hajj are subject to precise monitoring and control to ensure their smooth flow.
This is an integrated system that includes advanced technologies, meticulous plans, and smart security for crowd management.
Electronic Hajj permits are issued, ensuring that only those with official permits can perform the rituals.
Strict control systems are in place at air, land, and sea entry points.
Health monitoring systems are activated to detect any epidemic outbreaks.
The logistical management of the Hajj season is one of the most complex in the world, requiring a balance between technology and strategic planning to ensure the safety and organization of millions of pilgrims.
Saudi Arabia relies on smart monitoring and control systems in crowd management, utilizing high-resolution smart cameras and artificial intelligence technologies for surveillance around the clock in the holy sites.
AI is used to monitor movements, analyze crowd density in real time, identify areas of congestion, and provide immediate alerts to relevant authorities.
Thermal analysis and facial recognition are used to identify individuals and track pilgrim density in emergency situations.
AI-powered crowd tracking systems analyze pilgrim movement and trends using big data analytics, monitor the speed of pilgrim flow, identify crowded routes via interactive heat maps, and predict congestion areas to suggest alternative routes through electronic guidance screens.
Drones are used to monitor crowds from the air and provide live broadcasts to security and organizational teams for quick decision-making.
Smart crowd management systems organize pilgrims into تفويج (grouping) according to a structured timetable to prevent overcrowding.
Smart Hajj cards contain pilgrim data for guidance in the right place and time.
Electronic and smart directional traffic signals are used to guide pilgrims to the best routes.
Use of Technology:
The Kingdom relies on modern technologies and artificial intelligence to provide various services to the pilgrims of Allah and facilitate the performance of rituals.
Smart cards for pilgrims (like the smart Hajj card) allow entry to all holy sites and access to provided services easily. Pilgrims are required to carry these cards throughout the Hajj period.
Dedicated smart applications for Hajj and Umrah are used. Prominent applications include:
“ُنسك” (Nusk) for organizing the issuance of Hajj and Umrah permits and visiting the Prophet’s Mosque.
“Makkah Live” for live broadcasts of the Holy Mosque in Mecca and the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina.
“Hajj Smart” for providing guiding maps, weather information, and service locations.
“Muhaddid Hajj and Umrah” for guiding pilgrims to their locations within the holy sites.
“Seha” (Health) for providing remote medical consultations.
Advanced robots operate during Hajj and Umrah, including guidance robots using artificial intelligence to assist pilgrims in navigating the holy sites.
There are security robots and guidance robots programmed with instant translation for non-Arabic speaking pilgrims in 10 languages.
AI techniques are used to analyze movement and guide pilgrims to less crowded routes, aiming to facilitate their safe movement.
Services Provided:
The report will detail the most prominent services provided by the Kingdom to Hajj and Umrah pilgrims, reinforcing its position as a leading global religious destination.
Volunteer Saudi women provide ambulance services to the guests of Al-Rahman in five languages.
In summary, the sources depict Hajj and Umrah as events of paramount importance to the Kingdom and the Islamic world, requiring and receiving massive organizational and technological efforts to ensure the safety, comfort, and ease of performing the rituals for millions of pilgrims annually. The continuous development and implementation of advanced technologies are central to managing these immense gatherings.
Saudi Arabia: Vision 2030 and Non-Profit Sector Growth
Based on the sources, the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia is experiencing significant growth and is a key focus of the Kingdom’s Vision 2030. The Kingdom has adopted a new approach aimed at boosting the contribution of the non-profit sector to both economic and social development.
Here are the key aspects of this growth highlighted in the sources:
Increased GDP Contribution: The primary goal is to raise the non-profit sector’s contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 5% by 2030, a substantial increase from less than 1% before the Vision. Notably, the sector has already exceeded 100 billion Riyals in economic contribution, representing 3.3% of the GDP, according to a report by the King Khalid Foundation. This milestone indicates significant progress towards the 2030 target. Source even projects that the sector might achieve the 5% GDP target two years ahead of schedule.
Growth in the Number of Organizations: The Kingdom aims to increase the number of active non-profit organizations to 10,000, encompassing various entities such as charitable associations, cooperative societies, endowments, philanthropic foundations, and non-profit research centers.
Rise in Volunteerism: There is a drive to encourage volunteering and increase the number of volunteers to one million annually through the development of digital platforms that facilitate access to volunteer opportunities and promote a culture of giving.
Enhanced Financial Sustainability: Efforts are underway to strengthen the financial sustainability of non-profit organizations by developing endowments (أوقاف) and social investments. This strategy aims to reduce the sector’s reliance on direct donations (تبرعات مباشرة). Endowments have significantly contributed to the sector’s financial growth, accounting for 48 billion Riyals according to the General Authority for Endowments.
Significant Financial Contributions: The non-profit sector’s economic contribution of over 100 billion Riyals (3.3% of GDP) is further broken down in the sources. Endowments contributed 48 billion Riyals, while non-profit organizations’ spending amounted to 47 billion Riyals. The value of volunteering was estimated at an additional 5 billion Riyals, and cooperative societies contributed 2 billion Riyals.
Sector Leadership in Revenue and Spending: The report mentioned in source indicates that educational research organizations led in revenues (over 19 billion Riyals), while health organizations had the highest spending (over 15 billion Riyals). This shift is partly attributed to the transfer of government assets in the health and education sectors to non-profit entities.
Increasing Investment in Endowments: The value of Waqf (endowment) investment funds has reached 1.7 billion Riyals, demonstrating the growing financial capacity and investment activity within the non-profit sector.
Government Support: The government’s ongoing encouragement to develop the investment environment is expected to further support the growth of the non-profit sector.
Focus on Social Impact: The growth of the non-profit sector aligns with the Kingdom’s Vision 2030 to strengthen the social contributions of citizens and institutions, embodying deeply rooted Saudi values of giving, social solidarity, and volunteering.
Improved Governance: The non-profit sector is witnessing continuous growth in the number of organizations, volunteers, and spending, alongside progress in governance, indicating a maturing and more effective sector.
In conclusion, the sources clearly indicate a strong emphasis on the growth and development of the non-profit sector in Saudi Arabia, driven by the ambitious goals of Vision 2030. This growth is being fostered through various initiatives aimed at increasing the sector’s economic contribution, expanding the number of active organizations and volunteers, enhancing financial sustainability, and improving overall governance.
Global Lithium Market: Growth, Trends, and Challenges
Based on the sources, here is an overview of the lithium market:
The global lithium market is experiencing a significant boom driven by the rapid expansion of industries that rely on it, particularly the electric vehicle (EV) sector and renewable energy storage. This surge in demand is also fueled by the growth in other sectors such as pharmaceuticals, ceramics, and glass.
Key Highlights and Trends:
Robust Revenue Growth: The global lithium market generated approximately $37.4 billion in revenue in 2024, and projections indicate a rise to $44 billion in 2025 and a substantial $164.7 billion by 2030. This represents a significant compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 18%.
EVs as a Major Demand Driver: The electric vehicle industry is a primary consumer of lithium batteries, supported by increasingly strict government regulations aimed at reducing carbon dioxide emissions from traditional vehicles.
Regional Growth Leaders:Asia Pacific is currently the largest contributor to the global lithium market, boasting a CAGR of 22.5%. This growth is attributed to its widespread use in electronics, energy storage, and the chemical and materials industries, spurred by government initiatives and international investments.
Saudi Arabia is leading growth in the Middle East and Africa, with its lithium carbonate market revenues reaching approximately $673.8 million in 2024 and expected to hit $1.4 billion by 2030, showing a CAGR of 13.5%.
North America is also projected to experience strong growth with a CAGR of 22.3% until the end of the current decade.
Chile holds a dominant position in terms of global reserves, possessing around 70% of the world’s lithium.
Lithium’s Importance for Clean Energy: Lithium is considered the “mother of clean energy” due to its key role in enabling the transition to sustainable energy sources. It is a light, alkali metal with excellent conductive properties, making it ideal for batteries used in EVs and for storing energy from intermittent renewable sources like solar and wind. Lithium batteries allow for efficient storage and on-demand release of energy, overcoming a key challenge associated with renewable energy generation.
Government Support:Government subsidies for electric vehicles are playing a crucial role in fostering growth and investment in the lithium and battery production sectors.
Significant US Reserves: The United States possesses substantial lithium reserves, estimated at 11 million tons in 2023 from both brines and minerals, although its current extraction rate is relatively low (around 1% of its consumption).
Short-Term Market Challenges: Despite the overall positive outlook, the lithium market is facing short-term headwinds such as oversupply and declining prices, leading some producers to announce production cuts and delays in new projects. This downturn is putting financial pressure on some Western companies.
In summary, the lithium market is characterized by strong long-term growth potential, primarily driven by the demand for electric vehicles and energy storage solutions crucial for the clean energy transition. While Asia Pacific currently dominates the market, Saudi Arabia and North America are emerging as significant growth regions. Despite a positive long-term outlook, the market is currently navigating challenges related to oversupply and price adjustments affecting some producers. Lithium’s unique properties solidify its essential role in the future of energy.
Women’s Empowerment: Progress and Challenges in Saudi Arabia
Based on the sources, here is a discussion of women’s empowerment:
Women’s empowerment is having a positive impact in various sectors, as highlighted in the sources, particularly within the context of Saudi Arabia.
In the Two Holy Mosques, the empowerment of women has led to a notable improvement in the quality of services provided to female visitors. This includes better organization and greater precision in addressing their needs. Furthermore, women visiting the Haram now receive higher quality and more accurate responses to their religious and jurisprudential inquiries from qualified female specialists. This empowerment has also contributed to reducing the challenges that women previously faced within the Haram, such as difficulty accessing facilities.
The field of archaeological excavation is acknowledged as potentially challenging for women due to the physical demands and difficult climate conditions like heat. This suggests that while progress is being made in various fields, certain areas might still present unique challenges for women’s participation.
Source indirectly touches upon the importance of addressing the vulnerabilities of women in conflict zones by mentioning the stories of women and children who have been victims of landmines in Yemen. It also highlights a volunteer medical project for cochlear implantation, which has enabled deaf children to hear their parents’ voices. This underscores the need for initiatives that support and empower women and children who have suffered due to conflict.
Additionally, the mention of Saudi Arabian channels broadcasting high-value and culturally rich Ramadan content suggests the potential for women to be involved in the media and cultural sectors, contributing to the creation and dissemination of valuable content.
In summary, the sources indicate that women’s empowerment is leading to positive changes in service provision in religious spaces. While challenges might exist in certain demanding fields, there is a recognition of the need to address the vulnerabilities of women in conflict. Furthermore, opportunities for women’s involvement in cultural and media sectors within Saudi Arabia appear to be present.
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Bertrand Russell’s Dictionary of Mind, Matter and Morals presents a collection of Russell’s thoughts on a wide array of philosophical, ethical, and societal topics. The text offers definitions and discussions, ranging from abstract concepts like asymmetry and continuity to concrete issues like civilization, communism, and education. Russell explores the ideas of other philosophers, such as Plato, Aristotle, and Spinoza, offering his own perspective on their work. The dictionary format allows for concise yet insightful examinations of complex subjects. The book also includes an index of symbols denoting the abbreviated titles of books and essays by Russell. Overall, the document presents a comprehensive overview of Bertrand Russell’s philosophical and moral beliefs. The dictionary’s entries also offer insights into logic, psychology, history, and politics, showcasing the breadth of Russell’s intellectual interests.
A Study Guide to Bertrand Russell’s Dictionary of Mind, Matter, and Morals
I. Key Concepts Review
A. Russell’s Philosophical Stance
Scientific Philosophy: Russell aimed for a philosophy grounded in definite knowledge and open to revision based on new discoveries. He favored clarity and detailed analysis over profound but unclear statements.
Changing Opinions: Russell openly acknowledged that his philosophical views evolved over time, similar to how scientific understanding progresses. He did not claim to hold eternal truths but rather sensible opinions for the time they were expressed.
Distinction Between Doubtful Problems and Exactness: Russell differentiated between areas where emotion must have its place and areas of exactness where pure thought can disport itself in freedom.
B. Mind and Matter
Behaviorism: Russell acknowledges it contains much truth, and that the knowledge to be obtained by this method, so long as we take physics for granted, is self-contained, and need not, at any point, appeal to data derived from introspection. Nevertheless, he holds that there are such observations and that there is knowledge which depends upon introspection.
Mind as a Construct: The concept of “mind” emerges from complex interactions of compresent events within the brain. A mind is a track of sets of compresent events in a region of space-time where there is matter which is peculiarly liable to form habits
Matter as Events: Russell viewed matter not as a static substance but as a system of events in spacetime. This challenges the traditional view of matter as something that persists through time and space.
C. Knowledge and Belief
Belief: A state of mind or body, or both, in which there is a disposition to behave in ways that aim at results which it would attain if certain circumstances existed.
Ostensive Definition: Definition by frequently hearing the word when the object which it denotes is present.
D. Ethics and Morality
Desires and Ethics: Ethical systems reflect the desires of their proponents. Moral improvement comes from cultivating generous desires through intelligence, happiness, and freedom from fear.
Supreme Moral Rule: To act so as to produce harmonious rather than discordant desires.
Expansive and Repressive Impulses: Russell believed morality should be based on expansive impulses like love, curiosity, and constructiveness, rather than repressive ones like fear and cruelty.
E. Society and Politics
Civilization: Russell defined civilization as a manner of life based on knowledge and forethought, involving the pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival.
World Citizenship: With increased global interconnectedness, Russell advocated for a revival of world citizenship.
Federalism: Favored a hierarchical system from world government to local councils, emphasizing self-determination for local matters and neutral authority for conflicting interests.
Liberty: Believed that the liberty of the individual should be respected where his actions do not directly, obviously, and indubitably do harm to other people.
International Police: Believed it necessary to prevent the lawless use of force by separate states
Disjunction: A disjunction is the verbal expression of indecision, or, if a question, of the desire to reach a decision.
II. Quiz: Short Answer Questions
According to Russell, what is the role of clarity in philosophical thought?
Explain Russell’s view on the evolution of philosophical opinions.
Describe Russell’s understanding of the relationship between mind and brain.
How did Russell define “civilization,” and what are its key components?
Summarize Russell’s argument for reviving the doctrine of world citizenship.
Explain the principle of federalism as advocated by Russell.
What is the supreme moral rule according to Russell?
Differentiate between “expansive” and “repressive” impulses, according to Russell, and explain their importance for morality.
What is Russell’s view of matter?
Why did Russell think logic and mathematics were important?
III. Quiz Answer Key
Clarity is Russell’s paramount aim in philosophy. He values clear statements, even if disproven later, over ambiguous pronouncements.
Russell believed philosophy should be scientific, with opinions changing as new knowledge becomes available. He saw no shame in revising his views.
Russell viewed the mind and brain not as distinct entities, but that when we speak of a mind we are thinking chiefly of the set of compresent events in the region concerned, and of their several relations to other events forming parts of other periods in the history of the spatio-temporal tube which we are considering, whereas when we speak of the brain we are taking the set of compresent events as a whole, and considering its external relations to other sets of compresent events, also taken as wholes.
Russell defined civilization as a manner of life due to the combination of knowledge and forethought. It involves the pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival, and an awareness of one’s place in time and space.
Russell believed that world citizenship is necessary given increasing global interconnectedness. He notes that it promotes understanding and prevents the happiness of one from being built on the ruin of another.
Russell advocated for a hierarchical federal system from world government to local councils. The general principle should be to leave to smaller bodies all functions which do not prevent the larger bodies from fulfilling their purpose.
The supreme moral rule, according to Russell, is to act so as to produce harmonious rather than discordant desires. The goal is to apply this wherever a man’s influence extends: within himself, in his family, his city, his country, even the world as a whole, if he is able to influence it.
Expansive impulses, such as love and curiosity, promote a richer and freer life. Repressive impulses, like fear and cruelty, diminish life. True morality consists in living by the expansive impulses.
Russell viewed a piece of matter as a system of events. If the piece of matter is to be as small as possible, these events must all overlap, or be “compresent.”
Russell thought mathematics has the advantage of teaching you the habit of thinking without passion. He thought you learn to use your mind primarily upon material where passion doesn’t come in, and having trained it in that way you can then use it passionlessly upon matters about which you feel passionately.
IV. Essay Questions
Discuss Bertrand Russell’s concept of “scientific philosophy.” How does it differ from traditional philosophical approaches, and why did he advocate for it?
Explore Russell’s views on the relationship between mind and matter. How did he challenge traditional dualistic perspectives, and what alternative did he propose?
Analyze Russell’s ethical framework. How did he connect desires, ethics, and morality, and what implications does this have for individual and social behavior?
Examine Russell’s political philosophy. How did he balance individual liberty with the need for social order and international cooperation, and what specific solutions did he propose?
Evaluate Russell’s concept of civilization. What are its essential characteristics, and how can societies strive to achieve it?
V. Glossary of Key Terms
Behaviorism: A philosophical approach that emphasizes external observation as the primary method for understanding human behavior, minimizing the role of introspection.
Civilization: A manner of life characterized by knowledge, forethought, and the pursuit of objects beyond mere biological necessity.
Compresence: The relation between two or more qualities when one person experiences them simultaneously (e.g., seeing a color and hearing a sound at the same time).
Determinism: The hypothesis that there are discoverable causal laws, such that, given sufficient powers of calculation, a man who knows all that is happening within a certain sphere at a certain time can predict all that will happen at the center of the sphere during the time that it takes light to travel from the circumference of the sphere to the centre.
Disjunction: The verbal expression of indecision, or, if a question, of the desire to reach a decision
Federalism: A political system that divides powers between central and local governing bodies, allowing self-determination for local matters while addressing conflicting interests through a neutral authority.
Logical Atomism: A philosophical approach that analyzes complex concepts and propositions into their simplest, most fundamental components.
Ostensive Definition: Definition by frequently hearing the word when the object which it denotes is present.
World Citizenship: The idea that individuals have responsibilities and allegiances that extend beyond national boundaries to encompass all of humanity.
International Police: An international authority that can maintain and enforce order
Sentences, Molecular: Sentences containing conjunctions, conceived as the “p” and “q” which are conjoined being conceived as the “atoms.”
Mind: A track of sets of compresent events in a region of space-time where there is matter which is peculiarly liable to form habits.
Expansive Impulses: Emotions such as hope, love of art, impulse of constructiveness, love, affection, intellectual curiosity, and kindliness, that make more of life instead of less.
Repressive Impulses: Emotions such as cruelty, fear, and jealousy.
Supreme Moral Rule: To act so as to produce harmonious rather than discordant desires.
Russell’s Dictionary: Mind, Matter, and Morals Explained
Okay, here’s a briefing document based on the provided excerpts from Bertrand Russell’s “Dictionary of Mind, Matter and Morals.”
Briefing Document: Bertrand Russell’s Dictionary of Mind, Matter and Morals
Overview:
This document summarizes key themes and ideas found in the provided excerpts from Bertrand Russell’s “Dictionary of Mind, Matter, and Morals.” The dictionary, edited by Lester E. Denonn, presents an alphabetical compilation of Russell’s thoughts on a wide range of philosophical, scientific, and ethical subjects. Russell emphasizes clarity, a scientific approach to philosophy, and a willingness to revise opinions in light of new knowledge.
Key Themes and Ideas:
Evolution of Philosophical Views: Russell acknowledges changing his opinions over time, seeing it as a positive reflection of intellectual growth and adaptation to new knowledge, similar to scientific progress.
“I am not myself in any degree ashamed of having changed my opinions. What physicist who was already active in 1900 would dream of boasting that his opinions had not changed during the last half century? In science men change their opinions when new knowledge becomes available…”
He distinguishes his approach from theology, where doctrines are considered immutable.
Clarity and Analysis: Russell prioritizes clear and accurate thinking over profound but vague pronouncements. He values detailed analysis as the means to advance philosophical understanding.
“Clarity, above all, has been my aim. I prefer a clear statement subsequently disproved to a misty dictum capable of some profound interpretation which can be welcomed as a “great thought.” It is not by “great thoughts,” but by careful and detailed analysis, that the kind of technical philosophy which I value can be advanced.”
Limitations of Knowledge and the Role of Emotion: Russell recognizes areas where exact knowledge is lacking and where emotion necessarily plays a role. He advocates for a clear distinction between these domains.
“I will not deny, however, that there are regions as yet inaccessible to exact knowledge and yet of such practical importance that we cannot be content merely to suspend judgment… But I make always in my thought a sharp distinction between the doubtful problems in which the emotion must have its place and the happy realms of exactness where pure thought can disport itself in freedom.”
Behaviorism: While not fully endorsing it, Russell sees merit in the behaviorist method of external observation in understanding human beings.
“I do not fundamentally agree with this view [Behaviorism], but I think it contains much more truth than most people suppose, and I regard it as desirable to develop the behaviourist method to the fullest possible extent.”
He believes knowledge obtained through this method is self-contained, requiring no appeal to introspection, but simultaneously asserts there is knowledge dependent on introspection.
Birth Control: Russell strongly advocates for birth control, particularly to prevent the suffering of children born into poverty or with inherited diseases. He condemns moralists who oppose contraception, prioritizing abstract principles over human well-being.
“To please these moralists, a life of torture is inflicted upon millions of human beings who ought never to have existed, merely because it is supposed that sexual intercourse is wicked unless accompanied by desire for offspring…”
Civilization: Russell defines civilization as primarily characterized by forethought and knowledge, distinguishing it from mere biological survival. He also notes how civilization has become a pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival.
“First of all, what is civilization? Its first essential character, I should say, is forethought… We may then define civilization as: A manner of life due to the combination of knowledge and forethought.”
“What is called civilization may be defined as the pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival.”
Genuine culture is described as being a citizen of the universe and understanding human society as a whole.
Compresence: This is defined as the relation which holds between two or more qualities when one person experiences them simultaneously.
Definitions: Two types of definitions are identified, denotational and structural. Denotational defines an entity as the only one having a certain relation to known entities.
Desires and Ethics: Russell posits that all ethical systems are rooted in the desires of their proponents. He suggests that moral improvement comes from cultivating large and generous desires through intelligence, happiness, and freedom from fear.
“All systems of ethics embody the desires of those who advocate them… It is, in fact not by ethical theory, but by the cultivation of large and generous desires through intelligence, happiness, and freedom from fear, that men can be brought to act more than they do at present in a manner that is consistent with the general happiness of mankind.”
Determinism: Russell provides a complex definition of determinism, suggesting the possibility of predicting future events within a certain sphere, given sufficient knowledge and computational power.
Education: Russell promotes cultural exchange as a tool to diminish prejudice.
Federalism: He suggests a hierarchical structure of governance from world government to local councils.
Force: The entire concept of “force” is considered a mistake.
God: Russell presents arguments against the existence of God.
Habit: All kinds of matter, especially nervous tissue, are liable to form habits.
Impulses: Two kinds of impulses exist, possessive and creative/constructive. Russell suggests life should allow for free play of impulses that aren’t destructive or injurious. He contrasts repressive and expansive emotions, advocating for the latter as essential to true morality. Predatory impulses are identified as the cause of fear and a barrier to international cooperation.
Infinity: Russell credits Dedekind and Cantor with discovering a precise definition of an infinite number or collection of things.
Internationalism: Advocating for world citizenship as a practical necessity.
Liberty: Russell argues for respecting individual liberty except when actions directly harm others. He emphasizes the need for a supernational authority to prevent aggressive war and advocates for the reign of law.
Logical Atomism: This is a philosophical approach that scrutinizes mathematics and focuses on piecemeal, verifiable results rather than untested generalities. It is an approach that maintains there are many things and denies there is a whole composed of those things.
Mankind: Russell hopes for mankind to be terrified into sanity and tolerance by the hydrogen bomb.
Mathematics: Mathematics teaches one to think without passion.
Matter: Matter is described as a system of events. Every living thing seeks to transform its environment into itself and its seed.
Mind: Russell defines the “mind” as constructed out of habits, a track of sets of compresent events in a region of space-time where there is matter prone to form habits.
Moral Rules: Supreme moral rule is to act to produce harmonious rather than discordant desires.
Nationalism: Russell considers nationalism a development of herd-instinct, and he defines a nation as a group defined geographically.
Philosophy: Philosophy can provide exact thinking habits and give an impersonal breadth to conceptions of life.
Reverence: Reverence emphasizes respect for the liberty of others, sympathy, and tenderness.
Scientific Spirit: This is neither skeptical nor dogmatic and believes the truth is discoverable though not discovered.
Sentences: These are needed to express suspended reactions.
Shrewdness: This belongs more to the unconscious than the conscious.
Stoicism: Russell recognizes the value of stoicism in dealing with misfortune, promoting fortitude.
Things: Things are defined as those series of aspects that obey the laws of physics.
Tolerance: Practicing tolerance, kindness, truthfulness and justice is needed in sexual relations, marriage and divorce.
Truth-Function: A function of propositions in which the truth or falsehood is known.
Universities: An international university should be built in neutral territory to create and diffuse an outlook to prevent war and promote loyalty to international ideals.
Unverifiable: “Verifiable” can mean something wider than things human beings experience and includes things inferred in accordance with recognized canons of scientific method.
Vice and Virtue: Virtue is defined as a habit tending to produce a good community, and vice as a habit tending to produce a bad community.
Will: Will is an observable phenomenon and not a faculty.
Words: Egocentric words have meanings according to the speaker and his position in time and space.
World Government: Russell emphasizes that only a world government can make world peace secure.
Conclusion:
These excerpts reveal Russell’s commitment to reason, clarity, and human well-being. His dictionary offers a wide-ranging exploration of complex topics, encouraging critical thinking and a scientific approach to understanding the world. His emphasis on tolerance, individual liberty, and international cooperation reflects his deep concern for the future of humanity.
Bertrand Russell’s Philosophy: Answering Common Questions
FAQ on Bertrand Russell’s Philosophy
What is Bertrand Russell’s attitude towards changing philosophical opinions?
Russell embraces the idea of changing philosophical opinions, comparing it to the evolution of thought in science. He believes that philosophy, when pursued scientifically, should be open to revisions based on new knowledge and discoveries. He was not ashamed of changing his mind, and would be surprised if subsequent research didn’t modify his own ideas.
What is the primary aim in Bertrand Russell’s philosophical work?
Clarity is Russell’s paramount goal. He values a clear, even if ultimately disproved, statement over a vague or obscure pronouncement that is hailed as a “great thought.” He advocates for careful, detailed analysis as the way to advance technical philosophy.
How does Russell distinguish between exact knowledge and areas where emotion has a place?
Russell acknowledges that some areas are beyond exact knowledge but are still practically important. He believes emotion has a place in addressing doubtful problems, while pure thought is best suited for realms of exactness. He emphasizes a sharp distinction between these two types of problems.
What is Russell’s view on Behaviorism?
While not fully agreeing with behaviorism (the idea that everything knowable about man is discoverable by external observation), Russell sees value in it. He believes the behaviorist method can provide self-contained knowledge, taking physics for granted, without needing introspection. However, he maintains introspection also provides knowledge.
What is Russell’s definition of Civilization?
Russell offers multiple definitions of civilization, all interconnected. One essential aspect is forethought, distinguishing humans from animals. He further defines civilization as a way of life resulting from the combination of knowledge and forethought. Another definition is the pursuit of objects not biologically necessary for survival, which arose from surplus agriculture and a leisure class. Ultimately, Russell views civilization as a thing of the mind, involving knowledge and emotion, including awareness of one’s place in the world.
What is Logical Atomism?
Logical atomism is the philosophy Russell advocates. It scrutinizes mathematics and aims to substitute detailed, verifiable results for large, untested generalities. This philosophy maintains there are many things, but denies that there is a whole composed of those things. Philosophical propositions are concerned with all things distributively, and with properties that don’t depend on accidental nature but are true of any possible world.
What is the importance of mathematics, according to Russell?
Russell believes mathematics teaches the habit of thinking without passion, a skill valuable for approaching emotionally charged subjects with greater clarity and objectivity. It helps train the mind to focus on reasoning and come to conclusions.
What is the relationship between liberty and law?
Russell states there can be no widespread liberty except under the reign of law, because when men are lawless only the strongest are free. While he acknowledges the law can be oppressive and revolution sometimes necessary, he asserts that whoever impairs respect for the law in the name of liberty incurs a grave responsibility.
The Nature and Nuances of Affection
Affectionateness is an emotional habit that, in moderation, is considered good, but it can easily be excessive. When taken too far, it can lead to a lack of self-dependence, which can negatively affect one’s character.
Some moralists, who may not be psychologists, confuse affection with benevolence and think it involves desiring the happiness of the loved one. However, affection in its instinctive forms is connected with jealousy and is not always a desirable emotion.
Arabian Philosophy: Transmission of Greek Traditions
Arabian philosophy is more important as a transmitter of Greek traditions than as an original school of thought.
Key aspects of Arabian philosophy:
In philosophy, the Arabs were better as commentators than original thinkers.
Figures like Avicenna and Averroes were essentially commentators.
The views of more scientific philosophers came from Aristotle and the Neoplatonists in logic and metaphysics, from Galen in medicine, and from Greek and Indian sources in mathematics and astronomy. Mystics’ religious philosophy also had an admixture of old Persian beliefs.
Writers in Arabic showed some originality in mathematics and chemistry, with the latter being an incidental result of alchemical researches.
Arabian philosophy is not important as original thought.
Its importance is as a transmitter of Greek traditions.
Islamic civilization was admirable in the arts and in many technical ways but showed no capacity for independent speculation in theoretical matters.
Logical Atomism: Philosophy Through Logic
Logical atomism is a philosophical viewpoint that emphasizes the importance of logic. It posits that schools of thought should be characterized by their logic rather than their metaphysics.
Key aspects of logical atomism:
Logical atomism is a form of pluralism because it maintains that while there are many things, there isn’t a single whole composed of those things.
Philosophical propositions are concerned with all things distributively and with such properties of all things as do not depend upon the accidental nature of the things that happen to be.
It aligns with the scientific approach of detailed, verifiable results over untested generalities.
The logic is atomic.
It involves the critical scrutiny of mathematics.
The source describes it as a philosophy that has gradually emerged through the critical examination of mathematics. It shares a similar spirit with the “new realism” and represents an advance comparable to Galileo’s introduction of piecemeal, detailed, and verifiable results in physics. According to logical atomism, philosophical propositions are not concerned with the whole of things collectively but with all things distributively. These propositions must address properties of all things that are independent of the accidental nature of those things and hold true in any possible world, regardless of facts discovered through our senses.
Psycho-Analysis: Unconscious Desires, Emotional Life, and Impulse Expression
Psycho-analysis is a method used to understand hysteria and certain forms of insanity, revealing that aspects of ordinary lives bear a resemblance to the delusions seen in the insane. It emphasizes the emotional life, suggesting that character and intelligence develop spontaneously with the right emotional development.
Key aspects of psycho-analysis:
Focus on Emotional Life: Psycho-analysis stresses the importance of emotional development, suggesting that character and intelligence should naturally develop if emotional aspects are appropriately addressed.
Unconscious Desires: Psycho-analysis brings to light the connection of dreams, irrational beliefs, and foolish actions with unconscious wishes, though with some exaggeration. These unconscious desires may be for things that one would consider wicked, leading to the entertainment of false beliefs to hide the nature of what is desired.
Impulse Expression: If an impulse is prevented from finding overt expression, it doesn’t necessarily die but goes underground and finds a new outlet not inhibited by training; this deflection can cause emotional disturbance and wasted energy.
Understanding Hysteria and Insanity: Psycho-analysis is primarily a method of understanding hysteria and certain forms of insanity.
Rationalizing: Rationalizing is the process of inventing rational grounds for an irrational decision.
Psycho-analysis has taught that a life excessively against natural impulse is likely to involve effects of strain that may be as bad as indulgence in forbidden impulses. People who live an unnatural life may be filled with envy, malice, and uncharitableness.
The State: Its Functions, Liberty, and International Role
The concept of the State is multifaceted, encompassing its functions, relationship with individual liberty, and its potential role in international cohesion.
Key aspects regarding the State:
The State seems a necessary institution for purposes such as peace and war, tariffs, regulation of sanitary conditions and the sale of noxious drugs, and the preservation of a just system of distribution. These functions could hardly be performed in a community without a central government.
A considerable degree of centralization is indispensable. However, powers of the State should devolve to various bodies based on geography, industry, or culture, with sufficient autonomy.
The State is not an end in itself but a means to enable individuals to give splendor to human life through citizenship and liberty.
State education is necessary but involves dangers, as seen in Nazi Germany and Russia.
Additional considerations:
The tyranny of officials must be resisted to ensure mental freedom. The diffusion of power through democracy is only effective when voters are interested in the questions involved.
The State should treat minorities fairly. A state that treats minorities ruthlessly is a bad state.
The idea that the individual is of no importance and the State is divine is opposed to the Christian ethic and disregards human dignity.
The State, in spite of what Anarchists urge, seems a necessary institution.
The State is essentially an engine of power designed to give the victory to one side in the class conflict.
Furthermore, international cohesion and a sense of the human race as one cooperative unit is increasingly necessary. The survival of scientific civilization may demand a world State and a world-wide system of education to produce loyalty to the world State. However, unrestricted national sovereignty involves disaster, making international government a necessity. The establishment of an international government will not be successful unless most civilized nations are persuaded that unrestricted national sovereignty involves disaster.
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This collection of writings by Bertrand Russell offers a comprehensive view of his philosophical thought across a range of topics. It explores his perspectives on religion, knowledge, ethics, politics, education, and international affairs. Russell examines concepts like truth, belief, and the nature of reality, often challenging traditional views. He contemplates the balance between individual liberty and social order, advocating for reason and humanism in a world facing complex challenges. The writings also reveal Russell’s deep concern for human well-being and his call for global cooperation and intellectual freedom. Ultimately, the collection presents Russell’s enduring quest for a more rational and compassionate world.
The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell: A Study Guide
Quiz
Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each, based on the provided excerpts.
According to Russell, how did some religious figures in the past react to scientific advancements like the lightning rod, and what was the basis of their objection?
What is the orthodox Catholic doctrine on sex as outlined in the text, and what are some of its specific prohibitions and permissions within marriage?
How does Russell critique generalizations about women, and what does he suggest is the basis for such generalizations?
According to Russell, what happens to every moralist who consists of “don’ts”?
Explain Russell’s argument about the word “not” and his encounter with the metaphysicians.
What is Russell’s concept of a “spoken word,” and what are its key characteristics regarding precision and perception?
What is the difference between “atomic” and “molecular” sentences, and why does Russell suggest paying attention to the atoms?
What is the essence of possibility, according to Russell’s discussion of “Brutus killed Caesar?”
What does Russell mean when he says that mathematical constants are, in essence, logical constants?
What, according to Russell, is the relationship between the physical and mental in regards to the theories of Shakespeare and Bach?
Quiz Answer Key
Some religious figures condemned scientific advancements like the lightning rod as an impious attempt to defy God’s will, because they believed natural disasters like lightning strikes were divine punishments for sin, and interfering with them was aiding sinners to escape. Dr. Price blamed earthquakes on lightning rods.
The Catholic doctrine favors celibacy but allows marriage for those lacking continence. Intercourse within marriage is permissible only for procreation; any form of contraception or abortion is considered a sin, regardless of medical necessity.
Russell criticizes generalizations about women as arising from limited personal experiences, such as married men judging women solely by their wives or women judging by their own experiences. He finds fault with both favorable and unfavorable generalizations.
According to Russell, the moralist whose morality consists of “don’ts” eventually becomes a part of Satan.
Russell argues that the word “not” is superfluous and tries to eliminate it from his speech, leading the metaphysicians to laugh at his self-contradiction since he cannot express not using the word not without using the word not.
Russell defines a spoken word as a set of closely similar bodily movements (larynx, mouth, breath), lacking sharp boundaries and both general and vague, thus relying on context and interpretation for true understanding.
Atomic sentences contain only one verb, while molecular sentences state a relation between constituent atomic sentences. Russell suggests focusing on atomic sentences when considering the unity of sentences, to better understand their foundation.
Possibility, according to Russell, involves a variable satisfying a condition, with some values of the variable also satisfying a further condition while others do not, thus making the subject variable possible but not necessary.
Mathematical constants, such as the number 1, are derived from propositions with a constant logical form.
While the thoughts of Shakespeare and Bach fall outside the scope of physics, their social impact relies on the physical act of creating symbols (marks on paper), which are subject to physical laws, indicating a connection to physical determinism.
Essay Questions
Instructions: Answer these questions in a well-developed essay format.
Discuss Russell’s views on the relationship between religion, morality, and scientific progress. How does he use historical examples and philosophical arguments to support his position?
Explore Russell’s ideas on the nature of language and its impact on thought and knowledge. Consider his concepts of atomic sentences, definitions, and the limits of language.
Analyze Russell’s perspective on the concept of self and ego. How does he view the individual’s place in society and the universe, and what does he believe constitutes wisdom?
Examine Russell’s views on power, economic systems, and social justice. What does he identify as the primary sources of power, and how does he propose to address inequalities?
Consider Russell’s analysis of what a Christian is or is not, and what constitutes Christian values versus other philosophies.
Glossary of Key Terms
Agnostic: One who holds that the existence of God is unknown or unknowable.
Atomic Sentence: In Russell’s philosophy, a basic sentence containing only one verb and expressing a simple fact.
Epistemological Premiss: A logical and psychological premiss that one can, as far as one is able, verify as true.
Molecular Sentence: A complex sentence consisting of two or more atomic sentences linked together, expressing a relationship between those sentences.
Proper Name: A word or symbol that refers directly to an object or individual, without implying any description of that object or individual.
Propositional Function: An expression containing a real variable that becomes a proposition when the variable is assigned a constant value.
Reign of Law: The idea that all events in the universe are governed by consistent and predictable natural laws.
Neutral Monism: The view that reality is ultimately composed of a single substance that is neither mental nor physical, but capable of manifesting as either.
Tautology: In logic, a statement that is always true by virtue of its logical form.
Wisdom: According to Russell, a state of mind that synthesizes knowledge, will, and feeling, and is essential for the responsible use of human power.
Bertrand Russell: Key Themes and Ideas
Okay, here’s a briefing document summarizing the main themes and ideas from the provided excerpts of Bertrand Russell’s writings.
Briefing Document: Bertrand Russell – Key Themes and Ideas
Overall Theme:
These excerpts from Bertrand Russell’s work reveal a consistent focus on the critical examination of established beliefs, intellectual clarity, skepticism toward generalizations, and the importance of reason and evidence in understanding the world. He critiques religious dogma, societal norms, philosophical obfuscation, and political ideologies, advocating for a more rational and humane approach to life. Russell champions individual liberty, social justice, and a scientific worldview.
1. Critique of Religious Dogma and Superstition:
Rejection of Divine Punishment: Russell challenges the notion of divine intervention and punishment, citing examples like the clergy’s opposition to lightning rods and Gandhi’s interpretation of earthquakes. He emphasizes the absurdity of attributing natural disasters to divine wrath.
“When Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod, the clergy, both in England and America, with the enthusiastic support of George III, condemned it as an impious attempt to defeat the will of God.”
Critique of Sexual Repression: Russell attacks the orthodox Catholic doctrine on sex, highlighting its emphasis on celibacy, the condemnation of contraception, and its views on venereal disease. He satirizes the hypocrisy and illogicality surrounding divorce and remarriage within the Church.
“All intercourse outside marriage is sin, and so is intercourse within marriage if any measures are adopted to prevent conception.”
Rejection of Religious Explanations: Russell consistently uses logic and reason to debunk religious explanations for natural phenomena and moral issues.
“The phrase ‘in the sight of God’ puzzles me. One would suppose that God sees everything, but apparently this is a mistake. He does not see Reno, for you cannot be divorced in the sight of God.”
2. Skepticism and the Rejection of Generalizations:
Distrust of Generalizations about Women: Russell expresses a strong aversion to broad generalizations about women, acknowledging that such statements are often based on limited experiences and biases.
“For my part I distrust all generalizations about women, favourable and unfavourable, masculine and feminine, ancient and modern; all alike, I should say, result from paucity of experience.”
Caution Against Self-Esteem: Russell warns against the human tendency to overestimate one’s own abilities, nation, or sex. He advocates for a rational perspective that acknowledges the limitations of human knowledge.
“Be very wary of opinions that flatter your self-esteem. Both men and women, nine times out of ten, are firmly convinced of the superior excellence of their own sex.”
Empiricism and the Limits of Knowledge: Russell emphasizes the importance of empirical evidence and the limitations of abstract reasoning. He argues that knowledge about the world must ultimately be grounded in experience.
3. Logic, Language, and the Pursuit of Clarity:
Importance of Precise Language: Russell emphasizes the importance of clear and precise language in philosophical and scientific discourse.
“If we are to avoid entanglement in questions that are not linguistic, we must distinguish sentences, not by the complexity which they may happen to have, but by that implied in their form.”
Analysis of Language: The texts show Russell delving into the complexities of language, including the structure of sentences, the meaning of words, and the relationship between language and thought. He analyzes the nuances of words and sentences.
“When I say that Satan, who is the non-existent, does not exist, I mention neither Satan nor the non-existent, but only the word “Satan” and the word “non-existent”.”
Role of Logic in Understanding Reality: Russell believed that logic was a powerful tool for analyzing the structure of reality and for distinguishing between sense and nonsense. He emphasizes the importance of logical forms and atomic propositions.
“In a sentence of atomic form, expressed in a strictly logical language, there are a finite number of proper names (any finite number from one upwards), and there is one word which is not a proper name.”
4. Morality, Ethics, and Social Justice:
Emphasis on Human Happiness: Russell argues that morality should be based on promoting human happiness and well-being, rather than adhering to abstract principles or divine commands.
“A man desires to drink, and also to be fit for his work next morning. We think him immoral if he adopts the course which gives him the smaller total satisfaction of desire.”
Critique of Traditional Morality: He critiques traditional moral rules related to sex, marriage, and family, arguing that they often lead to unnecessary suffering and repression.
Advocacy for Individual Freedom: Russell consistently defends individual freedom and autonomy, arguing that people should be free to make their own choices as long as they do not harm others.
Importance of Compassion and Sympathy: He stresses the importance of expanding our sympathies to embrace the entire human race, arguing that this is essential for achieving peace and justice in the world.
“If the world is ever to have peace it will be necessary to learn to embrace the whole human race in the same kind of sympathy which we now feel toward our compatriots.”
Socialism and Economic Justice: He supports efforts to reduce economic inequality and to challenge the power of monopolists.
“No good to the community, of any sort or kind, results from the private owner-ship of land. If men were reasonable, they would decree that it should cease tomorrow, with no compensation beyond a moderate life income to the present holders.”
5. Education and the Cultivation of Wisdom:
Education as an End in Itself: Russell insists that pupils should be regarded as ends in themselves, not merely as means to achieve some other goal. He criticizes educational systems that treat students as raw material.
“When I say that pupils should be regarded as ends, not as means, I may be met by the retort that, after all, everybody is more important as a means than as an end.”
Importance of Intellectual Honesty and Critical Thinking: He emphasizes the importance of fostering intellectual honesty, critical thinking, and a spirit of inquiry in students.
Wisdom as the Synthesis of Knowledge, Will, and Feeling: Russell defines wisdom as a synthesis of knowledge, will, and feeling, arguing that it is essential for making good decisions and for creating a better world.
“The state of mind which I have been trying to describe is what I mean by wisdom, and it is undoubtedly more precious than rubies.”
6. The Nature of Reality and the Limits of Physics:
Neutral Monism: A philosophical position that Russell explores, suggesting that the ultimate constituents of the universe are neither mental nor physical, but something neutral.
Limits of Physics: While acknowledging the power of physics, Russell argues that it cannot provide a complete account of reality because it is concerned only with structure, not with intrinsic qualities. He insists there are certain kinds of knowledge that are outside the realm of physics.
“Thus the knowledge which other men have and he has not is not part of physics.”
7. Political and Social Commentary
World Government: Russell advocates for world government as a means of preventing war and ensuring global stability.
“For technical reasons it becomes advantageous that social units should increase in size as technique becomes more elaborate.”
Danger of Unchecked Power: Russell was acutely aware of the dangers of unchecked power, whether in the hands of individuals, states, or economic institutions. He warned against the concentration of power and advocated for checks and balances to protect individual liberty.
Fear of Technological Advancements: While acknowledging the potential benefits of scientific progress, Russell also warned of the dangers of technology being used for destructive purposes. He emphasized the need for ethical considerations to guide the development and use of new technologies.
This briefing provides a concise overview of the key themes and ideas found in the provided excerpts. Russell’s work is characterized by intellectual rigor, clarity, and a deep commitment to reason, freedom, and social justice.
Russell: Philosophical FAQs
FAQ
Why did religious authorities initially oppose scientific advancements like the lightning rod?
Religious figures like the clergy and even King George III saw innovations like the lightning rod as defiance against God’s will. They believed that lightning was a divine punishment for sin, and interfering with it was akin to aiding criminals escaping justice. Dr. Price in Boston even attributed earthquakes to God’s wrath over the increasing use of lightning rods.
What are some of the traditional religious views on sex and marriage according to Russell?
Orthodox Catholic doctrine, as interpreted from figures like St. Paul, St. Augustine, and St. Thomas Aquinas, generally favors celibacy. Marriage is permissible for those who lack continence but only for procreation. Any form of contraception is deemed sinful, and even medical intervention to save a mother’s life during pregnancy is discouraged because God could intervene miraculously. Divorce is heavily restricted, with loopholes often available only to the wealthy. Some figures, like Tolstoy and Gandhi, considered all sexual intercourse wicked, even within marriage.
What generalizations about women does Russell find problematic, and why?
Russell distrusts all generalizations about women, whether positive or negative. He points out that such generalizations often stem from limited experience and personal biases, such as married men judging all women based on their wives, or women judging all people from their own experience. Historically, views of women have shifted from harmless and silly in antiquity to temptresses during the rise of Christianity and saints in the Victorian era. Each generalization serves a purpose related to the general status of women during the time period rather than any innate quality they have.
What is Russell’s view on the idea of inherent national or gender superiority?
Russell believes that convictions about the superiority of one’s nation or gender are rooted in self-esteem rather than objective truth. He argues that people tend to adjust their values to favor the merits of their own group while dismissing their demerits as trivial. He suggests that the rational approach is to acknowledge the lack of a demonstrably right answer and recognize humanity’s small place in the vast universe.
What is the relationship between language and thought according to Russell?
While Russell does not believe that language is strictly necessary for all thought, especially simple thoughts, he argues that complex thoughts absolutely depend on language. He notes that language enables the comprehension of abstract concepts and complex relationships, like those in mathematics. He believes language acquires a kind of autonomy, where we know statements are true even when the concepts are too complex to fully grasp.
What is the distinction between knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description, and why is it important?
Knowledge by acquaintance is direct, immediate knowledge of something through personal experience, like one’s own sensations or thoughts. Knowledge by description, on the other hand, is indirect and based on information or descriptions, like knowing about Bismarck through historical accounts. Russell argues that knowledge by description ultimately relies on some form of acquaintance, as descriptions must eventually connect to something with which we are directly familiar.
How does Russell define the “reign of law” and what are his views on its universality, even in the realm of physics?
Russell defines the “reign of law” as the belief that all occurrences are governed by predictable and consistent laws, akin to the law of gravitation. However, he questions its universality, even in physics. He points out that certain fundamental occurrences, such as radioactive decay and electron jumps, cannot currently be reduced to any known law. He admits there is no way to assert that a given occurance is not subject to any law, but also that with the current state of physics, any counter-assertion should also be done with caution. This is done to maintain scientific caution, noting that it is possible these phenomena have some range of caprice.
According to Russell, how should the expansion of our understanding of the universe affect our moral and emotional development?
Russell believes that the vastness of the universe can initially be bewildering. However, he argues that our minds, including our will and feelings, should grow in tandem with our knowledge. If our knowledge becomes cosmic while our will and feeling remain parochial, it can lead to a lack of harmony and potential disaster. This is because feeling determines the ends we shall pursue, and we must work to expand the feeling so we may expand what we choose to pursue. To achieve this, it will be necessary to have greater and greater compassion and sympathy for the whole human race as well as other ages.
Bertrand Russell on International Affairs: Cooperation, Conflict, and World Order
Bertrand Russell’s writings address various aspects of international affairs, including the importance of international cooperation, potential causes of conflict, and means of settling disputes.
Key points regarding international affairs:
Importance of Internationalism Cultural internationalism has been decaying since World War I. Establishing an international authority is seen as the most important reform for multiple reasons. The creation of international cooperation is needed, but men persist in dividing into hostile groups.
Sources of Conflict Various issues can cause conflict between states, such as disputes over territory or resources. The conflict between communism and capitalism is a significant issue that is improbable to be settled peaceably. Other potential conflicts include the punishment of Germany after WWI and the domination by England of India and Japan of China.
Desires and Ideologies Politics is concerned with groups instead of individuals, and the passions involved are those arising between rival groups. The world is obsessed with the conflict of ideologies, which are a way of grouping people.
World Government A single, worldwide authority with a monopoly on serious weapons is the only way to make the world safe from war. If a world government is to prevent wars, it must have a monopoly on all major weapons and adequate armed forces, as well as proclaim rules for the employment of its armed forces.
Diminishing Fear The first and essential step to improving matters is to find a way of diminishing fear. If an international system could be established to remove the fear of war, the improvement in the everyday mentality of everyday people would be enormous and very rapid.
Role of Neutrals Neutrals can help by drawing up a document setting forth the likely results of war in a wholly neutral spirit and inviting comments. If an agreement making war improbable is to be reached, it will have to be by the friendly offices of neutrals.
Education Schools should teach world history from an impartial point of view to foster international cooperation. Children should be made aware of the modern interdependence of different groups of men and the importance of cooperation and the folly of conflict.
Nuclear Age There is a need to prevent a military contest, of which the issue must be disastrous to all sides. The argument to be addressed to East and West alike is that each side has vital interests, which it is not prepared to sacrifice, and neither side can defeat the other except by defeating itself at the same time.
Common Interests The matters in which the interests of Russia and America coincide are much more important than the matters in which they are thought to diverge. The paramount interest is to preserve the existence of mankind by preventing a great war.
Limitations of National Liberty To allow complete liberty to any national State is just as anarchic as it would be to allow complete liberty to an individual. The risks of war have become so great that the continued existence of the species is incompatible with the new methods of scientific destruction.
Overcoming Suspicion It will take time and patience and honesty to overcome the suspicion of territorial designs. There is a need everywhere for a much greater knowledge of international affairs and of the place of one’s own country in relation to the whole.
Bertrand Russell: Life, Philosophy, and Political Thought
Bertrand Russell was a philosopher who wrote on a wide array of topics, including philosophy, mathematics, education, ethics, and international affairs.
General Aspects of Russell’s Life and Work:
Polymath: Russell was a polymath with broad and diverse interests, with the exception of aesthetics.
Changing Opinions: Russell acknowledged that his opinions changed over time, reflecting the progress of knowledge.
Wide Interests: Russell’s interests included history, politics, mathematics, philosophy, economics, psychology, and education.
Popular Writings: He wrote extensively for the general public, although he did not consider these works to be philosophical.
Writing Style: Russell’s writing is known for its clarity, succinctness, and precision.
** Erudition:** He seemed to never forget anything he had read.
Russell’s Views and Engagements:
Political Activism: He was actively involved in various public controversies, ranging from free trade and women’s suffrage to the Kennedy assassination and the Vietnam War.
Philosophy of Education: Russell defended a progressive view of education and started his own school with his second wife because he was not satisfied with the available options for his children.
Views on Religion: Reading John Stuart Mill led him to question the existence of God and adopt agnosticism.
Influence: He is considered one of the most productive and brilliant thinkers, influencing present-day philosophizing.
Russell as a Philosopher:
Impact on Modern Philosophy: Russell had a profound influence on modern philosophy, although his work was sometimes misunderstood.
Symbolic Logic: Russell’s work in symbolic logic is considered essential for philosophical logicians and for understanding mathematics.
Philosophy of Language: He made important contributions to semantics and the philosophy of language, analyzing the meaning of meaning.
Theory of Knowledge: Russell’s epistemology emphasized the importance of perceptive premises and analysis.
Metaphysics: He is known for his novel view of “Atomism” in metaphysics.
Ethics: Russell’s views on ethics challenged conventional beliefs, particularly on the topic of sex.
Russell as a Political Thinker:
Analysis of Power: Power was a key concept in his political theory, and he criticized fallacious theories in Fascism and Communism.
International Affairs: Russell stressed the importance of international cooperation and world government to prevent conflicts in the nuclear age.
Russell’s life and work demonstrate a commitment to reason, clarity, and the pursuit of knowledge across a remarkably broad range of subjects.
Bertrand Russell on Religion: Origins, Critique, and Agnosticism
Bertrand Russell’s writings contain discussions of religious belief from a variety of angles, including its origins, its impact on society and individual behavior, and its compatibility with reason and science.
Origins and Essence of Religious Belief:
Fear as a Basis: Russell argues that religion is primarily based on fear, including the terror of the unknown, the wish for protection, and the fear of death. Fear is also the parent of cruelty, which explains the frequent connection between cruelty and religion.
Self-Importance: Self-importance, whether individual or generic, is a significant source of religious beliefs. Even the concept of sin is derived from self-importance.
The Essence of Religion: The essence of religion lies in subordinating the finite aspects of life to the infinite aspects, seeking union with the universe. This involves knowledge, love, and service, contrasting with the disunion caused by insistent instinct.
Feeling vs. Belief: Russell suggests that religion may be rooted in feeling rather than belief, with deep, instinctive feelings potentially shaping one’s life even without intellectual articulation.
Critique of Religious Belief:
Dogma and Authority: Russell is critical of dogma, seeing it as demanding authority rather than intelligent thought, leading to persecution and hostility. He argues that relying on authority instead of reason leads to endless troubles, as people selectively interpret sacred texts to suit their prejudices.
Superstition: Russell considers many religious beliefs as superstitions, which become allies of injustice. He criticizes the blend of utilitarianism and superstition in current morality, where the superstitious part often has a stronger hold.
Harmful Impact: Russell contends that religion has caused more suffering than it has prevented throughout history. He points to religious persecution and the opposition to scientific progress as examples.
Individualism: Traditional religion’s individualism is a defect because it does not focus on a social conception of welfare.
Truthfulness: Some important virtues are more likely to be found among those who reject religious dogmas than among those who accept them. This applies to truthfulness and intellectual integrity, which Russell considers of great social importance.
Rejection of Certain Christian Beliefs: Russell states he does not believe in God, immortality or that Christ was the best and wisest of men.
Religion and Morality:
Not a Reliable Foundation for Ethics: He challenges the notion that morality depends on religious dogma, suggesting that essential virtues can exist independently of religious beliefs.
Social Utility: Russell notes that moral rules have either a basis in religious creed or a basis in social utility.
Influence on Desire: Ethical notions influence desire through the desire for approval and the fear of disapproval. Russell believes the morality of conduct should be judged by its probable consequences.
Agnosticism and Conduct: Agnostics are no more prone to immoral behavior than religious people, as they are motivated by the same factors, such as fear of punishment, conscience, and the desire to live in a law-abiding community.
The Value of a Non-Dogmatic Religious Outlook:
Possibility of a Dogma-Free Religion: Russell suggests that a religious outlook is possible without dogma, emphasizing a life lived in the whole, free from the limitations of self and daily cares.
Worship, Acquiescence, and Love: Even without belief in God, elements of worship, acquiescence, and love can be preserved. Acquiescence in the inevitable, though more difficult without religious assurance, becomes nobler and deeper.
Union with the Universe: Religion derives its power from offering a sense of union with the universe, achievable through impartial worship and universal love, without demanding conformity to personal standards.
Agnosticism as an Alternative:
Rejection of Authority: An Agnostic does not accept any authority, but thinks out questions of conduct for themselves.
Ethics: If religion means a system of ethics, it can be reconciled with science.
View of Sin: The Agnostic views sin as not a useful notion and believes punishment of undesirable conduct should only be for deterrent or reformatory purposes.
Russell’s analysis of religious belief highlights his commitment to reason, individual freedom, and the pursuit of a more rational and humane world. He advocates for a morality grounded in human needs and social consequences, rather than divine commands or unquestioned traditions.
Bertrand Russell on Symbolic Logic
Bertrand Russell viewed symbolic logic as a crucial tool for exploring inference and the foundations of mathematics.
Key aspects of symbolic logic according to Russell:
Definition: Symbolic logic, also called formal logic, involves studying general types of deduction. The use of mathematical symbols is a convenience, not an essential characteristic.
Historical Context: Modern symbolic logic progressed from recognizing asyllogistic inferences, starting with Leibniz. Boole’s Laws of Thought (1854) spurred its development, and Peano’s methods transformed it into a tool essential for philosophical logicians and mathematicians.
Utility: Symbolic logic increases one’s capacity for comprehension and is theoretically useful. Its practical benefits can be seen from the enhanced reasoning abilities it provides.
Scope: Symbolic logic is concerned with inference in general, distinguished by its generality. It investigates general rules for inferences and classifies relations or propositions based on how these rules introduce particular notions.
Logical Constants: The subject matter of mathematics consists of logical constants, which are notions appearing in the propositions of symbolic logic or are definable in terms of these notions. The number of indefinable logical constants is relatively small, around eight or nine. These constants are sufficient for expressing all propositions in symbolic logic.
Components: Symbolic logic includes the calculus of propositions, the calculus of classes, and the calculus of relations.
Relationship to Mathematics: Mathematics and logic have converged to the point of being indistinguishable. Starting from logical premises and deducing mathematical results demonstrates their identity.
Formal Reasoning: The absence of particular things or properties in logic or pure mathematics is a result of the study being purely formal.
Language: Russell notes that a completely logical language would express everything formal through syntax, not vocabulary, allowing mathematical propositions to be understood by knowing only the syntax.
Russell also addressed the use of symbolism:
Necessity: Symbolism is essential for accurate demonstrative reasoning because the ideas are abstract, and ordinary language lacks the required precision.
Aids Intuition: Adapting the rules of symbolism to deduction processes aids intuition in abstract regions. Familiar symbol arrangements represent idea arrangements, helping the mind construct reasoning in areas where imagination fails.
Terseness: Symbolism’s terseness allows an entire proposition to be represented concisely, aiding comprehension.
Limitations: Symbolism becomes shorthand for registering results in areas where imagination works easily.
Handling: The general method for handling logical symbols is due to Peano.
Russell saw symbolic logic as more than an abstract exercise; it was a way to clarify and extend the power of human reasoning, especially in complex and abstract domains.
Bertrand Russell on Human Nature: Instinct, Reason, and Society
Bertrand Russell’s writings offer various perspectives on human nature, emphasizing its variability, the interplay of instinct and reason, and the potential for both good and evil.
Variability and Changeability of Human Nature:
Not Fixed: Russell disputes the popular maxim that “human nature cannot be changed”. He argues that this statement is often used to justify the status quo and resist social change.
Influence of Circumstances: Adult human nature is extremely variable, shaped by education and circumstances.
Cultural and Societal Influence: What is considered “human nature” is heavily influenced by local customs, education, and social norms. For example, behaviors and beliefs vary widely across different cultures.
Conditioning: Desires are subject to conditioning, where things that are initially means to an end become desired in themselves. This “conditioning” of primitive desires distinguishes human life from that of animals.
Limits of Change: It is important to recognize the limits of human possibility when aiming at a good life. Instinct has its rights and if violated beyond a point, it seeks vengeance in subtle ways.
Instinct, Reason, and Emotion:
Instinct and Intellect: Russell sees instinct, mind, and spirit as essential to a full life, each with its own excellence and corruption.
The Soul of Man: Russell describes the soul of man as a mixture of God and brute, a battleground of two natures: the finite (particular, self-centered) and the infinite (universal, impartial).
The Role of Feeling: Feelings determine the ends humans pursue and how they use increased power. Human beings have been divided into groups, generating opposite systems of morality for insiders versus outsiders.
Impact of Emotions: Destructive impulses often originate in early life experiences and can lead to collective failures and societal problems.
Fear: Fear is a primary driver in human life, underlying religious dogma and social interactions.
Good and Evil in Human Nature:
Potential for Both: Russell acknowledges the capacity for both good and evil in human nature. He does not believe that humans are inherently good or evil but that their behavior is shaped by circumstances and education.
Malevolence: Russell recognizes the presence of active malevolence in ordinary people, which is often masked by conventional morality. He attributes this to social and physiological causes, such as competition and fear.
Sources of Unhappiness: Repressive passions stem from unhappiness and can be mitigated by opening up possibilities for fulfilling and useful activities.
The Importance of Kindness: Creating a kindly population through positive early experiences can prevent cruel forms of idealism like patriotism and class war.
The Influence of Power:
Desire for Power: The desire for power is a fundamental human motivation, influencing individual and collective behavior.
Collective Power: Modern technique has revived the sense of collective power within human communities, leading to a perception of humans as almost godlike.
Intoxication with Power: A significant challenge of the time is coping with individuals intoxicated with the prospect of almost unlimited power, alongside the apathy of the powerless.
Love of Power: If love of power dominates, the view emerges that the important thing is not to understand the world, but to change it. Mechanism augments human power, attracting lovers of power.
The Importance of Education:
Shaping Character: Education plays a crucial role in shaping human nature and fostering desirable qualities such as intelligence, benevolence, and the ability to cooperate.
Sanity through Education: The cure for the world’s problems lies in making men sane through sane education, addressing factors that contribute to social disaster.
Free Intelligence and Happy Disposition: Creating a better world depends on emotional psychology and fostering free intelligence combined with a happy disposition.
Overcoming Destructive Passions: Science can help grandchildren live good lives by giving them knowledge, self-control, and characters that promote harmony.
Implications for Society:
Role of Government: Survival demands government, but what gives value to survival lies outside government.
Balancing Social Cohesion and Individual Initiative: There is a need to strike a balance between social cohesion and individual initiative, as both are essential for a thriving society.
Need for International Cooperation: Given the interconnectedness of the human race, international cooperation is necessary for survival and well-being.
Overcoming Fear and Hatred: Politics is concerned with groups and the passions that unite them, often involving cooperation within the group and hostility towards outsiders. Overcoming fear and hatred is essential for creating a more harmonious world.
In summary, Russell views human nature as malleable, influenced by both innate drives and external factors. He emphasizes the importance of education, reason, and social structures in shaping human behavior and fostering a more cooperative and fulfilling existence. He recognizes the potential for both good and evil, urging individuals and societies to strive for a world where creative and expansive impulses are encouraged, and destructive passions are mitigated.
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This source is an excerpt from the Oxford English Dictionary. It provides definitions, usage notes, and etymologies for a wide range of English words, starting from “Aborigine” and progressing alphabetically. Entries include parts of speech, inflections, and examples of usage. The dictionary also often notes the origin of each term, tracing its roots back to Latin, Greek, French, or Old English. Overall, the text serves as a comprehensive guide to understanding the nuances of the English language.
A
A
A-prefix (also an-before a vowel sound) not, without (amoral). [greek]
Aa abbr. 1 automobile association. 2 alcoholics anonymous. 3 anti-aircraft.
Aardvark n. Mammal with a tubular snout and a long tongue, feeding on termites. [afrikaans]
Ab-prefix off, away, from (abduct). [latin]
Aback adv. take aback surprise, disconcert. [old english: related to *a2]
Abacus n. (pl. -cuses) 1 frame with wires along which beads are slid for calculating. 2 archit. Flat slab on top of a capital. [latin from greek from hebrew]
Abaft naut. —adv. In the stern half of a ship. —prep. Nearer the stern than. [from *a2, -baft: see *aft]
Abandon —v. 1 give up. 2 forsake, desert. 3 (often foll. By to; often refl.) Yield to a passion, another’s control, etc. —n. Freedom from inhibitions. abandonment n. [french: related to ad-, ban]
Abate v. (-ting) make or become less strong etc.; diminish. abatement n. [french abatre from latin batt(u)o beat]
Abattoir n. Slaughterhouse. [french abatre fell, as *abate]
Abbacy n. (pl. -ies) office or jurisdiction of an abbot or abbess. [latin: related to *abbot]
Abbé n. (in france) abbot or priest. [french from latin: related to *abbot]
Abbess n. Head of a community of nuns.
Abbey n. (pl. -s) 1 building(s) occupied by a community of monks or nuns. 2 the community itself. 3 building that was once an abbey.
Abbot n. Head of a community of monks. [old english from latin abbas]
Abbot n. Head of a community of monks. [old english from latin abbas]
Abbreviate v. (-ting) shorten, esp. Represent (a word etc.) By a part of it. abbreviation n. [latin: related to *brief]
Abc n. 1 the alphabet. 2 rudiments of a subject. 3 alphabetical guide.
Abdicate v. (-ting) 1 (usu. Absol.) Give up or renounce (the throne). 2 renounce (a duty, right, etc.). abdication n. [latin dico declare]
Abdomen n. 1 the belly, including the stomach, bowels, etc. 2 the hinder part of an insect etc. abdominal adj. [latin]
Abduct v. Carry off or kidnap illegally. abduction n. Abductor n. [latin duco lead]
Abeam adv. At right angles to a ship’s or an aircraft’s length.
Aberdeen angus n. Animal of a scottish breed of hornless black cattle. [aberdeen in scotland]
Aberdonian —adj. Of aberdeen. —n. Native or citizen of aberdeen. [medieval latin]
Aberrant adj. Deviating from what is normal or accepted. [latin: related to *err]
Aberration n. 1 aberrant behaviour; moral or mental lapse. 2 biol. Deviation from a normal type. 3 distortion of an image because of a defect in a lens or mirror. 4 astron. Apparent displacement of a celestial body.
Abet v. (-tt-) (usu. In aid and abet) encourage or assist (an offender or offence). [french: related to ad-, bait]
Abeyance n. (usu. Prec. By in, into) temporary disuse. [french: related to *ad-, beer gape]
Abhor v. (-rr-) detest; regard with disgust. [latin: related to *horror
Abhorrence n. Disgust; detestation.
Abhorrent adj. (often foll. By to) disgusting or hateful.
Abide v. (-ding; past abided or rarely abode) 1 (usu. In neg.) Tolerate, endure (can’t abide him). 2 (foll. By by) a act in accordance with (abide by the rules). B keep (a promise). 3 archaic remain, continue. [old english a-intensive prefix, *bide]
Abiding adj. Enduring, permanent.
Ability n. (pl. -ies) 1 (often foll. By to + infin.) Capacity or power. 2 cleverness, talent. [french: related to *able]
-ability suffix forming nouns of quality from, or corresponding to, adjectives in -able.
Abjure v. (-ring) renounce on oath (an opinion, cause, etc.). abjuration n. [latin juro swear]
Ablative gram. —n. Case (in latin) of nouns and pronouns indicating an agent, instrument, or location. —adj. Of or in the ablative. [latin ablatus taken away]
Able adj. (abler, ablest) 1 (often foll. By to + infin.; used esp. In is able, will be able, etc., replacing tenses of can) having the capacity or power (not able to come). 2 talented, clever. ably adv. [latin habilis]
-able suffix forming adjectives meaning: 1 that may or must be (eatable;
-able suffix forming adjectives meaning: 1 that may or must be (eatable; payable). 2 that can be made the subject of (dutiable; objectionable). 3 relevant to or in accordance with (fashionable; seasonable). [latin -abilis]
Able-bodied adj. Fit, healthy.
Able-bodied seaman n. Ordinary trained seaman.
Ablution n. (usu. In pl.) 1 ceremonial washing of the hands, sacred vessels, etc. 2 colloq. A ordinary bodily washing. B place for this. [latin ablutio from luo lut-wash]
-ably suffix forming adverbs corresponding to adjectives in -able.
Abm abbr. Anti-ballistic missile.
Abnegate v. (-ting) give up or renounce (a pleasure or right etc.). [latin nego deny]
Abnegation n. Denial; renunciation of a doctrine.
Abnormal adj. Deviating from the norm; exceptional. abnormality n. (pl. -ies). Abnormally adv. [french: related to *anomalous]
Abominable snowman n. Supposed manlike or bearlike himalayan animal; yeti.
Abominate v. (-ting) detest, loathe. abomination n. [latin: related to *abominable]
Aboriginal —adj. 1 indigenous, inhabiting a land from the earliest times, esp. Before the arrival of colonists. 2 (usu. Aboriginal) of australian aborigines. —n. 1 aboriginal inhabitant. 2 (usu. Aboriginal) aboriginal inhabitant of australia. [latin: related to *origin]
Aborigine n. (usu. In pl.) 1 aboriginal inhabitant. 2 (usu. Aborigine) aboriginal inhabitant of australia.
Usage when referring to the people, aboriginal is preferred for the singular form and aborigines for the plural, although aboriginals is also acceptable.
Abort v. 1 miscarry. 2 a effect abortion of (a foetus). B effect abortion in (a mother). 3 end or cause (a project etc.) To end before completion. [latin orior be born]
Abortion n. 1 natural or (esp.) Induced expulsion of a foetus from the womb before it is able to survive independently. 2 stunted or deformed creature or thing. 3 failed project or action. abortionist n.
Aboriginal —adj. 1 indigenous, inhabiting a land from the earliest times, esp. Before the arrival of colonists. 2 (usu. Aboriginal) of australian aborigines. —n. 1 aboriginal inhabitant. 2 (usu. Aboriginal) aboriginal inhabitant of australia. [latin: related to *origin]
Aborigine n. (usu. In pl.) 1 aboriginal inhabitant. 2 (usu. Aborigine) aboriginal inhabitant of australia.
Usage when referring to the people, aboriginal is preferred for the singular form and aborigines for the plural, although aboriginals is also acceptable.
Abort v. 1 miscarry. 2 a effect abortion of (a foetus). B effect abortion in (a mother). 3 end or cause (a project etc.) To end before completion. [latin orior be born]
Abortion n. 1 natural or (esp.) Induced expulsion of a foetus from the womb before it is able to survive independently. 2 stunted or deformed creature or thing. 3 failed project or action. abortionist n.
Abortive adj. Fruitless, unsuccessful.
Abound v. 1 be plentiful. 2 (foll. By in, with) be rich; teem. [latin unda wave]
About —prep. 1 a on the subject of (a book about birds). B relating to (glad about it). C in relation to (symmetry about a plane). 2 at a time near to (about six). 3 a in, round (walked about the town; a scarf about her neck). B all round from a centre (look about you). 4 at points in (strewn about the house). 5 carried with (no money about me). 6 occupied with (about her business). —adv. 1 a approximately (about ten miles). B colloq. In an understatement (just about had enough). 2 nearby (a lot of flu about). 3 in every direction (look about). 4 on the move; in action (out and about). 5 in rotation or succession (turn and turn about). be about (or all about) colloq. Have as its essential nature (life is all about having fun). Be about to be on the point of (was about to laugh). [old english]
About-face n. & int. = *about-turn, about turn.
About-turn —n. 1 turn made so as to face the opposite direction. 2 change of opinion or policy etc. —int. (about turn) mil. Command to make an about-turn.
Above —prep. 1 over; on the top of; higher than; over the surface of (head above water; above the din). 2 more than (above twenty people). 3 higher in rank, importance, etc., than. 4 a too great or good for (not above cheating). B beyond the reach of (above my understanding; above suspicion). —adv. 1 at or to a higher point; overhead (the floor above; the sky above). 2 earlier on a page or in a book (as noted above). —adj. Preceding (the above argument). —n. (prec. By the) preceding text (the above shows). above all most of all, more than anything else. Above oneself conceited, arrogant. [old english: related to *a2]
Above-board adj. & adv. Without concealment; open or openly.
Abracadabra —int. Supposedly magic word used in conjuring. —n. Spell or charm. [latin from greek]
Abrade v. (-ding) scrape or wear away (skin, rock, etc.) By rubbing. [latin rado scrape]
Abrasion n. 1 scraping or wearing away (of skin, rock, etc.). 2 resulting damaged area.
Abrasive —adj. 1 a tending to rub or graze. B capable of polishing by rubbing or grinding. 2 harsh or hurtful in manner. —n. Abrasive substance.
Abreast adv. 1 side by side and facing the same way. 2 (foll. By of) up to date.
Abridge v. (-ging) shorten (a book, film, etc.). abridgement n. [latin: related to *abbreviate]
Abroad adv. 1 in or to a foreign country or countries. 2 widely (scatter abroad). 3 in circulation (rumour abroad).
Abrogate v. (-ting) repeal, abolish (a law etc.). abrogation n. [latin rogo propose a law]
Abrupt adj. 1 sudden, hasty (abrupt end). 2 (of manner etc.) Curt. 3 steep, precipitous. abruptly adv. Abruptness n. [latin: related to *rupture]
Abscess n. (pl. Abscesses) swelling containing pus. [latin: related to ab-, cede]
Abseil —v. Descend by using a doubled rope coiled round the body and fixed at a higher point. —n. Descent made by abseiling. [german ab down, seil rope]
Absence n. 1 being away. 2 time of this. 3 (foll. By of) lack of. absence of mind inattentiveness. [latin absentia]
Absent —adj. 1 not present. 2 not existing; lacking. 3 inattentive. —v.refl. Go, or stay, away. absently adv. (in sense 3 of adj.).
Absentee n. Person not present.
Absenteeism n. Absenting oneself from work or school etc., esp. Frequently or illicitly.
Absentee landlord n. One who lets a property while living elsewhere.
Absent-minded adj. Forgetful or inattentive. absent-mindedly adv. Absent-mindedness n.
Absinth n. 1 wormwood. 2 (usu. Absinthe) aniseed-flavoured liqueur based on this. [french from latin]
Absolute —adj. 1 complete, utter (absolute bliss). 2 unconditional (absolute authority). 3 despotic (absolute monarch). 4 not relative or comparative (absolute standard). 5 gram. A (of a construction) syntactically independent of the rest of the sentence, as in dinner being over, we left the table. B (of an adjective or transitive verb) without an expressed noun or object (e.g. The deaf, guns kill). 6 (of a legal decree etc.) Final. —n. Philos. (prec. By the) that which can exist independently of anything else. [latin: related to *absolve]
Absolutely adv. 1 completely, utterly. 2 in an absolute sense (god exists absolutely). 3 colloq. (used in reply) quite so; yes.
Absolute majority n. Majority over all rivals combined.
Absolute pitch n. Ability to recognize or sound any given note.
Absolute temperature n. One measured from absolute zero.
Absolute zero n. Theoretical lowest possible temperature calculated as –273.15° c (or 0° k).
Absolution n. Formal forgiveness of sins.
Absolutism n. Principle or practice of absolute government. absolutist n.
Absolve v. (-ving) (often foll. By from, of) set or pronounce free from blame or obligation etc. [latin: related to *solve]
Absorb v. 1 incorporate as part of itself or oneself. 2 take in, suck up (liquid, heat, knowledge, etc.). 3 reduce the effect or intensity of; deal easily with (an impact, sound, difficulty, etc.). 4 consume (resources etc.). 5 (often as absorbing adj.) Engross the attention of. [latin sorbeo suck in]
Absorbent —adj. Tending to absorb. —n. Absorbent substance or organ.
Absorption n. 1 absorbing or being absorbed. 2 mental engrossment. absorptive adj.
Abstain v. 1 (usu. Foll. By from) refrain from indulging (abstained from smoking). 2 decline to vote. [latin teneo tent-hold]
Abstemious adj. Moderate or ascetic, esp. In eating and drinking. abstemiously adv. [latin: related to *ab-, temetum strong drink]
Abstention n. Abstaining, esp. From voting. [latin: related to *abstain]
Abstinence n. Abstaining, esp. From food or alcohol. abstinent adj. [french: related to *abstain]
Abstract —adj. 1 a of or existing in thought or theory rather than matter or practice; not concrete. B (of a word, esp. A noun) denoting a quality, condition, etc., not a concrete object. 2 (of art) achieving its effect by form and colour rather than by realism. —v. 1 (often foll. By from) extract, remove. 2 summarize. —n. 1 summary. 2 abstract work of art. 3 abstraction or abstract term. [latin: related to *tract1]
Abstraction n. 1 abstracting or taking away. 2 abstract or visionary idea. 3 abstract qualities (esp. In art). 4 absent-mindedness.
Abstruse adj. Hard to understand, profound. [latin abstrudo -trus-conceal]
Absurd adj. Wildly illogical or inappropriate; ridiculous. absurdity n. (pl. -ies). Absurdly adv. [latin: related to *surd]
Abta abbr. Association of british travel agents.
Abundance n. 1 plenty; more than enough; a lot. 2 wealth. [latin: related to *abound]
Abundance n. 1 plenty; more than enough; a lot. 2 wealth. [latin: related to *abound]
Abundant adj. 1 plentiful. 2 (foll. By in) rich (abundant in fruit). abundantly adv.
Abuse —v. (-sing) 1 use improperly, misuse. 2 insult verbally. 3 maltreat. —n. 1 misuse. 2 insulting language. 3 unjust or corrupt practice. 4 maltreatment (child abuse). abuser n. [latin: related to *use]
Abusive adj. Insulting, offensive. abusively adv.
Abut v. (-tt-) 1 (foll. By on) (of land) border on. 2 (foll. By on, against) (of a building) touch or lean upon (another). [anglo-latin butta strip of land: related to *butt1]
Abutment n. Lateral supporting structure of a bridge, arch, etc.
Abuzz adv. & adj. In a state of excitement or activity.
Abysmal adj. 1 colloq. Extremely bad (abysmal food). 2 profound, utter (abysmal ignorance). abysmally adv. [latin: related to *abyss]
Abyss n. 1 deep chasm. 2 immeasurable depth (abyss of despair). [latin from greek, = bottomless]
Ac abbr. 1 (also ac) alternating current. 2 aircraftman.
Ac symb. Actinium.
A/c abbr. Account. [account current]
-ac suffix forming adjectives often (or only) used as nouns (cardiac; maniac). [latin -acus, greek -akos]
Acacia n. Tree with yellow or white flowers, esp. One yielding gum arabic. [latin from greek]
Academia n. The academic world; scholastic life.
Academic —adj. 1 scholarly, of learning. 2 of no practical relevance; theoretical. —n. Teacher or scholar in a university etc. academically adv.
Academician n. Member of an academy. [french académicien]
Academy n. (pl. -ies) 1 place of specialized training (military academy). 2 (usu. Academy) society or institution of distinguished scholars, artists, scientists, etc. (royal academy). 3 scot. Secondary school. [greek akademeia the place in athens where plato taught]
Acanthus n. (pl. -thuses) 1 herbaceous plant with spiny leaves. 2 archit. Representation of its leaf. [latin from greek]
A cappella adj. & adv. (of choral music) unaccompanied. [italian, = in church style]
Acas abbr. Advisory, conciliation, and arbitration service.
Accede v. (-ding) (foll. By to) 1 take office, esp. As monarch. 2 assent or agree. [latin: related to *cede]
Accelerate v. (-ting) move or cause to move or happen more quickly. acceleration n. [latin: related to *celerity]
Accelerator n. 1 device for increasing speed, esp. The pedal controlling the speed of a vehicle’s engine. 2 physics apparatus for imparting high speeds to
speed of a vehicle’s engine. 2 physics apparatus for imparting high speeds to charged particles.
Accent —n. 1 particular (esp. Local or national) mode of pronunciation. 2 distinctive feature or emphasis (accent on speed). 3 prominence given to a syllable by stress or pitch. 4 mark on a letter or word to indicate pitch, stress, or vowel quality. —v. 1 emphasize (a word or syllable etc.). 2 write or print accents on (words etc.). 3 accentuate. [latin cantus song]
Accentuate v. (-ting) emphasize, make prominent. accentuation n. [medieval latin: related to *accent]
Accept v. 1 (also absol.) Willingly receive (a thing offered). 2 (also absol.) Answer affirmatively (an offer etc.). 3 regard favourably; treat as welcome (felt accepted). 4 believe, receive (an opinion, explanation, etc.) As adequate or valid. 5 take as suitable (does accept cheques). 6 undertake (an office or duty). [latin capio take]
Acceptable adj. 1 worth accepting, welcome. 2 tolerable. acceptability n. Acceptably adv. [french: related to *accept]
Acceptance n. 1 willingness to accept. 2 affirmative answer to an invitation etc. 3 approval, belief (found wide acceptance).
Access —n. 1 way of approach or entry (shop with rear access). 2 a right or opportunity to reach or use or visit; admittance (access to secret files, to the prisoner). B accessibility. 3 archaic outburst (an access of anger). —v. 1 computing gain access to (data etc.). 2 accession. [french: related to *accede]
Accessible adj. (often foll. By to) 1 reachable or obtainable; readily available. 2
Accessible adj. (often foll. By to) 1 reachable or obtainable; readily available. 2 easy to understand. accessibility n.
Accession —n. 1 taking office, esp. As monarch. 2 thing added. —v. Record the addition of (a new item) to a library etc.
Accessory n. (pl. -ies) 1 additional or extra thing. 2 (usu. In pl.) Small attachment, fitting, or subsidiary item of dress (e.g. Shoes, gloves). 3 (often foll. By to) person who abets or is privy to an (esp. Illegal) act. [medieval latin: related to *accede]
Access road n. Road giving access only to the properties along it.
Access time n. Computing time taken to retrieve data from storage.
Accident n. 1 unfortunate esp. Harmful event, caused unintentionally. 2 event that is unexpected or without apparent cause. by accident unintentionally. [latin cado fall]
Accidental —adj. Happening by chance or accident. —n. Mus. Sign indicating a note’s momentary departure from the key signature. accidentally adv.
Accident-prone adj. Clumsy.
Acclaim —v. 1 welcome or applaud enthusiastically. 2 hail as (acclaimed him king). —n. Applause, welcome, public praise. [latin acclamo: related to *claim]
king). —n. Applause, welcome, public praise. [latin acclamo: related to *claim]
Acclamation n. 1 loud and eager assent. 2 (usu. In pl.) Shouting in a person’s honour.
Acclimatize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) adapt to a new climate or conditions. acclimatization n. [french acclimater: related to *climate]
Accolade n. 1 praise given. 2 touch made with a sword at the conferring of a knighthood. [latin collum neck]
Accommodate v. (-ting) 1 provide lodging or room for (flat accommodates two). 2 adapt, harmonize, reconcile (must accommodate himself to new ideas). 3 a do favour to, oblige (a person). B (foll. By with) supply (a person) with. [latin: related to *commode]
Accommodation address n. Postal address used by a person unable or unwilling to give a permanent address.
Accompaniment n. 1 instrumental or orchestral support for a solo instrument, voice, or group. 2 accompanying thing. accompanist n. (in sense 1).
voice, or group. 2 accompanying thing. accompanist n. (in sense 1).
Accompany v. (-ies, -ied) 1 go with; escort. 2 (usu. In passive; foll. By with, by) be done or found with; supplement. 3 mus. Partner with accompaniment. [french: related to *companion]
Accomplice n. Partner in a crime etc. [latin: related to *complex]
Accomplish v. Succeed in doing; achieve, complete. [latin: related to *complete]
Accomplished adj. Clever, skilled.
Accomplishment n. 1 completion (of a task etc.). 2 acquired, esp. Social, skill. 3 thing achieved.
Accord —v. 1 (often foll. By with) be consistent or in harmony. 2 grant (permission, a request, etc.); give (a welcome etc.). —n. 1 agreement, consent. 2 mus. & art etc. Harmony. of one’s own accord on one’s own initiative; voluntarily. With one accord unanimously. [latin cor cord-heart]
Accordance n. in accordance with in conformity to. accordant adj.
According adv. 1 (foll. By to) a as stated by (according to mary). B in proportion to (lives according to his means). 2 (foll. By as + clause) in a manner or to a degree that varies as (pays according as he is able).
Accordingly adv. 1 as circumstances suggest or require (please act accordingly). 2 consequently (accordingly, he left the room).
Accordion n. Musical reed instrument with concertina-like bellows, keys, and buttons. accordionist n. [italian accordare to tune]
Accost v. 1 approach and address (a person), esp. Boldly. 2 (of a prostitute) solicit. [latin costa rib]
Accession —n. 1 taking office, esp. As monarch. 2 thing added. —v. Record the addition of (a new item) to a library etc.
Accessory n. (pl. -ies) 1 additional or extra thing. 2 (usu. In pl.) Small attachment, fitting, or subsidiary item of dress (e.g. Shoes, gloves). 3 (often foll. By to) person who abets or is privy to an (esp. Illegal) act. [medieval latin: related to *accede]
Access road n. Road giving access only to the properties along it.
Access time n. Computing time taken to retrieve data from storage.
Accident n. 1 unfortunate esp. Harmful event, caused unintentionally. 2 event that is unexpected or without apparent cause. by accident unintentionally. [latin cado fall]
Accidental —adj. Happening by chance or accident. —n. Mus. Sign indicating a
Accidental —adj. Happening by chance or accident. —n. Mus. Sign indicating a note’s momentary departure from the key signature. accidentally adv.
Accident-prone adj. Clumsy.
Acclaim —v. 1 welcome or applaud enthusiastically. 2 hail as (acclaimed him king). —n. Applause, welcome, public praise. [latin acclamo: related to *claim]
Acclamation n. 1 loud and eager assent. 2 (usu. In pl.) Shouting in a person’s honour.
Acclimatize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) adapt to a new climate or conditions. acclimatization n. [french acclimater: related to *climate]
Accolade n. 1 praise given. 2 touch made with a sword at the conferring of a knighthood. [latin collum neck]
Accommodate v. (-ting) 1 provide lodging or room for (flat accommodates two). 2 adapt, harmonize, reconcile (must accommodate himself to new ideas). 3 a do favour to, oblige (a person). B (foll. By with) supply (a person) with. [latin: related to *commode]
Accommodation address n. Postal address used by a person unable or unwilling to give a permanent address.
Accompaniment n. 1 instrumental or orchestral support for a solo instrument, voice, or group. 2 accompanying thing. accompanist n. (in sense 1).
Accompany v. (-ies, -ied) 1 go with; escort. 2 (usu. In passive; foll. By with, by) be done or found with; supplement. 3 mus. Partner with accompaniment. [french: related to *companion]
Accomplice n. Partner in a crime etc. [latin: related to *complex]
Accomplish v. Succeed in doing; achieve, complete. [latin: related to *complete]
Accomplished adj. Clever, skilled.
Accomplishment n. 1 completion (of a task etc.). 2 acquired, esp. Social, skill. 3 thing achieved.
Accord —v. 1 (often foll. By with) be consistent or in harmony. 2 grant (permission, a request, etc.); give (a welcome etc.). —n. 1 agreement, consent. 2 mus. & art etc. Harmony. of one’s own accord on one’s own initiative; voluntarily. With one accord unanimously. [latin cor cord-heart]
Accordance n. in accordance with in conformity to. accordant adj.
According adv. 1 (foll. By to) a as stated by (according to mary). B in proportion to (lives according to his means). 2 (foll. By as + clause) in a manner or to a degree that varies as (pays according as he is able).
Accordingly adv. 1 as circumstances suggest or require (please act accordingly). 2 consequently (accordingly, he left the room).
Accordion n. Musical reed instrument with concertina-like bellows, keys, and buttons. accordionist n. [italian accordare to tune]
Accost v. 1 approach and address (a person), esp. Boldly. 2 (of a prostitute) solicit. [latin costa rib]
Account —n. 1 narration, description (an account of his trip). 2 arrangement at a bank etc. For depositing and withdrawing money, credit, etc. (open an account). 3 record or statement of financial transactions with the balance (kept detailed accounts). —v. Consider as (account him wise, a fool).
Accountable adj. 1 responsible; required to account for one’s conduct. 2 explicable, understandable. accountability n.
Accountant n. Professional keeper or verifier of accounts. accountancy n. Accounting n.
Accredit v. (-t-) 1 (foll. By to) attribute (a saying etc.) To (a person). 2 (foll. By with) credit (a person) with (a saying etc.). 3 (usu. Foll. By to or at) send (an ambassador etc.) With credentials. 4 gain influence for or make credible (an adviser, a statement, etc.). [french: related to *credit]
Accredited adj. 1 officially recognized. 2 generally accepted.
Accretion n. 1 growth or increase by accumulation, addition, or organic enlargement. 2 the resulting whole. 3 a matter so added. B adhesion of this to the core matter. [latin cresco cret-grow]
Accrue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) (often foll. By to) come as a natural increase or advantage, esp. Financial. [latin: related to *accretion]
Accumulate v. (-ting) 1 acquire an increasing number or quantity of; amass, collect. 2 grow numerous; increase. [latin: related to *cumulus]
Accumulation n. 1 accumulating or being accumulated. 2 accumulated mass. 3 growth of capital by continued interest. accumulative adj.
Accumulator n. 1 rechargeable electric cell. 2 bet placed on a sequence of events, with the winnings and stake from each placed on the next.
Accuracy n. Exactness or careful precision. [latin cura care]
Accurate adj. Careful, precise; conforming exactly with the truth or a standard. accurately adv.
Accursed adj. 1 under a curse. 2 colloq. Detestable, annoying. [old english a-intensive prefix, *curse]
Accusation n. Accusing or being accused. [french: related to *accuse]
Accusative gram. —n. Case expressing the object of an action. —adj. Of or in this case.
Accusatory adj. Of or implying accusation.
Accuse v. (-sing) (often foll. By of) charge with a fault or crime; blame. [latin accusare: related to *cause]
Accustom v. (foll. By to) make used to (accustomed him to hardship). [french: related to *custom]
Accustomed adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) used to a thing. 2 customary, usual.
Ace —n. 1 playing-card etc. With a single spot and generally signifying ‘one’. 2 a person who excels in some activity. B pilot who has shot down many enemy aircraft. 3 (in tennis) unreturnable stroke (esp. A service). —adj. Slang excellent. within an ace of on the verge of. [latin as unity]
Acellular adj. Having no cells; not consisting of cells.
Aceous suffix forming adjectives in the sense ‘of the nature of’, esp. In the natural sciences (herbaceous). [latin -aceus]
Acerbic adj. Harsh and sharp, esp. In speech or manner. acerbity n. (pl. -ies). [latin acerbus sour]
Acetaldehyde n. Colourless volatile liquid aldehyde. [from acetic, aldehyde]
Acetate n. 1 salt or ester of acetic acid, esp. The cellulose ester. 2 fabric made from this.
Acetic adj. Of or like vinegar. [latin acetum vinegar]
Acetic acid n. Clear liquid acid giving vinegar its characteristic taste.
Acetone n. Colourless volatile liquid that dissolves organic compounds, esp.
Paints, varnishes, etc.
Acetylene n. Hydrocarbon gas burning with a bright flame, used esp. In welding.
Ache —n. 1 continuous dull pain. 2 mental distress. —v. (-ching) suffer from or be the source of an ache. [old english]
Achieve v. (-ving) 1 reach or attain, esp. By effort (achieved victory; achieved notoriety). 2 accomplish (a feat or task). [french achever: related to *chief]
Achievement n. 1 something achieved. 2 act of achieving.
Achilles heel n. Person’s weak or vulnerable point. [achilles, greek hero in the iliad]
Achilles tendon n. Tendon connecting the heel with the calf muscles.
Achromatic adj. Optics 1 transmitting light without separation into constituent colours (achromatic lens). 2 without colour. achromatically adv. [french: related to a-, chrome]
Achy adj. (-ier, -iest) full of or suffering from aches.
Acid —n. 1 a any of a class of substances that liberate hydrogen ions in water,
Acid —n. 1 a any of a class of substances that liberate hydrogen ions in water, are usu. Sour and corrosive, turn litmus red, and have a ph of less than 7. B any compound or atom donating protons. 2 any sour substance. 3 slang the drug lsd. —adj. 1 sour. 2 biting, sharp (an acid wit). 3 chem. Having the essential properties of an acid. acidic adj. Acidify v. (-ies, -ied). Acidity n. Acidly adv. [latin aceo be sour]
Acid house n. A type of synthesized music with a simple repetitive beat, often associated with hallucinogenic drugs.
Acid rain n. Acid, esp. From industrial waste gases, falling with rain.
Acid test n. Severe or conclusive test.
Acidulous adj. Somewhat acid.
Ack-ack colloq. —adj. Anti-aircraft. —n. Anti-aircraft gun etc. [formerly signallers’ term for aa]
Acknowledge v. (-ging) 1 recognize; accept the truth of (acknowledged its failure). 2 confirm the receipt of (a letter etc.). 3 a show that one has noticed (acknowledged my arrival with a grunt). B express appreciation of (a service etc.). 4 recognize the validity of, own (the acknowledged king). [from ad-, knowledge]
Acknowledgement n. 1 act of acknowledging. 2 a thing given or done in gratitude. B letter confirming receipt of something. 3 (usu. In pl.) Author’s statement of gratitude, prefacing a book.
statement of gratitude, prefacing a book.
Acme n. Highest point (of achievement etc.). [greek]
Acne n. Skin condition with red pimples. [latin]
Acolyte n. 1 person assisting a priest. 2 assistant; beginner. [greek akolouthos follower]
Aconite n. 1 any of various poisonous plants, esp. Monkshood. 2 drug from these. [greek akoniton]
Acorn n. Fruit of the oak, with a smooth nut in a cuplike base. [old english]
Acoustic adj. 1 of sound or the sense of hearing. 2 (of a musical instrument etc.) Without electrical amplification (acoustic guitar). acoustically adv. [greek akouo hear]
Acoustics n.pl. 1 properties or qualities (of a room etc.) In transmitting sound. 2 (usu. As sing.) Science of sound.
Acquaint v. (usu. Foll. By with) make aware of or familiar with (acquaint me with the facts). be acquainted with have personal knowledge of; know slightly. [latin: related to ad-, cognizance]
Acquaintance n. 1 being acquainted. 2 person one knows slightly. acquaintanceship n.
Acquiesce v. (-cing) 1 agree, esp. By default. 2 (foll. By in) accept (an arrangement etc.). acquiescence n. Acquiescent adj. [latin: related to ad-, quiet]
Acquire v. (-ring) gain for oneself; come into possession of. [latin: related to *ad-, quaero quisit-seek]
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome see *aids.
Acquired taste n. 1 liking developed by experience. 2 object of this.
Acquirement n. Thing acquired, esp. A mental attainment.
Acquisition n. 1 thing acquired, esp. When useful. 2 acquiring or being acquired. [latin: related to *acquire]
Acquisitive adj. Keen to acquire things.
Acquit v. (-tt-) 1 (often foll. By of) declare not guilty. 2 refl. A behave or perform in a specified way (acquitted herself well). B (foll. By of) discharge (a duty or responsibility). acquittal n. [latin: related to ad-, quit]
Acre n. Measure of land, 4,840 sq. Yds., 0.405 ha. [old english]
Acrimonious adj. Bitter in manner or temper. acrimony n.
Acrobat n. Entertainer performing gymnastic feats. acrobatic adj. Acrobatically adv. [greek akrobates from akron summit, baino walk]
Acrobatics n.pl. 1 acrobatic feats. 2 (as sing.) Art of performing these.
Acronym n. Word formed from the initial letters of other words (e.g. Laser, nato). [greek akron end, onoma name]
Acropolis n. Citadel of an ancient greek city. [greek akron summit, polis city]
Across —prep. 1 to or on the other side of (across the river). 2 from one side to another side of (spread across the floor). 3 at or forming an angle with (a stripe across the flag). —adv. 1 to or on the other side (ran across). 2 from one side to another (stretched across). across the board applying to all. [french à, en, croix: related to *cross]
Acrostic n. Poem etc. In which certain letters (usu. The first and last in each line) form a word or words. [greek akron end, stikhos row]
Acrylic —adj. Of synthetic material made from acrylic acid. —n. Acrylic fibre or fabric. [latin acer pungent, oleo to smell]
Acrylic acid n. A pungent liquid organic acid.
Act —n. 1 something done; a deed. 2 process of doing (caught in the act). 3 item of entertainment. 4 pretence (all an act). 5 main division of a play etc. 6 a decree of a legislative body. B document attesting a legal transaction. —v. 1 behave (acted wisely). 2 perform an action or function; take action (act as referee; brakes failed to act; he acted quickly). 3 (also foll. By on) have an effect (alcohol acts on the brain). 4 a perform a part in a play, film, etc. B pretend. 5 a play the part of (acted othello; acts the fool). B perform (a play etc.). C portray (an incident) by actions. act for be the (esp. Legal) representative of. Act of god natural event, e.g. An earthquake. Act up colloq. Misbehave; give trouble (car is acting up). Get one’s act together slang become properly organized; prepare. Put on an act colloq. Make a pretence. [latin ago act-do]
Acting —n. Art or occupation of an actor. —attrib. Adj. Serving temporarily or as a substitute (acting manager).
Actinism n. Property of short-wave radiation that produces chemical changes, as in photography. [greek aktis ray]
Actinium n. Chem. Radioactive metallic element found in pitchblende. [as *actinism]
Action n. 1 process of doing or acting (demanded action). 2 forcefulness or energy. 3 exertion of energy or influence (action of acid on metal). 4 deed, act (not aware of his actions). 5 (the action) a series of events in a story, play, etc. B slang exciting activity (missed the action). 6 battle, fighting (killed in action). 7 a mechanism of an instrument. B style of movement of an animal or human. 8 lawsuit. out of action not working. [latin: related to *act]
Actionable adj. Giving cause for legal action.
Action-packed adj. Full of action or excitement.
Action point n. Proposal for action.
Action replay n. Playback of part of a television broadcast, esp. A sporting event, often in slow motion.
Action stations n.pl. Positions taken up by troops etc. Ready for battle.
Activate v. (-ting) 1 make active. 2 chem. Cause reaction in. 3 make radioactive.
Active —adj. 1 marked by action; energetic; diligent (an active life). 2 working, operative (active volcano). 3 not merely passive or inert; positive (active support; active ingredients). 4 radioactive. 5 gram. Designating the form of a verb whose subject performs the action (e.g. Saw in he saw a film). —n. Gram. Active form or voice of a verb. actively adv. [latin: related to *act]
Active service n. Military service in wartime.
Activism n. Policy of vigorous action, esp. For a political cause. activist n.
Activity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being active; busy or energetic action. 2 (often in pl.) Occupation or pursuit (outdoor activities). 3 = *radioactivity.
Actor n. Person who acts in a play, film, etc. [latin: related to *act]
Actress n. Female actor.
Actual adj. (usu. Attrib.) 1 existing in fact; real. 2 current. [latin: related to *act]
Actuality n. (pl. -ies) 1 reality. 2 (in pl.) Existing conditions.
Actually adv. 1 as a fact, really (not actually very rich). 2 strange as it may seem (he actually refused!).
Actuary n. (pl. -ies) statistician, esp. One calculating insurance risks and premiums. actuarial adj. [latin actuarius bookkeeper]
Actuate v. (-ting) 1 cause (a machine etc.) To move or function. 2 cause (a person) to act. [latin]
Acuity n. Sharpness, acuteness. [medieval latin: related to *acute]
Acumen n. Keen insight or discernment. [latin, = *acute thing]
Acupuncture n. Medical treatment using needles in parts of the body. acupuncturist n. [latin acu with needle]
Acute —adj. (acuter, acutest) 1 serious, severe (acute hardship). 2 (of senses etc.) Keen, penetrating. 3 shrewd. 4 (of a disease) coming quickly to a crisis. 5 (of an angle) less than 90°. 6 (of a sound) high, shrill. —n. = *acute accent. acutely adv. [latin acutus pointed]
Acute accent n. Diacritical mark (´) placed over certain letters in french etc., esp. To show pronunciation.
-acy suffix forming nouns of state or quality (accuracy; piracy), or an instance of it (conspiracy; fallacy). [french -acie, latin -acia, -atia, greek -ateia]
Ad abbr. Of the christian era. [*anno domini]
Ad n. Colloq. Advertisement. [abbreviation]
Ad-prefix (altered or assimilated before some letters) implying motion or direction to, reduction or change into, addition, adherence, increase, or
direction to, reduction or change into, addition, adherence, increase, or intensification. [latin]
Adage n. Traditional maxim, proverb. [french from latin]
Adagio mus. —adv. & adj. In slow time. —n. (pl. -s) such a movement or passage. [italian]
Adam n. The first man. not know a person from adam be unable to recognize a person. [hebrew, = man]
Adam’s apple n. Projection of cartilage at the front of the neck.
Adapt v. 1 a (foll. By to) fit, adjust (one thing to another). B (foll. By to, for) make suitable for a purpose. C modify (esp. A text for broadcasting etc.). 2 (also refl., usu. Foll. By to) adjust to new conditions. adaptable adj. Adaptation n. [latin: related to ad-, apt]
Adaptor n. 1 device for making equipment compatible. 2 device for connecting several electrical plugs to one socket.
Add v. 1 join (one thing to another) as an increase or supplement. 2 put together (numbers) to find their total. 3 say further. add in include. Add up 1 find the total of. 2 (foll. By to) amount to. 3 colloq. Make sense. [latin addo]
Addendum n. (pl. -da) 1 thing to be added. 2 material added at the end of a book.
Adder n. Small venomous snake, esp. The common viper. [old english, originally nadder]
Addict n. 1 person addicted, esp. To a drug. 2 colloq. Devotee (film addict). [latin: related to *ad-, dico say]
Addicted adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) dependent on a drug etc. As a habit. 2 devoted to an interest. addiction n.
Addictive adj. Causing addiction.
Addition n. 1 adding. 2 person or thing added. in addition (often foll. By to) also, as well (as). [latin: related to *add]
Additive n. Substance added to improve another, esp. To colour, flavour, or preserve food. [latin: related to *add]
Addle v. (-ling) 1 muddle, confuse. 2 (usu. As addled adj.) (of an egg) become rotten. [old english, = filth]
Address —n. 1 a place where a person lives or an organization is situated. B particulars of this, esp. For postal purposes. C computing location of an item of stored information. 2 discourse to an audience. —v. 1 write postal directions on (an envelope etc.). 2 direct (remarks etc.). 3 speak or write to, esp. Formally. 4 direct one’s attention to. 5 golf take aim at (the ball). address oneself to 1 speak or write to. 2 attend to. [french: related to ad-, direct]
Addressee n. Person to whom a letter etc. Is addressed.
Adduce v. (-cing) cite as an instance or as proof or evidence. adducible adj. [latin: related to *ad-, duco lead]
Adenoids n.pl. Area of enlarged lymphatic tissue between the nose and the throat, often hindering breathing in the young. adenoidal adj. [greek aden gland]
Adequate adj. Sufficient, satisfactory. adequacy n. Adequately adv. [latin: related to ad-, equate]
À deux adv. & adj. For or between two. [french]
Adhere v. (-ring) 1 (usu. Foll. By to) stick fast to a substance etc. 2 (foll. By to) behave according to (a rule, undertaking, etc.). 3 (foll. By to) give allegiance.
[latin haereo stick]
Adherent —n. Supporter. —adj. Sticking, adhering. adherence n.
Adhesion n. 1 adhering. 2 unnatural union of body tissues due to inflammation.
Adhesive —adj. Sticky, causing adhesion. —n. Adhesive substance. adhesiveness n.
Ad hoc adv. & adj. For one particular occasion or use. [latin]
Adieu int. Goodbye. [french, = to god]
Ad infinitum adv. Without limit; for ever. [latin]
Adipose adj. Of fat; fatty (adipose tissue). adiposity n. [latin adeps fat]
Adjacent adj. (often foll. By to) lying near; adjoining. adjacency n. [latin jaceo lie]
Adjective n. Word used to describe or modify a noun or pronoun. adjectival adj. [latin jaceo lie]
Adjoin v. Be next to and joined with. [latin jungo join]
Adjourn v. 1 put off, postpone; break off (a meeting etc.) Temporarily. 2 (of a meeting) break and disperse or (foll. By to) transfer to another place (adjourned to the pub). adjournment n. [latin: related to *ad-, diurnum day]
Adjudge v. (-ging) 1 pronounce judgement on (a matter). 2 pronounce or award judicially. adjudgement n. (also adjudgment). [latin judex judge]
Adjudicate v. (-ting) 1 act as judge in a competition, court, etc. 2 adjudge. adjudication n. Adjudicative adj. Adjudicator n.
Adjunct n. 1 (foll. By to, of) subordinate or incidental thing. 2 gram. Word or phrase used to explain or amplify the predicate, subject, etc. [latin: related to *adjoin]
Adjure v. (-ring) (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Beg or command. adjuration n. [latin adjuro put to oath: related to *jury]
Adjust v. 1 order or position; regulate; arrange. 2 (usu. Foll. By to) become or make suited; adapt. 3 harmonize (discrepancies). 4 assess (loss or damages). adjustable adj. Adjustment n. [latin juxta near]
Adjutant n. 1 a army officer assisting a superior in administrative duties. B assistant. 2 (in full adjutant bird) giant indian stork. [latin: related to *ad-, juvo jut-help]
Ad lib —v. (-bb-) improvise. —adj. Improvised. —adv. As one pleases, to any desired extent. [abbreviation of latin ad libitum according to pleasure]
Admin n. Colloq. Administration. [abbreviation]
Administer v. 1 manage (business affairs etc.). 2 a deliver or dispense, esp. Formally (a punishment, sacrament, etc.). B (usu. Foll. By to) direct the taking of (an oath). [latin: related to ad-, minister]
Administrate v. (-ting) administer (esp. Business affairs); act as an administrator.
Administration n. 1 administering, esp. Public affairs. 2 government in power.
Administrative adj. Of the management of affairs.
Administrator n. Manager of a business, public affairs, or a person’s estate.
Admirable adj. Deserving admiration; excellent. admirably adv. [latin: related to *admire]
Admiral n. 1 a commander-in-chief of a navy. B high-ranking naval officer, commander. 2 any of various butterflies. [arabic: related to *amir]
Admiralty n. (pl. -ies) (in full admiralty board) hist. Committee superintending the royal navy.
Admiration n. 1 respect; warm approval or pleasure. 2 object of this.
Admire v. (-ring) 1 regard with approval, respect, or satisfaction. 2 express admiration of. admirer n. Admiring adj. Admirlingly adv. [latin: related to *ad-, miror wonder at]
Admissible adj. 1 (of an idea etc.) Worth accepting or considering. 2 law allowable as evidence. [latin: related to *admit]
Admission n. 1 acknowledgement (admission of error). 2 a process or right of entering. B charge for this (admission is £5).
Admit v. (-tt-) 1 (often foll. By to be, or that + clause) acknowledge; recognize as true. 2 (foll. By to) confess to (a deed, fault, etc.). 3 allow (a person) entrance, access, etc. 4 take (a patient) into hospital. 5 (of an enclosed space) accommodate. 6 (foll. By of) allow as possible. [latin mitto miss-send]
Admittance n. Admitting or being admitted, usu. To a place.
Admittedly adv. As must be admitted.
Admixture n. 1 thing added, esp. A minor ingredient. 2 adding of this.
Admonish v. 1 reprove. 2 urge, advise. 3 (foll. By of) warn. admonishment n. Admonition n. Admonitory adj. [latin moneo warn]
Ad nauseam adv. Excessively; disgustingly. [latin, = to sickness]
Ado n. Fuss, busy activity; trouble. [from at, do1: originally in much ado = much to do]
Adobe n. 1 sun-dried brick. 2 clay for making these. [spanish]
Adolescent —adj. Between childhood and adulthood. —n. Adolescent person. adolescence n. [latin adolesco grow up]
Adonis n. Handsome young man. [latin, name of a youth loved by venus]
Adopt v. 1 legally take (a person) into a relationship, esp. Another’s child as one’s own. 2 choose (a course of action etc.). 3 take over (another’s idea etc.). 4 choose as a candidate for office. 5 accept responsibility for the maintenance of (a road etc.). 6 accept or approve (a report, accounts, etc.). adoption n. [latin: related to ad-, opt]
Adoptive adj. Because of adoption (adoptive son). [latin: related to *adopt]
Adore v. (-ring) 1 love intensely. 2 worship as divine. 3 colloq. Like very much. adoration n. Adorer n. [latin adoro worship]
Adorn v. Add beauty to; decorate. adornment n. [latin: related to *ad-, orno decorate]
Adrenal —adj. 1 at or near the kidneys. 2 of the adrenal glands. —n. (in full adrenal gland) either of two ductless glands above the kidneys, secreting adrenalin. [from ad-, renal]
Adrenalin n. (also adrenaline) 1 stimulative hormone secreted by the adrenal glands. 2 this extracted or synthesized for medicinal use.
Adrift adv. & predic.adj. 1 drifting. 2 powerless; aimless. 3 colloq. A unfastened. B out of order, wrong (plans went adrift).
Adroit adj. Dexterous, skilful. [french à droit according to right]
Adsorb v. (usu. Of a solid) hold (molecules of a gas or liquid etc.) To its surface, forming a thin film. adsorbent adj. & n. Adsorption n. [from ad-, absorb]
Adulation n. Obsequious flattery. [latin adulor fawn on]
Adult —adj. 1 mature, grown-up. 2 (attrib.) Of or for adults (adult education). — n. Adult person. adulthood n. [latin adolesco adultus grow up]
Adulterate v. (-ting) debase (esp. Foods) by adding other substances. adulterant adj. & n. Adulteration n. [latin adultero corrupt]
Adulterer n. (fem. Adulteress) person who commits adultery.
Adultery n. Voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and a person other than his or her spouse. adulterous adj.
Adumbrate v. (-ting) 1 indicate faintly or in outline. 2 foreshadow. 3 overshadow. adumbration n. [latin: related to *ad-, umbra shade]
Advance —v. (-cing) 1 move or put forward; progress. 2 pay or lend (money) beforehand. 3 promote (a person, cause, etc.). 4 present (a suggestion etc.). 5 (as advanced adj.) A well ahead. B socially progressive. —n. 1 going forward; progress. 2 prepayment; loan. 3 (in pl.) Amorous approaches. 4 rise in price. — attrib. Adj. Done or supplied beforehand (advance warning). advance on approach threateningly. In advance ahead in place or time. [latin: related to *ab-, ante before]
Advanced level n. High level of gce examination.
Advancement n. Promotion of a person, cause, or plan.
Advantage —n. 1 beneficial feature. 2 benefit, profit. 3 (often foll. By over) superiority. 4 (in tennis) the next point after deuce. —v. (-ging) benefit, favour. take advantage of 1 make good use of. 2 exploit, esp. Unfairly. 3 euphem. Seduce. advantageous adj. [french: related to *advance]
Advent n. 1 season before christmas. 2 coming of christ. 3 (advent) important arrival. [latin adventus from venio come]
Adventist n. Member of a christian sect believing in the imminent second coming of christ.
Adventitious adj. 1 accidental, casual. 2 added from outside. 3 biol. Formed accidentally or under unusual conditions. [latin: related to *advent]
Adventure —n. 1 unusual and exciting experience. 2 enterprise (spirit of adventure). —v. (-ring) dare, venture; engage in adventure. [latin: related to *advent]
Adventure playground n. Playground with climbing-frames, building blocks, etc.
Adventurer n. (fem. Adventuress) 1 person who seeks adventure, esp. For personal gain or enjoyment. 2 financial speculator.
Adventurous adj. Venturesome, enterprising.
Adverb n. Word indicating manner, degree, circumstance, etc., used to modify
Adverb n. Word indicating manner, degree, circumstance, etc., used to modify an adjective, verb, or other adverb (e.g. Gently, quite, then). adverbial adj. [latin: related to *ad-, verbum word, *verb]
Adversary n. (pl. -ies) enemy, opponent.
Adverse adj. Unfavourable; harmful. adversely adv. [latin: related to *ad-, verto vers-turn]
Adversity n. Misfortune, distress.
Advert n. Colloq. Advertisement. [abbreviation]
Advertise v. (-sing) 1 promote (goods or services) publicly to increase sales. 2 make generally known. 3 (often foll. By for) seek by a notice in a newspaper etc. To buy, employ, sell, etc. [french avertir: related to *adverse]
Advertisement n. 1 public announcement, esp. Of goods etc. For sale or wanted, vacancies, etc. 2 advertising. [french avertissement: related to *adverse]
Advice n. 1 recommendation on how to act. 2 information given; news. 3 formal notice of a transaction.
Advisable adj. To be recommended, expedient. advisability n.
Advise v. (-sing) 1 (also absol.) Give advice to. 2 recommend (advised me to rest). 3 (usu. Foll. By of, or that + clause) inform. [latin: related to *ad-, video vis-see]
Advisedly adv. After due consideration; deliberately.
Adviser n. (also advisor) person who advises, esp. Officially.
Usage the variant advisor is fairly common, but is considered incorrect by many people.
Advisory adj. Giving advice (advisory body).
Advocaat n. Liqueur of eggs, sugar, and brandy. [dutch, = *advocate]
Advocacy n. Support or argument for a cause, policy, etc.
Advocate —n. 1 (foll. By of) person who supports or speaks in favour. 2 person who pleads for another, esp. In a lawcourt. —v. (-ting) recommend by argument. [latin: related to *ad-, voco call]
Adz n. (brit adze) tool like an axe, with an arched blade at right angles to the handle. [old english]
Adze n. (us adz) tool like an axe, with an arched blade at right angles to the handle. [old english]
Aegis n. Protection; support. [greek aigis shield of zeus or athene]
Aeolian harp n. Stringed instrument or toy sounding when the wind passes through it. [latin aeolus wind-god, from greek]
Aeon n. (also eon) 1 long or indefinite period. 2 an age. [latin from greek]
Aerate v. (-ting) 1 charge (a liquid) with carbon dioxide. 2 expose to air. aeration n. [latin aer *air]
Aerial —n. Device for transmitting or receiving radio waves. —adj. 1 by or from the air; involving aircraft (aerial attack). 2 existing in the air. 3 of or like air. [greek: related to *air]
Aero-comb. Form air; aircraft. [greek aero-from aer air]
Aerobatics n.pl. 1 spectacular flying of aircraft, esp. To entertain. 2 (as sing.) Performance of these. [from *aero-, after *acrobatics]
Aerobics n.pl. Vigorous exercises designed to increase oxygen intake. aerobic adj. [from *aero-, greek bios life]
adj. [from *aero-, greek bios life]
Aerodrome n. Small airport or airfield. [from *aero-, greek dromos course]
Aerodynamics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Dynamics of solid bodies moving through air. aerodynamic adj.
Aerofoil n. Structure with curved surfaces (e.g. A wing, fin, or tailplane) designed to give lift in flight.
Aeronautics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Science or practice of motion in the air. aeronautic adj. Aeronautical adj. [from *aero-, *nautical]
Aeroplane n. Powered heavier-than-air flying vehicle with fixed wings. [french: related to *aero-, *plane1]
Aerosol n. 1 pressurized container releasing a substance as a fine spray. 2 system of minute particles suspended in gas (e.g. Fog or smoke). [from *aero-, *solution]
Aerospace n. 1 earth’s atmosphere and outer space. 2 aviation in this.
Aesthete n. Person who has or professes a special appreciation of beauty. [greek aisthanomai perceive]
Aesthete n. Person who has or professes a special appreciation of beauty. [greek
Aesthete n. Person who has or professes a special appreciation of beauty. [greek aisthanomai perceive]
Aesthetic —adj. 1 of or sensitive to beauty. 2 artistic, tasteful. —n. (in pl.) Philosophy of beauty, esp. In art. aesthetically adv. Aestheticism n.
Aetiology n. (us etiology) study of causation or of the causes of disease. aetiological adj. [greek aitia cause]
Affair n. 1 matter, concern, or thing to be attended to (that is my affair). 2 a celebrated or notorious happening. B colloq. Thing or event (puzzling affair). 3 = *love affair. 4 (in pl.) Public or private business. [french à faire to do]
Affect v. 1 a produce an effect on. B (of disease etc.) Attack. 2 move emotionally. 3 pretend (affected ignorance). 4 pose as or use for effect (affects the aesthete; affects fancy hats). affecting adj. Affectingly adv. [latin afficio affect-influence]
Usage affect should not be confused with effect, meaning ‘to bring about’. Note also that effect is used as a noun as well as a verb.
also that effect is used as a noun as well as a verb.
Affectation n. 1 artificial manner. 2 (foll. By of) studied display. 3 pretence.
Affected adj. 1 pretended, artificial. 2 full of affectation.
Affection n. 1 goodwill, fond feeling. 2 disease; diseased condition.
Affidavit n. Written statement confirmed by oath. [latin, = has stated on oath]
Affiliate —v. (-ting) (foll. By to, with) attach, adopt, or connect as a member or branch. —n. Affiliated person etc. [latin: related to *filial]
Affiliation n. Affiliating or being affiliated.
Affiliation order n. Legal order against the supposed father of an illegitimate child for support.
Affinity n. (pl. -ies) 1 liking or attraction; feeling of kinship. 2 relationship, esp. By marriage. 3 similarity of structure or character suggesting a relationship. 4 chem. The tendency of certain substances to combine with others. [latin finis border]
Affirm v. 1 assert, state as a fact. 2 law make a solemn declaration in place of an oath. affirmation n. [latin: related to *firm1]
Affirmative —adj. Affirming; expressing approval. —n. Affirmative statement or word etc.
Affix —v. 1 attach, fasten. 2 add in writing. —n. 1 addition. 2 gram. Prefix or suffix. [latin: related to *fix]
Afflict v. Distress physically or mentally. [latin fligo flict-strike down]
Affliction n. 1 distress, suffering. 2 cause of this.
Affluent adj. Wealthy, rich. affluence n. [latin: related to *fluent]
Afford v. 1 (prec. By can or be able to) a have enough money, time, etc., for; be able to spare. B be in a position (can’t afford to be critical). 2 provide (affords a view of the sea). [old english ge-prefix implying completeness, *forth]
Afforest v. 1 convert into forest. 2 plant with trees. afforestation n. [latin: related to *forest]
Affray n. Breach of the peace by fighting or rioting in public. [anglo-french = ‘remove from peace’]
‘remove from peace’]
Affront —n. Open insult. —v. Insult openly; offend, embarrass. [latin: related to *front]
Afghan —n. 1 a native or national of afghanistan. B person of afghan descent. 2 official language of afghanistan. —adj. Of afghanistan. [pashto]
Afghan hound n. Tall hunting dog with long silky hair.
Aficionado n. (pl. -s) devotee of a sport or pastime. [spanish]
Afield adv. To or at a distance (esp. Far afield). [old english: related to *a2]
Aflame adv. & predic.adj. 1 in flames. 2 very excited.
Afloat adv. & predic.adj. 1 floating. 2 at sea. 3 out of debt or difficulty. 4 current. [old english: related to *a2]
Afoot adv. & predic.adj. In operation; progressing.
Afore prep. & adv. Archaic before; previously; in front (of). [old english: related to *a2]
Afore-comb. Form before, previously (aforementioned; aforesaid).
Afore prep. & adv. Archaic before; previously; in front (of). [old english: related to *a2]
Afore-comb. Form before, previously (aforementioned; aforesaid).
Aforethought adj. Premeditated (following a noun: malice aforethought).
Afraid predic. Adj. Alarmed, frightened. be afraid colloq. Politely regret (i’m afraid we’re late). [originally past part. Of *affray]
Afresh adv. Anew; with a fresh beginning. [earlier of fresh]
African —n. 1 native (esp. Dark-skinned) of africa. 2 person of african descent. —adj. Of africa. [latin]
African elephant n. The elephant of africa, larger than that of india.
African violet n. House-plant with velvety leaves and blue, purple, or pink flowers.
Afrikaans n. Language derived from dutch, used in s. Africa. [dutch, = ‘african’]
Afrikaner n. Afrikaans-speaking white person in s. Africa, esp. Of dutch descent.
Afro —adj. (of hair) tightly-curled and bushy. —n. (pl. -s) afro hairstyle.
Afro-comb. Form african.
Afro-american —adj. Of american blacks or their culture. —n. American black.
Afro-caribbean —n. Caribbean person of african descent. —adj. Of afro-caribbeans.
Aft adv. Naut. & aeron. At or towards the stern or tail. [earlier baft]
After —prep. 1 following in time; later than (after a week). 2 in view of, in spite of (after what you did what do you expect?; after all my efforts i still lost). 3 behind (shut the door after you). 4 in pursuit or quest of (run after them). 5 about, concerning (asked after her). 6 in allusion to (named after the prince). 7 in imitation of (a painting after rubens). 8 next in importance to (best one after mine). —conj. Later than (left after they arrived). —adv. 1 later (soon after). 2 behind (followed on after). —adj. 1 later, following (in after years). 2 naut. Nearer the stern (after cabins). after all in spite of everything (after all, what does it matter?). After one’s own heart to one’s taste. [old english]
Afterbirth n. Placenta etc. Discharged from the womb after childbirth.
After-care n. Attention after leaving hospital etc.
After-effect n. Delayed effect following an accident, trauma, etc.
Afterglow n. Glow remaining after its source has disappeared.
Afterlife n. Life after death.
Aftermath n. 1 consequences, esp. Unpleasant (aftermath of war). 2 new grass growing after mowing. [from *after, math mowing]
Afternoon n. Time from noon or lunch-time to evening.
Afterpains n.pl. Pains caused by contraction of the womb after childbirth.
Afters n.pl. Colloq. = *dessert 1.
Aftershave n. Lotion used after shaving.
Aftertaste n. Taste after eating or drinking.
Afterthought n. Thing thought of or added later.
Afterward adv. (brit. Afterwards) later, subsequently. [old english: related to after, -ward]
Afterwards adv. (us afterward) later, subsequently. [old english: related to after, -ward]
Ag symb. Silver. [latin argentum]
Again adv. 1 another time; once more. 2 as previously (home again; well again). 3 in addition (as much again). 4 further, besides (again, what about you?). 5 on the other hand (i might, and again i might not). again and again repeatedly. [old english]
Against prep. 1 in opposition to (fight against crime). 2 into collision or in contact with (lean against the wall). 3 to the disadvantage of (my age is against me). 4 in contrast to (against a dark background). 5 in anticipation of (against his coming; against the cold). 6 as a compensating factor to (income against expenditure). 7 in return for (issued against payment of the fee). against the grain see grain. Against time see time. [from *again, with inflectional -s]
Agaric n. Fungus with a cap and stalk, e.g. The common mushroom. [greek
agarikon]
Agate n. Hard usu. Streaked chalcedony. [greek akhates]
Agate n. Hard usu. Streaked chalcedony. [greek akhates]
Agave n. Plant with rosettes of narrow spiny leaves and flowers on tall stem. [agave, name of a woman in greek mythology]
Age —n. 1 length of time that a person or thing has existed. 2 a colloq. (often in pl.) A long time (waited for ages). B distinct historical period (bronze age). 3 old age. —v. (ageing) 1 show or cause to show signs of advancing age. 2 grow old. 3 mature. come of age reach adult status (esp. Law at 18, formerly 21). [latin aetas]
-age suffix forming nouns denoting: 1 action (breakage). 2 condition (bondage). 3 aggregate or number (coverage; acreage). 4 cost (postage). 5 result (wreckage). 6 place or abode (anchorage; orphanage). [latin -aticus]
Aged adj. 1 (predic.) Of the age of (aged 3). 2 old.
Ageism n. Prejudice or discrimination on grounds of age. ageist adj. & n.
Ageless adj. 1 never growing or appearing old. 2 eternal.
Agelong adj. Existing for a very long time.
Agelong adj. Existing for a very long time.
Agency n. (pl. -ies) 1 business or premises of an agent. 2 action; intervention (free agency; by the agency of god). [latin: related to *act]
Agenda n. (pl. -s) 1 list of items to be considered at a meeting. 2 things to be done.
Agent n. 1 a person who acts for another in business etc. B spy. 2 person or thing that exerts power or produces an effect.
Agent provocateur n. (pl. Agents provocateurs pronunc. Same) person used to tempt suspected offenders to self-incriminating action. [french, = provocative agent]
Age of consent n. Age at which consent to sexual intercourse is valid in law.
Age-old adj. Very long-standing.
Agglomerate —v. (-ting) collect into a mass. —n. Mass, esp. Of fused volcanic fragments. —adj. Collected into a mass. agglomeration n. [latin glomus -meris ball]
Agglutinate v. (-ting) stick as with glue. agglutination n. Agglutinative adj. [latin: related to *gluten]
Aggrandize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 increase the power, rank or wealth of. 2 make seem greater. aggrandizement n. [french: related to *grand]
Aggravate v. (-ting) 1 make worse or more serious. 2 annoy. aggravation n. [latin gravis heavy]
Usage the use of aggravate in sense 2 is regarded by some people as incorrect, but it is common in informal use.
Aggregate —n. 1 sum total, amount assembled. 2 crushed stone etc. Used in making concrete. 3 rock formed of a mass of different particles or minerals. — adj. Combined, collective, total. —v. (-ting) 1 collect, combine into one mass. 2 colloq. Amount to. 3 unite. in the aggregate as a whole. aggregation n. Aggregative adj. [latin grex greg-flock]
Aggression n. 1 unprovoked attacking or attack. 2 hostile or destructive behaviour. [latin gradior gress-walk]
Aggressive adj. 1 given to aggression; hostile. 2 forceful, self-assertive. aggressively adv.
Aggressor n. Person or party that attacks without provocation.
Aggrieved adj. Having a grievance. [french: related to *grief]
Aggro n. Slang 1 aggressive hostility. 2 trouble, difficulty. [abbreviation of aggravation or aggression]
Aghast predic. Adj. Filled with dismay or consternation. [past part. Of obsolete (a)gast frighten]
Agile adj. Quick-moving, nimble, active. agility n. [latin agilis: related to *act]
Agitate v. (-ting) 1 disturb or excite (a person or feelings). 2 (often foll. By for, against) campaign, esp. Politically (agitated for tax reform). 3 shake briskly. agitation n. Agitator n. [latin agito: related to *act]
Aglow predic. Adj. Glowing.
Agm abbr. Annual general meeting.
Agnail n. Piece of torn skin at the root of a fingernail; resulting soreness. [old english, = tight (metal) nail, hard excrescence in flesh]
Agnostic —n. Person who believes that the existence of god is not provable. — adj. Of agnosticism. agnosticism n. [from a-, gnostic]
Ago adv. (prec. By duration) earlier, in the past. [originally agone = gone by]
Agonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 undergo (esp. Mental) anguish; suffer or cause to suffer agony. 2 (as agonized adj.) Expressing agony (an agonized look).
Agony n. (pl. -ies) 1 extreme mental or physical suffering. 2 severe struggle. [greek agon struggle]
Agony aunt n. Colloq. Person (esp. A woman) who answers letters in an agony column.
Agony column n. Colloq. 1 column in a magazine etc. Offering personal advice to correspondents. 2 = *personal column.
Agoraphobia n. Abnormal fear of open spaces or public places. agoraphobic adj. & n. [greek agora market-place]
Agrarian —adj. 1 of the land or its cultivation. 2 of landed property. —n. Advocate of the redistribution of land. [latin ager field]
Agree v. (-ees, -eed, -eeing) 1 hold the same opinion (i agree with you). 2 consent (agreed to go). 3 (often foll. By with) a become or be in harmony. B suit (fish didn’t agree with him). C gram. Have the same number, gender, case, or person as. 4 reach agreement about (agreed a price). 5 (foll. By on) decide mutually on (agreed on a compromise). be agreed be of one opinion. [latin: related to *ad-, gratus pleasing]
Agreement n. 1 act or state of agreeing. 2 arrangement or contract.
Agriculture n. Cultivation of the soil and rearing of animals. agricultural adj. Agriculturalist n. [latin ager field]
Agrimony n. (pl. -ies) perennial plant with small yellow flowers. [greek argemone poppy]
Agronomy n. Science of soil management and crop production. agronomist n. [greek agros land]
Aground predic. Adj. & adv. On or on to the bottom of shallow water (run aground).
Ague n. 1 hist. Malarial fever. 2 shivering fit. [latin: related to *acute]
Ah abbr. In the year of the hegira (ad 622); of the muslim era. [latin anno hegirae]
Ah int. Expressing surprise, pleasure, realization, etc. [french a]
Aha int. Expressing surprise, triumph, mockery, etc. [from ah, ha1]
Ahead adv. 1 further forward in space or time. 2 in the lead (ahead on points).
Ahem int. Used to attract attention, gain time, etc. [from *hem2]
Ahoy int. Naut. Call used in hailing. [from ah, hoy]
Ai abbr. 1 artificial insemination. 2 artificial intelligence.
Aid abbr. Artificial insemination by donor.
Aid —n. 1 help. 2 person or thing that helps. —v. 1 help. 2 promote (sleep will aid recovery). in aid of 1 in support of. 2 colloq. For the purpose of (what’s it all in aid of?). [latin: related to *ad-, juvo help]
Aide n. 1 aide-de-camp. 2 esp. Us assistant. [french]
Aide-de-camp n. (pl. Aides-de-camp pronunc. Same) officer assisting a senior officer. [french]
Aids n. (also aids) acquired immune deficiency syndrome, an often fatal viral
Aids n. (also aids) acquired immune deficiency syndrome, an often fatal viral syndrome marked by severe loss of resistance to infection. [abbreviation]
Ail v. 1 archaic (only in 3rd person interrog. Or indefinite constructions) trouble or afflict (what ails him?). 2 (usu. Be ailing) be ill. [old english]
Aileron n. Hinged flap on an aeroplane wing. [french aile wing]
Ailing adj. 1 ill. 2 in poor condition.
Ailment n. Minor illness or disorder.
Aim —v. 1 intend or try; attempt (aim at winning; aim to win). 2 (usu. Foll. By at) direct or point (a weapon, remark, etc.). 3 take aim. —n. 1 purpose or object. 2 the directing of a weapon etc. At an object. take aim direct a weapon etc. At a target. [latin aestimare reckon]
Aimless adj. Without aim or purpose. aimlessly adv.
Ain’t contr. Colloq. 1 am, is, or are not. 2 have or has not.
Usage the use of ain’t is usually regarded as unacceptable in spoken and written english.
Aimless adj. Without aim or purpose. aimlessly adv.
Ain’t contr. Colloq. 1 am, is, or are not. 2 have or has not.
Usage the use of ain’t is usually regarded as unacceptable in spoken and written english.
Air —n. 1 mixture mainly of oxygen and nitrogen surrounding the earth. 2 earth’s atmosphere; open space in it; this as a place for flying aircraft. 3 a distinctive impression or manner (air of mystery). B (esp. In pl.) Pretentiousness (gave himself airs). 4 tune. 5 light wind. —v. 1 expose (clothes, a room, etc.) To fresh air or warmth to remove damp. 2 express and discuss publicly (an opinion, question, grievance, etc.). by air by or in an aircraft. In the air 1 (of opinions etc.) Prevalent. 2 (of plans etc.) Uncertain. On (or off) the air being (or not being) broadcast. [greek aer]
Airbase n. Base for military aircraft.
Air-bed n. Inflatable mattress.
Airborne adj. 1 transported by air. 2 (of aircraft) in the air after taking off.
Air-brick n. Perforated brick used for ventilation.
Airbus n. Propr. Short-haul passenger aircraft.
Air chief marshal n. Raf officer of high rank, above air marshal.
Air commodore n. Raf officer next above group captain.
Air-conditioning n. 1 system for regulating the humidity, ventilation, and temperature in a building. 2 apparatus for this. air-conditioned adj.
Aircraft n. (pl. Same) machine capable of flight, esp. An aeroplane or helicopter.
Aircraft-carrier n. Warship carrying and used as a base for aircraft.
Aircraftman n. Lowest rank in the raf.
Aircraftwoman n. Lowest rank in the wraf.
Aircrew n. Crew of an aircraft.
Air-cushion n. 1 inflatable cushion. 2 layer of air supporting a hovercraft etc.
Airedale n. Large terrier of a rough-coated breed. [airedale in yorkshire]
Airer n. Stand for airing or drying clothes etc.
Airfield n. Area with runway(s) for aircraft.
Air force n. Branch of the armed forces fighting in the air.
Airgun n. Gun using compressed air to fire pellets.
Airhead n. Slang stupid or foolish person.
Air hostess n. Stewardess in a passenger aircraft.
Airless adj. Stuffy; still, calm.
Air letter n. Sheet of light paper forming a letter for sending by airmail.
Airlift —n. Emergency transport of supplies etc. By air. —v. Transport thus.
Airline n. Public air transport system or company.
Airliner n. Large passenger aircraft.
Airlock n. 1 stoppage of the flow by an air bubble in a pump or pipe. 2 compartment permitting movement between areas at different pressures.
Airmail n. 1 system of transporting mail by air. 2 mail carried by air.
Airman n. Pilot or member of an aircraft crew, esp. In an air force.
Air marshal n. Raf officer of high rank, above air vice-marshal.
Airplane n. Us = *aeroplane.
Air pocket n. Apparent vacuum causing an aircraft to drop suddenly.
Airport n. Airfield with facilities for passengers and goods.
Air raid n. Attack by aircraft on ground targets.
Air rifle n. Rifle using compressed air to fire pellets.
Airs and graces n.pl. Affected manner.
Airscrew n. Aircraft propeller.
Airship n. Power-driven aircraft lighter than air.
Airsick adj. Nauseous from air travel.
Airspace n. Air above a country and subject to its jurisdiction.
Air speed n. Aircraft’s speed relative to the air.
Airstrip n. Strip of ground for the take-off and landing of aircraft.
Air terminal n. Building with transport to and from an airport.
Airtight adj. Impermeable to air.
Air traffic controller n. Official who controls air traffic by radio.
Air vice-marshal n. Raf officer of high rank, just below air marshal.
Airwaves n.pl. Colloq. Radio waves used in broadcasting.
Airway n. Recognized route of aircraft.
Airwoman n. Woman pilot or member of an aircraft crew, esp. In an air force.
Airworthy adj. (of an aircraft) fit to fly.
Airy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 well-ventilated, breezy. 2 flippant, superficial. 3 light as air. 4 ethereal. airily adv.
Airy-fairy adj. Colloq. Unrealistic, impractical.
Aisle n. 1 the part of a church on either side of the nave, divided from it by pillars. 2 passage between rows of pews, seats, etc. [latin ala wing]
Aitch n. The letter h. [french ache]
Aitchbone n. 1 rump bone of an animal. 2 cut of beef over this. [originally nache-bone from latin natis buttock]
Ajar adv. & predic.adj. (of a door) slightly open. [from *a2, obsolete char from old english cerr a turn]
Akela n. Adult leader of cub scouts. [name of the leader of the wolf-pack in kipling’s jungle book]
Akimbo adv. (of the arms) with hands on the hips and elbows turned outwards. [originally in kenebowe, probably from old norse]
Akin predic. Adj. 1 related by blood. 2 similar.
Al symb. Aluminium.
-al suffix 1 (also -ial) forming adjectives meaning ‘relating to, of the kind of’ (central; tidal; dictatorial). 2 forming nouns, esp. Of verbal action (removal). [latin -alis]
À la prep. In the manner of (à la russe). [french from *à la mode]
Alabaster —n. Translucent usu. White form of gypsum, used for carving etc. — adj. 1 of alabaster. 2 white or smooth. [greek alabastros]
À la carte adv. & adj. With individually priced dishes. [french]
Alacrity n. Briskness; cheerful readiness. [latin alacer brisk]
À la mode adv. & adj. In fashion; fashionable. [french]
À la mode adv. & adj. In fashion; fashionable. [french]
Alarm —n. 1 warning of danger etc. 2 a warning sound or device. B = *alarm clock. 3 apprehension (filled with alarm). —v. 1 frighten or disturb. 2 warn. alarming adj. Alarmingly adv. [italian all’arme! To arms]
Alarm clock n. Clock that rings at a set time.
Alarmist n. Person stirring up alarm.
Alas int. Expressing grief, pity, or concern. [french: related to *ah, latin lassus weary]
Alb n. Long white vestment worn by christian priests. [latin albus white]
Albatross n. 1 a long-winged, stout-bodied bird related to the petrel. B encumbrance. 2 golf score of three strokes under par at any hole. [alteration of alcatras, from spanish and portuguese alcatraz from arabic, = the jug]
Albeit conj. Literary though. [all be it]
Albino n. (pl. -s) 1 person or animal lacking pigment in the skin and hair (which are white), and the eyes (usu. Pink). 2 plant lacking normal colouring. albinism n. [spanish and portuguese: related to *alb]
Album n. 1 book for photographs, stamps, etc. 2 a long-playing gramophone record. B set of these. [latin, = blank tablet, from albus white]
Albumen n. 1 egg-white. 2 substance found between the skin and germ of many seeds, usu. The edible part. [latin: related to *album]
Albumin n. Water-soluble protein found in egg-white, milk, blood, etc. albuminous adj.
Alchemy n. Medieval chemistry, esp. Seeking to turn base metals into gold. alchemist n. [arabic]
Alcohol n. 1 (in full ethyl alcohol) colourless volatile inflammable liquid, esp. As the intoxicant in wine, beer, spirits, etc., and as a solvent, fuel, etc. 2 liquor containing this. 3 chem. Any of many organic compounds containing one or more hydroxyl groups attached to carbon atoms. [arabic: related to *kohl]
Alcoholic —adj. Of, like, containing, or caused by alcohol. —n. Person suffering from alcoholism.
Alcoholism n. Condition resulting from addiction to alcohol.
Alcove n. Recess, esp. In the wall of a room. [arabic, = the vault]
Aldehyde n. Chem. Any of a class of compounds formed by the oxidation of alcohols. [from *alcohol, de-, hydrogen]
Aldehyde n. Chem. Any of a class of compounds formed by the oxidation of alcohols. [from *alcohol, de-, hydrogen]
Al dente adj. (of pasta etc.) Cooked so as to be still firm when bitten. [italian, = ‘to the tooth’]
Alder n. Tree related to the birch. [old english]
Alderman n. Esp. Hist. Coopted member of an english county or borough council, next in dignity to the mayor. [old english aldor chief, *man]
Ale n. Beer. [old english]
Aleatory adj. Depending on chance. [latin alea *die2]
Alehouse n. Hist. Tavern.
Alembic n. 1 hist. Apparatus formerly used in distilling. 2 means of refining or extracting. [greek ambix, -ikos cap of a still]
Alert —adj. 1 watchful, vigilant. 2 nimble, attentive. —n. 1 warning call or alarm. 2 state or period of special vigilance. —v. (often foll. By to) warn. [french alerte from italian all’erta to the watch-tower]
alerte from italian all’erta to the watch-tower]
A level n. = *advanced level.
Alexander technique n. Technique for controlling posture as an aid to well-being. [alexander, name of a physiotherapist]
Alexandrine —adj. (of a line of verse) having six iambic feet. —n. Alexandrine line. [french alexandre, title of a romance using this metre]
Alfalfa n. Clover-like plant used for fodder. [arabic, = a green fodder]
Alfresco adv. & adj. In the open air. [italian]
Alga n. (pl. Algae) (usu. In pl.) Non-flowering stemless water-plant, esp. Seaweed and plankton. [latin]
Algebra n. Branch of mathematics that uses letters etc. To represent numbers and quantities. algebraic adj. [ultimately from arabic al-jabr, = reunion of broken parts]
Algol n. High-level computer programming language. [from algorithm, language]
Algorithm n. Process or set of rules used for calculation etc., esp. With a computer. algorithmic adj. [persian, name of a 9th-c. Mathematician al-kuwarizmi]
Alias —adv. Also named or known as. —n. Assumed name. [latin, = at another time]
Alibi n. (pl. -s) 1 claim or proof that one was elsewhere when a crime etc. Was committed. 2 informal excuse. [latin, = elsewhere]
Usage the use of alibi in sense 2 is considered incorrect by some people.
Alien —adj. 1 (often foll. By to) unfamiliar; unacceptable or repugnant. 2 foreign. 3 of beings from other worlds. —n. 1 foreign-born resident who is not naturalized. 2 being from another world. [latin alius other]
Alienable adj. Law able to be transferred to new ownership.
Alienate v. (-ting) 1 estrange, make hostile. 2 transfer ownership of. alienation n.
Alight1 predic. Adj. 1 on fire. 2 lit up; excited. [on a light (= lighted) fire]
Alight2 v. 1 (often foll. By from) descend from a vehicle. 2 come to earth, settle. [old english]
Align v. 1 put or bring into line. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) ally (oneself etc.) With (a cause, party, etc.). alignment n. [french à ligne into line]
Alike —adj. (usu. Predic.) Similar, like. —adv. In a similar way.
Alimentary adj. Of or providing food or nourishment. [latin alo nourish]
Alimentary canal n. Passage along which food passes during digestion.
Alimony n. Money payable to a spouse or former spouse after separation or divorce.
Usage in uk usage this term has been replaced by maintenance.
Aliphatic adj. Chem. Of organic compounds in which carbon atoms form open chains, not aromatic rings. [greek aleiphar -phat-fat]
Aliquot —adj. (of a part or portion) contained by the whole an integral number of times (4 is an aliquot part of 12). —n. 1 aliquot part. 2 (in general use) any known fraction of a whole; sample. [latin, = several]
Alive adj. (usu. Predic.) 1 living. 2 lively, active. 3 (foll. By to) aware of; alert. 4 (foll. By with) swarming or teeming with. [old english: related to a2, life]
Alkali n. (pl. -s) 1 a any of a class of substances that liberate hydroxide ions in water, usu. Form caustic or corrosive solutions, turn litmus blue, and have a ph of more than 7, e.g. Caustic soda.
Alkalinity n. [arabic, = the calcined ashes]
Alkaloid n. Nitrogenous organic compound of plant origin, e.g. Morphine, quinine.
Alkane n. Chem. Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbon having the general formula cnh2n+2, including methane and ethane.
Alkene n. Chem. Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon containing a double bond and having the general formula cnh2n, including ethylene.
Alkyne n. Chem. Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon containing a triple bond and having the general formula cnh2n-2, including acetylene.
All —adj. 1 whole amount, quantity, or extent of (all day; all his life; take it all). 2 any whatever (beyond all doubt). 3 greatest possible (with all speed). —n. 1 all concerned; everything (all were present; all is lost). 2 (foll. By of) a the whole of (take all of it). B every one of (all of us). C colloq. As much as (all of six feet). D colloq. In a state of (all of a dither). 3 one’s whole strength or resources (prec. By my, your, etc.). 4 (in games) each (two goals all). —adv. 1 a entirely, quite (dressed all in black). B as an intensifier (stop all this grumbling). 2 colloq. Very (went all shy). 3 (foll. By the + compar.) To that, or the utmost, extent (if they go, all the better; that makes it all the worse). all along from the beginning. All and sundry everyone. All but very nearly. All for colloq. Strongly in favour of. All found with board and lodging provided free. All in colloq. Exhausted. All in
All found with board and lodging provided free. All in colloq. Exhausted. All in all everything considered. All manner of every kind of. All of a sudden suddenly. All one (or the same) (usu. Foll. By to) a matter of indifference. All out using all one’s strength (also (with hyphen) attrib.: all-out effort). All over 1 completely finished. 2 in or on all parts of (mud all over the carpet). 3 colloq. Typically (you all over). 4 slang effusively attentive to (a person). All right (predic.) 1 satisfactory; safe and sound; in good condition. 2 satisfactorily (it worked out all right). 3 a expressing consent. B as an intensifier (that’s the one all right). All round 1 in all respects. 2 for each person. All the same nevertheless. All there colloq. Mentally alert or normal. All the time throughout (despite some contrary expectation etc.). All together all at once; all in one place or in a group (came all together) (cf. *altogether). All up with hopeless for (a person). At all (with neg. Or interrog.) In any way; to any extent (did not swim at all; did you like it at all?). In all in total; altogether. [old english]
Usage note the differences in meaning between all together and altogether: see note at altogether.
Allah n. The muslim and arab name of god. [arabic]
Allay v. 1 diminish (fear, suspicion, etc.). 2 alleviate (pain etc.). [old english a-intensive prefix, *lay1]
All-clear n. Signal that danger etc. Is over.
All comers n.pl. Anyone who applies, takes up a challenge, etc.
Allege v. (-ging) 1 declare, esp. Without proof. 2 advance as an argument or excuse. [latin lis lit-lawsuit]
Allegedly adv. As is alleged.
Allegiance n. 1 loyalty (to a person or cause etc.). 2 the duty of a subject. [french: related to *liege]
Allegory n. (pl. -ies) story whose moral is represented symbolically. allegorical adj. Allegorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). [greek allegoria other speaking]
Allegretto mus. —adv. & adj. In a fairly brisk tempo. —n. (pl. -s) such a passage or movement. [italian, diminutive of *allegro]
Allegro mus. —adv. & adj. In a brisk tempo. —n. (pl. -s) such a passage or movement. [italian, = lively]
Alleluia (also hallelujah) —int. God be praised. —n. Song or shout of praise to god. [hebrew]
Allen key n. Propr. Spanner designed to turn an allen screw. [allen, name of the us manufacturer]
Allen screw n. Propr. Screw with a hexagonal socket in the head.
Allergic adj. 1 (foll. By to) a having an allergy to. B colloq. Having a strong dislike for. 2 caused by an allergy.
Allergy n. (pl. -ies) 1 adverse reaction to certain substances, esp. Particular foods, pollen, fur, or dust. 2 colloq. Antipathy. [greek allos other]
Alleviate v. (-ting) make (pain etc.) Less severe. alleviation n. [latin levo raise]
Alley n. (pl. -s) 1 narrow street or passageway. 2 enclosure for skittles, bowling, etc. 3 walk or lane in a park etc. [french aller go]
Alliance n. 1 union or agreement to cooperate, esp. Of states by treaty or families by marriage. 2 (alliance) political coalition party. 3 relationship; friendship. [french: related to *ally]
Allied adj. 1 (also allied) associated in an alliance. 2 connected or related.
Alligator n. Large reptile of the crocodile family with a head broader and shorter than a crocodile’s. [spanish el lagarto the lizard]
All-in attrib. Adj. Inclusive of all.
All-in wrestling n. Wrestling with few or no restrictions.
Alliteration n. Repetition of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words (e.g. Cool, calm, and collected). alliterate v. (-ting). Alliterative adj. [latin: related to *letter]
Allocate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By to) assign or devote to (a purpose, person, or place). allocation n. [latin: related to *local]
Allot v. (-tt-) apportion or distribute to (a person), esp. As a share or task (they were allotted equal sums). [french a to, *lot]
Allotment n. 1 small piece of land rented by a local authority for cultivation. 2 share. 3 allotting.
Allotropy n. Existence of two or more different physical forms of a chemical element. allotropic adj. [greek allos different, tropos manner]
Allow v. 1 (often foll. By to + infin.) Permit. 2 assign a limited amount etc. (was allowed £500). 3 (usu. Foll. By for) provide or set aside for a purpose; add or deduct in consideration (allow £50 for expenses; allow for wastage). [originally = commend, from french: related to *ad-, latin laudo praise, loco place]
Allowance n. 1 amount or sum allowed, esp. Regularly for a stated purpose. 2 amount allowed in reckoning. 3 deduction or discount. make allowances (often foll. By for) 1 consider (mitigating circumstances). 2 make excuses for (a person, bad behaviour, etc.).
Alloy —n. 1 mixture of two or more metals. 2 inferior metal mixed esp. With gold or silver. —v. 1 mix (metals). 2 debase by admixture. 3 moderate (pleasure alloyed with pain). [french: related to *ally]
All saints’ day n. 1 nov., christian festival in honour of saints.
All souls’ day n. 2 nov., roman catholic festival with prayers for the souls of the dead.
Allspice n. 1 aromatic spice obtained from the berry of the pimento plant. 2 the berry.
All-time attrib. Adj. (of a record etc.) Unsurpassed.
Allude v. (-ding) (foll. By to) refer to, esp. Indirectly or briefly. [latin: related to *ad-, ludo play]
Allure —v. (-ring) attract, charm, or entice. —n. Attractiveness, personal charm, fascination. allurement n. [french: related to ad-, lure]
Allusion n. (often foll. By to) passing or indirect reference. allusive adj. [latin: related to *allude]
Alluvial —adj. Of alluvium. —n. Alluvium, esp. Containing a precious metal.
Alleluia (also hallelujah) —int. God be praised. —n. Song or shout of praise to god. [hebrew]
Allen key n. Propr. Spanner designed to turn an allen screw. [allen, name of the us manufacturer]
Allen screw n. Propr. Screw with a hexagonal socket in the head.
Allergic adj. 1 (foll. By to) a having an allergy to. B colloq. Having a strong dislike for. 2 caused by an allergy.
Allergy n. (pl. -ies) 1 adverse reaction to certain substances, esp. Particular foods, pollen, fur, or dust. 2 colloq. Antipathy. [greek allos other]
Alleviate v. (-ting) make (pain etc.) Less severe. alleviation n. [latin levo raise]
Alleviate v. (-ting) make (pain etc.) Less severe. alleviation n. [latin levo raise]
Alley n. (pl. -s) 1 narrow street or passageway. 2 enclosure for skittles, bowling, etc. 3 walk or lane in a park etc. [french aller go]
Alliance n. 1 union or agreement to cooperate, esp. Of states by treaty or families by marriage. 2 (alliance) political coalition party. 3 relationship; friendship. [french: related to *ally]
Allied adj. 1 (also allied) associated in an alliance. 2 connected or related.
Alligator n. Large reptile of the crocodile family with a head broader and shorter than a crocodile’s. [spanish el lagarto the lizard]
All-in attrib. Adj. Inclusive of all.
All-in wrestling n. Wrestling with few or no restrictions.
Alliteration n. Repetition of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words (e.g. Cool, calm, and collected). alliterate v. (-ting). Alliterative adj. [latin: related to *letter]
Allocate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By to) assign or devote to (a purpose, person, or place). allocation n. [latin: related to *local]
Allot v. (-tt-) apportion or distribute to (a person), esp. As a share or task (they were allotted equal sums). [french a to, *lot]
Allotment n. 1 small piece of land rented by a local authority for cultivation. 2 share. 3 allotting.
Allotropy n. Existence of two or more different physical forms of a chemical element. allotropic adj. [greek allos different, tropos manner]
Allow v. 1 (often foll. By to + infin.) Permit. 2 assign a limited amount etc. (was allowed £500). 3 (usu. Foll. By for) provide or set aside for a purpose; add or deduct in consideration (allow £50 for expenses; allow for wastage). [originally = commend, from french: related to *ad-, latin laudo praise, loco place]
Allowance n. 1 amount or sum allowed, esp. Regularly for a stated purpose. 2 amount allowed in reckoning. 3 deduction or discount. make allowances (often foll. By for) 1 consider (mitigating circumstances). 2 make excuses for (a person, bad behaviour, etc.).
Alloy —n. 1 mixture of two or more metals. 2 inferior metal mixed esp. With gold or silver. —v. 1 mix (metals). 2 debase by admixture. 3 moderate (pleasure alloyed with pain). [french: related to *ally]
All saints’ day n. 1 nov., christian festival in honour of saints.
All souls’ day n. 2 nov., roman catholic festival with prayers for the souls of the dead.
Allspice n. 1 aromatic spice obtained from the berry of the pimento plant. 2 the berry.
All-time attrib. Adj. (of a record etc.) Unsurpassed.
Allude v. (-ding) (foll. By to) refer to, esp. Indirectly or briefly. [latin: related to *ad-, ludo play]
Allure —v. (-ring) attract, charm, or entice. —n. Attractiveness, personal charm, fascination. allurement n. [french: related to ad-, lure]
Allusion n. (often foll. By to) passing or indirect reference. allusive adj. [latin: related to *allude]
related to *allude]
Alluvial —adj. Of alluvium. —n. Alluvium, esp. Containing a precious metal.
Alluvial —adj. Of alluvium. —n. Alluvium, esp. Containing a precious metal.
Alluvium n. (pl. -via) deposit of usu. Fine fertile soil left behind by a flood, esp. In a river valley. [latin luo wash]
Ally —n. (pl. -ies) state, person, etc., formally cooperating or united with another, esp. (also ally) in war. —v. Also (-ies, -ied) (often refl. And foll. By with) combine in alliance. [latin alligo bind]
Alma mater n. One’s university, school, or college. [latin, = bounteous mother]
Almanac n. (also almanack) calendar, usu. With astronomical data. [medieval latin from greek]
Almighty adj. 1 having complete power. 2 (the almighty) god. 3 slang very great (almighty crash). [old english: related to all, mighty]
Almond n. 1 nutlike kernel of a fruit allied to the peach and plum. 2 tree bearing this. [greek amugdale]
Almoner n. Social worker attached to a hospital. [french: related to *alms]
Usage the usual term now is medical social worker.
Almost adv. All but; very nearly. [old english: related to all, most]
Alms n.pl. Hist. Donation of money or food to the poor. [greek eleemosune pity]
Almshouse n. Hist. Charitable institution for the poor.
Aloe n. 1 plant of the lily family with toothed fleshy leaves. 2 (in pl.) (in full bitter aloes) strong laxative from aloe juice. [old english from greek]
Aloft predic. Adj. & adv. 1 high up, overhead. 2 upwards. [old norse á lopti in air]
Alone —predic. Adj. 1 without the presence or help of others. 2 lonely (felt alone). —adv. Only, exclusively. [earlier al one: related to all, one]
Along —prep. Beside or through (part of) the length of. —adv. 1 onward, into a more advanced state (come along; getting along nicely). 2 with oneself or others (bring a book along). 3 beside or through part or the whole length of a thing. along with in addition to; together with. [old english, originally adj. = facing against]
Alongside —adv. At or to the side. —prep. Close to the side of.
Alongside —adv. At or to the side. —prep. Close to the side of.
Alp n. 1 a high mountain. B (the alps) high range of mountains in switzerland and adjoining countries. 2 pasture land on a swiss mountainside. [originally alps, from greek alpeis]
Alpaca n. 1 shaggy s. American mammal related to the llama. 2 its wool; fabric made from this. [spanish from quechua]
Alpha n. 1 first letter of the greek alphabet (a, a). 2 first-class mark for a piece of work etc. alpha and omega beginning and end. [latin from greek]
Alphabet n. 1 set of letters used in writing a language. 2 symbols or signs for these. alphabetical adj. [greek *alpha, *beta]
Alphanumeric adj. Containing both letters and numbers.
Alpha particle n. Helium nucleus emitted by a radioactive substance.
Alpine —adj. Of mountainous regions or (alpine) the alps. —n. 1 plant growing in mountainous regions. 2 = *rock-plant. [latin: related to *alp]
Already adv. 1 before the time in question (i knew that already). 2 as early or as soon as this (is back already). [from all, ready]
Alright adv. = all right (see *all).
Usage although widely used, alright is still non-standard and is considered incorrect by many people.
Alsatian n. Large dog of a breed of wolfhound (also called *german shepherd). [latin alsatia alsace]
Also adv. In addition, besides. [old english: related to all, so1]
Also-ran n. 1 loser in a race. 2 undistinguished person.
Altar n. 1 table or flat block for sacrifice or offering to a deity. 2 communion table. [latin altus high]
Altarpiece n. Painting etc. Above or behind an altar.
Alter v. Make or become different; change. alteration n. [latin alter other]
Alter v. Make or become different; change. alteration n. [latin alter other]
Altercate v. (-ting) (often foll. By with) dispute, wrangle. altercation n. [latin]
Alter ego n. (pl. -s) 1 one’s hidden or second self. 2 intimate friend. [latin, = other self]
Alter ego n. (pl. -s) 1 one’s hidden or second self. 2 intimate friend. [latin, = other self]
Alternate —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By with) occur or cause to occur by turns. 2 (foll. By between) go repeatedly from one to another (alternated between hope and fear). —adj. 1 (with noun in pl.) Every other (on alternate days). 2 (of things of two kinds) alternating (alternate joy and misery). alternately adv. Alternation n. [latin alterno do by turns: related to *alter]
Usage see note at alternative.
Alternate angles n.pl. Two angles formed alternately on two sides of a line.
Alternating current n. Electric current reversing its direction at regular intervals.
Alternative —adj. 1 available as another choice (alternative route). 2 unconventional (alternative medicine). —n. 1 any of two or more possibilities. 2 choice (had no alternative but to go). alternatively adv.
Usage the adjective alternative should not be confused with alternate, as in ‘there will be a dance on alternate saturdays’.
Alternator n. Dynamo that generates an alternating current.
Although conj. = *though. [from all, though]
Altimeter n. Instrument indicating altitude reached.
Altitude n. Height, esp. Of an object above sea level or above the horizon. [latin altus high]
Alto n. (pl. -s) 1 = *contralto. 2 a highest adult male singing-voice, above tenor. B singer with this voice. 3 instrument pitched second-or third-highest in its family. [italian alto (canto) high (singing)]
Altogether adv. 1 totally, completely. 2 on the whole. 3 in total. in the altogether colloq. Naked. [from all, together]
Usage note that altogether means ‘in total’, whereas all together means ‘all at once’ or ‘all in one place’. The phrases six rooms altogether (in total) and six rooms all together (in one place) illustrate the difference.
Altruism n. Unselfishness as a principle of action. altruist n. Altruistic adj. [italian altrui somebody else]
Alum n. Double sulphate of aluminium and potassium. [latin alumen -min-]
Alumina n. Aluminium oxide occurring naturally as corundum and emery.
Aluminium n. (us aluminum) silvery light and malleable metallic element resistant to tarnishing by air.
Aluminize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) coat with aluminium.
Aluminum n. (brit. Aluminium) silvery light and malleable metallic element resistant to tarnishing by air.
Alumnus n. (pl. Alumni; fem. Alumna, pl. Alumnae) former pupil or student. [latin, = nursling, pupil]
Always adv. 1 at all times; on all occasions. 2 whatever the circumstances. 3 repeatedly, often. [from all, way]
Alyssum n. Plant with small usu. Yellow or white flowers. [greek, = curing madness]
Alzheimer’s disease n. Brain disorder causing senility. [alzheimer, name of a neurologist]
Am abbr. Amplitude modulation.
Am symb. Americium.
Am 1st person sing. Present of *be.
A.m. Abbr. Before noon. [latin ante meridiem]
Amalgam n. 1 mixture or blend. 2 alloy of mercury and another metal, used esp. In dentistry. [greek malagma an emollient]
Amalgamate v. (-ting) 1 mix, unite. 2 (of metals) alloy with mercury. amalgamation n. [medieval latin: related to *amalgam]
Amanuensis n. (pl. -enses) literary assistant, esp. Writing from dictation. [latin a manu ‘at hand’]
Amaranth n. 1 plant with small green, red, or purple tinted flowers. 2 imaginary unfading flower. 3 purple colour. amaranthine adj. [greek amarantos unfading]
Amaryllis n. Bulbous plant with lily-like flowers. [greek, a girl’s name]
Amass v. Heap together; accumulate. [french: related to ad-, mass1]
Amateur n. Person who engages in a pursuit as a pastime rather than a profession, or performs with limited skill. amateurish adj. Amateurism n. [latin amator lover: related to *amatory]
Amatory adj. Of sexual love. [latin amo love]
Amatory adj. Of sexual love. [latin amo love]
Amaze v. (-zing) surprise greatly, fill with wonder. amazement n. Amazing adj. [earlier amase from old english amasod]
Amazon n. 1 female warrior of a mythical race in the black sea area. 2 (amazon) large, strong, or athletic woman. amazonian adj. [latin from greek]
Ambassador n. 1 diplomat sent to live abroad to represent his or her country’s interests. 2 promoter (ambassador of peace). ambassadorial adj. [latin ambactus servant]
Amber —n. 1 a yellow translucent fossilized resin used in jewellery. B colour of this. 2 yellow traffic-light meaning caution. —adj. Of or like amber. [french from arabic]
Ambergris n. Waxlike secretion of the sperm whale, found floating in tropical seas and used in perfumes. [french, = grey amber]
Ambidextrous adj. Able to use either hand equally well. [latin ambi-on both sides, *dexter]
Ambience n. Surroundings or atmosphere. [latin ambio go round]
Ambient adj. Surrounding.
Ambiguous adj. 1 having an obscure or double meaning. 2 difficult to classify. ambiguity n. (pl. -ies). [latin ambi-both ways, ago drive]
Ambit n. Scope, extent, or bounds. [latin: related to *ambience]
Ambition n. 1 determination to succeed. 2 object of this. [latin, = canvassing: related to *ambience]
Ambitious adj. 1 full of ambition or high aims. 2 (foll. By of, or to + infin.) Strongly determined.
Ambivalence n. Coexistence of opposing feelings. ambivalent adj. [latin ambo both, *equivalent]
Amble —v. (-ling) move at an easy pace. —n. Such a pace. [latin ambulo walk]
Ambrosia n. 1 (in classical mythology) the food of the gods. 2 sublimely delicious food etc. [greek, = elixir of life]
Ambulance n. 1 vehicle equipped for conveying patients to hospital. 2 mobile hospital serving an army. [latin: related to *amble]
Ambulatory —adj. 1 of or for walking. 2 movable. —n. (pl. -ies) arcade or cloister. [latin: related to *amble]
Ambuscade n. & v. (-ding) = *ambush.
Ambush —n. 1 surprise attack by persons hiding. 2 hiding-place for this. —v. Attack from an ambush; waylay. [french: related to in-1, bush1]
Ameliorate v. (-ting) make or become better. amelioration n. Ameliorative adj. [from *ad-, latin melior better]
Amen int. (esp. At the end of a prayer etc.) So be it. [church latin from hebrew, = certainly]
Amenable adj. 1 responsive, docile. 2 (often foll. By to) answerable to law etc. [french: related to *ad-, latin mino drive animals]
Amend v. 1 make minor alterations in to improve. 2 correct an error in (a
Amend v. 1 make minor alterations in to improve. 2 correct an error in (a document etc.). [latin: related to *emend]
Usage amend is often confused with emend, a more technical word used in the context of textual correction.
Amendment n. Minor alteration or addition in a document, resolution, etc.
Amends n. make amends (often foll. By for) compensate (for).
Amenity n. (pl. -ies) 1 pleasant or useful feature or facility. 2 pleasantness (of a place etc.). [latin amoenus pleasant]
American —adj. Of america, esp. The united states. —n. 1 native, citizen, or inhabitant of america, esp. The us. 2 english as used in the us. americanize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). [name of navigator amerigo vespucci]
American dream n. Ideal of democracy and prosperity.
American football n. Football evolved from rugby.
American indian see *indian.
Americanism n. Word etc. Of us origin or usage.
Americium n. Artificial radioactive metallic element. [america, where first made]
Amerind adj. & n. (also amerindian) = american indian (see indian).
Amethyst n. Semiprecious stone of a violet or purple variety of quartz. [greek, = preventing drunkenness]
Amharic —n. Official and commercial language of ethiopia. —adj. Of this language. [amhara, region of ethiopia]
Amiable adj. (esp. Of a person) friendly and pleasant, likeable. amiably adv. [latin: related to *amicable]
Amiable adj. (esp. Of a person) friendly and pleasant, likeable. amiably adv. [latin: related to *amicable]
Amicable adj. (esp. Of an arrangement, relations, etc.) Friendly. amicably adv. [latin amicus friend]
Amid prep. In the middle of, among. [old english: related to on, mid]
Amidships adv. In or into the middle of a ship. [from *amid, alternative form midships]
midships]
Amidst var. Of *amid.
Amine n. Compound formed from ammonia by replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms by an organic radical or radicals.
Amino acid n. Biochem. Any of a group of nitrogenous organic acids occurring naturally in plant and animal tissues and forming the basic constituents of proteins. [from amine, acid]
Amir var. Of *emir.
Amiss —predic. Adj. Wrong, out of order. —adv. Wrong(ly), inappropriately (everything went amiss). take amiss be offended by. [old norse à mis so as to miss]
Amity n. Friendship. [latin amicus friend]
Ammeter n. Instrument for measuring electric current in amperes. [from *ampere, *-meter]
Ammo n. Slang ammunition. [abbreviation]
Ammonia n. 1 pungent strongly alkaline gas. 2 (in general use) solution of ammonia in water. [as *sal ammoniac]
Ammonite n. Coil-shaped fossil shell. [latin, = horn of jupiter ammon]
Ammunition n. 1 supply of bullets, shells, grenades, etc. 2 information usable in an argument. [french la *munition taken as l’ammu-]
Amnesia n. Loss of memory. amnesiac n. [latin from greek]
Amnesty —n. (pl. -ies) general pardon, esp. For political offences. —v. (-ies, -ied) grant an amnesty to. [greek amnestia oblivion]
Amniocentesis n. (pl. -teses) sampling of amniotic fluid to detect foetal abnormality. [from *amnion, greek kentesis pricking]
Amnion n. (pl. Amnia) innermost membrane enclosing an embryo. amniotic adj. [greek, = caul]
Amoeba n. (pl. -s) microscopic aquatic amorphous one-celled organism. amoebic adj. [greek, = change]
Amok adv. run amok (or amuck) run wild. [malay]
Among prep. (also amongst) 1 surrounded by, with (lived among the trees; be among friends). 2 included in (among us were dissidents). 3 in the category of (among his best works). 4 a between; shared by (divide it among you). B from the joint resources of (among us we can manage it). 5 with one another (talked among themselves). [old english, = in a crowd]
Amoral adj. 1 beyond morality. 2 without moral principles.
Amorous adj. Of, showing, or feeling sexual love. [latin amor love]
Amorphous adj. 1 of no definite shape. 2 vague. 3 mineral. & chem. Non-crystalline. [greek a-not, morphe form]
Amortize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) gradually extinguish (a debt) by regular instalments. [latin ad mortem to death]
Amount —n. Quantity, esp. A total in number, size, value, extent, etc. —v. (foll. By to) be equivalent to in number, significance, etc. [latin ad montem upward]
Amour n. (esp. Secret) love affair. [french, = love]
Amour propre n. Self-respect. [french]
Amp1 n. Ampere. [abbreviation]
Amp2 n. Colloq. Amplifier. [abbreviation]
Ampelopsis n. (pl. Same) climbing plant related to the vine. [greek ampelos vine, opsis appearance]
Amperage n. Strength of an electric current in amperes.
Ampere n. Si base unit of electric current. [ampère, name of a physicist]
Ampersand n. The sign ‘&’ (= and). [corruption of and *per se and]
Amphetamine n. Synthetic drug used esp. As a stimulant. [abbreviation of chemical name]
Amphibian —adj. Of a class of vertebrates (e.g. Frogs) with an aquatic larval stage followed by a terrestrial adult stage. —n. 1 vertebrate of this class. 2 vehicle able to operate both on land and in water. [greek amphi-both, bios life]
Amphibious adj. 1 living or operating on land and in water. 2 involving military forces landed from the sea.
Amphitheatre n. Esp. Circular unroofed building with tiers of seats surrounding a central space. [greek amphi-round]
Amphitheatre n. Esp. Circular unroofed building with tiers of seats surrounding a central space. [greek amphi-round]
Amphora n. (pl. -phorae) narrow-necked greek or roman vessel with two handles. [greek amphoreus]
Ample adj. (ampler, amplest) 1 a plentiful, abundant, extensive. B euphem. Large, stout. 2 more than enough. amply adv. [latin amplus]
Amplifier n. Electronic device for increasing the strength of electrical signals, esp. For conversion into sound.
Amplify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 increase the strength of (sound, electrical signals, etc.). 2 add detail to, expand (a story etc.). amplification n. [latin: related to *ample]
Amplitude n. 1 maximum departure from average of an oscillation, alternating current, etc. 2 spaciousness; abundance. [latin: related to *ample]
Amplitude modulation n. Modulation of a wave by variation of its amplitude.
Ampoule n. Small sealed capsule holding a solution for injection. [french: related to *ampulla]
Ampulla n. (pl. -pullae) 1 roman globular flask with two handles. 2 ecclesiastical vessel. [latin]
Amputate v. (-ting) cut off surgically (a limb etc.). amputation n. Amputee n. [latin amb-about, puto prune]
Amuck var. Of *amok.
Amulet n. Charm worn against evil. [latin]
Amuse v. (-sing) 1 cause to laugh or smile. 2 interest or occupy. amusing adj. [french a cause to, muser stare]
Amusement n. 1 thing that amuses. 2 being amused. 3 mechanical device (e.g. A roundabout) for entertainment at a fairground etc.
Amusement arcade n. Indoor area with slot-machines.
An see *a1.
An-see *a-.
-an suffix (also -ian) forming adjectives and nouns, esp. From names of places, systems, classes, etc. (mexican; anglican; crustacean). [french -ain, latin -anus]
Anabaptist n. Member of a religious group believing in baptism only of adults. [greek ana again]
Anabolic steroid n. Synthetic steroid hormone used to increase muscle size.
Anabolism n. Synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy. [greek anabole ascent]
Anachronism n. 1 a attribution of a custom, event, etc., to the wrong period. B thing thus attributed. 2 out-of-date person or thing. anachronistic adj. [greek ana-against, khronos time]
Anaconda n. Large non-poisonous snake killing its prey by constriction. [sinhalese]
Anaemia n. (us anemia) deficiency of red blood cells or their haemoglobin, causing pallor and weariness. [greek, = want of blood]
Anaemic adj. (us anemic) 1 of or suffering from anaemia. 2 pale, listless.
Anaesthesia n. (us anes-) absence of sensation, esp. Artificially induced before surgery. [greek]
Analog n. (brit. Analogue) 1 analogous thing. 2 (attrib.) (usu. Analog) (of a computer etc.) Using physical variables, e.g. Voltage, to represent numbers (cf. *digital).
Analogize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) use, or represent or explain by, analogy.
Analogous adj. (usu. Foll. By to) partially similar or parallel. [greek analogos proportionate]
Analogue n. (us analog) 1 analogous thing. 2 (attrib.) (usu. Analog) (of a computer etc.) Using physical variables, e.g. Voltage, to represent numbers (cf. *digital).
Analogy n. (pl. -ies) 1 correspondence; partial similarity. 2 arguing or reasoning from parallel cases. analogical adj. [greek analogia proportion]
Analogy n. (pl. -ies) 1 correspondence; partial similarity. 2 arguing or reasoning from parallel cases. analogical adj. [greek analogia proportion]
Analyse v. (us analyze) (-sing or -zing) 1 examine in detail; ascertain the constituents of (a substance, sentence, etc.). 2 psychoanalyse.
Analysis n. (pl. -lyses) 1 a detailed examination of elements or structure. B statement of the result of this. 2 chem. Determination of the constituent parts of a mixture or compound. 3 psychoanalysis. [greek ana up, luo loose]
Analyst n. 1 person skilled in (esp. Chemical or computer) analysis. 2 psychoanalyst.
Analytical adj. (also analytic) of or using analysis.
Analyze n. (brit. Analyse) 1 examine in detail; ascertain the constituents of (a substance, sentence, etc.). 2 psychoanalyse.
Anapaest n. Metrical foot consisting of two short syllables followed by one long syllable (&anapaest.). [greek anapaistos reversed (dactyl)]
Anarchism n. Political theory that all government and laws should be abolished. [french: related to *anarchy]
Anarchist n. Advocate of anarchism. anarchistic adj.
Anathema n. (pl. -s) 1 detested thing (is anathema to me). 2 ecclesiastical curse. [greek, = thing devoted (i.e. To evil)]
Anathematize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) curse.
Anatomy n. (pl. -ies) 1 science of animal or plant structure. 2 such a structure. 3 analysis. anatomical adj. Anatomist n. [greek ana-up, temno cut]
Anatto var. Of *annatto.
Anc abbr. African national congress.
-ance suffix forming nouns expressing: 1 quality or state or an instance of one (arrogance; resemblance). 2 action (assistance). [french -ance, latin -antia]
Ancestor n. 1 person, animal, or plant from which another has descended or evolved. 2 prototype or forerunner. [latin ante-before, cedo go]
Ancestral adj. Belonging to or inherited from one’s ancestors.
Ancestry n. (pl. -ies) 1 family descent, lineage. 2 ancestors collectively.
Anchor —n. 1 heavy metal weight used to moor a ship or a balloon. 2 stabilizing thing. —v. 1 secure with an anchor. 2 fix firmly. 3 cast anchor. 4 be moored by an anchor. [greek agkura]
Anchorage n. 1 place for anchoring. 2 anchoring or lying at anchor.
Anchorite n. Hermit; religious recluse. [greek anakhoreo retire]
Anchorman n. Coordinator, esp. As compère in a broadcast.
Anchovy n. (pl. -ies) small strong-flavoured fish of the herring family. [spanish and portuguese anchova]
Ancien régime n. (pl. Anciens régimes pronunc. Same) 1 political and social system of pre-revolutionary (before 1787) france. 2 any superseded regime. [french, = old rule]
Ancient adj. 1 of long ago, esp. Before the fall of the roman empire in the west. 2 having lived or existed long. the ancients people of ancient times, esp. The greeks and romans. [latin ante before]
Ancillary —adj. 1 (esp. Of health workers) providing essential support. 2 (often foll. By to) subordinate, subservient. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 ancillary worker. 2 auxiliary or accessory. [latin ancilla handmaid]
-ancy suffix forming nouns denoting a quality (constancy) or state (infancy). [latin -antia]
And conj. 1 a connecting words, clauses, or sentences, to be taken jointly (you and i). B implying progression (better and better). C implying causation (she hit him and he cried). D implying great duration (cried and cried). E implying a great number (miles and miles). F implying addition (two and two). G implying variety (there are books and books). 2 colloq. To (try and come). 3 in relation to (britain and the ec). and/or either or both of two stated alternatives. [old english]
Andante mus. —adv. & adj. In a moderately slow tempo. —n. Such a passage or movement. [italian, = going]
Andiron n. Metal stand (usu. One of a pair) for supporting logs in a fireplace. [french andier]
Andiron n. Metal stand (usu. One of a pair) for supporting logs in a fireplace. [french andier]
Androgynous adj. 1 hermaphrodite. 2 bot. With stamens and pistils in the same flower. [greek aner andr-man, gune woman]
flower. [greek aner andr-man, gune woman]
Android n. Robot with a human appearance. [greek aner andr-man, *-oid]
Anecdote n. Short, esp. True, account or story. anecdotal adj. [greek anekdota things unpublished]
Anemia n. (brit. Anaemia) deficiency of red blood cells or their haemoglobin, causing pallor and weariness. [greek, = want of blood]
Anemic adj. (brit. Anaemic) 1 of or suffering from anemia. 2 pale, listless.
Anemometer n. Instrument for measuring wind force. [greek anemos wind]
Anemone n. Plant of the buttercup family, with vividly-coloured flowers. [greek, = wind-flower]
Aneroid —adj. (of a barometer) measuring air-pressure by its action on the lid of a box containing a vacuum. —n. Aneroid barometer. [greek a-not, neros water]
Anesthesia n. (brit. Anaes-) absence of sensation, esp. Artificially induced before surgery. [greek]
Aneurysm n. (also aneurism) excessive localized enlargement of an artery. [greek aneuruno widen]
Anew adv. 1 again. 2 in a different way. [earlier of newe]
Angel n. 1 a attendant or messenger of god. B representation of this in human form with wings. 2 virtuous or obliging person. 3 slang financial backer of a play etc. [greek aggelos messenger]
Angel cake n. Light sponge cake.
Angel-fish n. Fish with winglike fins.
Angelic adj. Of or like an angel. angelically adv.
Angelica n. Aromatic plant or its candied stalks. [medieval latin, = angelic (herb)]
Angelus n. 1 roman catholic prayers commemorating the incarnation, said at morning, noon, and sunset. 2 bell announcing this. [latin angelus domini (= the angel of the lord), opening words]
Anger —n. Extreme or passionate displeasure. —v. Make angry. [old norse angr grief]
Angina n. (in full angina pectoris) chest pain brought on by exertion, caused by an inadequate blood supply to the heart. [greek agkhone strangling]
Angiosperm n. Plant producing flowers and reproducing by seeds enclosed within a carpel, including herbaceous plants, grasses, and most trees. [greek aggeion vessel]
Angle n. (usu. In pl.) Member of a n. German tribe that settled in e. Britain in the 5th c. [latin anglus, from the name angul in germany]
Angle1 —n. 1 space between two meeting lines or surfaces, esp. As measured in degrees. 2 corner. 3 point of view. —v. (-ling) 1 move or place obliquely. 2 present (information) in a biased way. [latin angulus]
Angle2 v. (-ling) 1 fish with hook and line. 2 (foll. By for) seek an objective indirectly (angled for a loan). angler n. [old english]
Anglican —adj. Of the church of england. —n. Member of the anglican church. anglicanism n. [latin anglicanus: related to *angle]
Anglicism n. Peculiarly english word or custom. [latin anglicus: related to *angle]
Anglicize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make english in character etc.
Anglo-comb. Form 1 english. 2 of english origin. 3 english or british and. [latin: related to *angle]
Anglo-catholic —adj. Of a high church anglican wing emphasizing its catholic tradition. —n. Member of this group.
Anglo-french —adj. English (or british) and french. —n. French language as developed in england after the norman conquest.
Anglo-indian —adj. 1 of england and india. 2 of british descent but indian residence. —n. Anglo-indian person.
Anglo-norman —adj. English and norman. —n. Norman dialect used in england after the norman conquest.
Anglophile n. Person who greatly admires england or the english.
Anglo-saxon —adj. 1 of the english saxons before the norman conquest. 2 of english descent. —n. 1 anglo-saxon person. 2 old english. 3 colloq. Plain (esp. Crude) english.
Angora n. 1 fabric or wool from the hair of the angora goat or rabbit. 2 long-haired variety of cat, goat, or rabbit. [angora (= ankara) in turkey]
Angostura n. Aromatic bitter bark used as a flavouring. [angostura (= ciudad bolívar) in venezuela]
Angst n. Anxiety, neurotic fear; guilt, remorse. [german]
Angstrom n. Unit of length equal to 10-10 metre. [ångström, name of a physicist]
Anguish n. 1 severe mental suffering. 2 pain, agony. anguished adj. [latin angustia tightness]
Angular adj. 1 having sharp corners or (of a person) features. 2 forming an angle. 3 measured by angle (angular distance). angularity n. [latin: related to *angle1]
Anhydrous adj. Chem. Without water, esp. Water of crystallization. [greek an-without, hudor water]
Aniline n. Colourless oily liquid used in making dyes, drugs, and plastics. [german anil indigo, former source]
Animadvert v. (foll. By on) literary criticize, censure. animadversion n. [latin animus mind, *adverse]
animus mind, *adverse]
Animal —n. 1 living organism, esp. Other than man, which feeds and usu. Has sense-organs and a nervous system and can move quickly. 2 brutish person. — adj. 1 of or like an animal. 2 bestial; carnal. [latin animalis having breath]
Animalism n. 1 nature and activity of animals. 2 belief that humans are mere animals.
Animality n. 1 the animal world. 2 animal behaviour.
Animalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make (a person) bestial, sensualize.
Animate —adj. 1 having life. 2 lively. —v. (-ting) 1 enliven. 2 give life to. [latin anima breath]
Animated adj. 1 lively, vigorous. 2 having life. 3 (of a film etc.) Using animation.
Animation n. 1 vivacity, ardour. 2 being alive. 3 technique of producing a moving picture from a sequence of drawings or puppet poses etc.
Animism n. Belief that inanimate and natural phenomena have souls. animist n. Animistic adj.
Animosity n. (pl. -ies) spirit or feeling of hostility. [latin: related to *animus]
Animus n. Animosity, ill feeling. [latin, = spirit, mind]
Anion n. Negatively charged ion. anionic adj. [greek ana up, *ion]
Anise n. Plant with aromatic seeds. [greek anison]
Aniseed n. Seed of the anise, used for flavouring.
Ankle n. 1 joint connecting the foot with the leg. 2 this part of the leg. [old norse]
Anklet n. Ornament or fetter worn round the ankle.
Ankylosis n. Stiffening of a joint by fusion of the bones. [greek agkulos crooked]
Annals n.pl. 1 narrative of events year by year. 2 historical records. annalist n. [latin annus year]
Annatto n. (also anatto) orange-red dye from the pulp of a tropical fruit, used for
Annatto n. (also anatto) orange-red dye from the pulp of a tropical fruit, used for colouring foods. [carib name of the fruit-tree]
Anneal v. Heat (metal or glass) and cool slowly, esp. To toughen it. [old english ælan bake]
Annelid n. Segmented worm, e.g. The earthworm. [latin anulus ring]
Annex v. 1 (often foll. By to) add as a subordinate part. 2 incorporate (territory) into one’s own. 3 add as a condition or consequence. 4 colloq. Take without right. annexation n. [latin necto bind]
Annexe n. 1 separate or added building. 2 addition to a document.
Annihilate v. (-ting) completely destroy or defeat. annihilation n. [latin nihil nothing]
Anniversary n. (pl. -ies) 1 date of an event in a previous year. 2 celebration of this. [latin annus year, verto vers-turn]
Anno domini adv. Years after christ’s birth. [latin, = in the year of the lord]
Annotate v. (-ting) add explanatory notes to. annotation n. [latin nota mark]
Announce v. (-cing) 1 make publicly known. 2 make known the arrival or imminence of (a guest, dinner, etc.). 3 be a sign of. announcement n. [latin
imminence of (a guest, dinner, etc.). 3 be a sign of. announcement n. [latin nuntius messenger]
Announcer n. Person who announces, esp. In broadcasting.
Annoy v. 1 (often in passive) anger or distress slightly (am annoyed with you). 2 molest, harass. annoyance n. [latin in odio hateful]
Annual —adj. 1 reckoned by the year. 2 occurring yearly. 3 living or lasting (only) a year. —n. 1 book etc. Published yearly. 2 plant that lives only a year. annually adv. [latin annus year]
Annualized adj. (of rates of interest etc.) Calculated on an annual basis, as a projection from figures obtained for a shorter period.
Annuity n. (pl. -ies) 1 yearly grant or allowance. 2 investment yielding a fixed annual sum.
Annul v. (-ll-) 1 declare invalid. 2 cancel, abolish. annulment n. [latin nullus none]
Annular adj. Ring-shaped. [latin anulus ring]
Annular eclipse n. Solar eclipse in which a ring of light remains visible.
Annulate adj. Marked with or formed of rings.
Annunciation n. 1 announcement, esp. (annunciation) that made by the angel gabriel to mary. 2 festival of this. [latin: related to *announce]
Anode n. Positive electrode in an electrolytic cell etc. [greek anodos way up]
Anodize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) coat (metal) with a protective layer by electrolysis.
Anodyne —adj. 1 pain-relieving. 2 mentally soothing. —n. Anodyne drug etc. [greek an-without, odune pain]
Anoint v. 1 apply oil or ointment to, esp. Ritually. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) smear. [latin inungo anoint]
Anomaly n. (pl. -ies) anomalous thing; irregularity.
Anon adv. Archaic soon, shortly. [old english on an into one]
Anon. Abbr. Anonymous.
Anonymous adj. 1 of unknown name or authorship. 2 without character; featureless. anonymity n. [greek an-without, onoma name]
Anorak n. Waterproof usu. Hooded jacket. [eskimo]
Anorexia n. Lack of appetite, esp. (in full anorexia nervosa) an obsessive desire to lose weight by refusing to eat. anorexic adj. & n. [greek an-without, orexis appetite]
Another —adj. 1 an additional; one more (another cake). 2 person like (another hitler). 3 a different (another matter). 4 some other (another man’s work). — pron. Additional, other, or different person or thing. [earlier an other]
Answer —n. 1 something said or done in reaction to a question, statement, or circumstance. 2 solution to a problem. —v. 1 make an answer or response (to) (answer the door). 2 suit (a purpose or need). 3 (foll. By to, for) be responsible (you will answer to me for your conduct). 4 (foll. By to) correspond, esp. To a description. answer back answer insolently. [old english, = swear against (a charge)]
Answerable adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By to, for) responsible (answerable to them for any accident). 2 that can be answered.
Answering machine n. Tape recorder which answers telephone calls and takes messages.
Answerphone n. = *answering machine.
Ant n. Small usu. Wingless insect living in complex social colonies and proverbial for industry. [old english]
-ant suffix 1 forming adjectives denoting attribution of an action (repentant) or state (arrogant). 2 forming agent nouns (assistant). [latin -ant-, present participial stem of verbs]
Antacid —adj. Preventing or correcting acidity. —n. Antacid agent.
Antagonism n. Active hostility. [french: related to *agony]
Antagonist n. Opponent or adversary. antagonistic adj.
Antagonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make hostile; provoke.
Antarctic —adj. Of the south polar regions. —n. This region. [latin: related to *arctic]
Antarctic circle n. Parallel of latitude 66° 32´ s., forming an imaginary line round the antarctic region.
Ante —n. 1 stake put up by a player in poker etc. Before receiving cards. 2 amount payable in advance. —v. (-tes, -ted) 1 put up as an ante. 2 us a bet, stake. B (foll. By up) pay.
Ante-prefix before, preceding. [latin, = before]
Anteater n. Any of various mammals feeding on ants and termites.
Antecedent —n. 1 preceding thing or circumstance. 2 gram. Word or phrase etc. To which another word (esp. A relative pronoun) refers. 3 (in pl.) Person’s past history or ancestors. —adj. Previous. [latin cedo go]
Antechamber n. Ante-room.
Antedate v. (-ting) 1 precede in time. 2 assign an earlier than actual date to.
Antediluvian adj. 1 of the time before the flood. 2 colloq. Very old or out of date. [from *ante-, latin diluvium deluge]
Antelope n. (pl. Same or -s) swift-moving deerlike ruminant, e.g. The gazelle and gnu. [greek antholops]
Antenatal adj. 1 before birth. 2 of pregnancy.
Antenna n. 1 (pl. -tennae) each of a pair of feelers on the heads of insects, crustaceans, etc. 2 (pl. -s) = *aerial n. [latin, = sail-yard]
Antepenultimate adj. Last but two.
Ante-post adj. (of betting) done at odds determined at the time of betting, in advance of the event concerned. [from *ante-, *post1]
Anterior adj. 1 nearer the front. 2 (often foll. By to) prior. [latin from ante before]
Ante-room n. Small room leading to a main one.
Anthem n. 1 elaborate choral composition usu. Based on a passage of scripture. 2 solemn hymn of praise etc., esp. = *national anthem. [latin: related to *antiphon]
Anther n. Part of a stamen containing pollen. [greek anthos flower]
Anthill n. Moundlike nest built by ants or termites.
Anthology n. (pl. -ies) collection of poems, essays, stories, etc. anthologist n. [greek anthos flower, -logia collection]
Anthracite n. Hard type of coal burning with little flame and smoke. [greek: related to *anthrax]
Anthrax n. Disease of sheep and cattle transmissible to humans. [greek, = coal, carbuncle]
Anthropocentric adj. Regarding mankind as the centre of existence. [greek anthropos man]
Anthropoid —adj. Human in form. —n. Anthropoid ape.
Anthropology n. The study of mankind, esp. Its societies and customs. anthropological adj. Anthropologist n.
Anthropomorphism n. Attribution of human characteristics to a god, animal, or thing. anthropomorphic adj. [greek morphe form]
Anthropomorphous adj. Human in form.
Anti —prep. Opposed to. —n. (pl. -s) person opposed to a policy etc.
Anti-prefix 1 opposed to (anticlerical). 2 preventing (antifreeze). 3 opposite of (anticlimax). 4 unconventional (anti-hero). [greek]
Anti-abortion adj. Opposing abortion. anti-abortionist n.
Anti-aircraft adj. (of a gun or missile) used to attack enemy aircraft.
Antibiotic —n. Substance (e.g. Penicillin) that can inhibit or destroy susceptible micro-organisms. —adj. Functioning as an antibiotic. [greek bios life]
Antibody n. (pl. -ies) a blood protein produced in response to and then counteracting antigens. [translation of german antikörper]
Antic n. (usu. In pl.) Foolish behaviour or action. [italian antico *antique]
Antichrist n. Enemy of christ. antichristian adj.
Anticipate v. (-ting) 1 deal with or use before the proper time. 2 expect, foresee (did not anticipate a problem). 3 forestall (a person or thing). 4 look forward to. anticipation n. Anticipatory adj. [latin anti-before, capio take]
Usage the use of anticipate in sense 2, ‘expect’, ‘foresee’, is well-established in informal use, but is regarded as incorrect by some people.
Anticlerical adj. Opposed to clerical influence, esp. In politics.
Anticlimax n. Disappointingly trivial conclusion to something significant.
Anticlimax n. Disappointingly trivial conclusion to something significant.
Anticlockwise adj. & adv. Moving in a curve opposite in direction to the hands of a clock.
Anticyclone n. System of winds rotating outwards from an area of high pressure, producing fine weather.
Antidepressant —n. Drug etc. That alleviates depression. —adj. Alleviating depression.
Antidote n. 1 medicine etc. Used to counteract poison. 2 anything counteracting something unpleasant. [greek antidotos given against]
Antifreeze n. Substance added to water to lower its freezing point, esp. In a vehicle’s radiator.
Antigen n. Foreign substance (e.g. Toxin) which causes the body to produce antibodies. [greek -genes of a kind]
Anti-hero n. (pl. -es) central character in a story, lacking conventional heroic qualities.
Antihistamine n. Drug that counteracts the effects of histamine, used esp. In treating allergies.
Antiknock n. Substance added to motor fuel to prevent premature combustion.
Anti-lock attrib. Adj. (of brakes) set up so as to prevent locking and skidding when applied suddenly.
Antilog n. Colloq. = *antilogarithm. [abbreviation]
Antilogarithm n. Number to which a logarithm belongs.
Antimacassar n. Detachable protective cloth for the back of a chair etc.
Antimatter n. Matter composed solely of antiparticles.
Antimony n. Brittle silvery metallic element used esp. In alloys. [medieval latin]
Antinomian —adj. Believing that christians need not obey the moral law. —n. (antinomian) hist. Person believing this. [greek nomos law]
Antinomy n. (pl. -ies) contradiction between two reasonable beliefs or conclusions.
Antinovel n. Novel avoiding the conventions of the form.
Anti-nuclear adj. Opposed to the development of nuclear weapons or power.
Antiparticle n. Elementary particle with the same mass but opposite charge etc. To another particle.
Antipathy n. (pl. -ies) (often foll. By to, for, between) strong aversion or dislike. antipathetic adj. [greek: related to *pathetic]
Antiperspirant n. Substance preventing or reducing perspiration.
Antiphon n. 1 hymn sung alternately by two groups. 2 versicle or phrase from this. antiphonal adj. [greek phone sound]
Antipodes n.pl. Places diametrically opposite to one another on the earth, esp. (also antipodes) australasia in relation to europe. antipodean adj. & n. [greek, = having the feet opposite]
Antipope n. Pope set up in opposition to one chosen by canon law.
Antipyretic —adj. Preventing or reducing fever. —n. Antipyretic drug.
Antiquarian —adj. Of or dealing in antiques or rare books. —n. Antiquary. antiquarianism n.
Antiquary n. (pl. -ies) student or collector of antiques etc. [latin: related to *antique]
Antiquated adj. Old-fashioned.
Antique —n. Old object, esp. A piece of furniture, of high value. —adj. 1 of or from an early date. 2 old-fashioned. [latin antiquus]
Antiquity n. (pl. -ies) 1 ancient times, esp. Before the middle ages. 2 great age. 3 (usu. In pl.) Relics from ancient times. [latin: related to *antique]
Antirrhinum n. Plant with two-lipped flowers, esp. The snapdragon. [greek, = snout]
Anti-semite n. Person who is prejudiced against jews. anti-semitic adj. Anti-semitism n.
Antisocial adj. 1 opposed or harmful to society. 2 not sociable.
Usage antisocial is sometimes used mistakenly instead of unsocial in the phrase unsocial hours. This should be avoided.
Antistatic adj. Counteracting the effects of static electricity.
Anti-tank attrib. Adj. Used against tanks.
Antitetanus adj. Effective against tetanus.
Antithesis n. (pl. -theses) 1 (foll. By of, to) direct opposite. 2 contrast. 3 rhetorical use of strongly contrasted words. antithetical adj. [greek antitithemi set against]
Antitoxin n. Antibody counteracting a toxin. antitoxic adj.
Antitrades n.pl. Winds blowing in the opposite direction to (and usu. Above) trade winds.
Antiviral adj. Effective against viruses.
Antler n. Branched horn of a stag or other deer. antlered adj. [french]
Antonym n. Word opposite in meaning to another. [greek onoma name]
Antrum n. (pl. Antra) natural cavity in the body, esp. In a bone. [greek, = cave]
Anus n. (pl. Anuses) excretory opening at the end of the alimentary canal. [latin]
Anvil n. Iron block on which metals are worked. [old english]
Anxiety n. (pl. -ies) 1 being anxious. 2 worry or concern. 3 eagerness, troubled desire. [latin anxietas from ango choke]
Anxious adj. 1 mentally troubled. 2 causing or marked by anxiety (anxious moment). 3 eager, uneasily wanting (anxious to please). anxiously adv. [latin anxius]
Any —adj. 1 a one, no matter which, of several (cannot find any answer). B some, no matter how much or many or of what sort (if any books arrive; have you any sugar?). 2 a minimal amount of (hardly any difference). 3 whichever is chosen (any fool knows). 4 an appreciable or significant (did not stay for any length of time; has any amount of money). —pron. 1 any one (did not know any of them). 2 any number or amount (are any of them yours?). —adv. (usu. With neg. Or interrog.) At all (is that any good?). [old english ænig: related to one, -y1]
Anybody n. & pron. 1 any person. 2 person of importance (is he anybody?).
Anyhow adv. 1 anyway. 2 in a disorderly manner or state (does his work anyhow).
anyhow).
Anyone pron. Anybody.
Usage anyone is written as two words to emphasize a numerical sense, as in any one of us can do it.
Anything pron. Any thing; thing of any sort. anything but not at all.
Anyway adv. 1 in any way or manner. 2 at any rate. 3 to resume (anyway, as i was saying).
Anywhere —adv. In or to any place. —pron. Any place (anywhere will do).
Aob abbr. Any other business.
Aorta n. (pl. -s) main artery, giving rise to the arterial network carrying oxygenated blood to the body from the heart. aortic adj. [greek aeiro raise]
Apace adv. Literary swiftly. [french à pas]
Apache n. Member of a n. American indian tribe. [mexican spanish]
Apart adv. 1 separately, not together (keep your feet apart). 2 into pieces (came apart). 3 to or on one side. 4 to or at a distance. apart from 1 excepting, not considering. 2 in addition to (apart from roses we grow irises). [french à part to one side]
Apartheid n. (esp. In s. Africa) racial segregation or discrimination. [afrikaans]
Apartment n. 1 (in pl.) Suite of rooms. 2 single room. 3 us flat. [italian a parte, apart]
Apathy n. Lack of interest; indifference. apathetic adj. [greek a-without, *pathos]
Ape —n. 1 tailless monkey-like primate, e.g. The gorilla, chimpanzee, orang-utan, or gibbon. 2 imitator. —v. (-ping) imitate, mimic. [old english]
Apeman n. Extinct primate held to be the forerunner of present-day man.
Aperitif n. Alcoholic drink taken before a meal. [latin aperio open]
Aperture n. Opening or gap, esp. A variable opening in a camera for admitting light. [latin aperio open]
Apex n. (also apex) (often attrib.) System of reduced fares for scheduled flights. [advance purchase excursion]
Apex n. (pl. -es) 1 highest point. 2 tip or pointed end. [latin]
Aphasia n. Loss of verbal understanding or expression, owing to brain damage. [greek aphatos speechless]
Aphelion n. (pl. -lia) point in a celestial body’s orbit where it is furthest from the sun. [greek aph’heliou from the sun]
Aphid n. Small insect infesting and damaging plants, e.g. The greenfly.
Antitrades n.pl. Winds blowing in the opposite direction to (and usu. Above) trade winds.
Antiviral adj. Effective against viruses.
Antler n. Branched horn of a stag or other deer. antlered adj. [french]
Antonym n. Word opposite in meaning to another. [greek onoma name]
Antrum n. (pl. Antra) natural cavity in the body, esp. In a bone. [greek, = cave]
Anus n. (pl. Anuses) excretory opening at the end of the alimentary canal. [latin]
Anvil n. Iron block on which metals are worked. [old english]
Anxiety n. (pl. -ies) 1 being anxious. 2 worry or concern. 3 eagerness, troubled desire. [latin anxietas from ango choke]
Anxious adj. 1 mentally troubled. 2 causing or marked by anxiety (anxious moment). 3 eager, uneasily wanting (anxious to please). anxiously adv. [latin anxius]
Any —adj. 1 a one, no matter which, of several (cannot find any answer). B some, no matter how much or many or of what sort (if any books arrive; have you any sugar?). 2 a minimal amount of (hardly any difference). 3 whichever is chosen (any fool knows). 4 an appreciable or significant (did not stay for any length of time; has any amount of money). —pron. 1 any one (did not know any of them). 2 any number or amount (are any of them yours?). —adv. (usu. With neg. Or interrog.) At all (is that any good?). [old english ænig: related to one, -y1]
Anybody n. & pron. 1 any person. 2 person of importance (is he anybody?).
Anyhow adv. 1 anyway. 2 in a disorderly manner or state (does his work anyhow).
Anyone pron. Anybody.
Anyone pron. Anybody.
Usage anyone is written as two words to emphasize a numerical sense, as in any one of us can do it.
Anything pron. Any thing; thing of any sort. anything but not at all.
Anyway adv. 1 in any way or manner. 2 at any rate. 3 to resume (anyway, as i was saying).
Anywhere —adv. In or to any place. —pron. Any place (anywhere will do).
Aob abbr. Any other business.
Aorta n. (pl. -s) main artery, giving rise to the arterial network carrying oxygenated blood to the body from the heart. aortic adj. [greek aeiro raise]
Apace adv. Literary swiftly. [french à pas]
Apache n. Member of a n. American indian tribe. [mexican spanish]
Apart adv. 1 separately, not together (keep your feet apart). 2 into pieces (came apart). 3 to or on one side. 4 to or at a distance. apart from 1 excepting, not considering. 2 in addition to (apart from roses we grow irises). [french à part to
considering. 2 in addition to (apart from roses we grow irises). [french à part to one side]
Apartheid n. (esp. In s. Africa) racial segregation or discrimination. [afrikaans]
Apartment n. 1 (in pl.) Suite of rooms. 2 single room. 3 us flat. [italian a parte, apart]
Apathy n. Lack of interest; indifference. apathetic adj. [greek a-without, *pathos]
Ape —n. 1 tailless monkey-like primate, e.g. The gorilla, chimpanzee, orang-utan, or gibbon. 2 imitator. —v. (-ping) imitate, mimic. [old english]
Apeman n. Extinct primate held to be the forerunner of present-day man.
Aperitif n. Alcoholic drink taken before a meal. [latin aperio open]
Aperture n. Opening or gap, esp. A variable opening in a camera for admitting light. [latin aperio open]
Apex n. (also apex) (often attrib.) System of reduced fares for scheduled flights. [advance purchase excursion]
Apex n. (pl. -es) 1 highest point. 2 tip or pointed end. [latin]
Aphasia n. Loss of verbal understanding or expression, owing to brain damage. [greek aphatos speechless]
Aphelion n. (pl. -lia) point in a celestial body’s orbit where it is furthest from the sun. [greek aph’heliou from the sun]
Aphid n. Small insect infesting and damaging plants, e.g. The greenfly.
Aphis n. (pl. Aphides) aphid. [invented by linnaeus: perhaps a misreading of greek koris bug]
Aphorism n. Short pithy maxim. aphoristic adj. [greek aphorismos definition]
Aphorism n. Short pithy maxim. aphoristic adj. [greek aphorismos definition]
Aphrodisiac —adj. Arousing sexual desire. —n. Aphrodisiac substance. [greek aphrodite goddess of love]
Apiary n. (pl. -ies) place where bees are kept. apiarist n. [latin apis bee]
Apical adj. Of, at, or forming an apex.
Apiculture n. Bee-keeping. apiculturist n. [latin apis bee, *culture]
Apiece adv. For each one; severally (five pounds apiece). [originally a piece]
Apish adj. 1 of or like an ape. 2 foolishly imitating.
Aplomb n. Skilful self-assurance. [french, = straight as a plummet]
Apocalypse n. 1 violent or destructive event. 2 (the apocalypse) revelation, the last book of the new testament. 3 revelation, esp. About the end of the world. apocalyptic adj. [greek apokalupto reveal]
Apocrypha n.pl. 1 books included in the septuagint and vulgate versions of the old testament but not in the hebrew bible. 2 (apocrypha) writings etc. Not considered genuine. [greek apokrupto hide away]
Apocryphal adj. Of doubtful authenticity.
Apogee n. 1 highest point; climax. 2 point in a celestial body’s orbit where it is furthest from the earth. [greek apogeion]
Apolitical adj. Not interested in or concerned with politics.
Apologetic —adj. 1 showing or expressing regret. 2 of apologetics. —n. (usu. In pl.) Reasoned defence, esp. Of christianity. apologetically adv.
Apologia n. Formal defence of opinions or conduct. [greek: see *apology]
Apologist n. Person who defends something by argument.
Apologize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make an apology, express regret.
Apology n. (pl. -ies) 1 statement of regret for an offence or failure. 2 explanation or defence. 3 (foll. By for) poor specimen of. [greek apologia from apologeomai speak in defence]
Apophthegm n. = *aphorism. [latin from greek]
Apoplectic adj. 1 of or causing apoplexy. 2 colloq. Enraged.
Apoplexy n. Sudden paralysis caused by blockage or rupture of a brain artery; stroke. [greek apoplesso disable by stroke]
Apostasy n. (pl. -ies) renunciation of a belief or faith, abandoning of principles, etc. [greek, = defection]
Apostate n. Person who renounces a former belief etc. apostatize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing).
A posteriori —adj. (of reasoning) proceeding from effects to causes; inductive. —adv. Inductively. [latin, = from what comes after]
Apostle n. 1 (apostle) any of the twelve men sent out by christ to preach the gospel. 2 leader, esp. Of a new movement. [greek apostolos messenger]
Apostolate n. 1 position or authority of an apostle. 2 leadership in reform.
Apostolic adj. 1 of the apostles or their teaching. 2 of the pope.
Apostolic succession n. Supposed uninterrupted transmission of spiritual authority from the apostles through popes and bishops.
Apostrophe n. 1 punctuation mark (‘) indicating: a omission of letters or numbers (e.g. Can’t; may ‘92). B possessive case (e.g. Harry’s book; boys’ coats). 2 exclamatory passage addressed to (an often absent) person or thing. apostrophize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (in sense 2). [greek, = turning away]
Apothecaries’ measure n. (also apothecaries’ weight) units formerly used in pharmacy.
Apothecary n. (pl. -ies) archaic dispensing chemist. [greek apotheke storehouse]
Apotheosis n. (pl. -theoses) 1 elevation to divine status, deification. 2 glorification of a thing; sublime example (apotheosis of chivalry). [greek theos god]
Appal v. (-ll-) 1 greatly dismay or horrify. 2 (as appalling adj.) Colloq. Very bad, shocking. [french apalir grow pale: related to *pale1]
Apparatus n. 1 equipment for a particular function, esp. Scientific or technical. 2 political or other complex organization. [latin paro prepare]
Apparel n. Formal clothing, dress. apparelled adj. [romanic, = make fit, from latin par equal]
Apparent adj. 1 readily visible; obvious. 2 seeming. apparently adv. [latin: related to *appear]
Apparent adj. 1 readily visible; obvious. 2 seeming. apparently adv. [latin: related to *appear]
Apparition n. Remarkable or unexpected thing that appears; ghost or phantom.
Appeal —v. 1 request earnestly or formally; plead. 2 (usu. Foll. By to) attract, be of interest. 3 (foll. By to) resort to for support. 4 law a (often foll. By to) apply (to a higher court) for reconsideration of a legal decision. B refer (a case) to a higher court. 5 cricket call on the umpire to declare whether a batsman is out. — n. 1 act of appealing. 2 request for public support, esp. Financial. 3 law referral
n. 1 act of appealing. 2 request for public support, esp. Financial. 3 law referral of a case to a higher court. 4 attractiveness. [latin appello address]
Appear v. 1 become or be visible. 2 seem (appeared unwell). 3 present oneself publicly or formally. 4 be published. [latin appareo]
Appearance n. 1 act of appearing. 2 outward form as perceived (appearance of prosperity). 3 semblance. keep up appearances maintain an impression or pretence of virtue, affluence, etc. Make (or put in) an appearance be present, esp. Briefly.
Appease v. (-sing) 1 make calm or quiet, esp. Conciliate (a potential aggressor) by making concessions. 2 satisfy (an appetite, scruples). appeasement n. [french à to, pais *peace]
Appellant n. Person who appeals to a higher court. [latin appello address]
Appellate attrib. Adj. (esp. Of a court) concerned with appeals.
Appellation n. Formal name or title; nomenclature.
Appellative adj. 1 naming. 2 gram. (of a noun) designating a class, common.
Append v. (usu. Foll. By to) attach, affix, add, esp. To a written document. [latin appendo hang]
Appendage n. Thing attached; addition.
Appendectomy n. (also appendicectomy) (pl. -ies) surgical removal of the appendix. [from appendix, -ectomy]
Appendicitis n. Inflammation of the appendix.
Appendix n. (pl. -dices) 1 tissue forming a tube-shaped sac attached to the large intestine. 2 addition to a book etc. [latin: related to *append]
Appertain v. (foll. By to) relate, belong, or be appropriate. [latin: related to *pertain]
Appetite n. 1 natural craving, esp. For food or sexual activity. 2 (usu. Foll. By for) inclination or desire. [latin peto seek]
Appetizer n. (also -iser) small amount, esp. Of food or drink, to stimulate the appetite.
Appetizing adj. (also -ising) stimulating the appetite, esp. For food; tasty.
Applaud v. 1 express strong approval, esp. By clapping. 2 commend, approve (a person or action). [latin applaudo clap hands]
Applause n. 1 approval shown by clapping the hands. 2 warm approval.
Apple n. 1 roundish firm fruit with crisp flesh. 2 tree bearing this. apple of one’s eye cherished person or thing. [old english]
Apple-pie bed n. Bed made (as a joke) with sheets folded so as to prevent a person lying flat.
Apple-pie order n. Extreme neatness.
Appliance n. Device etc. For a specific task. [related to *apply]
Applicable adj. (often foll. By to) that may be applied; relevant; appropriate. applicability n. [medieval latin: related to *apply]
Applicant n. Person who applies for something, esp. A job.
Application n. 1 formal request. 2 act of applying. 3 substance applied. 4 a relevance. B use (has many applications). 5 diligence.
Applicator n. Device for applying ointment etc.
Applied adj. Practical, not merely theoretical (applied science).
Appliqué —n. Cutting out of fabric patterns and attaching them to another fabric. —v. (-qués, -quéd, -quéing) decorate with appliqué. [french, = applied]
Apply v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (often foll. By for, to, or to + infin.) Formally request. 2 be relevant. 3 a make use of; employ (apply the rules; apply common sense). B operate (apply the brakes). 4 (often foll. By to) put or spread on. 5 refl. (often foll. By to) devote oneself. [latin applico fasten to]
Apply v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (often foll. By for, to, or to + infin.) Formally request. 2 be relevant. 3 a make use of; employ (apply the rules; apply common sense). B operate (apply the brakes). 4 (often foll. By to) put or spread on. 5 refl. (often foll. By to) devote oneself. [latin applico fasten to]
Appoint v. 1 assign a job or office to. 2 (often foll. By for) fix (a time, place, etc.). 3 (as appointed adj.) Equipped, furnished (well-appointed). appointee n. [french à point to a point]
Appointment n. 1 appointing or being appointed. 2 arrangement for meeting or consultation. 3 a post or office open to applicants. B person appointed. 4 (usu. In pl.) Furniture, fittings; equipment.
Apportion v. (often foll. By to) share out; assign as a share. apportionment n. [medieval latin: related to *portion]
Apposite adj. (often foll. By to) apt, appropriate; well expressed. [latin appono apply]
Apposition n. Juxtaposition, esp. Gram. Of elements sharing a syntactic function (e.g. William the conqueror; my friend sue).
Appraisal n. Appraising or being appraised.
Appraise v. (-sing) 1 estimate the value or quality of. 2 set a price on (esp. Officially). [earlier apprize, assimilated to *praise]
Appreciable adj. Significant, considerable. [french: related to *appreciate]
Appreciate v. (-ting) 1 a esteem highly; value. B be grateful for. 2 understand, recognize (appreciate the danger). 3 rise or raise in value. appreciative adj. Appreciatory adj. [latin pretium price]
Appreciation n. 1 favourable or grateful recognition. 2 sensitive estimation or judgement. 3 rise in value. [french: related to *appreciate]
Apprentice —n. 1 person learning a trade by working in it for an agreed period at low wages. 2 novice. —v. (-cing) (usu. Foll. By to) engage as an apprentice (apprenticed to a builder). apprenticeship n. [french apprendre learn]
Apprise v. (-sing) formal inform. [french appris(e) learnt, taught]
Appro n. Colloq. on appro = on approval (see *approval). [abbreviation]
Approach —v. 1 come near or nearer (to) in space or time. 2 tentatively propose to. 3 be similar or approximate to (approaching 5 million). 4 set about (a task etc.). —n. 1 act or means of approaching. 2 approximation. 3 technique (try a new approach). 4 golf stroke from the fairway to the green. 5 aeron. Part of a flight before landing. [latin prope near]
Approachable adj. 1 friendly, easy to talk to. 2 able to be approached.
Approbation n. Approval, consent. [latin probo test]
Appropriate —adj. Suitable, proper. —v. (-ting) 1 take, esp. Without authority. 2 devote (money etc.) To special purposes. appropriately adv. Appropriation n. [latin proprius own]
Approval n. 1 approving. 2 consent; favourable opinion. on approval (of goods supplied) returnable if not satisfactory.
Approve v. (-ving) 1 confirm; sanction. 2 (often foll. By of) regard with favour. [latin probo test]
Approx. Abbr. Approximate(ly).
Approximate —adj. Fairly correct, near to the actual (approximate price). —v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) bring or come near (esp. In quality, number, etc.). approximately adv. Approximation n. [latin proximus nearest]
Appurtenance n. (usu. In pl.) Belonging; accessory. [latin pertineo belong to]
Apr abbr. Annual or annualized percentage rate (esp. Of interest on loans or credit).
Apr. Abbr. April.
Après-ski —n. Social activities following a day’s skiing. —attrib. Adj. (of clothes, drinks, etc.) Suitable for these. [french]
Apricot —n. 1 a small juicy soft orange-yellow peachlike fruit. B tree bearing it. 2 its colour. —adj. Orange-yellow. [portuguese and spanish from arabic, ultimately from latin praecox early-ripe]
Apricot —n. 1 a small juicy soft orange-yellow peachlike fruit. B tree bearing it. 2 its colour. —adj. Orange-yellow. [portuguese and spanish from arabic, ultimately from latin praecox early-ripe]
ultimately from latin praecox early-ripe]
April n. Fourth month of the year. [latin]
April fool n. Person successfully tricked on 1 april.
A priori —adj. 1 (of reasoning) from causes to effects; deductive. 2 (of concepts etc.) Logically independent of experience; not derived from experience. 3 assumed without investigation (an a priori conjecture). —adv. 1 deductively. 2 as far as one knows. [latin, = from what is before]
Apron n. 1 garment for covering and protecting the front of the clothes. 2 theatr. Part of a stage in front of the curtain. 3 area on an airfield for manoeuvring or loading. tied to a person’s apron-strings dominated by or dependent on that person (usu. A woman). [originally napron, from french nape tablecloth]
Apropos —adj. 1 appropriate. 2 colloq. (often foll. By of) in respect of. —adv. 1 appropriately. 2 (absol.) Incidentally. [french à propos]
Apse n. Large arched or domed recess, esp. At the end of a church. [related to *apsis]
Apsis n. (pl. Apsides) either of two points on the orbit of a planet etc. Nearest to or furthest from the body round which it moves. [greek (h)apsis arch, vault]
Apt adj. 1 appropriate, suitable. 2 tending (apt to break down). 3 clever; quick to
Apt adj. 1 appropriate, suitable. 2 tending (apt to break down). 3 clever; quick to learn. [latin aptus fitted]
Aptitude n. 1 natural talent. 2 ability or fitness, esp. Specified. [french: related to *apt]
Aqua n. The colour aquamarine. [abbreviation]
Aqua fortis n. Nitric acid. [latin, = strong water]
Aqualung n. Portable breathing-apparatus for divers. [latin aqua water]
Aquamarine —n. 1 bluish-green beryl. 2 its colour. —adj. Bluish-green. [latin aqua marina sea water]
Aquaplane —n. Board for riding on water, pulled by a speedboat. —v. (-ning) 1 ride on this. 2 (of a vehicle) glide uncontrollably on a wet surface. [latin aqua water, *plane1]
Aqua regia n. Highly corrosive mixture of acids, attacking many substances unaffected by other reagents. [latin, = royal water]
Aquarelle n. Painting in thin usu. Transparent water-colours. [french from italian]
Aquarium n. (pl. -s) tank of water for keeping and showing fish etc. [latin aquarius of water]
Aquarius n. (pl. -es) 1 constellation and eleventh sign of the zodiac (the water-carrier). 2 person born when the sun is in this sign. [latin: related to *aquarium]
Aquatic —adj. 1 growing or living in water. 2 (of a sport) played in or on water. —n. 1 aquatic plant or animal. 2 (in pl.) Aquatic sports. [latin aqua water]
Aquatint n. Etched print resembling a water-colour. [italian acqua tinta coloured water]
Aqua vitae n. Strong alcoholic spirit, esp. Brandy. [latin, = water of life]
Aqueduct n. Water channel, esp. A bridge on columns across a valley. [latin aquae ductus conduit]
Aqueous adj. Of or like water. [latin aqua water]
Aqueous humour n. Clear fluid in the eye between the lens and the cornea.
Aquilegia n. (usu. Blue-flowered) columbine. [latin]
Aquiline adj. 1 of or like an eagle. 2 (of a nose) curved. [latin aquila eagle]
Arab —n. 1 member of a semitic people originating in saudi arabia and neighbouring countries, now widespread throughout the middle east. 2 horse of a breed orig. Native to arabia. —adj. Of arabia or the arabs (esp. With ethnic reference). [arabic araps]
Arabesque n. 1 ballet posture with one leg extended horizontally backwards and arms outstretched. 2 design of intertwined leaves, scrolls, etc. 3 mus. Florid piece. [french from italian from arabo arab]
Arabian —adj. Of or relating to arabia (esp. In geographical contexts) (arabian desert). —n. Native of arabia.
Usage in the sense ‘native of arabia’, the usual term is now arab.
Arabian —adj. Of or relating to arabia (esp. In geographical contexts) (arabian desert). —n. Native of arabia.
Usage in the sense ‘native of arabia’, the usual term is now arab.
Arabic —n. Semitic language of the arabs. —adj. Of the arabs (esp. Their language or literature).
Arabic numeral n. Any of the numerals 0-9.
Arable adj. (of land) suitable for crop production. [latin aro to plough]
Arachnid n. Arthropod of a class comprising spiders, scorpions, etc. [greek arakhne spider]
Arak var. Of *arrack.
Araldite n. Propr. Epoxy resin for mending china etc. [origin unknown]
Aramaic —n. Branch of the semitic family of languages, esp. The language of syria used as a lingua franca in the near east from the sixth century bc. —adj. Of or in aramaic. [greek aramaios of aram (hebrew name of syria)]
Arbiter n. 1 arbitrator in a dispute. 2 person influential in a specific field (arbiter of taste). [latin from arbitror to judge]
Arbitration n. Settlement of a dispute by an impartial third party.
Arbitrator n. Person appointed to arbitrate.
Arbor1 n. Axle or spindle. [latin, = tree]
Arbor n. (brit. Arbour) shady garden alcove enclosed by trees etc. [latin herba herb: assimilated to latin arbor tree]
Arboreal adj. Of or living in trees. [latin arbor tree]
Arborescent adj. Treelike in growth or form.
Arboretum n. (pl. -ta) place cultivating and displaying rare trees.
Arboriculture n. Cultivation of trees and shrubs. [latin arbor tree, after agriculture]
Arbor vitae n. Any of various evergreen conifers. [latin, = tree of life]
Arbour n. (us arbor) shady garden alcove enclosed by trees etc. [latin herba herb: assimilated to latin arbor tree]
Arbutus n. Tree or shrub with clusters of flowers and strawberry-like berries. [latin]
Arc —n. 1 part of the circumference of a circle or other curve. 2 electr. Luminous discharge between two electrodes. —v. (arced; arcing) form an arc; move in a curve. [latin arcus bow]
Arcade n. 1 covered walk, esp. Lined with shops. 2 series of arches supporting or set along a wall. [romanic: related to *arc]
Arcadian —n. Idealized country dweller. —adj. Poetically rural. [greek arkadia in the peloponnese]
Arch1 —n. 1 curved structure as an opening, as a support for a bridge, floor, etc., or as an ornament. 2 any arch-shaped curve. —v. 1 provide with or form into an arch. 2 span like an arch. 3 form an arch. [latin arcus arc]
Arch2 adj. Selfconsciously or affectedly playful. archly adv. [from *arch-, originally in arch rogue etc.]
Arch-comb. Form 1 chief, superior (archbishop). 2 pre-eminent, esp. Unfavourably (arch-enemy). [greek arkhos chief]
Archaean (us archean) —adj. Of the earliest geological era. —n. This time. [greek arkhaios ancient]
Archaeology n. (us archeology) study of ancient cultures, esp. By the excavation and analysis of physical remains. archaeological adj. Archaeologist n. [greek arkhaiologia ancient history]
Archaeopteryx n. Fossil bird with teeth, feathers, and a reptilian tail. [greek arkhaios ancient, pterux wing]
Archaic adj. 1 a antiquated. B (of a word etc.) No longer in ordinary use. 2 of an early period of culture. archaically adv. [greek arkhe beginning]
Archaism n. 1 use of the archaic esp. In language or art. 2 archaic word or expression. archaistic adj.
Archangel n. Angel of the highest rank.
Archbishop n. Chief bishop of a province.
Archbishopric n. Office or diocese of an archbishop.
Archbishopric n. Office or diocese of an archbishop.
Archdeacon n. Church dignitary next below a bishop. archdeaconry n. (pl. -ies).
Archdiocese n. Diocese of an archbishop. archdiocesan adj.
Arabian —adj. Of or relating to arabia (esp. In geographical contexts) (arabian desert). —n. Native of arabia.
Usage in the sense ‘native of arabia’, the usual term is now arab.
Arabic —n. Semitic language of the arabs. —adj. Of the arabs (esp. Their language or literature).
Arabic numeral n. Any of the numerals 0-9.
Arable adj. (of land) suitable for crop production. [latin aro to plough]
Arachnid n. Arthropod of a class comprising spiders, scorpions, etc. [greek arakhne spider]
Arak var. Of *arrack.
Araldite n. Propr. Epoxy resin for mending china etc. [origin unknown]
Aramaic —n. Branch of the semitic family of languages, esp. The language of syria used as a lingua franca in the near east from the sixth century bc. —adj. Of or in aramaic. [greek aramaios of aram (hebrew name of syria)]
Arbiter n. 1 arbitrator in a dispute. 2 person influential in a specific field (arbiter of taste). [latin from arbitror to judge]
Arbitration n. Settlement of a dispute by an impartial third party.
Arbitrator n. Person appointed to arbitrate.
Arbor1 n. Axle or spindle. [latin, = tree]
Arbor n. (brit. Arbour) shady garden alcove enclosed by trees etc. [latin herba herb: assimilated to latin arbor tree]
Arboreal adj. Of or living in trees. [latin arbor tree]
Arborescent adj. Treelike in growth or form.
Arboretum n. (pl. -ta) place cultivating and displaying rare trees.
Arboriculture n. Cultivation of trees and shrubs. [latin arbor tree, after agriculture]
Arbor vitae n. Any of various evergreen conifers. [latin, = tree of life]
Arbour n. (us arbor) shady garden alcove enclosed by trees etc. [latin herba herb: assimilated to latin arbor tree]
Arbutus n. Tree or shrub with clusters of flowers and strawberry-like berries. [latin]
Arc —n. 1 part of the circumference of a circle or other curve. 2 electr. Luminous discharge between two electrodes. —v. (arced; arcing) form an arc; move in a curve. [latin arcus bow]
Arcade n. 1 covered walk, esp. Lined with shops. 2 series of arches supporting or set along a wall. [romanic: related to *arc]
Arcadian —n. Idealized country dweller. —adj. Poetically rural. [greek arkadia in the peloponnese]
Arch1 —n. 1 curved structure as an opening, as a support for a bridge, floor, etc., or as an ornament. 2 any arch-shaped curve. —v. 1 provide with or form into an arch. 2 span like an arch. 3 form an arch. [latin arcus arc]
Arch2 adj. Selfconsciously or affectedly playful. archly adv. [from *arch-, originally in arch rogue etc.]
Arch-comb. Form 1 chief, superior (archbishop). 2 pre-eminent, esp. Unfavourably (arch-enemy). [greek arkhos chief]
Archaean (us archean) —adj. Of the earliest geological era. —n. This time. [greek arkhaios ancient]
Archaeology n. (us archeology) study of ancient cultures, esp. By the excavation and analysis of physical remains. archaeological adj. Archaeologist n. [greek arkhaiologia ancient history]
Archaeopteryx n. Fossil bird with teeth, feathers, and a reptilian tail. [greek arkhaios ancient, pterux wing]
Archaic adj. 1 a antiquated. B (of a word etc.) No longer in ordinary use. 2 of an early period of culture. archaically adv. [greek arkhe beginning]
early period of culture. archaically adv. [greek arkhe beginning]
Archaism n. 1 use of the archaic esp. In language or art. 2 archaic word or expression. archaistic adj.
Archangel n. Angel of the highest rank.
Archbishop n. Chief bishop of a province.
Archbishopric n. Office or diocese of an archbishop.
Archdeacon n. Church dignitary next below a bishop. archdeaconry n. (pl. -ies).
Archdiocese n. Diocese of an archbishop. archdiocesan adj.
Archdiocese n. Diocese of an archbishop. archdiocesan adj.
Archduke n. Hist. Chief duke (esp. As the title of a son of the emperor of austria). archduchy n. (pl. -ies). [medieval latin archidux]
Archean (brit. Archaean) —adj. Of the earliest geological era. —n. This time. [greek arkhaios ancient]
Arch-enemy n. (pl. -ies) 1 chief enemy. 2 the devil.
Archeology n. (brit. Archaeology) study of ancient cultures, esp. By the excavation and analysis of physical remains. archeological adj. Archeologist n. [greek arkhaiologia ancient history]
Archer n. 1 person who shoots with a bow and arrows. 2 (the archer) zodiacal sign or constellation sagittarius. [latin arcus bow]
Archery n. Shooting with a bow and arrows, esp. As a sport.
Archetype n. 1 original model; prototype. 2 typical specimen. archetypal adj. [greek tupon stamp]
Archidiaconal adj. Of an archdeacon. [medieval latin]
Archiepiscopal adj. Of an archbishop. [church latin from greek]
Archimandrite n. 1 superior of a large monastery in the orthodox church. 2 honorary title of a monastic priest. [greek arkhi-chief, mandrites monk]
Archipelago n. (pl. -s) 1 group of islands. 2 sea with many islands. [greek arkhi-chief, pelagos sea]
Architect n. 1 designer of buildings etc., supervising their construction. 2 (foll. By of) person who brings about a specified thing (architect of peace). [greek
By of) person who brings about a specified thing (architect of peace). [greek arkhi-chief, tekton builder]
Architectonic adj. 1 of architecture. 2 of the systematization of knowledge.
Architecture n. 1 design and construction of buildings. 2 style of a building. 3 buildings etc. Collectively. architectural adj.
Architrave n. 1 (in classical architecture) main beam resting across the tops of columns. 2 moulded frame around a doorway or window. [italian archi- *arch-, latin trabs beam]
Archive —n. (usu. In pl.) 1 collection of documents or records. 2 store for these. —v. (-ving) 1 place or store in an archive. 2 computing transfer (data) to a less frequently used file. [greek arkheia public records]
Archivist n. Keeper of archives.
Archway n. Arched entrance or passage.
Arc lamp n. (also arc light) light using an electric arc.
Arctic —adj. 1 of the north polar regions. 2 (arctic) colloq. Very cold. —n. Arctic regions. [greek arktos great bear]
Arctic circle n. Parallel of latitude 66° 33´ n, forming an imaginary line round the arctic region.
Arc welding n. Use of an electric arc to melt metals to be welded.
Ardor n. (brit. Ardour) zeal, enthusiasm, passion.
Ardour n. (us ardor) zeal, enthusiasm, passion.
Arduous adj. Hard to accomplish; laborious, strenuous. [latin, = steep]
Are1 2nd sing. Present & 1st, 2nd, 3rd pl. Present of *be.
Are2 n. Metric unit of measure, 100 square metres. [latin: related to *area]
Area n. 1 extent or measure of a surface (over a large area). 2 region (southern area). 3 space for a specific purpose (dining area). 4 scope or range. 5 space in front of the basement of a building. [latin, = vacant space]
Arena n. 1 central part of an amphitheatre etc. 2 scene of conflict; sphere of action. [latin, = sand]
Aren’t contr. 1 are not. 2 (in interrog.) Am not (aren’t i coming too?).
Areola n. (pl. -lae) circular pigmented area, esp. Around a nipple. areolar adj. [latin diminutive of *area]
Arête n. Sharp mountain ridge. [french from latin arista spine]
Argent n. & adj. Heraldry silver; silvery-white. [latin argentum]
Argon n. Inert gaseous element. [greek argos idle]
Argosy n. (pl. -ies) poet. Large merchant ship. [italian ragusea nave ship of ragusa (in dalmatia)]
Argot n. Jargon of a group or class. [french]
Argue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) 1 (often foll. By with, about, etc.) Exchange views forcefully or contentiously. 2 (often foll. By that) maintain by reasoning; indicate. 3 (foll.
Argue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) 1 (often foll. By with, about, etc.) Exchange views forcefully or contentiously. 2 (often foll. By that) maintain by reasoning; indicate. 3 (foll. By for, against) reason. 4 treat (a matter) by reasoning. 5 (foll.
indicate. 3 (foll. By for, against) reason. 4 treat (a matter) by reasoning. 5 (foll. By into, out of) persuade. argue the toss colloq. Dispute a choice already made. arguable adj. Arguably adv. [latin arguo make clear, prove]
Argument n. 1 (esp. Contentious) exchange of views; dispute. 2 (often foll. By for, against) reason given; reasoning process. 3 summary of a book etc.
Argumentation n. Methodical reasoning; arguing.
Argumentative adj. Given to arguing.
Argus n. Watchful guardian. [greek argos mythical giant with 100 eyes]
Argy-bargy n. (pl. -ies) joc. Dispute, wrangle. [originally scots]
Aria n. Long accompanied solo song in an opera etc. [italian]
Arid adj. 1 dry, parched. 2 uninteresting. aridity n. [latin areo be dry]
Aries n. (pl. Same) 1 constellation and first sign of the zodiac (the ram). 2 person born when the sun is in this sign. [latin, = ram]
Aright adv. Rightly.
Arise v. (-sing; past arose; past part. Arisen) 1 originate. 2 (usu. Foll. By from, out of) result. 3 come to one’s notice; emerge. 4 rise, esp. From the dead or from kneeling. [old english a-intensive prefix]
Aristocracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 ruling class or élite; nobility. 2 a government by an élite. B state so governed. 3 (often foll. By of) best representatives. [greek aristokratia rule by the best]
Aristocrat n. Member of the aristocracy.
Aristocratic adj. 1 of or like the aristocracy. 2 a distinguished. B grand, stylish.
Aristotelian —n. Disciple or student of aristotle. —adj. Of aristotle or his ideas. [greek aristoteles (4th c. Bc), name of a greek philosopher]
Arithmetic —n. 1 science of numbers. 2 use of numbers; computation. —adj. (also arithmetical) of arithmetic. [greek arithmos number]
Arithmetic mean n. = *average 2.
Arithmetic progression n. Sequence of numbers with constant intervals (e.g. 9, 7, 5, 3, etc.).
Ark n. Ship in which noah escaped the flood with his family and animals. [old
Ark n. Ship in which noah escaped the flood with his family and animals. [old english from latin arca]
Ark of the covenant n. Chest or cupboard containing the tables of jewish law.
Arm1 n. 1 upper limb of the human body from shoulder to hand. 2 forelimb or tentacle of an animal. 3 a sleeve of a garment. B arm support of a chair etc. C thing branching from a main stem (an arm of the sea). D control, means of reaching (arm of the law). arm in arm with arms linked. At arm’s length at a distance. With open arms cordially. armful n. (pl. -s). [old english]
Arm2 —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Weapon. 2 (in pl.) Military profession. 3 branch of the military (e.g. Infantry, cavalry). 4 (in pl.) Heraldic devices (coat of arms). —v. 1 supply, or equip oneself, with weapons etc., esp. In preparation for war. 2 make (a bomb etc.) Ready. take up arms go to war. Under arms equipped for war. Up in arms (usu. Foll. By against, about) actively resisting, highly indignant. [latin arma arms]
Armada n. Fleet of warships, esp. (armada) that sent by spain against england in 1588. [spanish from romanic]
Armadillo n. (pl. -s) s. American mammal with a plated body and large claws. [spanish armado armed man]
Armageddon n. Huge battle or struggle, esp. Marking the end of the world. [rev. 16:16]
Armament n. 1 (often in pl.) Military equipment. 2 equipping for war. 3 force
Armament n. 1 (often in pl.) Military equipment. 2 equipping for war. 3 force equipped. [latin: related to *arm2]
Armature n. 1 rotating coil or coils of a dynamo or electric motor. 2 iron bar placed across the poles of a horseshoe magnet to preserve its power. 3 metal framework on which a sculpture is moulded. [latin armatura, = armour]
Armband n. Band worn around the upper arm to hold up a shirtsleeve, or as identification, or to aid swimming.
Armchair n. 1 chair with arm supports. 2 (attrib.) Theoretical rather than active (armchair critic).
Armhole n. Each of two holes for arms in a garment.
Armhole n. Each of two holes for arms in a garment.
Armistice n. Truce, esp. Permanent. [latin arma arms, sisto make stand]
Armistice day n. Anniversary of the armistice of 11 nov. 1918.
Armlet n. Ornamental band worn round the arm.
Armor (brit. Armour) —n. 1 protective usu. Metal covering formerly worn in fighting. 2 a (in full armour-plate) protective metal covering for an armed
vehicle, ship, etc. B armed vehicles collectively. 3 protective covering or shell of an animal or plant. 4 heraldic devices. —v. (usu. Asarmoured adj.) Provide with protective covering, and often guns (armoured car; armoured train). [latin armatura: related to *arm2]
Armorial adj. Of heraldry or coats of arms. [related to *armour]
Armour —n. 1 protective usu. Metal covering formerly worn in fighting. 2 a (in full armour-plate) protective metal covering for an armed vehicle, ship, etc. B armed vehicles collectively. 3 protective covering or shell of an animal or plant. 4 heraldic devices. —v. (usu. As armoured adj.) Provide with protective covering, and often guns (armoured car; armoured train). [latin armatura: related to *arm2]
Armourer n. 1 maker of arms or armour. 2 official in charge of arms.
Armoury n. (pl. -ies) arsenal.
Armpit n. Hollow under the arm at the shoulder.
Armrest n. = *arm1 3b.
Arms race n. Competitive accumulation of weapons by nations.
Arm-wrestling n. Trial of strength in which each party tries to force the other’s arm down.
arm down.
Army n. (pl. -ies) 1 organized armed land force. 2 (prec. By the) the military profession. 3 (often foll. By of) very large number (army of locusts). 4 organized civilian body (salvation army). [french: related to *arm2]
Arnica n. 1 plant of the daisy family with yellow flowers. 2 medicine prepared from this. [origin unknown]
Aroma n. 1 esp. Pleasing smell, often of food. 2 subtle pervasive quality. [greek, = spice]
Aromatherapy n. Use of plant extracts and oils in massage. aromatherapist n.
Aromatic —adj. 1 fragrant, spicy. 2 chem. Of organic compounds having an unsaturated ring, esp. Containing a benzene ring. —n. Aromatic substance. [latin: related to *aroma]
Arose past of *arise.
Around —adv. 1 on every side; all round; round about. 2 colloq. A in existence; available. B near at hand. 3 here and there (shop around). —prep. 1 on or along the circuit of. 2 on every side of. 3 here and there in or near (chairs around the room). 4 a round (church around the corner). B at a time near to (came around four o’clock). have been around colloq. Be widely experienced.
Arouse v. (-sing) 1 induce (esp. An emotion). 2 awake from sleep. 3 stir into activity. 4 stimulate sexually. arousal n. [a-intensive prefix]
Arpeggio n. (pl. -s) mus. Notes of a chord played in succession. [italian arpa harp]
Arrack n. (also arak) alcoholic spirit, esp. Made from coco sap or rice. [arabic]
Arraign v. 1 indict, accuse. 2 find fault with; call into question (an action or statement). arraignment n. [latin ratio reason]
Arrange v. (-ging) 1 put into order; classify. 2 plan or provide for; take measures (arranged a meeting; arrange to see him; arranged for a taxi). 3 agree (arranged it with her). 4 mus. Adapt (a composition) for a particular manner of performance. [french: related to *range]
Arrangement n. 1 arranging or being arranged. 2 manner of this. 3 something arranged. 4 (in pl.) Plans, measures (made my own arrangements). 5 mus. Composition adapted for performance in a particular way.
Arrant adj. Literary downright, utter (arrant liar). [var. Of *errant, originally in arrant (= outlawed, roving) thief etc.]
Arras n. Hist. Rich tapestry or wall-hanging. [arras in france]
Array —n. 1 imposing or well-ordered series or display. 2 ordered arrangement,
Array —n. 1 imposing or well-ordered series or display. 2 ordered arrangement, esp. Of troops (battle array). —v. 1 deck, adorn. 2 set in order; marshal (forces). [latin ad-, *ready]
Array —n. 1 imposing or well-ordered series or display. 2 ordered arrangement, esp. Of troops (battle array). —v. 1 deck, adorn. 2 set in order; marshal (forces). [latin ad-, *ready]
Arrears n.pl. Amount (esp. Of work, rent, etc.) Still outstanding or uncompleted. in arrears behind, esp. In payment. [medieval latin adretro behindhand]
Arrest —v. 1 lawfully seize (a suspect etc.). 2 stop or check the progress of. 3 attract (a person’s attention). —n. 1 arresting or being arrested. 2 stoppage (cardiac arrest). [latin resto remain]
Arrester n. Device for slowing an aircraft after landing.
Arrière-pensée n. 1 secret motive. 2 mental reservation. [french]
Arris n. Archit. Sharp edge at the junction of two surfaces. [french areste, = *arête]
Arrival n. 1 arriving; appearance on the scene. 2 person or thing that has arrived.
Arrive v. (-ving) 1 (often foll. By at, in) reach a destination. 2 (foll. By at) reach (a conclusion etc.). 3 colloq. Become successful. 4 colloq. (of a child) be born. 5 (of a time) come. [latin ripa shore]
Arriviste n. Ambitious or ruthless person. [french: related to *arrive]
Arrogant adj. Aggressively assertive or presumptuous. arrogance n. Arrogantly adv. [related to *arrogate]
Arrogate v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By to oneself) claim (power etc.) Without right. 2 (often foll. By to) attribute unjustly (to a person). arrogation n. [latin rogo ask]
Arrow n. 1 pointed slender missile shot from a bow. 2 representation of this, esp. Indicating direction. [old english]
Arrowhead n. 1 pointed tip of an arrow. 2 water-plant with arrow-shaped leaves.
Arrowroot n. 1 nutritious starch. 2 plant yielding this.
Arse n. (us ass) coarse slang buttocks. [old english]
Arsenal n. 1 store, esp. Of weapons. 2 place for the storage and manufacture of weapons and ammunition. [arabic, = workshop]
Arsenic —n. 1 non-scientific name for arsenic trioxide, a highly poisonous white powder used in weed-killers etc. 2 chem. Brittle semi-metallic element. —adj. Of or containing arsenic. [french, ultimately from persian zar gold]
Arson n. Crime of deliberately setting fire to property. arsonist n. [latin ardeo ars-burn]
Art n. 1 a human creative skill or its application. B work showing this. 2 a (in pl.; prec. By the) branches of creative activity concerned with the production of imaginative designs, sounds, or ideas, e.g. Painting, music, writing. B any one of these. 3 creative activity resulting in visual representation (good at music but not art). 4 human skill as opposed to nature (art and nature combined). 5 (often foll. By of) a skill, knack. B cunning; trick, stratagem. 6 (in pl.; usu. Prec. By the) supposedly creative subjects (esp. Languages, literature, and history) as opposed to scientific, technical, or vocational subjects. [latin ars art-]
Art deco n. Decorative art style of 1910–30, with geometric motifs and strong colours.
Artefact n. (also artifact) man-made object, esp. A tool or vessel as an archaeological item. [latin arte by art, facio make]
Arterial adj. 1 of or like an artery. 2 (esp. Of a road) main, important. [french: related to *artery]
Arteriosclerosis n. Loss of elasticity and thickening of artery walls, esp. In old age. [from artery, sclerosis]
Artery n. (pl. -ies) 1 any of the blood-vessels carrying blood from the heart. 2 main road or railway line. [greek, probably from airo raise]
Artesian well n. Well in which water rises to the surface by natural pressure through a vertically drilled hole. [artois, old french province]
Artful adj. Crafty, deceitful. artfully adv.
Arthritis n. Inflammation of a joint or joints. arthritic adj. & n. [greek arthron joint]
Arthropod n. Invertebrate with a segmented body and jointed limbs, e.g. An insect, spider, or crustacean. [greek arthron joint, pous pod-foot]
Arthropod n. Invertebrate with a segmented body and jointed limbs, e.g. An insect, spider, or crustacean. [greek arthron joint, pous pod-foot]
Artichoke n. 1 plant allied to the thistle. 2 (in full globe artichoke) its partly edible flower-head (see also *jerusalem artichoke). [italian from arabic]
Article —n. 1 item or thing. 2 non-fictional journalistic essay. 3 clause or item in an agreement or contract. 4 definite or indefinite article. —v. (-ling) employ under contract as a trainee. [latin articulus from artus joint]
Articled clerk n. Trainee solicitor.
Articular adj. Of a joint or joints. [latin: related to *article]
Articulate —adj. 1 fluent and clear in speech. 2 (of sound or speech) having clearly distinguishable parts. 3 having joints. —v. (-ting) 1 a pronounce distinctly. B speak or express clearly. 2 (usu. In passive) connect by joints. 3 mark with apparent joints. 4 (often foll. By with) form a joint. articulately adv.
Articulated lorry n. One with sections connected by a flexible joint.
Articulation n. 1 a speaking or being spoken. B articulate utterance; speech. 2 a act or mode of jointing. B joint. [latin: related to *articulate]
Artifact var. Of *artefact.
Artifice n. 1 trick or clever device. 2 cunning. 3 skill, ingenuity. [latin ars art-art, facio make]
Artificer n. 1 craftsman. 2 skilled military mechanic.
Artificial adj. 1 not natural (artificial lake). 2 imitating nature (artificial flowers). 3 affected, insincere. artificiality n. Artificially adv. [latin: related to *artifice]
Artificial insemination n. Non-sexual injection of semen into the uterus.
Artificial intelligence n. Use of computers for tasks normally regarded as needing human intelligence.
Artificial respiration n. Manual or mechanical stimulation of breathing.
Artillery n. (pl. -ies) 1 heavy guns used in land warfare. 2 branch of the army using these. artilleryman n. [french artiller equip]
Artisan n. Skilled manual worker or craftsman. [latin artio instruct in the arts]
Artist n. 1 practitioner of any of the arts, esp. Painting. 2 artiste. 3 person using skill or taste. artistry n. [french artiste from italian]
Artiste n. Professional performer, esp. A singer or dancer.
Artistic adj. 1 having natural skill in art. 2 skilfully or tastefully done. 3 of art or artists. artistically adv.
Art nouveau n. Art style of the late 19th century, with flowing lines.
Artwork n. 1 illustrative material in printed matter. 2 works of art collectively (exhibition of children’s artwork).
Arty adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Pretentiously or affectedly artistic.
Arum n. Plant with arrow-shaped leaves. [greek aron]
-ary suffix forming adjectives (contrary; primary). [french -aire, latin -ari(u)s]
Aryan —n. 1 speaker of any of the languages of the indo-european family. 2 improperly (in nazi ideology) non-jewish caucasian. —adj. Of aryans. [sanskrit]
As symb. Arsenic.
As1 —adv. & conj. (adv. As antecedent in main sentence; conj. In relative clause expressed or implied) to the extent to which … is or does etc. (am as tall as he; am as tall as he is; (colloq.) Am as tall as him; as recently as last week). —conj. (with relative clause expressed or implied) 1 (with antecedent so) expressing result or purpose (came early so as to meet us). 2 (with antecedent adverb omitted) although (good as it is = although it is good). 3 (without antecedent adverb) a in the manner in which (do as you like; rose as one man). B in the capacity or form of (i speak as your friend; olivier as hamlet). C while (arrived as i was eating). D since, seeing that (as you are here, we can talk). E for instance (cathedral cities, as york). —rel. Pron.
As2 n. (pl. Asses) roman copper coin. [latin]
Asafetida n. (brit. Asafoetida) resinous pungent plant gum used in cooking and
Asafetida n. (brit. Asafoetida) resinous pungent plant gum used in cooking and formerly in medicine. [persian aza mastic: related to *fetid]
Asafoetida n. (us asafetida) resinous pungent plant gum used in cooking and formerly in medicine. [persian aza mastic: related to *fetid]
A.s.a.p. Abbr. As soon as possible.
Asbestos n. 1 fibrous silicate mineral. 2 this as a heat-resistant or insulating material. [greek, = unquenchable]
Ascend v. 1 move or slope upwards, rise. 2 climb; go up. ascend the throne become king or queen. [latin scando climb]
Ascendancy n. (often foll. By over) dominant power or control.
Ascendant —adj. 1 rising. 2 astron. Rising towards the zenith. 3 astrol. Just above the eastern horizon. 4 predominant. —n. Astrol. Ascendant point of the sun’s apparent path. in the ascendant gaining or having power or authority.
Ascension n. 1 ascent. 2 (ascension) ascent of christ into heaven.
Ascent n. 1 ascending, rising, or progressing. 2 upward slope or path etc.
Ascertain v. Find out for certain. ascertainment n. [french: related to *certain]
Ascii abbr. Computing american standard code for information interchange.
Ascorbic acid n. Vitamin c, which prevents scurvy. [from a-, scorbutic]
Ascribe v. (-bing) (usu. Foll. By to) 1 attribute (ascribes his health to exercise). 2 regard as belonging. ascription n. [latin scribo write]
Asepsis n. 1 absence of sepsis or harmful micro-organisms. 2 method of achieving asepsis in surgery. aseptic adj.
Asexual adj. 1 without sex, sexual organs, or sexuality. 2 (of reproduction) not involving the fusion of gametes. asexually adv.
Ash1 n. 1 (often in pl.) Powdery residue left after burning. 2 (pl.) Human remains after cremation. 3 (the ashes) cricket trophy competed for by australia and england. [old english]
Ash2 n. 1 tree with silver-grey bark. 2 its hard, pale wood. [old english]
Ashamed adj. (usu. Predic.) 1 embarrassed by shame (ashamed of myself). 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Hesitant, reluctant out of shame (am ashamed to say). [old english a-intensive prefix]
Ashcan n. Us dustbin.
Ashcan n. Us dustbin.
Ashen adj. Like ashes, esp. Grey or pale.
Ashkenazi n. (pl. -zim) east european jew. [hebrew]
Ashlar n. 1 large square-cut stone used in building; masonry made of these. 2 thin slabs of masonry used for facing walls. [latin axis board]
Ashore adv. Towards or on the shore or land.
Ashram n. Place of religious retreat for hindus. [sanskrit]
Ashtray n. Small receptacle for cigarette ash, stubs, etc.
Asian —n. 1 native of asia. 2 person of asian descent. —adj. Of asia. [latin from
Asian —n. 1 native of asia. 2 person of asian descent. —adj. Of asia. [latin from greek]
Asiatic —n. Offens. Asian. —adj. Asian. [latin from greek]
Aside —adv. To or on one side; away, apart. —n. Words spoken aside, esp. Confidentially to the audience by an actor.
Asinine adj. Like an ass, esp. Stupid or stubborn. asininity n. [latin asinus ass]
Ask v. 1 call for an answer to or about (ask her about it; ask him his name). 2 seek to obtain from someone (ask a favour of). 3 (usu. Foll. By out, in, or over, or to (a function etc.)) Invite (must ask them over; asked her to dinner). 4 (foll. By for) seek to obtain, meet, or be directed to (ask for help; asking for you; ask for the bar). ask after inquire about (esp. A person). Ask for it slang invite trouble. [old english]
Askance adv. Sideways or squinting. look askance at regard suspiciously. [origin unknown]
Aslant —adv. Obliquely or at a slant. —prep. Obliquely across.
Asleep predic. Adj. & adv. 1 a in or into a state of sleep. B inactive, inattentive. 2 (of a limb etc.) Numb. 3 euphem. Dead.
2 (of a limb etc.) Numb. 3 euphem. Dead.
Asp n. Small venomous snake of north africa or southern europe. [greek aspis]
Asparagus n. 1 plant of the lily family. 2 edible shoots of this. [latin from greek]
Aspect n. 1 viewpoint, feature, etc. To be considered (one aspect of the problem). 2 appearance or look (cheerful aspect). 3 side of a building or location facing a particular direction (southern aspect). [latin adspicio look at]
Aspen n. Poplar with very tremulous leaves. [old english: originally adj.]
Asperity n. (pl. -ies) 1 sharpness of temper or tone. 2 roughness; rough excrescence. [latin asper rough]
Aspersion n. cast aspersions on attack the reputation of. [latin aspergo besprinkle]
Asphalt —n. 1 dark bituminous pitch. 2 mixture of this with sand, gravel, etc., for surfacing roads etc. —v. Surface with asphalt. [latin from greek]
Asphodel n. 1 plant of the lily family. 2 poet. Immortal flower growing in elysium. [latin from greek]
Asphyxia n. Lack of oxygen in the blood, causing unconsciousness or death;
Asphyxia n. Lack of oxygen in the blood, causing unconsciousness or death; suffocation. asphyxiant adj. & n. [greek a-not, sphuxis pulse]
Asphyxiate v. (-ting) suffocate. asphyxiation n.
Aspic n. Savoury jelly used esp. To contain game, eggs, etc. [french, = *asp, suggested by the colours of the jelly]
Aspidistra n. House-plant with broad tapering leaves. [greek aspis shield]
Aspirant —adj. Aspiring. —n. Person who aspires. [latin: related to *aspire]
Aspirate —adj. Pronounced with an exhalation of breath; blended with the sound of h. —n. Sound of h; consonant pronounced in this way. —v. (-ting) 1 pronounce with breath or with initial h. 2 draw (fluid) by suction from a cavity etc.
Aspiration n. 1 ambition or desire. 2 drawing breath or phonet. Aspirating.
Aspirator n. Apparatus for aspirating fluid. [latin: related to *aspire]
Aspire v. (-ring) (usu. Foll. By to or after, or to + infin.) Have ambition or a strong desire. [latin aspiro breathe upon]
Aspirin n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 white powder, acetylsalicylic acid, used to reduce pain and fever. 2 tablet of this. [german]
Ass1 n. 1 a four-legged long-eared mammal related to the horse. B donkey. 2 stupid person. [old english from latin]
Ass n. (brit. Arse) coarse slang buttocks. [old english]
Assagai var. Of *assegai.
Assagai var. Of *assegai.
Assail v. 1 attack physically or verbally. 2 tackle (a task) resolutely. assailant n. [latin salio leap]
Assassin n. Killer, esp. Of a political or religious leader. [arabic, = hashish-eater]
Assassinate v. (-ting) kill for political or religious motives. assassination n.
Assault —n. 1 violent physical or verbal attack. 2 law threat or display of violence against a person. —v. Make an assault on. assault and battery law threatening act resulting in physical harm to a person. [latin: related to *assail]
Assay —n. Testing of a metal or ore to determine its ingredients and quality. — v. Make an assay of (a metal or ore). [french, var. Of essai *essay]
Assegai n. (also assagai) light iron-tipped s. African spear. [arabic, = the spear]
Assemblage n. 1 assembling. 2 assembled group.
Assemble v. (-ling) 1 gather together; collect. 2 esp. Mech. Fit together (components, a whole). [latin ad to, simul together]
Assembler n. 1 person who assembles a machine etc. 2 computing a program for converting instructions written in low-level symbolic code into machine code. B the low-level symbolic code itself.
Assembly n. (pl. -ies) 1 assembling. 2 assembled group, esp. As a deliberative body. 3 assembling of components.
Assembly line n. Machinery arranged so that a product can be progressively assembled.
Assent —v. (usu. Foll. By to) 1 express agreement. 2 consent. —n. Consent or approval, esp. Official. assenter n. [latin sentio think]
Assert v. 1 declare, state clearly. 2 refl. Insist on one’s rights. 3 enforce a claim to (assert one’s rights). [latin assero -sert-]
Assertion n. Declaration, forthright statement.
Assertion n. Declaration, forthright statement.
Assertive adj. Tending to assert oneself; forthright, positive. assertively adv. Assertiveness n.
Assess v. 1 estimate the size or quality of. 2 estimate the value of (property etc.) For taxation. assessment n. [latin assideo -sess-sit by]
Assessor n. 1 person who assesses (esp. For tax or insurance). 2 legal adviser on technical questions.
Asset n. 1 useful or valuable person or thing. 2 (usu. In pl.) Property and possessions, esp. That can be set against debts etc. [french asez from latin ad satis to enough]
Asset-stripping n. The taking over of a company and selling off of its assets to make a profit.
Asseverate v. (-ting) declare solemnly. asseveration n. [latin severus serious]
Assiduous adj. 1 persevering, hard-working. 2 attending closely. assiduity n. Assiduously adv. [latin: related to *assess]
Assign —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) a allot as a share or responsibility. B appoint to a position, task, etc. 2 fix (a time, place, etc.). 3 (foll. By to) ascribe to (a reason, date, etc.) (assigned the manuscript to 1832). 4 (foll. By to) law transfer formally (esp. Property) to (another). —n. Assignee. assigner n. Assignor n. Law. [latin assigno mark out]
Assignation n. 1 appointment to meet, esp. By lovers in secret. 2 assigning or being assigned.
Assignee n. Law person to whom a right or property is assigned.
Assignment n. 1 task or mission. 2 assigning or being assigned. 3 legal transfer.
Assimilate v. (-ting) 1 absorb or be absorbed, either physically or mentally. 2 (usu. Foll. By to, with) make like; cause to resemble. assimilable adj. Assimilation n. Assimilative adj. Assimilator n. [latin similis like]
Assist v. (often foll. By in + verbal noun) help. assistance n. [latin assisto stand by]
Assistant n. 1 (often attrib.) Person who helps, esp. As a subordinate. 2 = *shop assistant.
Assizes n.pl. Hist. Court periodically administering the civil and criminal law. [french: related to *assess]
Usage in 1972 the civil jurisdiction of assizes in england and wales was transferred to the high court and the criminal jurisdiction to the crown court.
Assoc. Abbr. Association.
Associate —v. (-ting) 1 connect mentally (associate holly with christmas). 2 join or combine, esp. For a common purpose. 3 refl. Declare oneself or be in agreement. 4 (usu. Foll. By with) meet frequently or deal. —n. 1 partner, colleague. 2 friend, companion. 3 subordinate member of a society etc. —adj. 1 joined or allied. 2 of lower status (associate member). associative adj. [latin socius allied]
Association n. 1 group organized for a joint purpose; society. 2 associating or being associated. 3 companionship. 4 mental connection of ideas. [medieval latin: related to *associate]
Association football n. Football played with a round ball which may not be handled except by the goalkeepers.
Assonance n. Partial resemblance of sound between two syllables e.g. Sonnet, porridge, and killed, cold, culled. assonant adj. [latin sonus sound]
Assort v. 1 classify or arrange in sorts. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) suit or harmonize with. [french: related to *sort]
Assorted adj. 1 of various sorts, mixed. 2 classified. 3 matched (ill-assorted pair).
pair).
Assortment n. Diverse group or mixture.
Assuage v. (-ging) 1 calm or soothe. 2 appease (an appetite). assuagement n. [latin suavis sweet]
Assume v. (-ming) 1 (usu. Foll. By that) take to be true. 2 simulate (ignorance etc.). 3 undertake (an office etc.). 4 take or put on (an aspect, attribute, etc.) (assumed immense importance). [latin sumo take]
Assuming adj. Arrogant, presumptuous.
Assumption n. 1 assuming. 2 thing assumed. 3 (assumption) reception of the virgin mary bodily into heaven.
Assurance n. 1 emphatic declaration; guarantee. 2 insurance, esp. Life insurance. 3 certainty. 4 self-confidence; assertiveness.
Assure v. (-ring) 1 (often foll. By of) a convince. B tell (a person) confidently (assured him all was well). 2 ensure; guarantee (a result etc.). 3 insure (esp. A life). 4 (as assured adj.) A guaranteed. B self-confident. [latin securus safe]
Assuredly adv. Certainly.
Ast abbr. Atlantic standard time.
Astatine n. Radioactive element, the heaviest of the halogens. [greek astatos unstable]
Aster n. Plant with bright daisy-like flowers. [greek, = star]
Asterisk —n. Symbol (*) used to mark words or to indicate omission etc. —v. Mark with an asterisk. [greek, = little star]
Astern adv. (often foll. By of) 1 in or to the rear of a ship or aircraft. 2 backwards.
Asteroid n. 1 any of the minor planets orbiting the sun, mainly between the orbits of mars and jupiter. 2 starfish. [greek: related to *aster]
Asthma n. Respiratory condition marked by wheezing. [greek azo breathe hard]
Asthmatic —adj. Of or suffering from asthma. —n. Asthmatic person.
Astigmatism n. Eye or lens defect resulting in distorted images. astigmatic adj. [from a-, stigma]
Astir predic. Adj. & adv. 1 in motion. 2 out of bed.
Astir predic. Adj. & adv. 1 in motion. 2 out of bed.
Astonish v. Surprise greatly, amaze. astonishment n. [latin ex-forth, tono thunder]
Astound v. Astonish greatly.
Astraddle adv. Astride.
Astrakhan n. 1 dark curly fleece of young astrakhan lambs. 2 cloth imitating this. [astrakhan in russia]
Astral adj. Of the stars; starry. [latin astrum star]
Astray adv. & predic.adj. Out of the right way, erring. go astray be missing. [latin extra away, vagor wander]
Astride —adv. 1 (often foll. By of) with a leg on each side. 2 with legs apart. — prep. Astride of; extending across.
Astringent —adj. 1 checking bleeding by contracting body tissues. 2 severe, austere. —n. Astringent substance. astringency n. [latin astringo draw tight]
Astrolabe n. Instrument formerly used to measure the altitude of stars etc. [greek, = star-taking]
Astrology n. Study of supposed planetary influence on human affairs. astrologer n. Astrological adj. Astrologist n. [greek astron star]
Astronaut n. Crew member of a spacecraft. [greek astron star, nautes sailor]
Astronaut n. Crew member of a spacecraft. [greek astron star, nautes sailor]
Astronautics n.pl. (treated as sing.) Science of space travel. astronautical adj.
Astronomy n. The scientific study of celestial bodies. astronomer n. [greek astron star, nemo arrange]
Astrophysics n.pl. (treated as sing.) The study of the physics and chemistry of celestial bodies. astrophysical adj. Astrophysicist n. [greek astron star]
Astute adj. Shrewd. astutely adv. Astuteness n. [latin astus craft]
Asunder adv. Literary apart.
Asylum n. 1 sanctuary; protection, esp. For fugitives from the law (seek asylum). 2 hist. Institution for the mentally ill or destitute. [greek a-not, sulon right of seizure]
Asymmetry n. Lack of symmetry. asymmetric adj. Asymmetrical adj. [greek]
At symb. Astatine.
At prep. 1 expressing position (wait at the corner; at school). 2 expressing a point in time (at dawn). 3 expressing a point in a scale (at his best). 4 expressing engagement in an activity etc. (at war). 5 expressing a value or rate (sell at £10 each). 6 a with or with reference to (annoyed at losing; came at a run). B by means of (starts at a touch). 7 expressing motion or aim towards (aim at the target; laughed at us). at all see *all. At hand see hand. At home see home. At it engaged in an activity; working hard. At once see once. At that 1 moreover (a good one at that). 2 then (at that he left). At times see time. [old english]
Atavism n. 1 reappearance of a remote ancestral characteristic, throwback. 2 reversion to an earlier type. atavistic adj. [latin atavus ancestor]
Ataxia n. Med. Imperfect control of bodily movements. [greek a-without, taxis order]
Ate past of *eat.
-ate1 suffix forming nouns denoting status, function, or office (doctorate;
Athlete n. Person who engages in athletics, exercise, etc. [greek athlon prize]
Athlete’s foot n. Fungal foot condition.
Athletic adj. 1 of athletes or athletics. 2 physically strong or agile. athletically adv. Athleticism n. [latin: related to *athlete]
Athletics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Physical exercises, esp. Track and field
Athletics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Physical exercises, esp. Track and field events.
At-home n. Social reception in a person’s home.
-ation suffix 1 forming nouns denoting an action or an instance of it (flirtation; hesitation). 2 forming nouns denoting a result or product of action (plantation; starvation). [latin -atio]
Atlantic adj. Of or adjoining the ocean between europe and africa to the east and america to the west. [greek: related to *atlas]
Atlas n. Book of maps or charts. [greek atlas, the titan who held up the universe]
Atmosphere n. 1 a gases enveloping the earth, any other planet, etc. B air in a room etc., esp. If fetid. 2 pervading tone or mood of a place, situation, or work of art. 3 unit of pressure equal to mean atmospheric pressure at sea level, 101,325 pascals. atmospheric adj. [greek atmos vapour, *sphere]
Atmospherics n.pl. 1 electrical atmospheric disturbance, esp. Caused by lightning. 2 interference with telecommunications caused by this.
Atoll n. Ring-shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon. [maldive]
Atom n. 1 a smallest particle of a chemical element that can take part in a chemical reaction. B this as a source of nuclear energy. 2 minute portion or thing
chemical reaction. B this as a source of nuclear energy. 2 minute portion or thing (atom of pity). [greek atomos indivisible]
Atom n. 1 a smallest particle of a chemical element that can take part in a chemical reaction. B this as a source of nuclear energy. 2 minute portion or thing (atom of pity). [greek atomos indivisible]
Atom bomb n. Bomb in which energy is released by nuclear fission.
Atomic adj. 1 of or using atomic energy or atomic bombs. 2 of atoms.
Atomic bomb n. = *atom bomb.
Atomic energy n. Nuclear energy.
Atomic mass n. Mass of an atom measured in atomic mass units.
Atomic mass unit n. Unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular weights, equal to one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Atomic number n. Number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
Atomic theory n. Theory that all matter consists of atoms.
Atomic weight n. = *relative atomic mass.
Atomic weight n. = *relative atomic mass.
Atomize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) reduce to atoms or fine particles.
Atomizer n. (also -iser) = *aerosol 1.
Atonal adj. Mus. Not written in any key or mode. atonality n.
Atone v. (-ning) (usu. Foll. By for) make amends (for a wrong). [from *atonement]
Atonement n. 1 atoning. 2 (the atonement) expiation by christ of mankind’s sins. [at one + *-ment]
Atrium n. (pl. -s or atria) 1 a central court of an ancient roman house. B (usu. Skylit) central court rising through several storeys. 2 each of the two upper cavities of the heart. [latin]
Atrocious adj. 1 very bad or unpleasant (atrocious manners). 2 wicked (atrocious cruelty). atrociously adv. [latin atrox cruel]
Atrocity n. (pl. -ies) 1 wicked or cruel act. 2 extreme wickedness. [latin: related to *atrocious]
Atrophy —n. Wasting away, esp. Through disuse; emaciation. —v. (-ies, -ied) suffer atrophy or cause atrophy in. [greek a-without, trophe food]
Atropine n. Poisonous alkaloid in deadly nightshade. [greek atropos, the fate who cut the thread of life]
Attach v. 1 fasten, affix, join. 2 (in passive; foll. By to) be very fond of. 3 attribute or be attributable; assign (can’t attach a name to it; no blame attaches to us). 4 accompany; form part of (no conditions are attached). 5 refl. (usu. Foll. By to) take part in; join (attached himself to the team). 6 seize by legal authority. [french from germanic]
Attaché n. Specialist member of an ambassador’s staff.
Attaché case n. Small rectangular document case.
Attachment n. 1 thing attached, esp. For a purpose. 2 affection, devotion. 3 attaching or being attached. 4 legal seizure. 5 temporary position in an organization.
Attack —v. 1 try to hurt or defeat using force. 2 criticize adversely. 3 act harmfully upon (rust attacks metal). 4 vigorously apply oneself to. 5 sport try to gain ground or score (against). —n. 1 act of attacking. 2 offensive operation. 3 sudden onset of an illness. attacker n. [french from italian]
Attain v. 1 reach, gain, accomplish (a goal etc.). 2 (foll. By to) arrive at by effort or development. [latin attingo reach]
or development. [latin attingo reach]
Attainment n. 1 (often in pl.) Accomplishment or achievement. 2 attaining.
Attar n. Perfume made from rose-petals. [persian]
Attempt —v. 1 (often foll. By to + infin.) Try to do or achieve (attempted to explain). 2 try to conquer (a mountain etc.). —n. (often foll. By at, on, or to + infin.) Attempting; endeavour (attempt at winning; attempt on his life). [latin tempto try]
Attend v. 1 a be present (at) (attended the meeting). B go regularly to (attends church). 2 escort. 3 a (often foll. By to) turn or apply one’s mind. B (foll. By to) deal with (attend to the matter). [latin tendo stretch]
Attendance n. 1 attending or being present. 2 number present (high attendance).
Attendant —n. Person escorting or providing a service (cloakroom attendant). — adj. 1 accompanying (attendant costs). 2 (often foll. By on) waiting (attendant on the queen).
Attendee n. Person who attends (a meeting etc.).
Attendee n. Person who attends (a meeting etc.).
Attention n. 1 act or faculty of applying one’s mind; notice (attention wandered; attract his attention). 2 consideration, care. 3 (in pl.) A courtesies. B sexual
attract his attention). 2 consideration, care. 3 (in pl.) A courtesies. B sexual advances. 4 erect esp. Military attitude of readiness.
Attenuate v. (-ting) 1 make thin. 2 reduce in force, value, etc. attenuation n. [latin tenuis thin]
Attest v. 1 certify the validity of. 2 (foll. By to) bear witness to. attestation n. [latin testis witness]
Attic —adj. Of ancient athens or attica, or the form of greek used there. —n. Greek as used by the ancient athenians. [greek attikos]
Attic n. Space or room at the top of a house, usu. Under the roof. [from *attic, with ref. To an architectural feature]
Attire formal —n. Clothes, esp. Formal. —v. (-ring) (usu. As attired adj.) Dress, esp. Formally. [french à tire in order]
Attitude n. 1 opinion or way of thinking; behaviour reflecting this (don’t like his attitude). 2 bodily posture; pose. 3 position of an aircraft etc. Relative to given points. [latin aptus fitted]
Attitudinize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) adopt (esp. Affected) attitudes; pose.
Attitudinize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) adopt (esp. Affected) attitudes; pose.
Attorney n. (pl. -s) 1 lawyer etc. Appointed to act for another in business or legal matters. 2 us qualified lawyer. [french atorner assign]
Attorney-general n. (pl. Attorneys-general) chief legal officer in some countries.
Attract v. 1 (also absol.) (of a magnet etc.) Draw to itself or oneself. 2 arouse interest or admiration in. [latin traho draw]
Attraction n. 1 a attracting or being attracted. B attractive quality (can’t see the attraction in it). C person or thing that attracts. 2 physics tendency of bodies to attract each other.
Attribute —v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By to) 1 regard as belonging to, written or said by, etc. (a poem attributed to milton). 2 ascribe to (a cause) (delays attributed to snow). —n. 1 esp. Characteristic quality ascribed to a person or thing. 2 object symbolizing or appropriate to a person, office, or status. attributable adj. Attribution n. [latin tribuo allot]
Attributive adj. Gram. (of an adjective or noun) preceding the word described, as old in the old dog.
Attrition n. 1 gradual wearing down (war of attrition). 2 abrasion, friction. [latin tero trit-rub]
Attune v. (-ning) 1 (usu. Foll. By to) adjust to a situation etc. 2 mus. Tune. [related to *tune]
Atypical adj. Not typical. atypically adv.
Au symb. Gold. [latin aurum]
Aubergine n. Plant with white or purple egg-shaped fruit used as a vegetable; eggplant. [french, ultimately from sanskrit]
Aubrietia n. (also aubretia) dwarf perennial rock-plant with purple or pink flowers. [aubriet, name of an artist]
Auburn adj. Reddish-brown (usu. Of hair). [originally = yellowish white: from latin albus white]
Auction —n. Sale in which articles are sold to the highest bidder. —v. Sell by auction. [latin augeo auct-increase]
Auction bridge n. Game in which players bid for the right to name trumps.
Auctioneer n. Person who conducts auctions, esp. For a living.
Audible adj. Able to be heard. audibility n. Audibly adv. [latin audio hear]
Audience n. 1 a assembled listeners or spectators, esp. At a play, concert, etc. B people addressed by a film, book, etc. 2 formal interview with a superior. [latin: related to *audible]
Audio n. (usu. Attrib.) Sound or its reproduction. [latin audio hear]
Audio-comb. Form hearing or sound.
Audio frequency n. Frequency able to be perceived by the human ear.
Audiotape n. (also audio tape) 1 a magnetic tape for recording sound. B a length of this. 2 a sound recording on tape.
Audiotape n. (also audio tape) 1 a magnetic tape for recording sound. B a length of this. 2 a sound recording on tape.
Audio typist n. Person who types from a tape-recording.
Audiovisual adj. (of teaching methods etc.) Using both sight and sound.
Audit —n. Official scrutiny of accounts. —v. (-t-) conduct an audit of.
Audition —n. Test of a performer’s suitability or ability. —v. Assess or be assessed at an audition. [latin audio hear]
Auditor n. Person who audits accounts. [french from latin]
Auditorium n. (pl. -s) part of a theatre etc. For the audience. [latin]
Auditory adj. Of hearing.
Au fait predic. Adj. (usu. Foll. By with) conversant (au fait with the rules). [french]
Aug. Abbr. August.
Augean adj. Filthy. [greek augeas, a mythical king: his filthy stables were cleaned by hercules diverting a river through them]
Auger n. Tool with a screw point for boring in wood. [old english]
Aught n. Archaic anything. [old english]
Augment v. Make or become greater; increase. augmentation n. [latin: related to *auction]
Augmentative adj. Augmenting.
Au gratin adj. Cooked with a crust of breadcrumbs or melted cheese. [french]
Augur —v. Portend, serve as an omen (augur well or ill). —n. Hist. Roman religious official interpreting natural phenomena in order to pronounce on proposed actions. [latin]
Augury n. (pl. -ies) 1 omen. 2 interpretation of omens.
August n. Eighth month of the year. [latin augustus, first roman emperor]
August adj. Venerable, imposing. [latin]
Augustan adj. 1 of the reign of augustus, esp. As a flourishing literary period. 2 (of literature) refined and classical in style. [latin: see *august]
Auk n. Black and white sea bird with short wings, e.g. The guillemot, puffin, etc. [old norse]
Auld lang syne n. Times long past. [scots, = old long since]
Aunt n. 1 sister of one’s father or mother. 2 uncle’s wife. 3 colloq. (form of address by a child to) parent’s female friend. [latin amita]
Auntie n. (also aunty) (pl. -ies) colloq. = *aunt.
Aunt sally n. 1 game in which sticks or balls are thrown at a wooden dummy. 2 target of general abuse.
Au pair n. Young foreigner, esp. A woman, helping with housework etc. In exchange for board and lodging. [french]
Aura n. (pl. -s) 1 distinctive atmosphere. 2 subtle emanation. [greek, = breeze]
Aural adj. Of the ear or hearing. aurally adv. [latin auris ear]
Aureole n. (also aureola) 1 halo or circle of light, esp. In a religious painting. 2 corona round the sun or moon. [latin, = golden (crown)]
corona round the sun or moon. [latin, = golden (crown)]
Au revoir int. & n. Goodbye (until we meet again). [french]
Auricle n. 1 each atrium of the heart. 2 external ear of animals. auricular adj. [related to *auricula]
Auricula n. (pl. -s) primula with ear-shaped leaves. [latin, diminutive of auris ear]
Auriferous adj. Yielding gold. [latin aurifer from aurum gold]
Aurochs n. (pl. Same) extinct wild ox. [german]
Aurora n. (pl. -s or aurorae) luminous phenomenon, usu. Of streamers of light in the night sky above the northern (aurora borealis) or southern (aurora australis) magnetic pole. [latin, = dawn, goddess of dawn]
Auscultation n. Listening, esp. To sounds from the heart, lungs, etc., for purposes of diagnosis. [latin ausculto listen]
Auspice n. 1 (in pl.) Patronage (esp. Under the auspices of). 2 omen, premonition. [originally ‘observation of bird-flight’: latin avis bird]
Austral adj. 1 southern. 2 (austral) of australia or australasia. [latin auster south]
Austral adj. 1 southern. 2 (austral) of australia or australasia. [latin auster south]
Australasian adj. Of australasia, including australia and the islands of the sw pacific.
Australian —n. 1 native or national of australia. 2 person of australian descent. —adj. Of australia.
Autarchy n. Absolute rule; despotism. [greek autos self, arkhe rule]
Autarky n. Self-sufficiency, esp. Economic. [greek autos self, arkeo suffice]
Authentic adj. 1 of undisputed origin; genuine. 2 reliable, trustworthy.
Authentic adj. 1 of undisputed origin; genuine. 2 reliable, trustworthy. authentically adv. Authenticity n. [greek authentikos]
Authenticate v. (-ting) establish as true, genuine, or valid. authentication n.
Author n. (fem. Authoress) 1 writer, esp. Of books. 2 originator of an idea, event, etc. [latin auctor]
Authoritarian —adj. Favouring or enforcing strict obedience to authority. —n. Authoritarian person.
Authoritative adj. 1 reliable, esp. Having authority. 2 official.
Authority n. (pl. -ies) 1 a power or right to enforce obedience. B (often foll. By for, or to + infin.) Delegated power. 2 (esp. In pl.) Body having authority. 3 influence based on recognized knowledge or expertise. 4 expert. [latin auctoritas]
Authorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 officially approve, sanction. 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Give authority to (a person to do a thing). authorization n.
Authorized version n. English translation of the bible made in 1611.
Authorship n. 1 origin of a book etc. 2 profession of an author.
Autism n. Condition characterized by self-absorption and social withdrawal. autistic adj. [related to *auto-]
Auto n. (pl. -s) us colloq. Car. [abbreviation of *automobile]
Auto-comb. Form 1 self. 2 one’s own. 3 of or by oneself or itself. [greek autos]
Autobahn n. (pl. -s) german, austrian, or swiss motorway. [german]
Autobiography n. (pl. -ies) 1 written account of one’s own life. 2 this as a literary genre. autobiographer n. Autobiographical adj.
Autoclave n. Sterilizer using high-pressure steam. [latin clavus nail or clavis key]
Autocracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 rule by an autocrat. 2 dictatorship. [greek kratos power]
Autocross n. Motor racing across country or on unmade roads.
Autocue n. Propr. Screen etc. From which a speaker reads a television script.
Auto-da-fé n. (pl. Autos-da-fé) 1 hist. Ceremonial judgement of heretics by the spanish inquisition. 2 public burning of heretics. [portuguese, = act of the faith]
Autograph —n. Signature, esp. That of a celebrity. —v. Sign or write on in one’s own hand. [greek grapho write]
Autoimmune adj. (of a disease) caused by antibodies produced against substances naturally present in the body.
Automat n. Us 1 slot-machine. 2 cafeteria dispensing food and drink from slot-machines. [french: related to *automaton]
Automate v. (-ting) convert to or operate by automation.
Automatic —adj. 1 working by itself, without direct human intervention. 2 a done spontaneously (automatic reaction). B following inevitably (automatic penalty). 3 (of a firearm) able to be loaded and fired continuously. 4 (of a vehicle or its transmission) using gears that change automatically. —n. 1 automatic machine, firearm, or tool. 2 vehicle with automatic transmission. automatically adv. [related to *automaton]
Automatic pilot n. Device for keeping an aircraft or ship on a set course.
Automation n. 1 use of automatic equipment in place of manual labour. 2 production of goods etc. By this.
Automatism n. 1 involuntary action. 2 unthinking routine. [french: related to *automaton]
Automaton n. (pl. -mata or -s) 1 machine controlled automatically; robot. 2 person acting like a robot. [greek, = acting of itself]
Automobile n. Us motor car. [french]
Automotive adj. Of motor vehicles.
Automotive adj. Of motor vehicles.
Autonomous adj. 1 having self-government. 2 acting or free to act independently. [greek nomos law]
Autonomy n. 1 self-government. 2 personal freedom.
Autopilot n. = *automatic pilot.
Autopsy n. (pl. -ies) post-mortem. [greek autoptes eyewitness]
Autoroute n. French motorway. [french]
Autostrada n. (pl. -s or -strade) italian motorway. [italian]
Auto-suggestion n. Hypnotic or subconscious suggestion made to oneself.
Autumn n. 1 (often attrib.) Season between summer and winter. 2 time of incipient decline. autumnal adj. [latin autumnus]
Autumn equinox n. (also autumnal equinox) equinox about 22 sept.
Auxiliary —adj. 1 subsidiary, additional. 2 giving help. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 auxiliary person or thing. 2 (in pl.) Foreign or allied troops in the service of a nation at war. 3 verb used to form tenses or moods of other verbs (e.g. Have in i have seen). [latin auxilium help]
Auxin n. Plant hormone that regulates growth.
Av abbr. Authorized version.
Avail —v. 1 help; be of use. 2 refl. (foll. By of) make use of, profit by. —n. Use, profit (of no avail). [latin valeo be strong]
Available adj. 1 at one’s disposal, obtainable. 2 a (of a person) free, not
Available adj. 1 at one’s disposal, obtainable. 2 a (of a person) free, not committed. B able to be contacted. availability n.
Avalanche n. 1 rapidly sliding mass of snow and ice on a mountain. 2 sudden abundance (avalanche of work). [french]
Avarice n. Extreme greed for wealth. avaricious adj. [latin avarus greedy]
Avatar n. (in hindu mythology) descent of a deity etc. To earth in bodily form. [sanskrit, = descent]
Ave n. (in full ave maria) prayer to the virgin mary (luke 1:28). [latin]
Ave. Abbr. Avenue.
Avenge v. (-ging) 1 inflict retribution on behalf of. 2 take vengeance for (an injury). be avenged avenge oneself. [latin vindico]
Avenue n. 1 a broad esp. Tree-lined road or street. B tree-lined path etc. 2 approach (explored every avenue). [french avenir come to]
Aver v. (-rr-) formal assert, affirm. averment n. [latin verus true]
Average —n. 1 usual amount, extent, or rate. 2 amount obtained by adding two or more numbers and dividing by how many there are. 3 (with ref. To speed etc.) Ratio obtained by subtracting the inital from the final value of each element of the ratio (average of 50 miles per hour). 4 law damage to or loss of a ship or cargo. —adj. 1 a usual, ordinary. B mediocre. 2 constituting an average (the average age is 72). —v. (-ging) 1 amount on average to. 2 do on average. 3 estimate the average of. average out (at) result in an average (of). Law of averages principle that if one of two extremes occurs the other will also. On (or on an) average as an average rate or estimate. [arabic, = damaged goods]
Avionics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Electronics as applied to aviation. [from *aviation, *electronics]
Avocado n. (pl. -s) 1 (in full avocado pear) dark green edible pear-shaped fruit with yellowish-green creamy flesh. 2 tree bearing it. [spanish from aztec]
Avocet n. Long-legged wading bird with an upward-curved bill. [french from italian]
Avocet n. Long-legged wading bird with an upward-curved bill. [french from italian]
Avoid v. 1 keep away or refrain from. 2 escape; evade. 3 law quash, annul. avoidable adj. Avoidance n. [french]
Avoirdupois n. (in full avoirdupois weight) system of weights based on a pound of 16 ounces or 7,000 grains. [french, = goods of weight]
Avow v. Formal declare, confess. avowal n. Avowedly adv. [latin voco call]
Avuncular adj. Like or of an uncle, esp. In manner. [latin avunculus uncle]
Await v. 1 wait for. 2 be in store for. [french: related to *wait]
Awake —v. (-king; past awoke; past part. Awoken) 1 cease to sleep or arouse from sleep. 2 (often foll. By to) become or make alert, aware, or active. — predic. Adj. 1 not asleep. 2 (often foll. By to) alert, aware. [old english: related to *a2]
Awaken v. = *awake v.
Usage awake and awaken are interchangeable but awaken is much rarer than awake as an intransitive verb.
Award —v. Give or order to be given as a payment or prize. —n. 1 thing or amount awarded. 2 judicial decision. [french]
Aware predic. Adj. 1 (often foll. By of or that) conscious; having knowledge. 2 well-informed. awareness n. [old english]
Usage aware is also found used attributively in sense 2, as in ‘a very aware person’, but this should be avoided in formal contexts.
Awash predic. Adj. 1 level with the surface of, and just covered by, water. 2 (foll. By with) overflowing, abounding.
Away —adv. 1 to or at a distance from the place, person, or thing in question (go, give, look, away; 5 miles away). 2 into non-existence (explain, fade, away). 3 constantly, persistently (work away). 4 without delay (ask away). —attrib. Adj. Sport not played on one’s own ground (away match). —n. Sport away match or win. [old english: related to a2, way]
Awe —n. Reverential fear or wonder. —v. (awing) inspire with awe. [old norse]
Aweigh predic. Adj. (of an anchor) clear of the bottom.
Awe-inspiring adj. Awesome; magnificent.
Awesome adj. Inspiring awe; dreaded.
Awful adj. 1 colloq. Very bad or unpleasant (has awful writing; awful weather). 2 (attrib.) As an intensifier (awful lot of money). 3 poet. Inspiring awe.
Ax (brit. Axe) —n. 1 chopping-tool with a handle and heavy blade. 2 (the ax) dismissal (of employees); abandonment of a project etc. —v. (axing) cut (esp. Costs or staff) drastically; abandon (a project). an ax to grind private ends to serve. [old english]
Axe (us ax) —n. 1 chopping-tool with a handle and heavy blade. 2 (the axe) dismissal (of employees); abandonment of a project etc. —v. (axing) cut (esp. Costs or staff) drastically; abandon (a project). an axe to grind private ends to serve. [old english]
Axial adj. Of, forming, or placed round an axis.
Axil n. Upper angle between a leaf and stem. [latin axilla armpit]
Axiom n. 1 established or accepted principle. 2 self-evident truth. axiomatic adj. [greek axios worthy]
Axis n. (pl. Axes) 1 a imaginary line about which a body rotates. B line which divides a regular figure symmetrically. 2 fixed reference line for the measurement of coordinates etc. 3 (the axis) alliance of germany, italy, and later japan, in the war of 1939–45. [latin, = axle]
Axis n. (pl. Axes) 1 a imaginary line about which a body rotates. B line which divides a regular figure symmetrically. 2 fixed reference line for the measurement of coordinates etc. 3 (the axis) alliance of germany, italy, and later japan, in the war of 1939–45. [latin, = axle]
Axle n. Spindle on which a wheel is fixed or turns. [old norse]
Axolotl n. Newtlike salamander, which in natural conditions retains its larval form of life. [nahuatl, = water-servant]
Ayatollah n. Shiite religious leader in iran. [persian from arabic, = token of god]
Ayatollah n. Shiite religious leader in iran. [persian from arabic, = token of god]
Aye —adv. Archaic or dial. Yes. —n. Affirmative answer or vote. [probably from i, expressing assent]
Azalea n. A kind of rhododendron. [greek azaleos dry]
Azimuth n. Angular distance from a north or south point of the horizon to the intersection with the horizon of a vertical circle passing through a given celestial body. azimuthal adj. [french from arabic]
Azt abbr. Drug intended for use against the aids virus. [from the chemical name]
Aztec —n. 1 member of the native mexican people overthrown by the spanish in 1519. 2 language of this people. —adj. Of the aztecs or their language. [nahuatl, = men of the north]
Azure —n. 1 deep sky-blue colour. 2 poet. Clear sky. —adj. Deep sky-blue. [arabic]
B
B1 n. (pl. Bs or b’s) 1 (also b) second letter of the alphabet. 2 mus. Seventh note of the diatonic scale of c major. 3 second hypothetical person or example. 4 second highest category (of roads, academic marks, etc.). 5 (usu. B) algebra second known quantity.
Babble —v. (-ling) 1 a talk, chatter, or say incoherently or excessively. B (of a stream etc.) Murmur. 2 repeat or divulge foolishly. —n. 1 babbling. 2 murmur of voices, water, etc. [imitative]
Babe n. 1 literary baby. 2 innocent or helpless person. 3 us slang young woman. [as *baby]
Babel n. 1 confused noise, esp. Of voices. 2 scene of confusion. [hebrew, = babylon (gen. 11)]
Baboon n. Large long-nosed african and arabian monkey. [french or medieval latin]
Baby —n. (pl. -ies) 1 very young child. 2 childish person. 3 youngest member of a family etc. 4 (often attrib.) A very young animal. B small specimen. 5 slang sweetheart. 6 one’s special concern etc. —v. (-ies, -ied) treat like a baby; pamper. babyhood n. Babyish adj. [imitative of child’s ba ba]
Baby boom n. Colloq. Temporary increase in the birthrate.
Baby buggy n. Propr. A kind of child’s pushchair.
Baby carriage n. Us pram.
Baby grand n. Small grand piano.
Babygro n. (pl. -s) propr. Stretchy all-in-one baby suit.
Babysit v. (-tt-; past and past part. -sat) look after a child while its parents are out. babysitter n.
Baccalaureate n. Final secondary school examination in france and many international schools. [medieval latin baccalaureus bachelor]
Baccarat n. Gambling card-game. [french]
Bacchanal —n. 1 drunken revelry or reveller. 2 priest or follower of bacchus. — adj. 1 of or like bacchus. 2 drunkenly riotous. [latin bacchus from greek, god of wine]
Bacchanalia n.pl. 1 roman festival of bacchus. 2 (bacchanalia) drunken revelry.
Bacchant —n. (fem. Bacchante) 1 priest or follower of bacchus. 2 drunken reveller. —adj. 1 of or like bacchus or his rites. 2 drunkenly riotous, roistering.
Bacchic adj. = *bacchanal adj.
Baccy n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Tobacco. [abbreviation]
Bachelor n. 1 unmarried man. 2 person with a university first degree. bachelorhood n. [related to *baccalaureate]
Bachelor girl n. Independent young single woman.
Bacillus n. (pl. Bacilli) rod-shaped bacterium, esp. One causing disease. bacillary adj. [latin, diminutive of baculus stick]
Back —n. 1 a rear surface of the human body from shoulder to hip. B upper surface of an animal’s body. C spine (broke his back). D keel of a ship. 2 backlike surface (back of the head, chair, shirt). 3 reverse or more distant part (back of the room; sat in the back; write it on the back). 4 defensive player in football etc. —adv. 1 to the rear (go back a bit; looked back). 2 in or into a previous state, place, or time (came back; put it back; back in june). 3 at a distance (stand back). 4 in return (pay back). 5 in check (hold him back). —v. 1 a give moral or financial support to. B bet on (a horse etc.). 2 (often foll. By up) move backwards. 3 a put or serve as a back, background, or support to. B mus. Accompany. 4 lie at the back of (beach backed by cliffs). 5 (of the wind) move anticlockwise. —adj. 1 situated to the rear; remote, subsidiary (back teeth). 2 past; not current (back pay; back issue). 3 reversed (back flow). back and forth to and fro. Back down withdraw from confrontation. The back of beyond very remote place. Back off 1 draw back, retreat. 2 = back down. Back on to have its back adjoining (backs on to a field). Back out (often foll. By of) withdraw from a commitment. Back-pedal reverse one’s action or opinion. Back to back with backs adjacent and facing each other (stood back to back). Back up 1 give (esp. Moral) support to. 2 computing make a backup of (data, a disk, etc.). Get (or put) a person’s back up annoy a person. Get off a person’s back stop troubling a person. Turn one’s back on abandon; ignore. backer n. (in sense 1 of v.). Backless adj. [old english]
Backache n. Ache in the back.
Back-bencher n. Mp not holding a senior office.
Backbiting n. Malicious talk. backbite v.
Back-boiler n. Boiler behind a domestic fire.
Backbone n. 1 spine. 2 chief support. 3 firmness of character.
Back-breaking adj. (esp. Of manual work) extremely hard.
Back-burner n. on the back-burner receiving little attention.
Backchat n. Colloq. Verbal insolence.
Backcloth n. 1 painted cloth at the back of a stage. 2 background to a scene or situation.
Backcomb v. Comb (the hair) towards the scalp to give it fullness.
Back-crawl n. = *backstroke.
Backdate v. (-ting) 1 make retrospectively valid. 2 put an earlier date to than the actual one.
Back door n. Secret or ingenious means.
Backdrop n. = *backcloth.
Backfire v. (-ring) 1 (of an engine or vehicle) ignite or explode too early in the cylinder or exhaust. 2 (of a plan etc.) Rebound adversely on its originator.
Back-formation n. 1 formation of a word from its seeming derivative (e.g. Laze from lazy). 2 word so formed.
Backgammon n. Board-game with pieces moved according to throws of the dice. [from *back + obsolete form of *game1]
Background n. 1 part of a scene or picture furthest from the observer. 2 (often attrib.) Inconspicuous position (kept in the background; background music). 3 person’s education, social circumstances, etc. 4 explanatory or contributory information or events.
Backhand —attrib. Adj. (of a stroke) made with the hand across one’s body. — n. Such a stroke.
Backhanded adj. 1 made with the back of the hand. 2 indirect; ambiguous (backhanded compliment).
Backhander n. 1 a backhand stroke. B backhanded blow. 2 slang bribe.
Backing n. 1 a support, esp. Financial or moral. B material used for a thing’s back or support. 2 musical accompaniment, esp. To a pop singer.
back or support. 2 musical accompaniment, esp. To a pop singer.
Backing track n. Recorded musical accompaniment.
Backlash n. 1 violent, usu. Hostile, reaction. 2 sudden recoil in a mechanism.
Backlist n. Publisher’s list of books still in print.
Backlog n. Arrears of work.
Back number n. 1 out-of-date issue of a periodical. 2 slang out-of-date person or thing.
Backpack —n. Rucksack. —v. Travel or hike with this. backpacker n.
Back passage n. Colloq. Rectum.
Backrest n. Support for the back.
Back room n. (often, with hyphen, attrib.) Place where secret work is done.
Back seat n. Less prominent or important position.
Back seat n. Less prominent or important position.
Back-seat driver n. Person eager to advise without taking responsibility.
Backside n. Colloq. Buttocks.
Back slang n. Slang using words spelt backwards (e.g. Yob).
Backslide v. (-ding; past -slid; past part. -slid or -slidden) return to bad habits etc.
Backspace v. (-cing) move a typewriter carriage etc. Back one or more spaces.
Backspin n. Backward spin making a ball bounce erratically.
Backstage adv. & adj. Behind the scenes.
Backstairs —n.pl. Rear or side stairs of a building. —attrib. Adj. (also backstair) underhand; secret.
Backstitch n. Sewing with each stitch starting behind the end of the previous one.
Back-stop n. 1 cricket etc. A position directly behind the wicket-keeper. B fielder in this position. 2 last resort.
Back-to-back adj. (of houses) with a party wall at the rear.
Back to front adj. 1 with back and front reversed. 2 in disorder.
Back-to-nature attrib. Adj. Seeking a simpler way of life.
Backtrack v. 1 retrace one’s steps. 2 reverse one’s policy or opinion.
Backup n. (often attrib.) 1 support; reserve (back-up team). 2 computing a making of spare copies of data for safety. B copy so made.
Backward —adv. = *backwards. —adj. 1 towards the rear or starting-point (backward look). 2 reversed (backward roll). 3 slow to develop or progress. 4 hesitant, shy.
Backwards adv. 1 away from one’s front (lean backwards). 2 a with the back
Backwards adv. 1 away from one’s front (lean backwards). 2 a with the back foremost (walk backwards). B in reverse of the usual way (count backwards). 3 a into a worse state. B into the past. C (of motion) back towards the starting-point (roll backwards). backwards and forwards to and fro. Bend (or fall or lean) over backwards colloq. Make every effort, esp. To be fair or helpful.
Backwash n. 1 receding waves made by a ship etc. 2 repercussions.
Backwater n. 1 peaceful, secluded, or dull place. 2 stagnant water fed from a stream.
Bacon n. Cured meat from the back or sides of a pig. [french from germanic]
Bacteriology n. The study of bacteria.
Bacterium n. (pl. -ria) unicellular micro-organism lacking an organized nucleus, esp. Of a kind causing disease. bacterial adj. [greek, = little stick]
Bad —adj. (worse, worst) 1 inadequate, defective (bad work, light). 2 unpleasant (bad weather). 3 harmful (is bad for you). 4 (of food) decayed. 5 colloq. Ill, injured (feeling bad today; a bad leg). 6 colloq. Regretful, guilty (feels bad about it). 7 serious, severe (a bad headache, mistake). 8 a morally unacceptable (bad man; bad language). B naughty. 9 not valid (a bad cheque). 10 (badder, baddest)
man; bad language). B naughty. 9 not valid (a bad cheque). 10 (badder, baddest) esp. Us slang excellent. —n. Ill fortune; ruin. —adv. Us colloq. Badly. not (or not so) bad colloq. Fairly good. Too bad colloq. Regrettable. [old english]
Bad blood n. Ill feeling.
Bad books see *book.
Bad breath n. Unpleasant-smelling breath.
Bad debt n. Debt that is not recoverable.
Baddy n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Villain in a story, film, etc.
Bade see *bid.
Bad egg see *egg1.
Bad faith n. Intent to deceive.
Badge n. 1 small flat emblem worn to signify office, membership, etc., or as decoration. 2 thing that reveals a condition or quality. [origin unknown]
Badger —n. Nocturnal burrowing mammal with a black and white striped head. —v. Pester, harass. [origin uncertain]
Badinage n. Playful ridicule. [french]
Bad lot n. Person of bad character.
Badly adv. (worse, worst) 1 in a bad manner. 2 colloq. Very much (wants it badly). 3 severely (badly defeated).
Badminton n. Game with rackets and a shuttlecock. [badminton in s. England]
Bad-mouth v. Esp. Us slang abuse verbally, put down.
Bad news n. Colloq. Unpleasant or troublesome person or thing.
Bad-tempered adj. Irritable.
Baffle —v. (-ling) 1 perplex. 2 frustrate, hinder. —n. Device that checks flow esp. Of fluid or sound waves. bafflement n. [origin uncertain]
Bafta abbr. British association of film and television arts.
Bag —n. 1 soft open-topped receptacle. 2 a piece of luggage. B woman’s handbag. 3 (in pl.; usu. Foll. By of) colloq. Large amount (bags of time). 4 slang derog. Woman. 5 animal’s sac. 6 amount of game shot by one person. 7 (usu. In pl.) Baggy skin under the eyes. 8 slang particular interest (folk music is not my bag). —v. (-gg-) 1 colloq. A secure (bagged the best seat). B (often in phr. Bags i) colloq. Claim as being the first (bags i go next). 2 put in a bag. 3 (cause to) hang loosely; bulge. in the bag colloq. Achieved, secured. bagful n. (pl. -s). [origin unknown]
Bagatelle n. 1 game in which small balls are struck into holes on a board. 2 mere trifle. 3 short piece of esp. Piano music. [french from italian]
Bagel n. Ring-shaped bread roll. [yiddish]
Baggage n. 1 luggage. 2 portable army equipment. 3 joc. Or derog. Girl or woman. 4 mental encumbrances. [french]
Baggy adj. (-ier, -iest) hanging loosely. baggily adv. Bagginess n.
Bagpipe n. (usu. In pl.) Musical instrument consisting of a windbag connected to reeded pipes.
Baguette n. Long thin french loaf. [french]
Bah int. Expressing contempt or disbelief. [french]
Baha’i n. (pl. -s) member of a monotheistic religion emphasizing religious unity and world peace. [persian bahá splendour]
Bail1 —n. 1 money etc. Pledged against the temporary release of an untried prisoner. 2 person(s) giving this. —v. (usu. Foll. By out) 1 release or secure the release of (a prisoner) on payment of bail. 2 release from a difficulty; rescue. on bail released after payment of bail. [latin bajulus carrier]
Bail2 n. 1 cricket either of two crosspieces bridging the stumps. 2 bar holding the paper against a typewriter platen. 3 bar separating horses in an open stable. [french]
Bail3 v. (also bale) 1 (usu. Foll. By out) scoop water out of (a boat etc.). 2 scoop (water etc.) Out. bail out var. Of bale out 1 (see *bale1). [french]
Bail2 n. 1 cricket either of two crosspieces bridging the stumps. 2 bar holding the paper against a typewriter platen. 3 bar separating horses in an open stable. [french]
Bail3 v. (also bale) 1 (usu. Foll. By out) scoop water out of (a boat etc.). 2 scoop (water etc.) Out. bail out var. Of bale out 1 (see *bale1). [french]
Bailey n. (pl. -s) 1 outer wall of a castle. 2 court enclosed by it. [french: related to *bail2]
Bailey bridge n. Prefabricated military bridge for rapid assembly. [sir d. Bailey, name of its designer]
name of its designer]
Bailiff n. 1 sheriff’s officer who executes writs and carries out distraints. 2 landlord’s agent or steward. [french: related to *bail1]
Bailiwick n. 1 law district of a bailiff. 2 joc. Person’s particular interest. [as *bailiff, obsolete wick district]
Bain-marie n. (pl. Bains-marie pronunc. Same) pan of hot water holding a pan containing sauce etc. For slow heating. [french, translation of medieval latin balneum mariae bath of maria (a supposed alchemist)]
Bairn n. Scot. & n.engl. Child. [old english: related to *bear1]
Bait —n. 1 food used to entice prey. 2 allurement. —v. 1 harass, torment, or annoy (a person or chained animal). 2 put bait on (a hook, trap, etc.). [old norse]
Baize n. Usu. Green woollen felted material, used for coverings. [french pl. Baies chestnut-coloured]
Bake v. (-king) 1 cook or become cooked by dry heat, esp. In an oven. 2 colloq. (usu. As be baking) (of weather, a person, etc.) Be very hot. 3 harden by heat. [old english]
Bakelite n. Propr. Plastic made from formaldehyde and phenol, used formerly for buttons, plates, etc. [german from baekeland, name of its inventor]
Baker n. Person who bakes and sells bread, cakes, etc., esp. For a living.
Baker day n. Colloq. Day set aside for in-service training of teachers. [baker, name of the education secretary responsible for introducing them]
Baker’s dozen n. Thirteen.
Bakery n. (pl. -ies) place where bread and cakes are made or sold.
Bakewell tart n. Open pastry case lined with jam and filled with almond paste. [bakewell in derbyshire]
Baking-powder n. Mixture of sodium bicarbonate, cream of tartar, etc., as a raising agent.
Baking-soda n. Sodium bicarbonate.
Baklava n. Rich sweetmeat of flaky pastry, honey, and nuts. [turkish]
Baksheesh n. Gratuity, tip. [persian]
Balaclava n. (in full balaclava helmet) usu. Woollen covering for the whole head and neck, except for the face. [balaclava in the crimea, the site of a battle in 1854]
Balalaika n. Guitar-like stringed instrument with a triangular body. [russian]
Balance —n. 1 a even distribution of weight or amount. B stability of body or mind. 2 apparatus for weighing, esp. One with a central pivot, beam, and two scales. 3 a counteracting weight or force. B (in full balance-wheel) regulating device in a clock etc. 4 decisive weight or amount (balance of opinion). 5 a agreement or difference between credits and debits in an account. B amount still owing or outstanding (will pay the balance). C amount left over. 6 a art harmony and proportion. B mus. Relative volume of sources of sound. 7 (the balance) zodiacal sign or constellation libra. —v. (-cing) 1 bring into, keep, or be in equilibrium (balanced a book on her head; balanced on one leg). 2 (often foll. By with, against) offset or compare (one thing) with another (balance the pros and cons). 3 counteract, equal, or neutralize the weight or importance of. 4 (usu. As balanced adj.) Make well-proportioned and harmonious (balanced diet; balanced opinion). 5 a compare and esp
Balance of payments n. Difference in value between payments into and out of a country.
Balance of power n. 1 situation of roughly equal power among the chief states of the world. 2 power held by a small group when larger groups are of equal strength.
Balance of trade n. Difference in value between imports and exports.
Balance sheet n. Statement giving the balance of an account.
Balcony n. (pl. -ies) 1 usu. Balustraded platform on the outside of a building with access from an upper floor. 2 upper tier of seats in a theatre etc. balconied adj. [italian]
Bald adj. 1 lacking some or all hair on the scalp. 2 lacking the usual hair, feathers, leaves, etc. 3 colloq. With a worn surface (bald tyre). 4 plain, direct (bald statement, style). balding adj. (in senses 1–3). Baldly adv. (in sense 4). Baldness n. [old english]
Balderdash n. Nonsense. [origin unknown]
Bale1 —n. Tightly bound bundle of merchandise or hay. —v. (-ling) make up into bales. bale out 1 (also bail out) (of an airman) make an emergency parachute descent. 2 var. Of *bail1 v. 2. [dutch: related to *ball1]
Bale2 var. Of *bail3.
Baleen n. Whalebone. [latin balaena whale]
Baleful adj. 1 menacing in look, manner, etc. 2 malignant, destructive. balefully adv. [archaic bale evil]
Balk var. Of *baulk.
Balkan adj. 1 of the region of se europe bounded by the adriatic, aegean, and black sea. 2 of its peoples or countries. [turkish]
Ball1 —n. 1 sphere, esp. For use in a game. 2 a ball-shaped object; material in the shape of a ball (ball of snow, wool). B rounded part of the body (ball of the foot). 3 cannon-ball. 4 single delivery or pass of a ball in cricket, baseball, football, etc. 5 (in pl.) Coarse slang a testicles. B (usu. As int.) Nonsense. C = *balls-up. D courage, ‘guts’. —v. Form into a ball. balls up coarse slang bungle; make a mess of. On the ball colloq. Alert. [old norse]
Ball2 n. 1 formal social gathering for dancing. 2 slang enjoyable time (esp. Have a ball). [greek ballo throw]
Ballad n. 1 poem or song narrating a popular story. 2 slow sentimental song. [provençal: related to *ball2]
Balladry n. Ballad poetry.
Ball-and-socket joint n. Joint in which a rounded end lies in a concave socket.
Ballast —n. 1 heavy material stabilizing a ship, the car of a balloon, etc. 2 coarse stone etc. As the bed of a railway track or road. 3 mixture of coarse and fine aggregate for making concrete. —v. Provide with ballast. [low german or scandinavian]
Ball-bearing n. 1 bearing in which the two halves are separated by a ring of small balls. 2 one of these balls.
Ballboy n. (fem. Ballgirl) (in tennis) boy or girl who retrieves balls.
Ballcock n. Floating ball on a hinged arm controlling the water level in a cistern.
Ballerina n. Female ballet-dancer. [italian: related to *ball2]
Ballet n. 1 dramatic or representational style of dancing to music. 2 particular piece or performance of ballet. balletic adj. [french: related to *ball2]
Ballet-dancer n. Dancer of ballet.
Ball game n. 1 a game played with a ball. B us baseball game. 2 esp. Us colloq. Affair; matter (a whole new ball game).
Ballista n. (pl. -stae) (in ancient warfare) catapult for hurling large stones etc. [latin from greek ballo throw]
Ballistic adj. Of projectiles.
Ballistic missile n. Missile that is powered and guided but falls by gravity.
Ballistics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Science of projectiles and firearms.
Ballocking var. Of *bollocking.
Ballocks var. Of *bollocks.
Balloon —n. 1 small inflatable rubber toy or decoration. 2 large usu. Round inflatable flying bag, often carrying a basket for passengers. 3 colloq. Balloon shape enclosing dialogue etc. In a comic strip or cartoon. —v. 1 (cause to) swell out like a balloon. 2 travel by balloon. balloonist n. [french or italian, = large ball]
Ballot —n. 1 occasion or system of voting, in writing and usu. Secret. 2 total of such votes. 3 paper etc. Used in voting. —v. (-t-) 1 (usu. Foll. By for) a hold a ballot; give a vote. B draw lots for precedence etc. 2 take a ballot of (balloted the members). [italian ballotta: related to *balloon]
Ballot-box n. Sealed box for completed ballot-papers.
Ballot-paper n. = *ballot n. 3.
Ballpark n. Us 1 baseball ground. 2 colloq. Sphere of activity, etc. 3 (attrib.) Colloq. Approximate. in the right ballpark colloq. Approximately correct.
Ball-point n. (in full ball-point pen) pen with a tiny ball as its writing point.
Ballroom n. Large room for dancing.
Ballroom dancing n. Formal social dancing.
Balls-up n. Coarse slang bungle, mess.
Bally adj. & adv. Slang mild form of bloody (see *bloody adj. 3). [alteration of *bloody]
Ballyhoo n. 1 loud noise or fuss. 2 noisy publicity. [origin unknown]
Balm n. 1 aromatic ointment. 2 fragrant oil or resin exuded from certain trees and plants. 3 thing that heals or soothes. 4 aromatic herb. [latin: related to *balsam]
Balmy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 mild and fragrant; soothing. 2 slang = *barmy. balmily adv. Balminess n.
Baloney var. Of *boloney.
Balsa n. 1 (in full balsa-wood) tough lightweight wood used for making models
etc. 2 tropical american tree yielding it. [spanish, = raft]
Balsam n. 1 resin exuded from various trees and shrubs. 2 ointment, esp. Containing oil or turpentine. 3 tree or shrub yielding balsam. 4 any of several flowering plants. balsamic adj. [latin balsamum]
Baluster n. Short post or pillar supporting a rail. [greek balaustion wild-pomegranate flower]
Usage baluster is often confused with banister. A baluster is usually part of a balustrade whereas a banister supports a stair handrail.
Balustrade n. Railing supported by balusters, esp. On a balcony. balustraded adj.
Bamboo n. 1 tropical giant woody grass. 2 its stem, used for canes, furniture, etc. [dutch from malay]
Bamboo shoot n. Young shoot of bamboo, eaten as a vegetable.
Bamboozle v. (-ling) colloq. Cheat; mystify. bamboozlement n. [origin unknown]
Ban —v. (-nn-) forbid, prohibit, esp. Formally. —n. Formal prohibition (ban on smoking). [old english, = summon]
Banal adj. Trite, commonplace. banality n. (pl. -ies). Banally adv. [french, related to *ban: originally = compulsory, hence = common]
Banana n. 1 long curved soft fruit with a yellow skin. 2 treelike plant bearing it. go bananas slang go mad. [portuguese or spanish, from an african name]
Banana republic n. Derog. Small state, esp. In central america, dependent on foreign capital.
Band —n. 1 flat, thin strip or loop of paper, metal, cloth, etc., put round something esp. To hold or decorate it. 2 a strip of material on a garment. B stripe. 3 group of esp. Non-classical musicians. 4 organized group of criminals etc. 5 range of frequencies, wavelengths, or values. 6 belt connecting wheels or pulleys. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By together) unite. 2 put a band on. 3 mark with stripes. [old norse (related to *bind) and french]
Bandage —n. Strip of material used to bind a wound etc. —v. (-ging) bind with a bandage. [french: related to *band]
Bandanna n. Large patterned handkerchief or neckerchief. [portuguese from hindi]
B. & b. Abbr. Bed and breakfast.
Bandbox n. Hatbox.
Bandeau n. (pl. -x) narrow headband. [french]
Banderole n. 1 long narrow flag with a cleft end. 2 ribbon-like inscribed scroll. [italian: related to *banner]
Bandicoot n. 1 catlike australian marsupial. 2 (in full bandicoot rat) destructive rat in india. [telugu, = pig-rat]
Bandit n. Robber or outlaw, esp. One attacking travellers etc. banditry n. [italian]
Bandmaster n. Conductor of a band.
Bandog n. Fighting-dog bred for its strength and ferocity. [from band, dog]
Bandolier n. (also bandoleer) shoulder belt with loops or pockets for cartridges. [dutch or french]
Band-saw n. Mechanical saw with a blade formed by an endless toothed band.
Bandsman n. Player in a band.
Bandstand n. Outdoor platform for musicians.
Bandwagon n. climb (or jump) on the bandwagon join a popular or successful cause etc.
Bandwidth n. Range of frequencies within a given band.
Bandy1 adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of the legs) curved so as to be wide apart at the knees. 2 (also bandy-legged) having bandy legs. [perhaps from obsolete bandy curved stick]
Bandy2 v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (often foll. By about) a pass (a story, rumour, etc.) To and fro. B discuss disparagingly (bandied her name about). 2 (often foll. By with) exchange (blows, insults, etc.). [perhaps from french]
Bane n. 1 cause of ruin or trouble. 2 poet. Ruin. 3 archaic (except in comb.) Poison (ratsbane). baneful adj. [old english]
Bang —n. 1 loud short sound. 2 sharp blow. 3 coarse slang act of sexual intercourse. 4 us fringe cut straight across the forehead. —v. 1 strike or shut noisily (banged the door). 2 (cause to) make a bang. 3 coarse slang have sexual intercourse (with). —adv. 1 with a bang. 2 colloq. Exactly (bang in the middle). bang on colloq. Exactly right. Go bang 1 shut noisily. 2 explode. 3 (as bang goes etc.) Colloq. Be suddenly lost (bang go my hopes). [imitative]
Banger n. 1 slang sausage. 2 slang noisy old car. 3 firework designed to go bang.
Bangle n. Rigid bracelet or anklet. [hindi bangri]
Bangle n. Rigid bracelet or anklet. [hindi bangri]
Banian var. Of *banyan.
Banish v. 1 condemn to exile. 2 dismiss (esp. From one’s mind). banishment n. [germanic: related to *ban]
Banister n. (also bannister) (usu. In pl.) Uprights and handrail beside a staircase. [corruption of *baluster]
Usage see note at baluster.
Banjo n. (pl. -s or -es) guitar-like stringed instrument with a circular body. banjoist n. [us southern corruption of bandore from greek pandoura lute]
Bank1 —n. 1 sloping ground beside a river. 2 raised area, esp. In the sea; slope. 3 mass of cloud, fog, snow, etc. —v. 1 (often foll. By up) heap or rise into banks. 2 pack (a fire) tightly for slow burning. 3 a (of a vehicle, aircraft, etc.) Round a curve with one side higher than the other. B cause to do this. [old norse: related to *bench]
Bank2 —n. 1 establishment for depositing, withdrawing, and borrowing money. 2 kitty in some gambling games. 3 storage place (blood bank). —v. 1 deposit (money etc.) In a bank. 2 (often foll. By at, with) keep money (at a bank). bank on colloq. Rely on (i’m banking on you). [french banque or italian banca: related to *bank1]
Banknote n. Piece of paper money.
Banknote n. Piece of paper money.
Bankrupt —adj. 1 legally declared insolvent. 2 (often foll. By of) exhausted or drained (of emotion etc.). —n. Insolvent person, esp. One whose assets are used to repay creditors. —v. Make bankrupt. bankruptcy n. (pl. -ies). [italian banca rotta broken bench: related to *bank2]
Banksia n. Australian evergreen flowering shrub. [banks, name of a naturalist]
Banner n. 1 large sign bearing a slogan or design, esp. In a demonstration or procession; flag. 2 slogan, esp. Political. [latin bandum standard]
Banner headline n. Large, esp. Front-page, newspaper headline.
Bantu —n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 often offens. Member of a large group of central and southern african blacks. 2 group of languages spoken by them. —adj. Of these peoples or languages. [bantu, = people]
Bantustan n. S.afr. Often offens. = *homeland 2.
Banyan n. (also banian) indian fig tree with self-rooting branches. [portuguese from sanskrit, = trader]
Baobab n. African tree with a massive trunk and large pulpy fruit. [probably african dial.]
Bap n. Soft flattish bread roll. [origin unknown]
Baptism n. Symbolic admission to the christian church, with water and usu. Name-giving. baptismal adj. [greek baptizo baptize]
Baptism of fire n. 1 initiation into battle. 2 painful initiation into an activity.
Baptist n. 1 person who baptizes, esp. John the baptist. 2 (baptist) christian advocating baptism by total immersion.
Baptistery n. (pl. -ies) 1 a part of a church used for baptism. B hist. Separate building used for baptism. 2 (in a baptist chapel) receptacle used for immersion.
Baptize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 administer baptism to. 2 give a name or nickname to.
Bar1 —n. 1 long piece of rigid material, esp. Used to confine or obstruct. 2 a something of similar form (bar of soap; bar of chocolate). B band of colour or light. C heating element of an electric fire. D metal strip below the clasp of a medal, awarded as an extra distinction. E heraldry narrow horizontal stripe across a shield. 3 a counter for serving alcohol etc. On. B room or building containing it. C small shop or stall serving refreshments (snack bar). D counter for a special service (heel bar). 4 a barrier. B restriction (colour bar; bar to promotion). 5 prisoner’s enclosure in a lawcourt. 6 any of the sections into which a piece of music is divided by vertical lines. 7 (the bar) law a barristers collectively. B profession of barrister. —v. (-rr-) 1 a fasten with a bar or bars. B
(usu. Foll. By in, out) shut or keep in or out. 2 obstruct, prevent. 3 (usu. Foll. By from) prohibit, exclude. 4 mark with stripes. —prep. Except. be called to the bar be admitted as barrister. Behind bars in prison. [french]
Bar2 n. Esp. Meteorol. Unit of pressure, 105 newtons per square metre, approx. One atmosphere. [greek baros weight]
Barathea n. Fine wool cloth. [origin unknown]
Barb —n. 1 secondary backward-facing projection from an arrow, fish-hook, etc. 2 hurtful remark. 3 fleshy filament at the mouth of some fish. —v. 1 fit with a barb. 2 (as barbed adj.) (of a remark etc.) Deliberately hurtful. [latin barba beard]
Barbarian —n. 1 uncultured or brutish person. 2 member of a primitive tribe etc. —adj. 1 rough and uncultured. 2 uncivilized. [greek barbaros foreign]
Barbarism n. 1 barbaric state or act. 2 non-standard word or expression.
Barbarity n. (pl. -ies) 1 savage cruelty. 2 brutal act.
Barbarous adj. = *barbaric 1.
Barbecue —n. 1 a meal cooked over charcoal etc. Out of doors. B party for this.
2 grill etc. Used for this. —v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) cook on a barbecue. [spanish from haitian]
Barbed wire n. Wire with interwoven sharp spikes, used in fences and barriers.
Barbel n. 1 freshwater fish with barbs. 2 = barb n. 3. [latin: related to barb]
Barbell n. Iron bar with removable weights at each end, used for weightlifting.
Barber n. Person who cuts men’s hair etc. By profession. [medieval latin barba beard]
Barberry n. (pl. -ies) 1 shrub with yellow flowers and red berries. 2 its berry. [french berberis]
Barber-shop n. Colloq. Close harmony singing for four male voices.
Barber’s pole n. Pole with spiral red and white stripes as a barber’s sign.
Barbican n. Outer defence, esp. A double tower above a gate or drawbridge. [french]
Barbie n. Austral. Slang barbecue. [abbreviation]
Bar billiards n.pl. Form of billiards with holes in the table.
Barbiturate n. Soporific or sedative drug from barbituric acid. [german, from the name barbara]
Barbituric acid n. Organic acid from which barbiturates are derived.
Barbour n. Propr. Type of green waxed jacket. [barbour, name of a draper]
Barcarole n. 1 gondoliers’ song. 2 music imitating this. [italian barca boat]
Bar code n. Machine-readable striped code on packaging etc.
Bard n. 1 poet. Poet. 2 a hist. Celtic minstrel. B prizewinner at an eisteddfod. bardic adj. [celtic]
Bare —adj. 1 unclothed or uncovered. 2 leafless; unfurnished; empty. 3 plain, unadorned (the bare truth; bare facts). 4 (attrib.) Scanty, just sufficient (a bare majority; bare necessities). —v. (-ring) uncover, reveal (bared his teeth; bared his soul). [old english]
Bareback adj. & adv. Without a saddle.
Barefaced adj. Shameless, impudent.
Barefoot adj. & adv. (also barefooted) wearing nothing on the feet.
Bareheaded adj. & adv. Wearing nothing on the head.
Bargain —n. 1 a agreement on the terms of a sale etc. B this from the buyer’s viewpoint (a bad bargain). 2 cheap thing. —v. (often foll. By with, for) discuss the terms of a sale etc. (bargained with me; bargain for the table). bargain for (or colloq. On) be prepared for; expect. Bargain on rely on. Into the bargain moreover. [french from germanic]
Barge —n. 1 long flat-bottomed cargo boat on a canal or river. 2 long ornamental pleasure boat. —v. (-ging) 1 (foll. By in, into) a intrude rudely or awkwardly (barged in on him). B collide with (barged into her). 2 (often foll. By around) move clumsily about. [french: related to *barque]
Bargeboard n. Board fixed to the gable-end of a roof to hide the ends of the roof timbers. [perhaps from medieval latin bargus gallows]
Bargee n. Person sailing a barge.
Bargepole n. would not touch with a bargepole refuse to be associated or concerned with.
Baritone n. 1 a second-lowest adult male singing voice. B singer with this voice. 2 instrument pitched second-lowest in its family. [greek barus heavy, tonos tone]
Barium n. White soft metallic element. [from *baryta]
Barium meal n. Mixture swallowed to reveal the abdomen in x-rays.
Bark1 —n. 1 sharp explosive cry of a dog, fox, etc. 2 sound like this. —v. 1 (of a dog etc.) Give a bark. 2 speak or utter sharply or brusquely. 3 colloq. Cough harshly. bark up the wrong tree make false assumptions. [old english]
Bark2 —n. Tough outer skin of tree-trunks, branches, etc. —v. 1 graze (one’s shin etc.). 2 strip bark from. [scandinavian]
Barker n. Tout at an auction, sideshow, etc. [from *bark1]
Barley n. 1 cereal used as food and in spirits. 2 (also barleycorn) its grain. [old english]
Barley sugar n. Sweet made from sugar, usu. In twisted sticks.
Barley water n. Drink made from a boiled barley mixture.
Barm n. Froth on fermenting malt liquor. [old english]
Barmaid n. Woman serving in a pub etc.
Barman n. Man serving in a pub etc.
Bar mitzvah n. 1 religious initiation ceremony of a jewish boy at 13. 2 boy undergoing this. [hebrew, = son of the commandment]
Barn n. Large farm building for storing grain etc. [old english, = barley house]
Barnacle n. 1 marine crustacean clinging to rocks, ships’ bottoms, etc. 2 tenacious attendant or follower. [french or medieval latin]
Barnacle goose n. Arctic goose.
Barn dance n. 1 informal gathering for country dancing. 2 a kind of country dance.
Barney n. (pl. -s) colloq. Noisy quarrel. [perhaps dial.]
Barn-owl n. A kind of owl frequenting barns.
Barnstorm v. Tour rural areas as an actor or political campaigner. barnstormer n.
Barnyard n. Area around a barn.
Barograph n. Barometer equipped to record its readings. [greek baros weight]
Barometer n. 1 instrument measuring atmospheric pressure, used in meteorology. 2 anything which reflects change. barometric adj. [related to *barograph]
Baron n. 1 member of the lowest order of the british or foreign nobility. 2 powerful businessman, entrepreneur, etc. 3 hist. Person holding lands from the sovereign. baronial adj. [medieval latin, = man]
Baroness n. 1 woman holding the rank of baron. 2 baron’s wife or widow.
Baronet n. Member of the lowest hereditary titled british order. baronetcy n. (pl. -ies).
Baron of beef n. Double sirloin.
Barony n. (pl. -ies) domain or rank of a baron.
Baroque —adj. 1 highly ornate and extravagant in style, esp. Of european art etc. Of the 17th and 18th c. 2 of this period. —n. Baroque style or art. [portuguese, originally = misshapen pearl]
Bar person n. Barmaid or barman.
Barque n. 1 sailing-ship with the rear mast fore-and-aft rigged and other masts square-rigged. 2 poet. Boat. [provençal from latin barca]
Barrack1 —n. (usu. In pl., often treated as sing.) 1 housing for soldiers. 2 large bleak building. —v. Lodge (soldiers etc.) In barracks. [italian or spanish]
Barrack2 v. 1 shout or jeer at (players, a speaker, etc.). 2 (foll. By for) cheer for, encourage (a team etc.). [perhaps from australian slang borak banter]
Barracouta n. (pl. Same or -s) long slender fish of southern oceans. [var. Of *barracuda]
Barracuda n. (pl. Same or -s) large tropical marine fish. [spanish]
Barrage n. 1 concentrated artillery bombardment. 2 rapid succession of questions or criticisms. 3 artificial barrier in a river etc. [french barrer *bar1]
Barrage balloon n. Large anchored balloon used as a defence against lowflying aircraft.
Barratry n. Fraud or gross negligence by a ship’s master or crew. [french barat deceit]
Barre n. Horizontal bar at waist level, used in dance exercises. [french]
Barré n. Method of playing a chord on the guitar etc. With a finger laid across the strings at a particular fret. [french barrer bar]
Barrel —n. 1 cylindrical usu. Convex container. 2 its contents. 3 measure of capacity (30 to 40 gallons). 4 cylindrical tube forming part of an object, e.g. A gun or a pen. —v.
Barrel-organ n. Mechanical musical instrument with a rotating pin-studded cylinder.
Barren adj. (-er, -est) 1 a unable to bear young. B (of land, a tree, etc.) Unproductive. 2 unprofitable, dull. barrenness n. [french]
Barricade —n. Barrier, esp. Improvised. —v. (-ding) block or defend with this. [french barrique cask]
Barrier n. 1 fence etc. That bars advance or access. 2 obstacle (class barriers). [romanic: related to *bar1]
Barrier cream n. Protective skin cream.
Barrier reef n. Coral reef separated from the shore by a channel.
Barring prep. Except, not including.
Barrister n. Advocate entitled to practise in the higher courts. [from bar1: cf. minister]
Barrow1 n. 1 two-wheeled handcart. 2 = wheelbarrow. [old english: related to bear1]
Barrow2 n. Ancient grave-mound. [old english]
Bar sinister n. = *bend sinister.
Bartender n. Person serving in a pub etc.
Barter —v. 1 trade in goods without using money. 2 exchange (goods). —n. Trade by bartering. [perhaps from french]
Baryon n. Heavy elementary particle (i.e. A nucleon or a hyperon). [greek barus heavy]
Baryta n. Barium oxide or hydroxide. [from *barytes]
Barytes n. Mineral form of barium sulphate. [greek barus heavy]
Basal adj. Of, at, or forming a base.
Basalt n. A dark volcanic rock. basaltic adj. [latin basaltes from greek]
Base1 —n. 1 a part supporting from beneath or serving as a foundation. B notional support or foundation (power base). 2 principle or starting-point. 3 esp. Mil. Headquarters. 4 main or important ingredient. 5 number in terms of which other numbers or logarithms are expressed. 6 substance capable of combining with an acid to form a salt. 7 baseball etc. Each of the four stations on a pitch. — v. (-sing) 1 (usu. Foll. By on, upon) found or establish (a theory, hope, etc.). 2 station (troops based in malta). [greek basis stepping]
Base2 adj. 1 cowardly, despicable. 2 menial. 3 alloyed (base coin). 4 (of a metal) low in value. [latin bassus]
Baseball n. 1 game played esp. In the us with a circuit of four bases which batsmen must complete. 2 ball used in this.
Baseless adj. Unfounded, groundless.
Baseline n. 1 line used as a base or starting-point. 2 line marking each end of a tennis-court.
Basement n. Floor of a building below ground level.
Base rate n. Interest rate set by the bank of england, used as the basis for other banks’ rates.
Bases pl. Of base1, basis.
Bash —v. 1 a strike bluntly or heavily. B (often foll. By up) colloq. Attack violently. C (often foll. By down, in, etc.) Damage or break by striking forcibly. 2 (foll. By into) collide with. —n. 1 heavy blow. 2 slang attempt. [imitative]
Basic n. Computer programming language using familiar english words. [beginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code]
Basic —adj. 1 serving as a base; fundamental. 2 a simplest or lowest in level (basic pay, needs). B vulgar (basic humour). —n. (usu. In pl.) Fundamental facts or principles. basically adv.
Basic slag n. Fertilizer containing phosphates formed as a by-product in steel manufacture.
Basil n. Aromatic herb used as flavouring. [greek basilikos royal]
Basilica n. 1 ancient roman hall with an apse and colonnades, used as a lawcourt etc. 2 similar building as a christian church. [greek basilike (stoa) royal (portico)]
Basilisk n. 1 mythical reptile with lethal breath and glance. 2 small american crested lizard. [greek, diminutive of basileus king]
Basin n. 1 round open vessel for holding liquids or preparing food in. 2 = *wash-basin. 3 hollow depression. 4 sheltered mooring area. 5 round valley. 6 area drained by a river. basinful n. (pl. -s). [medieval latin ba(s)cinus]
Basis n. (pl. Bases) 1 foundation or support. 2 main principle or ingredient (on a friendly basis). 3 starting-point for a discussion etc. [greek: related to *base1]
Bask v. 1 relax in warmth and light. 2 (foll. By in) revel in (basking in glory). [old norse: related to *bathe]
Basket n. 1 container made of interwoven cane, reed, wire, etc. 2 amount held by this. 3 the goal in basketball, or a goal scored. 4 econ. Group or range (of currencies). [french]
Basketball n. 1 game in which goals are scored by putting the ball through high nets. 2 ball used in this.
Basketry n. 1 art of weaving cane etc. 2 work so produced.
Basket weave n. Weave like wickerwork.
Basketwork n. = *basketry.
Basking shark n. Large shark which lies near the surface of the sea.
Basque —n. 1 member of a people of the western pyrenees. 2 their language. — adj. Of the basques or their language. [latin vasco]
Bas-relief n. Sculpture or carving with figures projecting slightly from the background. [french and italian]
Bass1 —n. 1 a lowest adult male singing voice. B singer with this voice. 2 instrument pitched lowest in its family. 3 colloq. Bass guitar or double-bass. 4
low-frequency output of a radio, record-player, etc. —adj. 1 lowest in musical pitch. 2 deep-sounding. bassist n. (in sense 3). [from *base2 altered after italian basso]
Bass2 n. (pl. Same or -es) 1 common perch. 2 other spiny-finned fish of the perch family. [old english]
Bass clef n. Clef placing f below middle c on the second highest line of the staff.
Basset n. (in full basset-hound) sturdy hunting-dog with a long body and short legs. [french diminutive of bas low]
Bass guitar n. Electric guitar tuned as a double-bass.
Bassinet n. Child’s wicker cradle, usu. Hooded. [french diminutive of bassin *basin]
Basso n. (pl. -s) singer with a bass voice. [italian, = *bass1]
Bassoon n. Bass instrument of the oboe family. bassoonist n. [italian: related to *bass1]
Bast n. Fibre from the inner bark of a tree (esp. The lime). [old english]
Bastard often offens. —n. 1 person born of an unmarried mother. 2 slang a unpleasant or despicable person. B person of a specified kind (poor, lucky, bastard). 3 slang difficult or awkward thing. —attrib. Adj. 1 illegitimate by birth. 2 unauthorized, counterfeit, hybrid. bastardy n. (in sense 1 of n.). [french from medieval latin]
Bastardize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 corrupt, debase. 2 declare (a person) illegitimate.
Baste1 v. (-ting) 1 moisten (meat) with fat etc. During cooking. 2 beat, thrash. [origin unknown]
Baste2 v. (-ting) sew with large loose stitches, tack. [french from germanic]
Bastinado —n. Beating with a stick on the soles of the feet. —v. (-es, -ed) punish in this way. [spanish baston stick]
Bastion n. 1 projecting part of a fortification. 2 thing regarded as protecting (bastion of freedom). [italian bastire build]
Bat1 —n. 1 implement with a handle, used for hitting balls in games. 2 turn with this. 3 batsman. —v. (-tt-) 1 hit with or as with a bat. 2 take a turn at batting. off one’s own bat unprompted, unaided. [old english from french]
Bat2 n. Mouselike nocturnal flying mammal. [scandinavian]
Bat3 v. (-tt-) not (or never) bat an eyelid colloq. Show no reaction or emotion. [var. Of obsolete bate flutter]
Batch —n. 1 group of things or persons considered or dealt with together; instalment. 2 loaves produced at one baking. 3 computing group of records processed as one unit. —v. Arrange or deal with in batches. [related to *bake]
Bated adj. with bated breath very anxiously. [as *abate]
Bath —n. (pl. -s) 1 a (usu. Plumbed-in) container for sitting in and washing the body. B its contents. 2 act of washing in it (have a bath). 3 (usu. In pl.) Public building with baths or a swimming-pool. 4 a vessel containing liquid for immersing something, e.g. A film for developing. B its contents. —v. 1 wash (esp. A baby) in a bath. 2 take a bath. [old english]
Bath bun n. Round spiced bun with currants, often iced. [bath in s. England]
Bath chair n. Wheelchair for invalids.
Bath cube n. Cube of soluble substance for scenting or softening bath-water.
Bathe —v. (-thing) 1 immerse oneself in water, esp. To swim or wash oneself. 2 immerse in, wash, or treat with liquid. 3 (of sunlight etc.) Envelop. —n. Swim. [old english]
Bathhouse n. Public building with baths.
Bathhouse n. Public building with baths.
Bathing-costume n. (also bathing-suit) garment worn for swimming.
Bathos n. Lapse in mood from the sublime to the absurd or trivial; anticlimax. bathetic adj. Bathotic adj. [greek, = depth]
Bathrobe n. Esp. Us dressing-gown, esp. Of towelling.
Bathroom n. 1 room with a bath, wash-basin, etc. 2 us room with a lavatory.
Bath salts n.pl. Soluble powder or crystals for scenting or softening bath-water.
Bathyscaphe n. Manned vessel for deep-sea diving. [greek bathus deep, skaphos ship]
Bathysphere n. Vessel for deep-sea observation. [greek bathus deep, *sphere]
Batik n. 1 method of dyeing textiles by applying wax to parts to be left uncoloured. 2 cloth so treated. [javanese, = painted]
Batiste n. Fine linen or cotton cloth. [french from baptiste, name of the first maker]
Batman n. Army officer’s servant. [bat pack-saddle, from french]
Baton n. 1 thin stick for conducting an orchestra etc. 2 short stick passed on in a relay race. 3 stick carried by a drum major. 4 staff of office. [french from latin]
Baton round n. Rubber or plastic bullet.
Batrachian —n. Amphibian that discards its gills and tail, esp. A frog or toad. — adj. Of batrachians. [greek batrakhos frog]
Bats predic. Adj. Slang crazy. [originally pl. Of *bat2]
Batsman n. Person who bats, esp. In cricket.
Battalion n. 1 army unit usu. Of 300–1000 men. 2 large group with a common aim. [italian battaglia *battle]
Batten1 —n. 1 a long flat strip of squared timber. B horizontal strip of wood to which laths, tiles, etc., are fastened. 2 strip for securing tarpaulin over a ship’s hatchway. —v. Strengthen or (often foll. By down) fasten with battens. [french: related to *batter1]
Batten2 v. (foll. By on) thrive at the expense of (another). [old norse]
Battenberg n. Oblong sponge cake, usu. Of two colours and covered with marzipan. [battenberg in germany]
Batter1 v. 1 a strike hard and repeatedly. B (often foll. By against, at, etc.) Pound insistently (batter at the door). 2 (often in passive) a subject to long-term violence (battered baby, wife). B criticize severely. batterer n. [french battre beat: related to *battle]
Batter2 n. Mixture of flour, egg, and milk or water, used for pancakes etc. [french: related to *batter1]
Battered adj. Coated in batter and deep-fried.
Battering-ram n. Hist. Beam used in breaching fortifications.
Battery n. (pl. -ies) 1 usu. Portable container of an electrically charged cell or cells as a source of current. 2 (often attrib.) Series of cages for the intensive breeding and rearing of poultry or cattle. 3 set of similar units of equipment; series, sequence. 4 emplacement for heavy guns. 5 law unlawful physical violence against a person. [latin: related to *battle]
Battle —n. 1 prolonged fight between armed forces. 2 difficult struggle; contest (battle for supremacy; battle of wits). —v. (-ling) engage in battle; fight. half the battle key to the success of an undertaking. [latin battuo beat]
Battleaxe n. 1 large axe used in ancient warfare. 2 colloq. Formidable older
Battleaxe n. 1 large axe used in ancient warfare. 2 colloq. Formidable older woman.
Battlebus n. Colloq. Bus used by a politician during an election campaign as a mobile centre of operations.
Battle-cruiser n. Hist. Warship of higher speed and lighter armour than a battleship.
Battle-cry n. Cry or slogan used in a battle or contest.
Battledore n. Hist. 1 (in full battledore and shuttlecock) game played with a shuttlecock and rackets. 2 racket used in this. [perhaps from provençal batedor beater]
Battledress n. Everyday uniform of a soldier.
Battlefield n. (also battleground) scene of a battle.
Battlement n. (usu. In pl.) Recessed parapet along the top of a wall, as part of a fortification. [french batailler fortify]
Battle royal n. 1 battle of many combatants; free fight. 2 heated argument.
Batwing attrib. Adj. (esp. Of a sleeve) shaped like a bat’s wing.
Bauble n. Showy worthless trinket or toy. [french ba(u)bel toy]
Baulk (also balk) —v. 1 (often foll. By at) jib, hesitate. 2 a thwart, hinder. B disappoint. 3 miss, let slip (a chance etc.). —n. 1 hindrance; stumbling-block. 2 roughly-squared timber beam. [old english]
Bauxite n. Claylike mineral, the chief source of aluminium. [french from les baux in s. France]
Bawdy —adj. (-ier, -iest) humorously indecent. —n. Such talk or writing. [bawd brothel-keeper from french baudetrot]
Bawdy-house n. Brothel.
Bawl v. 1 speak or shout noisily. 2 weep loudly. bawl out colloq. Reprimand angrily. [imitative]
Bay1 n. Broad curving inlet of the sea. [spanish bahia]
Bay1 n. Broad curving inlet of the sea. [spanish bahia]
Bay2 n. 1 laurel with deep green leaves. 2 (in pl.) Bay wreath, for a victor or poet. [latin baca berry]
Bay3 n. 1 recess; alcove in a wall. 2 compartment (bomb bay). 3 area specially allocated (loading bay). [french baer gape]
Bay4 —adj. (esp. Of a horse) dark reddish-brown. —n. Bay horse. [latin badius]
Bay5 —v. Bark or howl loudly and plaintively. —n. Sound of this, esp. Of hounds in close pursuit. at bay cornered, unable to escape. Keep at bay hold off (a pursuer). [french bayer to bark]
Bayberry n. (pl. -ies) fragrant n. American tree.
Bay-leaf n. Leaf of the bay-tree, used for flavouring.
Bayonet —n. 1 stabbing blade attachable to the muzzle of a rifle. 2 electrical fitting pushed into a socket and twisted. —v. (-t-) stab with bayonet. [french, perhaps from bayonne in sw france]
Bay rum n. Perfume distilled orig. From bayberry leaves in rum.
Bay window n. Window projecting outwards from a wall.
Bazaar n. 1 oriental market. 2 fund-raising sale of goods, esp. For charity. [persian]
Bazooka n. Anti-tank rocket-launcher. [origin unknown]
Bb abbr. Double-black (pencil-lead).
Bbc abbr. British broadcasting corporation.
Bc abbr. British columbia.
Bc abbr. Before christ.
Bcg abbr. Bacillus calmette-guérin, an anti-tuberculosis vaccine.
Bd abbr. Bachelor of divinity.
Bdellium n. 1 tree yielding resin. 2 this used in perfumes. [latin from greek]
Be symb. Beryllium.
Be symb. Beryllium.
Be v. (sing. Present am; are; is; past was; were; pres. Part. Being; past part. Been) 1 exist, live (i think, therefore i am; there is no god). 2 a occur; take place (dinner is at eight).
Bevel —n. 1 slope from the horizontal or vertical in carpentry etc.; sloping surface or edge. 2 tool for marking angles. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 reduce (a square edge) to a sloping edge. 2 slope at an angle. [french]
Bevel gear n. Gear working another at an angle to it.
Beverage n. Formal drink. [latin bibo drink]
Bevy n. (pl. -ies) company (of quails, larks, women, etc.). [origin unknown]
Bewail v. Lament; wail over.
Beware v. (only in imper. Or infin.; often foll. By of) be cautious (of) (beware of the dog; beware the ides of march). [from *be, ware cautious]
Bewilder v. Perplex, confuse. bewildering adj. Bewilderment n. [from *be-, obsolete wilder lose one’s way]
Bewitch v. 1 enchant. 2 cast a spell on.
Bewitch v. 1 enchant. 2 cast a spell on.
Beyond —prep. 1 at or to the further side of. 2 outside the scope or understanding of (beyond repair; it is beyond me). 3 more than. —adv. 1 at or to the further side. 2 further on. —n. (prec. By the) the unknown after death. [old english: related to *by, *yon]
Bezel n. 1 sloped edge of a chisel. 2 oblique faces of a cut gem. 3 groove holding a watch-glass or gem. [french]
Bhang n. Indian hemp used as a narcotic. [portuguese from sanskrit]
B.h.p. Abbr. Brake horsepower.
Bi symb. Bismuth.
Bi-comb. Form forming nouns, adjectives, and verbs, meaning: 1 division into two (biplane; bisect). 2 a occurring twice in every one or once in every two (bi-weekly). B lasting for two (biennial). 3 chem. Substance having a double proportion of what is indicated by the simple word (bicarbonate). 4 bot. & zool. Having divided parts which are themselves similarly divided (bipinnate). [latin]
Biannual adj. Occurring etc. Twice a year.
Bias —n. 1 (often foll. By towards, against) predisposition or prejudice. 2 statistics distortion of a statistical result due to a neglected factor. 3 edge cut obliquely across the weave of a fabric. 4 sport a irregular shape given to a bowl. B oblique course this causes it to run. —v. (-s-or -ss-) 1 (esp. As biased adj.) Influence (usu. Unfairly); prejudice. 2 give a bias to. on the bias obliquely, diagonally. [french]
Bias binding n. Strip of fabric cut obliquely and used to bind edges.
Biathlon n. Athletic contest in skiing and shooting or cycling and running. [from *bi-, after *pentathlon]
Bib n. 1 piece of cloth etc. Fastened round a child’s neck while eating. 2 top front part of an apron, dungarees, etc. [origin uncertain]
Bib-cock n. Tap with a bent nozzle. [perhaps from *bib]
Bible n. 1 a (prec. By the) christian scriptures of old and new testaments. B (bible) copy of these. 2 (bible) colloq. Authoritative book. biblical adj. [greek biblia books]
Bible-bashing n. (also bible-thumping) slang aggressive fundamentalist preaching. bible-basher n. (also -thumper).
Bibliography n. (pl. -ies) 1 list of books on a specific subject, by a particular author, etc.; book containing this. 2 the study of books, their authorship, editions, etc. bibliographer n. Bibliographical adj. [greek: related to *bible]
Bibliophile n. Lover or collector of books.
Bibulous adj. Tending to drink alcohol. [latin bibo drink]
Bicameral adj. (of a legislative body) having two chambers. [from *bi-, latin camera chamber]
Bicarb n. Colloq. = *bicarbonate 2. [abbreviation]
Bicarbonate n. 1 any acid salt of carbonic acid. 2 (in full bicarbonate of soda) sodium bicarbonate used as an antacid or in baking-powder.
Bicentenary n. (pl. -ies) 1 two-hundredth anniversary. 2 celebration of this.
Bicentennial esp. Us —n. Bicentenary. —adj. Occurring every two hundred years.
Biceps n. (pl. Same) muscle with two heads or attachments, esp. That bending the elbow. [latin caput head]
Bicker v. Argue pettily. [origin unknown]
Bicuspid —adj. Having two cusps. —n. The premolar tooth in humans. [from bi-, cusp]
Bid —v. (-dd-; past bid, archaic bade; past part. Bid, archaic bidden) 1 (past and past part. Bid) a (esp. At an auction) make an offer (of) (bid for the vase; bid £20). B offer a service for a stated price. 2 literary command; invite (bid the soldiers shoot; bade her start). 3 literary utter (a greeting or farewell) to (i bade him welcome). 4 (past and past part. Bid) cards state before play how many tricks one intends to make. —n. 1 act of bidding. 2 amount bid. 3 colloq. Attempt; effort (bid for power). bidder n. [old english]
Biddable adj. Obedient.
Bidding n. 1 command, request, or invitation. 2 bids at an auction or in a card-game.
Biddy n. (pl. -ies) slang woman (esp. Old biddy). [a form of the name bridget]
Bide v. (-ding) bide one’s time wait for a good opportunity. [old english]
Bidet n. Low basin for sitting on to wash the genital area. [french, = pony]
Biennial —adj. Lasting, or recurring every, two years. —n. Plant that grows from seed one year and flowers and dies the following. [latin annus year]
Bier n. Movable frame on which a coffin or corpse rests. [old english]
Biff slang —n. Sharp blow. —v. Strike (a person). [imitative]
Bifid adj. Divided by a deep cleft into two parts. [latin findo cleave]
Bifocal —adj. Having two focuses, esp. Of a lens with a part for distant and a part for near vision. —n. (in pl.) Bifocal spectacles.
Big —adj. (bigger, biggest) 1 a of considerable size, amount, intensity, etc. B of a large or the largest size (big toe). 2 important (my big day). 3 adult, elder (big sister). 4 colloq. A boastful (big words). B often iron. Generous (big of him). C ambitious (big ideas). 5 (usu. Foll. By with) advanced in pregnancy (big with child). —adv. Colloq. Impressively or grandly (think big). in a big way colloq. With great enthusiasm, display, etc. biggish adj. [origin unknown]
Bigamy n. (pl. -ies) crime of marrying while still married to another person. bigamist n. Bigamous adj. [greek gamos marriage]
Big apple n. Us slang new york city.
Big bang theory n. Theory that the universe began with the explosion of dense matter.
Big brother n. Supposedly benevolent watchful dictator.
Big end n. (in a vehicle) end of the connecting-rod, encircling the crankpin.
Big-head n. Colloq. Conceited person. big-headed adj.
Big-hearted adj. Generous.
Bight n. 1 bay, inlet, etc. 2 loop of rope. [old english]
Big money n. Large amounts of money.
Big noise n. (also big shot) colloq. = *bigwig.
Bigot n. Obstinate believer who is intolerant of others. bigoted adj. Bigotry n. [french]
Big stick n. Colloq. Display of force.
Big time n. (prec. By the) slang success, esp. In show business. big-timer n.
Big top n. Main tent in a circus.
Big wheel n. Ferris wheel.
Bigwig n. Colloq. Important person.
Bijou —n. (pl. -x pronunc. Same) jewel; trinket. —attrib. Adj. (bijou) small and elegant. [french]
Bike colloq. —n. Bicycle or motor cycle. —v. (-king) ride a bike. biker n. [abbreviation]
Bikini n. (pl. -s) two-piece swimsuit for women. [bikini, pacific atoll]
Bilateral adj. 1 of, on, or with two sides. 2 affecting or between two parties, countries, etc. bilaterally adv.
Bilberry n. (pl. -ies) 1 hardy n. European shrub of heaths and mountains. 2 its small dark-blue edible berry. [scandinavian]
Bile n. 1 bitter digestive fluid secreted by the liver. 2 bad temper; peevish anger. [latin bilis]
Bilge n. 1 a the almost flat part of a ship’s bottom. B (in full bilge-water) filthy water that collects there. 2 slang nonsense. [probably var. Of *bulge]
Bilharzia n. Chronic tropical disease caused by a parasitic flatworm. [bilharz, name of a physician]
Biliary adj. Of the bile. [french: related to *bile]
Bilingual —adj. 1 able to speak two languages. 2 spoken or written in two languages. —n. Bilingual person. bilingualism n. [latin lingua tongue]
Bilious adj. 1 affected by a disorder of the bile. 2 bad-tempered. [latin: related to *bile]
Bilk v. Slang 1 cheat. 2 elude. 3 avoid paying (a creditor or debt). [origin uncertain]
Bill n. Slang = *old bill. [diminutive of william]
Bill1 —n. 1 statement of charges for goods or services. 2 draft of a proposed law. 3 poster, placard. 4 programme of entertainment. 5 us banknote. —v. 1 send a statement of charges to. 2 put in the programme; announce. 3 (foll. By as) advertise as. [medieval latin bulla seal]
Bill3 n. 1 hist. Weapon with a hooked blade. 2 = *billhook. [old english]
Billabong n. (in australia) backwater of a river. [aboriginal]
Billboard n. Large outdoor advertising hoarding.
Billet1 —n. 1 a place where troops etc. Are lodged. B order to provide this. 2 colloq. Job. —v. (-t-) (usu. Foll. By on, in, at) quarter (soldiers etc.). [anglo-french diminutive of *bill1]
Billet2 n. 1 thick piece of firewood. 2 small metal bar. [french diminutive of bille tree-trunk]
Billet-doux n. (pl. Billets-doux) often joc. Love-letter. [french, = sweet note]
Billhook n. Pruning tool with a hooked blade.
Billhook n. Pruning tool with a hooked blade.
Billiards n. 1 game played on a table, with three balls struck with cues. 2 (billiard) (in comb.) Used in billiards (billiard-ball). [french: related to *billet2]
Billion adj. & n. (pl. Same or (in sense 3) -s) 1 a thousand million (109). 2 (now less often) a million million (1012). 3 (in pl.) Colloq. A very large number (billions of years). billionth adj. & n. [french]
Billionaire n. Person who has over a billion pounds, dollars, etc. [after *millionaire]
Bill of exchange n. Written order to pay a sum of money on a given date to the drawer or to a named payee.
Bill of fare n. Menu.
Bill of lading n. Detailed list of a ship’s cargo.
Billow —n. 1 wave. 2 any large mass. —v. Rise, fill, or surge in billows. billowy adj. [old norse]
Billposter n. (also billsticker) person who pastes up advertisements on hoardings.
Billy1 n. (pl. -ies) (in full billycan) austral. Tin or enamel outdoor cooking-pot. [perhaps from aboriginal billa water]
Billy2 n. (pl. -ies) (in full billy-goat) male goat. [from the name billy]
Bimbo n. (pl. -s or -es) slang usu. Derog. Attractive but unintelligent young woman. [italian, = little child]
Bimetallic adj. Using or made of two metals. [french]
Bin n. Large receptacle for rubbish or storage. [old english]
Binary —adj. 1 of two parts, dual. 2 of the binary system. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 something having two parts. 2 binary number. [latin bini two together]
Binary star n. System of two stars orbiting each other.
Binary system n. System using the digits 0 and 1 to code information, esp. In computing.
Binaural adj. 1 of or used with both ears. 2 (of sound) recorded using two microphones and usu. Transmitted separately to the two ears. [from bi-, aural]
Bind —v. (past and past part. Bound) 1 tie or fasten tightly. 2 restrain forcibly. 3 (cause to) cohere. 4 compel; impose a duty on. 5 a edge with braid etc. B fasten (the pages of a book) in a cover. 6 constipate. 7 ratify (a bargain, agreement, etc.). 8 (often foll. By up) bandage. —n. Colloq. Nuisance; restriction. bind over law order (a person) to do something, esp. Keep the peace. [old english]
Binder n. 1 cover for loose papers etc. 2 substance that binds things together. 3 hist. Reaping-machine that binds grain into sheaves. 4 bookbinder.
Bindery n. (pl. -ies) bookbinder’s workshop.
Binding —n. Thing that binds, esp. The covers, glue, etc., of a book. —adj. Obligatory.
Bindweed n. 1 convolvulus. 2 honeysuckle or other climber.
Bine n. 1 twisting stem of a climbing plant, esp. The hop. 2 flexible shoot. [dial. Form of *bind]
Bin end n. One of the last bottles from a bin of wine, usu. Sold at a reduced price.
Binge slang —n. Bout of excessive eating, drinking, etc.; spree. —v. (-ging) indulge in a binge. [probably dial., = soak]
Bingo n. Gambling game in which each player has a card with numbers to be
Bingo n. Gambling game in which each player has a card with numbers to be marked off as they are called. [origin uncertain]
Bin-liner n. Bag for lining a rubbish bin.
Binman n. Colloq. Dustman.
Binnacle n. Case for a ship’s compass. [latin habitaculum dwelling]
Binocular adj. For both eyes. [latin bini two together, oculus eye]
Binoculars n.pl. Instrument with a lens for each eye, for viewing distant objects.
Binomial —n. Algebraic expression of the sum or the difference of two terms. —adj. Of two terms. [greek nomos part]
Binomial theorem n. Formula for finding any power of a binomial.
Bint n. Slang, usu. Offens. Girl or woman. [arabic]
Bio-comb. Form 1 life (biography). 2 biological; of living things. [greek bios life]
Biochemistry n. The study of the chemistry of living organisms. biochemical adj. Biochemist n.
Biodegradable adj. Capable of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms.
Bioengineering n. 1 the application of engineering techniques to biological processes. 2 the use of artificial tissues, organs, etc. To replace parts of the body, e.g. Artificial limbs, pacemakers, etc.
Biogenesis n. 1 hypothesis that a living organism arises only from a similar living organism. 2 synthesis of substances by living organisms.
Biography n. (pl. -ies) 1 account of a person’s life, written usu. By another. 2 these as a literary genre. biographer n. Biographical adj. [french: related to *bio-]
Biological adj. Of biology or living organisms. biologically adv.
Biological clock n. Innate mechanism controlling an organism’s rhythmic physiological activities.
Biological warfare n. Use of toxins or micro-organisms against an enemy.
Biology n. The study of living organisms. biologist n. [german: related to *bio-]
Bionic adj. Having electronically operated body parts or the resulting superhuman powers. [from *bio-after *electronic]
Bionics n.pl. (treated as sing.) The study of mechanical systems that function like living organisms.
Biophysics n.pl. (treated as sing.) Science of the application of the laws of physics to biological phenomena. biophysical adj. Biophysicist n.
Biopsy n. (pl. -ies) examination of severed tissue for diagnosis. [greek bios life, opsis sight]
Biorhythm n. Any recurring biological cycle thought to affect one’s physical or mental state.
Biosphere n. Regions of the earth’s crust and atmosphere occupied by living things. [german: related to *bio-]
Biosynthesis n. Production of organic molecules by living organisms. biosynthetic adj.
Biotechnology n. Branch of technology exploiting biological processes, esp. Using micro-organisms, in industry, medicine, etc.
Biotin n. Vitamin of the b complex, found in egg-yolk, liver, and yeast. [greek bios life]
Bipartisan adj. Of or involving two parties.
Bipartite adj. 1 of two parts. 2 shared by or involving two parties. [latin bipartio divide in two]
Biplane n. Aeroplane with two sets of wings, one above the other.
Bipolar adj. Having two poles or extremities.
Birch —n. 1 tree with pale hard wood and thin peeling bark, bearing catkins. 2 bundle of birch twigs used for flogging. —v. Beat with a birch. [old english]
Bird n. 1 two-legged feathered winged vertebrate, egg-laying and usu. Able to fly. 2 slang young woman. 3 slang person. 4 slang prison; prison sentence. a bird in the hand something secured or certain. The birds and the bees euphem. Sexual activity and reproduction. Birds of a feather similar people. For the birds colloq. Trivial, uninteresting. Get the bird slang be rejected, esp. By an audience. [old english]
Bird-bath n. Basin with water for birds to bathe in.
Birdbrain n. Colloq. Stupid or flighty person. birdbrained adj.
Birdcage n. Cage for birds.
Birdie n. 1 colloq. Little bird. 2 golf hole played in one under par.
Birdlime n. Sticky substance spread to trap birds.
Bird-nesting n. Hunting for birds’ eggs.
Bird of paradise n. Bird, the male of which has brilliant plumage.
Bird of passage n. 1 migrant. 2 habitual traveller.
Bird of prey n. Bird which hunts animals for food.
Birdseed n. Blend of seeds for caged birds.
Bird’s-eye view n. Detached view from above.
Birdsong n. Musical cry of birds.
Bird table n. Platform on which food for birds is placed.
Bird-watcher n. Person who observes wild birds as a hobby. bird-watching n.
Biretta n. Square usu. Black cap worn by roman catholic priests. [latin birrus cape]
Biro n. (pl. -s) propr. A kind of ball-point pen. [biró, name of its inventor]
Birth n. 1 emergence of a baby or young from its mother’s body. 2 beginning (birth of civilization). 3 a ancestry (of noble birth). B high or noble birth; inherited position. give birth to 1 produce (young). 2 be the cause of. [old norse]
Birth certificate n. Official document detailing a person’s birth.
Birth control n. Contraception.
Birthday n. 1 day on which one was born. 2 anniversary of this.
Birthing pool n. Large bath for giving birth in.
Birthmark n. Unusual coloured mark on one’s body at or from birth.
Birthplace n. Place where one was born.
Birth rate n. Number of live births per thousand of population per year.
Birthright n. Inherited, esp. Property, rights.
Birthstone n. Gem popularly associated with the month of one’s birth.
Biscuit n. 1 flat thin unleavened cake, usu. Crisp and sweet. 2 fired unglazed pottery. 3 light brown colour. [latin bis twice, coquo cook]
Bisect v. Divide into two (strictly, equal) parts. bisection n. Bisector n. [from *bi-, latin seco sect-cut]
Bisexual —adj. 1 feeling or involving sexual attraction to people of both sexes. 2 hermaphrodite. —n. Bisexual person. bisexuality n.
Bishop n. 1 senior clergyman in charge of a diocese. 2 mitre-shaped chess piece.
Bishop n. 1 senior clergyman in charge of a diocese. 2 mitre-shaped chess piece. [greek episkopos overseer]
Bishopric n. Office or diocese of a bishop.
Bismuth n. 1 reddish-white metallic element used in alloys etc. 2 compound of it used medicinally. [german]
Bison n. (pl. Same) wild humpbacked ox of europe or n. America. [latin from germanic]
Bisque1 n. Rich soup, esp. Of lobster. [french]
Bisque2 n. Advantage of one free point or stroke in certain games. [french]
Bisque3 n. = *biscuit 2.
Bister n. (brit. Bistre) brownish pigment from wood soot. [french]
Bistre n. (us bister) brownish pigment from wood soot. [french]
Bistro n. (pl. -s) small informal restaurant. [french]
Bit1 n. 1 small piece or quantity. 2 (prec. By a) fair amount (sold quite a bit). 3 often colloq. Short or small time, distance, or amount (wait a bit; move up a bit;
often colloq. Short or small time, distance, or amount (wait a bit; move up a bit; a bit tired; a bit of an idiot). bit by bit gradually. Do one’s bit colloq. Make a useful contribution. [old english]
Bit2 past of *bite.
Bit3 n. 1 metal mouthpiece of a bridle. 2 tool or piece for boring or drilling. 3 cutting or gripping part of a plane, pincers, etc. [old english]
Bit4 n. Computing unit of information expressed as a choice between two possibilities. [binary digit]
Bitch —n. 1 female dog or other canine animal. 2 slang offens. Spiteful woman. 3 slang unpleasant or difficult thing. —v. 1 speak scathingly or spitefully. 2 complain. [old english]
Bitchy adj. (-ier, -iest) slang spiteful. bitchily adv. Bitchiness n.
Bite —v. (-ting; past bit; past part. Bitten) 1 cut or puncture with the teeth. 2 (foll. By off, away, etc.) Detach thus. 3 (of an insect etc.) Sting. 4 (of a wheel etc.) Grip, penetrate. 5 accept bait or an inducement. 6 be harsh in effect, esp. Intentionally. 7 (in passive) a swindle. B (foll. By by, with, etc.) Be infected by (enthusiasm etc.). 8 colloq. Worry, perturb. 9 cause smarting pain (biting wind). 10 be sharp or effective (biting wit). 11 (foll. By at) snap at. —n. 1 act of biting. 2 wound etc. Made by biting. 3 a mouthful of food. B snack. 4 taking of bait by a fish. 5 pungency (esp. Of flavour). 6 incisiveness, sharpness. 7 position of the teeth when the jaws are closed. bite the dust slang die. Bite a person’s head off colloq. Respond angrily. Bite one’s lip repress emotion etc. [old english]
Bit on the side n. Slang sexual relationship involving infidelity.
Bit part n. Minor role.
Bitter —adj. 1 having a sharp pungent taste; not sweet. 2 causing, showing, or feeling mental pain or resentment (bitter memories). 3 a harsh; virulent (bitter animosity). B piercingly cold. —n. 1 beer flavoured with hops and tasting slightly bitter. 2 (in pl.) Liquor flavoured esp. With wormwood, used in cocktails. to the bitter end to the very end in spite of difficulties. bitterly adv. Bitterness n. [old english]
Bittern n. Wading bird of the heron family. [french butor from latin butio]
Bitter-sweet —adj. Sweet with a bitter aftertaste. —n. 1 such sweetness. 2 = *woody nightshade.
Bitty adj. (-ier, -iest) made up of bits; scrappy.
Bitumen n. Tarlike mixture of hydrocarbons derived from petroleum. [latin]
Bituminous adj. Of or like bitumen.
Bituminous coal n. Coal burning with a smoky flame.
Bivalve —n. Aquatic mollusc with a hinged double shell, e.g. The oyster and mussel. —adj. With such a shell.
Bivouac —n. Temporary open encampment without tents. —v. (-ck-) make, or camp in, a bivouac. [french, probably from german]
Blab v. (-bb-) 1 talk foolishly or indiscreetly. 2 reveal (a secret etc.); confess. [imitative]
Blabber —n. (also blabbermouth) person who blabs. —v. (often foll. By on) talk foolishly or inconsequentially.
Black —adj. 1 reflecting no light, colourless from lack of light (like coal or soot); completely dark. 2 (black) of the human group with dark-coloured skin, esp. African. 3 (of the sky etc.) Heavily overcast. 4 angry; gloomy (black look,
mood). 5 implying disgrace etc. (in his black books). 6 wicked, sinister, deadly. 7 portending trouble (things look black). 8 comic but sinister (black comedy). 9 (of tea or coffee) without milk. 10 (of industrial labour or its products) boycotted, esp. By a trade union, in a strike etc. —n. 1 black colour or pigment. 2 black clothes or material (dressed in black). 3 a (in a game) black piece, ball, etc. B player of this. 4 credit side of an account (in the black).
Black —adj. 1 reflecting no light, colourless from lack of light (like coal or soot); completely dark. 2 (black) of the human group with dark-coloured skin, esp. African. 3 (of the sky etc.) Heavily overcast. 4 angry; gloomy (black look, mood). 5 implying disgrace etc. (in his black books). 6 wicked, sinister, deadly. 7 portending trouble (things look black). 8 comic but sinister (black comedy). 9 (of tea or coffee) without milk. 10 (of industrial labour or its products) boycotted, esp. By a trade union, in a strike etc. —n. 1 black colour or pigment. 2 black clothes or material (dressed in black). 3 a (in a game) black piece, ball, etc. B player of this. 4 credit side of an account (in the black). 5 (black) member of a dark-skinned race, esp. An african. —v. 1 make black (blacked his boots). 2 declare (goods etc.) ‘black’. black out 1 effect a blackout on. 2 undergo a blackout. [old english]
Black and blue adj. Bruised.
Black and white —n. Writing or printing (in black and white). —adj. 1 (of a film etc.) Monochrome. 2 consisting of extremes only, oversimplified.
Black art n. = *black magic.
Blackball v. Reject (a candidate) in a ballot.
Black beetle n. The common cockroach.
Black belt n. 1 highest grade of proficiency in judo, karate, etc. 2 holder of this grade, entitled to wear a black belt.
Blackberry n. (pl. -ies) black fleshy edible fruit of the bramble.
Blackbird n. Common thrush of which the male is black with an orange beak.
Blackboard n. Board with a smooth dark surface for writing on with chalk.
Black box n. Flight-recorder.
Blackcap n. Small warbler, the male of which has a black-topped head.
Black country n. (prec. By the) industrial area of the midlands.
Blackcurrant n. 1 cultivated flowering shrub. 2 its small dark edible berry.
Black death n. (prec. By the) 14th-c. Plague in europe.
Black economy n. Unofficial and untaxed trade.
Black economy n. Unofficial and untaxed trade.
Blacken v. 1 make or become black or dark. 2 defame, slander.
Black eye n. Bruised skin around the eye.
Black flag n. Flag of piracy.
Blackfly n. 1 dark coloured thrips or aphid. 2 these collectively.
Black forest gateau n. Chocolate sponge with cherries and whipped cream.
Black friar n. Dominican friar.
Blackguard n. Villain, scoundrel. blackguardly adj. [originally = menial]
Blackhead n. Black-topped pimple on the skin.
Black hole n. Region of space from which matter and radiation cannot escape.
Black ice n. Thin hard transparent ice on a road etc.
Blacking n. Black polish, esp. For shoes.
Blackjack n. = *pontoon1.
Blacklead n. Graphite.
Blackleg —n. Derog. Person refusing to join a strike etc. —v. (-gg-) act as a blackleg.
Blacklist —n. List of people in disfavour etc. —v. Put on a blacklist.
Black magic n. Magic supposed to invoke evil spirits.
Blackmail —n. 1 a extortion of payment in return for silence. B payment so extorted. 2 use of threats or moral pressure. —v. 1 (try to) extort money etc. From by blackmail. 2 threaten, coerce. blackmailer n. [obsolete mail rent]
Black maria n. Slang police van.
Black mark n. Mark of discredit.
Black market n. Illicit trade in rationed, prohibited, or scarce commodities. black
Black market n. Illicit trade in rationed, prohibited, or scarce commodities. black marketeer n.
Black mass n. Travesty of the mass, in worship of satan.
Blackout n. 1 temporary loss of consciousness or memory. 2 loss of electric power, radio reception, etc. 3 compulsory darkness as a precaution against air raids. 4 temporary suppression of news. 5 sudden darkening of a theatre stage.
Black pepper n. Pepper made by grinding the whole dried pepper berry including the outer husk.
Black power n. Movement for black rights and political power.
Black pudding n. Sausage of pork, dried pig’s blood, suet, etc.
Black rod n. Principal usher of the house of lords etc.
Black sheep n. Colloq. Member of a family, group, etc. Regarded as a disgrace or failure.
Blackshirt n. Hist.member of a fascist organization.
Blacksmith n. Smith who works in iron.
Black spot n. 1 place of danger or trouble. 2 plant disease producing black spots.
Black tea n. Tea that is fully fermented before drying.
Blackthorn n. Thorny shrub bearing white blossom and sloes.
Black tie n. 1 black bow-tie worn with a dinner jacket. 2 colloq. Man’s formal evening dress.
Black velvet n. Mixture of stout and champagne.
Black watch n. (prec. By the) royal highland regiment.
Black widow n. Venomous spider of which the female devours the male.
Bladder n. 1 a sac in some animals, esp. That holding urine. B this adapted for various uses. 2 inflated blister in seaweed etc. [old english]
Bladderwrack n. Brown seaweed with air bladders.
Blade n. 1 cutting part of a knife etc. 2 flattened part of an oar, propeller, etc. 3 a flat narrow leaf of grass etc. B broad thin part of a leaf. 4 flat bone, e.g. In the shoulder. [old english]
Blame —v. (-ming) 1 assign fault or responsibility to. 2 (foll. By on) fix responsibility for (an error etc.) On (blamed it on his brother). —n. 1 responsibility for an error etc. 2 blaming or attributing of responsibility (got all the blame). be to blame be responsible; deserve censure. blameable adj. Blameless adj. Blameworthy adj. [french: related to *blaspheme]
Blanch v. 1 make or become white or pale. 2 a peel (almonds etc.) By scalding. B immerse (vegetables etc.) Briefly in boiling water. 3 whiten (a plant) by depriving it of light. [french: related to *blank]
Blancmange n. Sweet opaque jelly of flavoured cornflour and milk. [french, = white food]
Bland adj. 1 a mild, not irritating. B tasteless; insipid. 2 gentle in manner; suave. blandly adv. Blandness n. [latin blandus smooth]
Blandish v. Flatter; coax. blandishment n. (usu. In pl.). [latin: related to *bland]
Blank —adj. 1 a (of paper) not written or printed on. B (of a document) with spaces left for a signature or details. 2 a empty (blank space). B unrelieved (blank wall). 3 a without interest, result, or expression (blank face). B having (temporarily) no knowledge etc. (mind went blank). 4 complete (a blank refusal; blank despair). —n. 1 a unfilled space, esp. In a document. B document having blank spaces. 2 (in full blank cartridge) cartridge containing gunpowder but no bullet. 3 dash written instead of a word or letter. —v. (usu. Foll. By off, out) screen, obscure. draw a blank get no response; fail. blankly adv. Blankness n. [french blanc white, from germanic]
Blank cheque n. 1 cheque left for the payee to fill in. 2 colloq. Unlimited freedom of action.
Blanket —n. 1 large esp. Woollen sheet used as a bed-covering etc. 2 thick covering mass or layer. —attrib. Adj. Covering everything; inclusive. —v. (-t-) 1 cover. 2 stifle, suppress. [french: related to *blank]
Blanket bath n. Body wash given to a bedridden patient.
Blanket stitch n. Stitch used to finish the edges of a blanket etc.
Blank verse n. Unrhymed verse, esp. Iambic pentameters.
Blare —v. (-ring) 1 sound or utter loudly. 2 make the sound of a trumpet. —n. Blaring sound. [low german or dutch, imitative]
Blasé adj. Bored or indifferent through over-familiarity. [french]
Blaspheme v. (-ming) 1 use religious names irreverently; treat a religious or sacred subject irreverently. 2 talk irreverently about; use blasphemy against. [greek blasphemeo]
[greek blasphemeo]
Blasphemy n. (pl. -ies) 1 irreverent talk or treatment of a religious or sacred thing. 2 instance of this. blasphemous adj.
Blast —n. 1 strong gust of air. 2 a explosion. B destructive wave of air from this. 3 loud note from a wind instrument, car horn, etc. 4 colloq. Severe reprimand. — v. 1 blow up with explosives. 2 wither, blight (blasted oak; blasted her hopes). 3 (cause to) make a loud noise. —int. Expressing annoyance. at full blast colloq. At maximum volume, speed, etc. Blast off take off from a launching site. [old english]
Blaze1 —n. 1 bright flame or fire. 2 violent outburst (of passion etc.). 3 brilliant display (blaze of scarlet, of glory). —v. (-zing) 1 burn or shine brightly or fiercely. 2 be consumed with anger, excitement, etc. blaze away (often foll. By at) 1 shoot continuously. 2 work vigorously. [old english, = torch]
Blaze2 —n. 1 white mark on an animal’s face. 2 mark cut on a tree, esp. To show a route. —v. (-zing) mark (a tree or a path) with blazes. blaze a trail show the way for others. [origin uncertain]
Blazer n. Jacket without matching trousers, esp. Lightweight and often part of a uniform. [from *blaze1]
Blazon —v. 1 proclaim (esp. Blazon abroad). 2 heraldry describe or paint (arms). —n. Heraldry shield or coat of arms. blazonment n. Blazonry n. [french, originally = shield]
Bleach —v. Whiten in sunlight or by a chemical process. —n. Bleaching substance or process. [old english]
Bleat —v. 1 (of a sheep, goat, or calf) make a wavering cry. 2 (often foll. By out) speak or say plaintively. —n. Bleating cry. [old english]
Bleed —v. (past and past part. Bled) 1 emit blood. 2 draw blood from surgically.
Bleed —v. (past and past part. Bled) 1 emit blood. 2 draw blood from surgically. 3 colloq. Extort money from. 4 (often foll. By for) suffer wounds or violent death. 5 a emit sap. B (of dye) come out in water. 6 empty (a system) of excess air or fluid. —n. Act of bleeding. one’s heart bleeds usu. Iron. One is very sorrowful. [old english]
Bleeder n. Coarse slang unpleasant or contemptible person.
Bleeding adj. & adv. Coarse slang expressing annoyance or antipathy.
Bleep —n. Intermittent high-pitched electronic sound. —v. 1 make a bleep. 2 summon with a bleeper. [imitative]
Bleeper n. Small electronic device bleeping to contact the carrier.
Blemish —n. Flaw, defect, or stain. —v. Spoil, mark, or stain. [french]
Blench v. Flinch, quail. [old english]
Blend —v. 1 mix together as required. 2 become one. 3 (often foll. By with, in) mingle; mix thoroughly. 4 (esp. Of colours) merge imperceptibly; harmonize. — n. Mixture. [old norse]
Blender n. Machine for liquidizing, chopping, or puréeing food.
Blenny n. (pl. -ies) small spiny-finned scaleless marine fish. [greek blennos mucus]
Bless v. (past and past part. Blessed, poet. Blest) 1 ask god to look favourably on, esp. By making the sign of the cross over. 2 consecrate (food etc.). 3 glorify (god). 4 attribute one’s good luck to (stars etc.); thank. 5 (usu. In passive) make happy or successful (blessed with children). bless me (or my soul) exclamation of surprise etc. Bless you! Exclamation of endearment, gratitude, etc., or to a person who has just sneezed. [old english]
Blessing n. 1 invocation of (esp. Divine) favour. 2 grace said at a meal. 3 benefit.
Blether var. Of *blather.
Blew past of *blow1.
Blether var. Of *blather.
Blew past of *blow1.
Blight —n. 1 plant disease caused by insects etc. 2 such an insect etc. 3 harmful or destructive force. 4 ugly urban area. —v. 1 affect with blight. 2 harm, destroy.
3 spoil. [origin unknown]
Blighter n. Colloq. Contemptible or annoying person.
Blighty n. Mil. Slang england; home. [hindustani, = foreign]
Blimey int. Coarse slang expression of surprise, contempt, etc. [(god) blind me!]
Blimp n. 1 (also (colonel) blimp) reactionary person. 2 small non-rigid airship. 3 soundproof cover for a cine-camera. [origin uncertain]
Blind —adj. 1 lacking the power of sight. 2 a without adequate foresight, discernment, or information (blind effort). B (often foll. By to) unwilling or unable to appreciate a factor etc. (blind to argument). 3 not governed by purpose or reason (blind forces). 4 reckless (blind hitting). 5 a concealed (blind ditch). B closed at one end. 6 (of flying) using instruments only. 7 cookery (of a flan case etc.) Baked without a filling. —v. 1 deprive of sight. 2 rob of judgement; deceive; overawe. 3 slang go recklessly. —n. 1 screen for a window; awning. 2 thing used to hide the truth. 3 obstruction to sight or light. —adv. Blindly. blindly adv. Blindness n. [old english]
Blind alley n. 1 alley closed at one end. 2 futile course.
Blind date n. Colloq. Date between two people who have not previously met.
Blind drunk adj. Colloq. Extremely drunk.
Blind drunk adj. Colloq. Extremely drunk.
Blindfold —v. Cover the eyes of (a person) with a tied cloth etc. —n. Cloth etc. So used. —adj. & adv. 1 with eyes covered. 2 without due care. [originally blindfelled = struck blind]
Blind man’s buff n. Game in which a blindfold player tries to catch others.
Blind spot n. 1 point on the retina insensitive to light. 2 area where vision or understanding is lacking.
Blindworm n. = *slow-worm.
Blink —v. 1 shut and open the eyes quickly. 2 (often foll. By back) prevent (tears) by blinking. 3 shine unsteadily, flicker. —n. 1 act of blinking. 2 momentary gleam or glimpse. blink at 1 look at while blinking. 2 ignore, shirk. On the blink slang not working properly; out of order. [dutch, var. Of *blench]
Blinker —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Each of two screens on a bridle preventing lateral vision. 2 device that blinks. —v. 1 obscure with blinkers. 2 (as blinkered adj.) Having narrow and prejudiced views.
Blip —n. 1 minor deviation or error. 2 quick popping sound. 3 small image on a radar screen. —v. (-pp-) make a blip. [imitative]
radar screen. —v. (-pp-) make a blip. [imitative]
Bliss n. 1 perfect joy. 2 being in heaven. blissful adj. Blissfully adv. [old english]
Blister —n. 1 small bubble on the skin filled with watery fluid and caused by heat or friction. 2 similar swelling on plastic, wood, etc. —v. 1 come up in blisters. 2 raise a blister on. 3 attack sharply. [origin uncertain]
Blithering attrib. Adj. Colloq. Hopeless; contemptible (esp. In blithering idiot). [blither, var. Of *blather]
Blitt. Abbr. Bachelor of letters. [latin baccalaureus litterarum]
Blitz colloq. —n. 1 a intensive or sudden (esp. Aerial) attack. B intensive period of work etc. (must have a blitz on this room). 2 (the blitz) german air raids on london in 1940. —v. Inflict a blitz on. [abbreviation of *blitzkrieg]
Blitzkrieg n. Intense military campaign intended to bring about a swift victory. [german, = lightning war]
Blizzard n. Severe snowstorm. [origin unknown]
Bloat v. 1 inflate, swell. 2 (as bloated adj.) Inflated with pride, wealth, or food. 3 cure (a herring) by salting and smoking lightly. [old norse]
Bloater n. Bloated herring.
Blob n. Small drop or spot. [imitative]
Bloc n. Group of governments etc. Sharing a common purpose. [french: related to *block]
Block —n. 1 solid piece of hard material, esp. Stone or wood. 2 this as a base for chopping etc., as a stand, or for mounting a horse from. 3 a large building, esp. When subdivided. B group of buildings between streets. 4 obstruction. 5 two or more pulleys mounted in a case. 6 piece of wood or metal engraved for printing. 7 slang head. 8 (often attrib.) Number of things as a unit, e.g. Shares, theatre seats (block booking). 9 sheets of paper glued along one edge. —v. 1 a (often foll. By up) obstruct. B impede. 2 restrict the use of. 3 cricket stop (a ball) with a bat defensively. block in 1 sketch roughly; plan. 2 confine. Block out 1 shut out (light, noise, a memory, view, etc.). 2 sketch roughly; plan. Block up confine; enclose. [low german or dutch]
Blockade —n. Surrounding or blocking of a place by an enemy to prevent entry and exit. —v. (-ding) subject to a blockade.
Blockage n. Obstruction.
Block and tackle n. System of pulleys and ropes, esp. For lifting.
Blockbuster n. Slang 1 thing of great power, esp. A very successful film, book, etc. 2 highly destructive bomb.
Block capitals n.pl. (also block letters) letters printed without serifs, or written with each letter separate and in capitals.
Blockhead n. Stupid person.
Blockhouse n. 1 reinforced concrete shelter. 2 hist. Small fort of timber.
Block vote n. Vote proportional in power to the number of people a delegate represents.
Bloke n. Slang man, fellow. [shelta]
Blond (of a woman usu. Blonde) —adj. (of a person, hair, or complexion) light-coloured, fair. —n. Blond person. [latin blondus yellow]
Blood —n. 1 usu. Red fluid circulating in the arteries and veins of animals. 2 bloodshed, esp. Killing. 3 passion, temperament. 4 race, descent, parentage (of the same blood). 5 relationship; relations (blood is thicker than water). 6 dandy. —v. 1 give (a hound) a first taste of blood. 2 initiate (a person). in one’s blood inherent in one’s character. [old english]
Blood bank n. Store of blood for transfusion.
Blood bath n. Massacre.
Blood count n. Number of corpuscles in a specific amount of blood.
Blood-curdling adj. Horrifying.
Blood donor n. Person giving blood for transfusion.
Blood group n. Any of the types of human blood.
Blood-heat n. Normal human temperature, about 37 °c or 98.4 °f.
Bloodhound n. Large keen-scented dog used in tracking.
Bloodless adj. 1 without blood or bloodshed. 2 unemotional. 3 pale. 4 feeble.
Blood-letting n. Surgical removal of blood.
Blood-money n. 1 money paid as compensation for a death. 2 money paid to a killer.
killer.
Blood orange n. Red-fleshed orange.
Blood-poisoning n. Diseased condition caused by micro-organisms in the blood.
Blood pressure n. Pressure of the blood in the arteries etc., measured for diagnosis.
Blood relation n. (also blood relative) relative by birth.
Bloodshed n. Killing.
Bloodshot adj. (of an eyeball) inflamed.
Blood sport n. Sport involving the killing or wounding of animals.
Bloodstain n. Stain caused by blood. bloodstained adj.
Bloodstream n. Blood in circulation.
Bloodsucker n. 1 leech. 2 extortioner. bloodsucking adj.
Blood sugar n. Amount of glucose in the blood.
Blood test n. Examination of blood, esp. For diagnosis.
Bloodthirsty adj. (-ier, -iest) eager for bloodshed.
Blood-vessel n. Vein, artery, or capillary carrying blood.
Bloody —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of, like, running with, or smeared with blood. 2 a involving bloodshed. B bloodthirsty, cruel. 3 coarse slang expressing annoyance or antipathy, or as an intensifier (bloody fool; a bloody sight better). 4 red. — adv. Coarse slang as an intensifier (bloody awful). —v. (-ies, -ied) stain with blood.
Bloom —n. 1 a flower, esp. Cultivated. B state of flowering (in bloom). 2 one’s prime (in full bloom). 3 a healthy glow of the complexion. B fine powder on fresh fruit and leaves. —v. 1 bear flowers; be in flower. 2 be in one’s prime; flourish. [old norse]
Bloomer1 n. 1 slang blunder. 2 plant that blooms in a specified way.
Bloomer2 n. Long loaf with diagonal marks. [origin uncertain]
Bloomers n.pl. 1 women’s long loose knickers. 2 hist. Women’s loose knee-length trousers. [mrs a. Bloomer, name of the originator]
Blooming —adj. 1 flourishing; healthy. 2 slang an intensifier (blooming miracle). —adv. Slang an intensifier (blooming difficult).
Blossom —n. 1 flower or mass of flowers, esp. Of a fruit-tree. 2 promising stage (blossom of youth). —v. 1 open into flower. 2 mature, thrive. [old english]
Blot —n. 1 spot or stain of ink etc. 2 disgraceful act or quality. 3 blemish. —v. (-tt-) 1 make a blot on, stain. 2 dry with blotting-paper. blot one’s copybook damage one’s reputation. Blot out 1 obliterate. 2 obscure (a view, sound, etc.). [probably scandinavian]
Blotch —n. 1 discoloured or inflamed patch on the skin. 2 irregular patch of colour. —v. Cover with blotches. blotchy adj. (-ier, -iest). [obsolete plotch, *blot]
Blotter n. Pad of blotting-paper.
Blotting-paper n. Absorbent paper for drying wet ink.
Blotto adj. Slang very drunk. [origin uncertain]
Blouse —n. 1 woman’s garment like a shirt. 2 upper part of a military uniform. —v. (-sing) make (a bodice etc.) Full like a blouse. [french]
Blouson n. Short blouse-shaped jacket. [french]
Blow1 —v. (past blew; past part. Blown) 1 direct a current of air (at) esp. From the mouth. 2 drive or be driven by blowing (blew the door open). 3 (esp. Of the wind) move rapidly. 4 expel by breathing (blew smoke). 5 sound or be sounded by blowing. 6 (past part. Blowed) slang (esp. In imper.) Curse, confound (i’m blowed if i know; blow it!). 7 clear (the nose) by blowing. 8 puff, pant. 9 slang depart suddenly (from). 10 shatter etc. By an explosion. 11 make or shape (glass or a bubble) by blowing. 12 a melt from overloading (the fuse has blown). B break or burst suddenly. 13 (of a whale) eject air and water. 14 break into with explosives. 15 slang a squander (blew £20). B bungle (an opportunity etc.). C reveal (a secret etc.). —n. 1 act of blowing. 2 a gust of wind or air. B exposure to fresh air. be blowed if one will colloq. Be unwilling to. Blow a gasket slang lose one’s temper. Blow hot and cold colloq. Vacillate. Blow in 1 break inwards by an explosion. 2 colloq. Arrive unexpectedly. Blow a person’s mind slang cause to have hallucinations etc.; astound. Blow off 1 escape or allow (steam etc.) To escape forcibly. 2 slang break wind noisily. Blow out 1 extinguish by blowing. 2 send outwards by an explosion. Blow over (of trouble etc.) Fade away. Blow one’s top colloq. Explode in rage. Blow up 1 explode. 2 colloq. Rebuke strongly. 3 inflate (a tyre etc.). 4 colloq. A enlarge (a photograph). B exaggerate. 5 colloq. Arise, happen. 6 colloq. Lose one’s temper. [old english]
Blow2 n. 1 hard stroke with a hand or weapon. 2 sudden shock or misfortune. [origin unknown]
Blow-by-blow attrib. Adj. (of a narrative etc.) Detailed.
Blow-by-blow attrib. Adj. (of a narrative etc.) Detailed.
Blow-dry —v. Arrange (the hair) while drying it. —n. Act of doing this.
Blower n. 1 device for blowing. 2 colloq. Telephone.
Blowfly n. Bluebottle.
Blow-hole n. 1 nostril of a whale. 2 hole (esp. In ice) for breathing or fishing through. 3 vent for air, smoke, etc.
Blow-job n. Coarse slang instance of fellatio or cunnilingus.
Blowlamp n. Device with a very hot flame for burning off paint, plumbing, etc.
Blown past part. Of *blow1.
Blow-out n. Colloq. 1 burst tyre. 2 melted fuse. 3 huge meal.
Blowpipe n. 1 tube for blowing air through, esp. To intensify a flame or to blow glass. 2 tube for propelling poisoned darts etc. By blowing.
Blowtorch n. Us = *blowlamp.
Blow-up n. 1 colloq. Enlargement (of a photograph etc.). 2 explosion.
Blub v. (-bb-) slang sob. [shortening of *blubber]
Blubber —n. Whale fat. —v. 1 sob loudly. 2 sob out (words). —adj. Swollen, thick. [probably imitative]
Bludgeon —n. Heavy club. —v. 1 beat with this. 2 coerce. [origin unknown]
Blue —adj. (bluer, bluest) 1 having the colour of a clear sky. 2 sad, depressed. 3 pornographic (a blue film). 4 politically conservative. —n. 1 blue colour or pigment. 2 blue clothes or material (dressed in blue). 3 person who represents a university in a sport, esp. Oxford or cambridge. 4 conservative party supporter. —v. (blues, blued, bluing or blueing) 1 make blue. 2 slang squander. once in a blue moon very rarely. Out of the blue unexpectedly. [french from germanic]
Blue baby n. Baby with a blue complexion due to a congenital heart defect.
Bluebell n. Woodland plant with bell-shaped blue flowers.
Bluebell n. Woodland plant with bell-shaped blue flowers.
Blueberry n. (pl. -ies) small blue-black edible fruit of various plants.
Blue blood n. Noble birth.
Blue book n. Report issued by parliament or the privy council.
Bluebottle n. Large buzzing fly; blowfly.
Blue cheese n. Cheese with veins of blue mould.
Blue-collar attrib. Adj. (of a worker or work) manual; industrial.
Blue-eyed boy n. Colloq. Favourite.
Blue funk n. Colloq. Terror or panic.
Bluegrass n. A kind of instrumental country-and-western music.
Blue-pencil v. Censor or cut (a manuscript, film, etc.).
Blue peter n. Blue flag with a white square flown by a ship about to leave port.
Blueprint n. 1 photographic print of plans in white on a blue background. 2 detailed plan.
Blue rinse n. Bluish dye for grey hair.
Blues n.pl. 1 (prec. By the) bout of depression. 2 a (prec. By the; often treated as sing.) Melancholic music of black american origin, usu. In a twelve-bar sequence. B (pl. Same) (as sing.) Piece of such music (played a blues).
Bluestocking n. Usu. Derog. Intellectual or literary woman. [18th-c. Blue stocking society]
Blue tit n. Common tit with a blue crest.
Blue whale n. Rorqual, the largest known living mammal.
Bluff1 —v. Pretend strength, confidence, etc. —n. Act of bluffing. call a person’s bluff challenge a person to prove a claim. [dutch bluffen brag]
Bluff2 —adj. 1 blunt, frank, hearty. 2 vertical or steep and broad in front. —n. Steep cliff or headland. [origin unknown]
Bluish adj. Fairly blue.
Blunder —n. Serious or foolish mistake. —v. 1 make a blunder. 2 move clumsily; stumble. [probably scandinavian]
Blunderbuss n. Hist. Short large-bored gun. [dutch donderbus thunder gun]
Blunt —adj. 1 not sharp or pointed. 2 direct, outspoken. —v. Make blunt or less sharp. bluntly adv. (in sense 2 of adj.). Bluntness n. [probably scandinavian]
Blur —v. (-rr-) make or become unclear or less distinct; smear. —n. Blurred object, sound, memory, etc. [perhaps related to *bleary]
Blurb n. Promotional description, esp. Of a book. [coined by g. Burgess 1907]
Blurt v. (usu. Foll. By out) utter abruptly, thoughtlessly, or tactlessly. [imitative]
Blush —v. 1 a become pink in the face from embarrassment or shame. B (of the face) redden thus. 2 feel embarrassed or ashamed. 3 redden. —n. 1 act of blushing. 2 pink tinge. [old english]
Bm abbr. 1 british museum. 2 bachelor of medicine.
Bma abbr. British medical association.
B.mus. Abbr. Bachelor of music.
Bmx n. 1 organized bicycle-racing on a dirt-track. 2 bicycle used for this. [abbreviation of bicycle moto-cross]
Bo abbr. Colloq. Body odour.
Boa n. 1 large snake which kills by crushing and suffocating. 2 long stole of feathers or fur. [latin]
Boa constrictor n. Species of boa.
Boar n. 1 male wild pig. 2 uncastrated male pig. [old english]
Board —n. 1 a flat thin piece of sawn timber, usu. Long and narrow. B material resembling this, of compressed fibres. C thin slab of wood etc. D thick stiff card
used in bookbinding. 2 provision of regular meals, usu. With accommodation, for payment. 3 directors of a company; official administrative body. 4 (in pl.) Stage of a theatre. 5 side of a ship. —v. 1 go on board (a ship, train, etc.). 2 receive, or provide with, meals and usu. Lodging. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) cover with boards; seal or close. go by the board be neglected or discarded. On board on or on to a ship, aircraft, oil rig, etc. Take on board consider, take notice of; accept. [old english]
Boarder n. 1 person who boards, esp. At a boarding-school. 2 person who boards a ship, esp. An enemy.
Board-game n. Game played on a board.
Boarding-house n. Unlicensed establishment providing board and lodging, esp. To holiday-makers.
Boarding-school n. School in which pupils live in term-time.
Boardroom n. Room in which a board of directors etc. Meets regularly.
Boast —v. 1 declare one’s virtues, wealth, etc. With excessive pride. 2 own or have with pride (hotel boasts a ballroom). —n. 1 act of boasting. 2 thing one is proud of. [anglo-french]
Boastful adj. Given to boasting. boastfully adv.
Boat —n. 1 small vessel propelled on water by an engine, oars, or sails. 2 any ship. 3 long low jug for sauce etc. —v. Go in a boat, esp. For pleasure. in the same boat having the same problems. [old english]
Boater n. Flat-topped straw hat with a brim.
Boat-hook n. Long hooked pole for moving boats.
Boat-house n. Waterside shed for housing boats.
Boating n. Rowing or sailing as recreation.
Boatman n. Person who hires out boats or provides transport by boat.
Boat people n.pl. Refugees travelling by sea.
Boatswain n. (also bosun, bo’sun) ship’s officer in charge of equipment and crew.
Boat-train n. Train scheduled to meet or go on a boat.
Bob1 —v. (-bb-) 1 move quickly up and down. 2 (usu. Foll. By back, up) bounce or emerge buoyantly or suddenly. 3 cut (the hair) in a bob. 4 curtsy. —n. 1
jerking or bouncing movement, esp. Upward. 2 hairstyle with the hair hanging evenly above the shoulders. 3 weight on a pendulum etc. 4 horse’s docked tail. 5 curtsy. [imitative]
Bob2 n. (pl. Same) hist. Slang shilling (now = 5 pence). [origin unknown]
Bob3 n. bob’s your uncle slang expression of completion or success. [pet form of robert]
Bobbin n. Spool or reel for thread etc. [french]
Bobble n. Small woolly ball on a hat etc. [diminutive of *bob1]
Bobby n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Police officer. [sir robert peel, 19th-c. Statesman]
Bob-sled n. Us = *bob-sleigh.
Bob-sleigh —n. Mechanically-steered and -braked racing sledge. —v. Race in a bob-sleigh.
Bobtail n. 1 docked tail. 2 horse or dog with this.
Boche n. Slang derog. German, esp. A soldier. [french]
Bod n. Colloq. Person. [shortening of *body]
Bode v. (-ding) be a sign of, portend. bode well (or ill) be a good (or bad) sign. [old english]
Bodega n. Cellar or shop selling wine. [spanish]
Bodge var. Of *botch.
Bodice n. 1 part of a woman’s dress above the waist. 2 woman’s vest-like undergarment. [originally pair of bodies]
Bodily —adj. Of the body. —adv. 1 as a whole body (threw them bodily). 2 in the flesh, in person.
Bodkin n. Blunt thick needle for drawing tape etc. Through a hem. [origin uncertain]
Body n. (pl. -ies) 1 whole physical structure, including the bones, flesh, and organs, of a person or an animal, whether dead or alive. 2 = *trunk 2. 3 main or central part; bulk or majority (body of opinion). 4 a group regarded as a unit. B (usu. Foll. By of) collection (body of facts). 5 quantity (body of water). 6 piece of matter (heavenly body). 7 colloq. Person. 8 full or substantial quality of flavour, tone, etc. in a body all together. [old english]
Body-blow n. Severe setback.
Body-blow n. Severe setback.
Body-building n. Exercises to enlarge and strengthen the muscles.
Bodyguard n. Person or group escorting and protecting another.
Body language n. Communication through gestures and poses.
Body odour n. Smell of the human body, esp. When unpleasant.
Body politic n. Nation or state as a corporate body.
Body shop n. Workshop where bodywork is repaired.
Body stocking n. Woman’s undergarment covering the torso.
Bodysuit n. Close-fitting all-in-one garment for women, worn esp. For sport.
Bodywork n. Outer shell of a vehicle.
Boer —n. South african of dutch descent. —adj. Of the boers. [dutch, = farmer]
Boffin n. Colloq. Research scientist. [origin unknown]
Bog —n. 1 a wet spongy ground. B stretch of this. 2 slang lavatory. —v. (-gg-) (foll. By down; usu. In passive) impede (bogged down by snow). boggy adj. (-ier, -iest). [irish or gaelic bogach]
Bogey1 n. (pl. -eys) golf 1 score of one stroke more than par at any hole. 2 (formerly) par. [perhaps from bogey, as an imaginary player]
Bogey2 n. (also bogy) (pl. -eys or -ies) 1 evil or mischievous spirit; devil. 2 awkward thing. 3 slang piece of dried nasal mucus. [originally (old) bogey the devil]
Bogeyman n. (also bogyman) frightening person etc.
Boggle v. (-ling) colloq. Be startled or baffled (esp. The mind boggles). [probably dial. Boggle *bogey2]
Bogie n. Wheeled undercarriage below a locomotive etc. [origin unknown]
Bogus adj. Sham, spurious. [origin unknown]
Bogy var. Of *bogey2.
Bogyman var. Of *bogeyman.
Bohemian —n. 1 native of bohemia, a czech. 2 (also bohemian) socially unconventional person, esp. An artist or writer. —adj. 1 of bohemia or its people. 2 (also bohemian) socially unconventional. bohemianism n. [bohemia, part of czechoslovakia]
Boil1 —v. 1 a (of a liquid) start to bubble up and turn into vapour on reaching a certain temperature. B (of a vessel) contain boiling liquid (kettle is boiling). 2 a bring to boiling point. B cook in boiling liquid. C subject to boiling water, e.g. To clean. 3 a move or seethe like boiling water. B be very angry. —n. Act or process of boiling; boiling-point (on the boil; bring to the boil). boil down 1 reduce in volume by boiling. 2 reduce to essentials. 3 (foll. By to) amount to. Boil over 1 spill over in boiling. 2 lose one’s temper. [latin bullio to bubble]
Boil2 n. Inflamed pus-filled swelling under the skin. [old english]
Boiler n. 1 apparatus for heating a hot-water supply. 2 tank for heating water or turning it to steam. 3 tub for boiling laundry etc. 4 fowl etc. For boiling.
Boiler-room n. Room with a boiler and other heating equipment, esp. In a basement.
Boiler suit n. Protective outer garment of trousers and jacket in one.
Boiling adj. Colloq. Very hot.
Boiling adj. Colloq. Very hot.
Boiling point n. 1 temperature at which a liquid begins to boil. 2 great excitement.
Bold adj. 1 confidently assertive; adventurous, brave. 2 impudent. 3 vivid (bold colours). make (or be) so bold as to presume to; venture to. boldly adv. Boldness n. [old english]
Bole n. Trunk of a tree. [old norse]
Bolero n. (pl. -s) 1 spanish dance, or the music for it, in triple time. 2 woman’s short open jacket. [spanish]
Boll n. Round seed-vessel of cotton, flax, etc. [dutch]
Bollard n. 1 short post in the road, esp. On a traffic island. 2 short post on a quay or ship for securing a rope. [perhaps related to *bole]
Bollocking n. (also ballocking) coarse slang severe reprimand.
Bollocks n. (also ballocks) coarse slang 1 (usu. As int.) Nonsense. 2 testicles. [old english: related to *ball1]
[old english: related to *ball1]
Boloney n. (also baloney) slang nonsense. [origin uncertain]
Bolshevik —n. 1 hist. Member of the radical faction of the russian social democratic party becoming the communist party in 1918. 2 russian communist. 3 any revolutionary socialist. —adj. 1 of the bolsheviks. 2 communist. bolshevism n. Bolshevist n. [russian, = member of the majority]
Bolster —n. Long cylindrical pillow. —v. (usu. Foll. By up) encourage, support, prop up. [old english]
Bolt1 —n. 1 sliding bar and socket used to fasten a door etc. 2 large metal pin with a thread, usu. Used with a nut, to hold things together. 3 discharge of lightning. 4 act of bolting. —v. 1 fasten with a bolt. 2 (foll. By in, out) keep (a person etc.) In or out by bolting a door. 3 fasten together with bolts. 4 a dash off suddenly. B (of a horse) suddenly gallop out of control. 5 gulp down (food) unchewed. 6 (of a plant) run to seed. —adv. (usu. In bolt upright) rigidly, stiffly. bolt from the blue complete surprise. [old english]
Bolt2 v. (also boult) sift (flour etc.). [french]
Bolt-hole n. Means of escape.
Bomb —n. 1 container filled with explosive, incendiary material, etc., designed to explode and cause damage. 2 (prec. By the) the atomic or hydrogen bomb. 3 slang large sum of money (cost a bomb). —v. 1 attack with bombs; drop bombs on. 2 (usu. Foll. By along, off) colloq. Go very quickly. like a bomb colloq. 1 very successfully. 2 very fast. [greek bombos hum]
Bombard v. 1 attack with heavy guns or bombs etc. 2 (often foll. By with) question or abuse persistently. 3 physics direct a stream of high-speed particles at. bombardment n. [latin: related to *bomb]
Bombardier n. 1 non-commissioned officer in the artillery. 2 us crew member in an aircraft who aims and releases bombs.
Bombay duck n. Dried fish as a relish, esp. With curry. [corruption of bombil, native name of fish]
Bombazine n. Twilled worsted dress-material. [greek bombux silk]
Bomber n. 1 aircraft equipped to drop bombs. 2 person using bombs, esp. Illegally.
Bomber jacket n. Jacket gathered at the waist and cuffs.
Bombshell n. 1 overwhelming surprise or disappointment. 2 artillery bomb. 3 slang very attractive woman.
Bomb-site n. Area where bombs have caused destruction.
Bona fide —adj. Genuine; sincere. —adv. Genuinely; sincerely. [latin]
Bonanza n. 1 source of wealth or prosperity. 2 large output (esp. Of a mine). [spanish, = fair weather]
Bon-bon n. Sweet. [french bon good]
Bond —n. 1 thing or force that unites or (usu. In pl.) Restrains. 2 binding agreement. 3 commerce certificate issued by a government or a company promising to repay borrowed money at a fixed rate of interest. 4 adhesiveness. 5 law deed binding a person to make payment to another. 6 chem. Linkage between atoms in a molecule. —v. 1 hold or tie together. 2 connect or reinforce with a bond. 3 place (goods) in bond.
Bondage n. 1 slavery. 2 subjection to constraint etc. 3 sexual practices involving constraint. [anglo-latin: related to *bondsman]
Bonded adj. 1 stored in or for storing in bond (bonded whisky, warehouse). 2 (of a debt) secured by bonds.
Bond paper n. High-quality writing-paper.
Bond paper n. High-quality writing-paper.
Bondsman n. Serf, slave. [old english bonda husbandman]
Bone —n. 1 any piece of hard tissue making up the skeleton in vertebrates. 2 (in pl.) A skeleton, esp. As remains. B body. 3 material of bones or similar material, e.g. Ivory. 4 thing made of bone. 5 (in pl.) Essentials (the bones of an agreement). 6 strip of stiffening in a corset etc. —v. (-ning) 1 remove the bones from. 2 stiffen with bone etc. bone up (often foll. By on) colloq. Study intensively. Have a bone to pick (usu. Foll. By with) have cause for dispute (with a person). Make no bones about 1 be frank about. 2 not hesitate or scruple. boneless adj. [old english]
Bone china n. Fine china made of clay mixed with bone ash.
Bone-dry adj. Completely dry.
Bone-idle adj. Utterly idle.
Bone-marrow n. = *marrow 2.
Bone-meal n. Crushed bones, esp. As a fertilizer.
Bone of contention n. Source of dispute.
Boneshaker n. Decrepit or uncomfortable old vehicle.
Bonfire n. Large open-air fire, esp. For burning rubbish. [from bone (because bones were once used), fire]
Bongo n. (pl. -s or -es) either of a pair of small drums usu. Held between the knees and played with the fingers. [american spanish]
Bonhomie n. Good-natured friendliness. [french]
Bonk —v. 1 bang, bump. 2 coarse slang have sexual intercourse (with). —n. Instance of bonking (bonk on the head). [imitative]
Bonnet n. 1 a hat tied under the chin, worn esp. By babies. B scotsman’s floppy beret. 2 hinged cover over a vehicle’s engine. [french]
Bonny adj. (-ier, -iest) esp. Scot. & n.engl. 1 a physically attractive. B healthy-looking. 2 good, pleasant. [perhaps from french bon good]
Bonsai n. (pl. Same) 1 dwarfed tree or shrub. 2 art of growing these. [japanese]
Bonus n. Extra benefit or payment. [latin, = good]
Bon vivant n. (pl. Bon or bons vivants pronunc. Same) person fond of good food and drink. [french]
Bon voyage int. Expression of good wishes to a departing traveller. [french]
Bony adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 thin with prominent bones. 2 having many bones. 3 of or like bone. boniness n.
Boo —int. 1 expression of disapproval etc. 2 sound intended to surprise. —n. Utterance of boo, esp. To a performer etc. —v. (boos, booed) 1 utter boos. 2 jeer at by booing. [imitative]
Boob1 colloq. —n. 1 silly mistake. 2 foolish person. —v. Make a silly mistake. [shortening of *booby]
Boob2 n. Slang woman’s breast. [origin uncertain]
Booby n. (pl. -ies) stupid or childish person. [spanish bobo]
Booby prize n. Prize given for coming last.
Booby trap n. 1 practical joke in the form of a trap. 2 disguised explosive device triggered by the unknowing victim.
Boodle n. Slang money, esp. Gained or used dishonestly. [dutch boedel possessions]
Boogie v. (-ies, -ied, -ieing) slang dance to pop music.
Boogie-woogie n. Style of playing blues or jazz on the piano. [origin unknown]
Book —n. 1 a written or printed work with pages bound along one side. B work intended for publication. 2 bound blank sheets for notes, records, etc. 3 bound set of tickets, stamps, matches, etc. 4 (in pl.) Set of records or accounts. 5 main division of a large literary work. 6 telephone directory. 7 colloq. Magazine. 8 libretto, script, etc. 9 record of bets. —v. 1 a (also absol.) Reserve (a seat etc.) In advance. B engage (an entertainer etc.). 2 a take the personal details of (an offender or rule-breaker). B enter in a book or list. book in register at a hotel etc. Book up 1 buy tickets in advance. 2 (as booked up) with all places reserved. Bring to book call to account. Go by the book proceed by the rules. In a person’s good (or bad) books in (or out of) favour with a person. [old english]
Bookbinder n. Person who binds books for a living. bookbinding n.
Bookcase n. Cabinet of shelves for books.
Book club n. Society in which selected books are available cheaply.
Book-end n. Prop used to keep books upright.
Bookie n. Colloq. = *bookmaker. [abbreviation]
Booking n. Reservation or engagement.
Booking-hall n. (also booking-office) ticket office at a railway station etc.
Bookish adj. 1 studious; fond of reading. 2 having knowledge mainly from books.
Bookkeeper n. Person who keeps accounts, esp. For a living. bookkeeping n.
Booklet n. Small book usu. With a paper cover.
Bookmaker n. Professional taker of bets. bookmaking n.
Bookmark n. Thing used to mark a reader’s place.
Book-plate n. Decorative personalized label stuck in a book.
Bookseller n. Dealer in books.
Bookshop n. Shop selling books.
Bookstall n. Stand selling books, newspapers, etc.
Book token n. Voucher exchangeable for books.
Bookworm n. 1 colloq. Devoted reader. 2 larva feeding on the paper and glue in books.
Boolean adj. Denoting a system of algebraic notation to represent logical propositions. [boole, name of a mathematician]
Boolean logic n. Use of ‘and’, ‘or’, and ‘not’ in retrieving information from a database.
Boom1 —n. Deep resonant sound. —v. Make or speak with a boom. [imitative]
Boom2 —n. Period of economic prosperity or activity. —v. Be suddenly
Boom2 —n. Period of economic prosperity or activity. —v. Be suddenly prosperous. [perhaps from *boom1]
Boom3 n. 1 pivoted spar to which a sail is attached. 2 long pole carrying a microphone, camera, etc. 3 barrier across a harbour etc. [dutch, = *beam]
Boomerang —n. 1 flat v-shaped hardwood missile used esp. By australian aboriginals, able to return to its thrower. 2 plan that recoils on its originator. —v. (of a plan etc.) Backfire. [aboriginal]
Boon1 n. Advantage; blessing. [old norse]
Boon2 adj. Intimate, favourite (usu. Boon companion). [french bon from latin bonus good]
Boor n. Ill-mannered person. boorish adj. [low german or dutch]
Boost colloq. —v. 1 promote or encourage. 2 increase, assist. 3 push from below. —n. Act or result of boosting. [origin unknown]
Booster n. 1 device for increasing power or voltage. 2 auxiliary engine or rocket for initial speed. 3 dose, injection, etc. Renewing the effect of an earlier one.
Boot1 —n. 1 outer foot-covering reaching above the ankle. 2 luggage compartment of a car. 3 colloq. A firm kick. B (prec. By the) dismissal (got the boot). —v. 1 kick. 2 (often foll. By out) eject forcefully. 3 (usu. Foll. By up)
boot). —v. 1 kick. 2 (often foll. By out) eject forcefully. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) make (a computer) ready. put the boot in 1 kick brutally. 2 harm a person. [old norse]
Boot2 n. to boot as well, in addition. [old english]
Bootblack n. Us person who polishes boots and shoes.
Bootee n. Baby’s soft shoe.
Booth n. 1 small temporary structure used esp. As a market stall. 2 enclosure for telephoning, voting, etc. 3 cubicle in a restaurant etc. [old norse]
Bootleg —adj. (esp. Of alcohol) smuggled, illicit. —v. (-gg-) illicitly make or deal in (alcohol etc.). bootlegger n.
Bootlicker n. Colloq. Toady.
Boots n. Hotel servant who cleans shoes etc.
Bootstrap n. Loop used to pull a boot on. pull oneself up by one’s bootstraps better oneself.
Booty n. 1 loot, spoil. 2 colloq. Prize or gain. [german]
Boozer n. Colloq. 1 habitual drinker. 2 public house.
Booze-up n. Slang drinking bout.
Bop1 colloq. —n. 1 a spell of dancing, esp. To pop music. B social occasion for this. 2 = *bebop. —v. (-pp-) dance, esp. To pop music. bopper n. [abbreviation]
Bop2 colloq. —v. (-pp-) hit or punch, esp. Lightly. —n. Esp. Light blow or hit. [imitative]
Boracic adj. Of borax.
Boracic acid n. = *boric acid.
Borage n. Plant with leaves used as flavouring. [french ultimately from arabic]
Borax n. Salt used in making glass and china, and as an antiseptic. [french ultimately from persian]
Bordeaux n. (pl. Same) wine (esp. Red) from the bordeaux district in sw france.
Border —n. 1 edge or boundary, or the part near it. 2 a line or region separating two countries. B (the border) boundary between scotland and england (usu. The borders), or n. Ireland and the irish republic. 3 esp. Ornamental strip round an edge. 4 long narrow flower-bed (herbaceous border). —v. 1 be a border to. 2 provide with a border. 3 (usu. Foll. By on, upon) a adjoin; come close to being. B resemble. [french from germanic: related to *board]
Border collie n. Sheepdog of the north country.
Borderer n. Person living near a border.
Borderland n. 1 district near a border. 2 condition between two extremes. 3 area for debate.
Borderline —n. 1 line dividing two conditions. 2 line marking a boundary. — adj. 1 on the borderline. 2 barely acceptable.
Border terrier n. Small rough-haired terrier.
Bore1 —v. (-ring) 1 make (a hole), esp. With a revolving tool. 2 make a hole in, hollow out. —n. 1 hollow of a firearm barrel or of a cylinder in an internal-combustion engine. 2 diameter of this. 3 deep hole made esp. To find water. [old english]
Bore2 —n. Tiresome or dull person or thing. —v. (-ring) weary by tedious talk or dullness. bored adj. Boring adj. [origin unknown]
or dullness. bored adj. Boring adj. [origin unknown]
Bore3 n. High tidal wave in an estuary. [scandinavian]
Bore4 past of *bear1.
Boredom n. State of being bored. [from *bore2]
Boric acid n. Acid derived from borax, used as an antiseptic.
Born adj. 1 existing as a result of birth. 2 a of natural ability or quality (a born leader). B (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Destined (born lucky; born to be king). 3 (in comb.) Of a certain status by birth (french-born; well-born). [past part. Of *bear1]
Born-again attrib. Adj. Converted (esp. To fundamentalist christianity).
Borne past part. Of *bear1. —adj. (in comb.) Carried by (airborne).
Boron n. Non-metallic usu. Crystalline element. [from *borax, after carbon]
Borough n. 1 a town represented in the house of commons. B town or district granted the status of a borough. 2 hist. Town with a municipal corporation conferred by a royal charter. [old english]
conferred by a royal charter. [old english]
Borrow v. 1 a acquire temporarily, promising or intending to return. B obtain money thus. 2 use (another’s idea, invention, etc.); plagiarize. borrower n. [old english]
Borstal n. Hist. Residential institution for youth custody. [borstal in kent]
Usage this term has now been replaced by detention centre and youth custody centre.
Bortsch n. Russian soup of beetroot, cabbage, etc. [russian]
Borzoi n. Large silky-coated dog. [russian, = swift]
Bosh n. & int. Slang nonsense. [turkish, = empty]
Bosom n. 1 a person’s (esp. Woman’s) breast. B colloq. Each of a woman’s breasts. C enclosure formed by the breast and arms. 2 emotional centre (bosom of one’s family). [old english]
Bosom friend n. Intimate friend.
Boss1 colloq. —n. Employer, manager, or supervisor. —v. (usu. Foll. By about, around) give orders to; order about. [dutch baas]
Boss2 n. 1 round knob, stud, etc., esp. On the centre of a shield. 2 archit. Ornamental carving etc. At the junction of the ribs in a vault. [french]
Bossa nova n. 1 dance like the samba. 2 music for this. [portuguese, = new flair]
Boss-eyed adj. Colloq. 1 cross-eyed; blind in one eye. 2 crooked. [boss = bad shot, origin unknown]
Bossy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Domineering. bossiness n.
Bosun (also bo’sun) var. Of *boatswain.
Botany n. The study of plants. botanic adj. Botanical adj. Botanist n. [greek botane plant]
Botch (also bodge) —v. 1 bungle; do badly. 2 patch clumsily. —n. Bungled or spoilt work. [origin unknown]
Both —adj. & pron. The two, not only one (both boys; both the boys; both of the boys; i like both). —adv. With equal truth in two cases (is both hot and dry). [old norse]
Bother —v. 1 trouble; worry, disturb. 2 (often foll. By about, with, or to + infin.) Take the time or trouble (didn’t bother to tell me; shan’t bother with dessert). —
Take the time or trouble (didn’t bother to tell me; shan’t bother with dessert). — n. 1 a person or thing that bothers. B minor nuisance. 2 trouble, worry. —int. Expressing irritation. [irish bodhraim deafen]
Botheration n. & int. Colloq. = *bother n., int.
Bothersome adj. Causing bother.
Bottle —n. 1 container, esp. Glass or plastic, for storing liquid. 2 amount filling it. 3 baby’s feeding-bottle. 4 = hot-water bottle. 5 metal cylinder for liquefied gas. 6 slang courage. —v. (-ling) 1 put into, or preserve in, bottles or jars. 2 (foll. By up) conceal or restrain (esp. A feeling). hit the bottle slang drink heavily. [medieval latin: related to butt4]
Bottle bank n. Place for depositing bottles for recycling.
Bottle-feed v. Feed (a baby) from a bottle as opposed to the breast.
Bottle green adj. & n. (as adj. Often hyphenated) dark green.
Bottleneck n. 1 narrow congested area, esp. On a road. 2 impeding thing.
Bottlenose dolphin n. Dolphin with a bottle-shaped snout.
Bottle party n. Party to which guests bring bottles of drink.
Bottom —n. 1 a lowest point or part. B base. C underneath part. D furthest or inmost part. 2 colloq. A buttocks. B seat of a chair etc. 3 a less honourable end of a table, class, etc. B person occupying this (he’s bottom of the class). 4 ground below water. 5 basis or origin. 6 essential character. —adj. Lowest, last. —v. 1 put a bottom to (a chair etc.). 2 find the extent of. 3 touch the bottom or lowest point (of). at bottom basically. Be at the bottom of have caused. Bottom out reach the lowest level. Get to the bottom of fully investigate and explain. [old english]
Bottom drawer n. Linen etc. Stored by a woman for marriage.
Bottomless adj. 1 without a bottom. 2 inexhaustible.
Bottom line n. Colloq. Underlying truth; ultimate, esp. Financial, criterion.
Botulism n. Poisoning caused by a bacillus in badly preserved food. [latin botulus sausage]
Bouclé n. 1 looped or curled yarn (esp. Wool). 2 fabric made of this. [french, = curled]
Boudoir n. Woman’s private room. [french bouder sulk]
Bouffant adj. (of a dress, hair, etc.) Puffed out. [french]
Bouffant adj. (of a dress, hair, etc.) Puffed out. [french]
Bougainvillaea n. Tropical plant with large coloured bracts. [bougainville, name of a navigator]
Bough n. Main branch of a tree. [old english]
Bought past and past part. Of *buy.
Bouillon n. Clear broth. [french bouillir to boil]
Boulder n. Large smooth rock. [scandinavian]
Boule n. (also boules pronunc. Same) french form of bowls played on rough ground. [french]
Boulevard n. 1 broad tree-lined avenue. 2 esp. Us broad main road. [french from german]
Boult var. Of *bolt2.
Boult var. Of *bolt2.
Bounce —v. (-cing) 1 (cause to) rebound. 2 slang (of a cheque) be returned by a
Bounce —v. (-cing) 1 (cause to) rebound. 2 slang (of a cheque) be returned by a bank when there are no funds to meet it. 3 (foll. By about, up, in, out, etc.) Jump, move, or rush boisterously. —n. 1 a rebound. B power of rebounding. 2 colloq. A swagger, self-confidence. B liveliness. bounce back recover well after a setback. bouncy adj. (-ier, -iest). [imitative]
Bouncer n. 1 slang doorman ejecting troublemakers from a dancehall, club, etc. 2 = *bumper 3.
Bouncing adj. (esp. Of a baby) big and healthy.
Bound1 —v. 1 spring, leap. 2 (of a ball etc.) Bounce. —n. 1 springy leap. 2 bounce. [french bondir from latin bombus hum]
Bound2 —n. (usu. In pl.) 1 limitation; restriction. 2 border, boundary. —v. 1 limit. 2 be the boundary of. out of bounds outside a permitted area. [french from medieval latin]
Bound3 adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By for) starting or having started (bound for stardom). 2 (in comb.) In a specified direction (northbound). [old norse, = ready]
Bound4 past and past part. Of *bind. bound to certain to (he’s bound to come). Bound up with closely associated with.
Boundary n. (pl. -ies) 1 line marking the limits of an area etc. 2 cricket hit crossing the limits of the field, scoring 4 or 6 runs. [related to *bound2]
Bounden duty n. Formal solemn responsibility. [archaic past part. Of *bind]
Bounder n. Colloq. Cad.
Boundless adj. Unlimited.
Bounteous adj. Poet. = *bountiful. [french: related to *bounty]
Bountiful adj. 1 generous. 2 ample.
Bounty n. (pl. -ies) 1 generosity. 2 reward, esp. From the state. 3 gift. [french from latin bonus good]
Bouquet n. 1 bunch of flowers, esp. Professionally arranged. 2 scent of wine etc. 3 compliment. [french bois wood]
Bouquet garni n. (pl. Bouquets garnis) bunch or bag of herbs for seasoning.
Bourbon n. Us whisky from maize and rye. [bourbon county, kentucky]
Bourgeois often derog. —adj. 1 a conventionally middle-class. B materialistic. 2 capitalist. —n. (pl. Same) bourgeois person. [french]
capitalist. —n. (pl. Same) bourgeois person. [french]
Bourgeoisie n. 1 capitalist class. 2 middle class. [french]
Bourn n. Small stream. [var. Of *burn2]
Bourse n. 1 (bourse) paris stock exchange. 2 money-market. [french: related to *purse]
Bout n. 1 (often foll. By of) a spell (of work or activity). B attack (bout of flu). 2 wrestling-or boxing-match. [obsolete bought bending]
Boutique n. Small shop selling esp. Fashionable clothes. [french]
Bouzouki n. (pl. -s) greek form of mandolin. [modern greek]
Bow1 —n. 1 a slip-knot with a double loop. B ribbon etc. So tied. 2 curved piece of wood etc. With a string stretched across its ends, for shooting arrows. 3 rod with horsehair stretched along its length, for playing the violin etc. 4 shallow curve or bend; thing of this form. —v. (also absol.) Use a bow on (a violin etc.).
[old english]
Bow2 —v. 1 incline the head or body, esp. In greeting or acknowledgement. 2 submit (bowed to the inevitable). 3 cause (the head etc.) To incline. —n. Act of bowing. bow and scrape toady. Bow down 1 bend or kneel esp. In submission or reverence. 2 make stoop; crush (bowed down by care). Bow out 1 exit (esp. Formally). 2 withdraw; retire. Take a bow acknowledge applause. [old english]
Bow3 n. 1 (often in pl.) Front end of a boat. 2 rower nearest this. [low german or dutch: related to *bough]
Bowdlerize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) expurgate (a book etc.). bowdlerization n. [bowdler, name of an expurgator of shakespeare]
Bowel n. 1 (often in pl.) = *intestine. 2 (in pl.) Innermost parts. [latin botulus sausage]
Bowerbird n. Australasian bird, the male of which constructs elaborate runs.
Bowie n. (in full bowie knife) a kind of long hunting-knife. [bowie, name of an american soldier]
Bowl1 n. 1 a usu. Round deep basin for food or liquid. B contents of a bowl. 2 hollow part of a tobacco-pipe, spoon, etc. bowlful n. (pl. -s). [old english]
Bowl2 —n. 1 hard heavy ball, made with a bias to run in a curve. 2 (in pl.; usu. Treated as sing.) Game played with these on grass. 3 spell or turn of bowling in cricket. —v. 1 a roll (a ball etc.). B play bowls. 2 (also absol.) Cricket etc. A deliver (a ball, over, etc.). B (often foll. By out) dismiss (a batsman) by knocking down the wicket with a ball. 3 (often foll. By along) go along rapidly. bowl out cricket etc. Dismiss (a batsman or a side). Bowl over 1 knock down. 2 colloq. Impress greatly, overwhelm. [latin bulla bubble]
Bow-legs n.pl. Bandy legs. bow-legged adj.
Bowler1 n. 1 cricket etc. Player who bowls. 2 bowls-player.
Bowler2 n. (in full bowler hat) man’s hard round felt hat. [bowler, name of a hatter]
Bowline n. 1 rope from a ship’s bow keeping the sail taut against the wind. 2 knot forming a non-slipping loop at the end of a rope.
Bowling n. The game of skittles, tenpin bowling, or bowls.
Bowling-alley n. 1 long enclosure for skittles or tenpin bowling. 2 building with these.
Bowling-green n. Lawn for playing bowls.
Bowman n. Archer.
Bowsprit n. Spar running forward from a ship’s bow.
Bowstring n. String of an archer’s bow.
Bow-tie n. Necktie in the form of a bow.
Bow-window n. Curved bay window.
Bow-wow —int. Imitation of a dog’s bark. —n. Colloq. Dog. [imitative]
Box1 —n. 1 container, usu. Flat-sided and firm. 2 amount contained in a box. 3 compartment, e.g. In a theatre or lawcourt. 4 receptacle or kiosk for a special purpose (often in comb.: money box; telephone box). 5 facility at a newspaper office for receiving replies to an advertisement. 6 (prec. By the) colloq. Television. 7 enclosed area or space. 8 area of print enclosed by a border. 9 light shield for the genitals in cricket etc. 10 (prec. By the) football colloq. Penalty area. —v. 1 put in or provide with a box. 2 (foll. By in, up) confine. [latin buxis: related to *box3]
Box2 —v. 1 a take part in boxing. B fight (an opponent) at boxing. 2 slap (esp. A person’s ears). —n. Hard slap, esp. On the ears. [origin unknown]
Box3 n. 1 small evergreen tree with dark green leaves. 2 its fine hard wood. [latin buxus, greek puxos]
Box and cox n. Two people sharing accommodation etc. In shifts. [names of characters in a play (1847)]
Box camera n. Simple box-shaped camera.
Boxer n. 1 person who boxes, esp. As a sport. 2 medium-size short-haired dog with a puglike face.
Boxer shorts n.pl. Men’s loose underpants like shorts.
Box girder n. Hollow girder square in cross-section.
Boxing n. Fighting with the fists, esp. As a sport.
Boxing day n. First weekday after christmas. [from *box1, from the custom of giving christmas-boxes]
Boxing glove n. Each of a pair of heavily padded gloves worn in boxing.
Box junction n. Road area marked with a yellow grid, which a vehicle should enter only if its exit is clear.
enter only if its exit is clear.
Box number n. Number for replies to a private advertisement in a newspaper.
Box office n. Ticket-office at a theatre etc.
Box pleat n. Arrangement of parallel pleats folding in alternate directions.
Boxroom n. Small room for storing boxes, cases, etc.
Box spring n. Each of a set of vertical springs in a frame, e.g. In a mattress.
Boxwood n. = *box3 2.
Boxy adj. (-ier, -iest) cramped.
Boy —n. 1 male child, son. 2 young man. 3 male servant etc. —int. Expressing pleasure, surprise, etc. boyhood n. Boyish adj. [origin uncertain]
Boycott —v. 1 refuse to have social or commercial relations with (a person, country, etc.). 2 refuse to handle (goods). —n. Such a refusal. [capt. Boycott, so treated from 1880]
Boyfriend n. Person’s regular male companion or lover.
Boyo n. (pl. -s) welsh & ir. Colloq. (esp. As a form of address) boy, mate.
Boy scout n. = *scout n. 4.
Bp abbr. 1 boiling-point. 2 blood pressure. 3 before the present (era). 4 british petroleum. 5 british pharmacopoeia.
Bq abbr. Becquerel.
Br abbr. British rail.
Br symb. Bromine.
Bra n. Undergarment worn by women to support the breasts. [abbreviation]
Brace —n. 1 device that clamps or fastens tightly. 2 timber etc. Strengthening a framework. 3 (in pl.) Straps supporting trousers from the shoulders. 4 wire device for straightening the teeth. 5 (pl. Same) pair (esp. Of game). 6 rope for trimming a sail. 7 connecting mark { or } in printing. —v. (-cing) 1 make steady by supporting. 2 fasten tightly to make firm. 3 (esp. As bracing adj.) Invigorate, refresh. 4 (often refl.) Prepare for a difficulty, shock, etc. [latin bracchia arms]
Brace and bit n. Revolving tool for boring, with a d-shaped central handle.
Bracelet n. 1 ornamental band or chain worn on the wrist or arm. 2 slang handcuff.
Brachiosaurus n. (pl. -ruses) plant-eating dinosaur with forelegs longer than its hind legs. [latin from greek brakhion arm, sauros lizard]
Bracken n. 1 large coarse fern. 2 mass of these. [old norse]
Bracket —n. 1 (esp. Angled) support projecting from a vertical surface. 2 shelf fixed to a wall with this. 3 each of a pair of marks () [] {} enclosing words or figures. 4 group or classification (income bracket). —v. (-t-) 1 enclose in brackets. 2 group or classify together. [latin bracae breeches]
Brackish adj. (of water etc.) Slightly salty. [low german or dutch]
Bract n. Leaflike and often brightly coloured part of a plant, growing before the flower. [latin bractea thin sheet]
Brad n. Thin flat nail with a head on only one side. [old norse]
Bradawl n. Small pointed tool for boring holes by hand.
Brae n. Scot. Hillside. [old norse]
Brag —v. (-gg-) talk boastfully. —n. 1 card-game like poker. 2 boastful statement or talk. [origin unknown]
Braggart —n. Boastful person. —adj. Boastful.
Brahma n. 1 hindu creator. 2 supreme divine hindu reality. [sanskrit, = creator]
Brahman n. (also brahman) (pl. -s) 1 (also brahmin) member of the highest or priestly hindu caste. 2 = *brahma 2. brahmanic adj. Brahmanism n.
Braid —n. 1 woven band as edging or trimming. 2 us plait of hair. —v. 1 us plait. 2 trim with braid. braiding n. [old english]
Braille —n. System of writing and printing for the blind, with patterns of raised dots. —v. (-ling) print or transcribe in braille. [braille, name of its inventor]
Brain —n. 1 organ of soft nervous tissue in the skull of vertebrates, the centre of sensation and of intellectual and nervous activity. 2 a colloq. Intelligent person. B (often in pl.) Intelligence. 3 (usu. In pl.; prec. By the) colloq. Cleverest person in a group; mastermind. 4 electronic device functioning like a brain. —v. 1 dash out the brains of. 2 colloq. Strike hard on the head. on the brain colloq. Obsessively in one’s thoughts. [old english]
Brainchild n. Colloq. Person’s clever idea or invention.
Brain death n. Irreversible brain damage causing the end of independent respiration, regarded as indicative of death. brain-dead adj.
Brain drain n. Colloq. Loss of skilled personnel by emigration.
Brainless adj. Foolish.
Brainpower n. Mental ability or intelligence.
Brainstorm n. 1 sudden mental disturbance. 2 colloq. Mental lapse. 3 us brainwave. 4 pooling of spontaneous ideas about a problem etc. brainstorming n. (in sense 4).
Brains trust n. Group of experts answering questions, usu. Publicly and impromptu.
Brainwash v. Implant ideas or esp. Ideology into (a person) by repetition etc. brainwashing n.
Brainwave n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Electrical impulse in the brain. 2 colloq. Sudden bright idea.
Brainy adj. (-ier, -iest) intellectually clever.
Braise v. (-sing) stew slowly with a little liquid in a closed container. [french braise live coals]
Brake1 —n. 1 (often in pl.) Device for stopping or slowing a wheel, vehicle, etc. 2 thing that impedes. —v. (-king) 1 apply a brake. 2 slow or stop with a brake. [probably obsolete brake = curb]
Brake2 n. Large estate car. [var. Of *break]
Brake3 —n. 1 toothed instrument for crushing flax and hemp. 2 (in full brake harrow) heavy harrow. —v. (-king) crush (flax or hemp). [low german or dutch: related to *break]
Brake4 n. Thicket or clump of brushwood. [old english]
Brake drum n. Cylinder attached to a wheel, on which the brake shoes press to brake.
Brake horsepower n. Power of an engine measured by the force needed to brake it.
Brake lining n. Strip of fabric increasing the friction of a brake shoe.
Brake shoe n. Long curved block which presses on a brake drum to brake.
Bramble n. Wild thorny shrub, esp. The blackberry. brambly adj. [old english]
Brambling n. The speckled finch. [german: related to *bramble]
Bran n. Grain husks separated from flour. [french]
Branch —n. 1 limb of a tree or bough. 2 lateral extension or subdivision, esp. Of a river, road, or railway. 3 subdivision of a family, knowledge, etc. 4 local office etc. Of a large business. —v. (often foll. By off) 1 diverge. 2 divide into branches. branch out extend one’s field of interest. [latin branca paw]
Brand —n. 1 a particular make of goods. B identifying trade mark, label, etc. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) characteristic kind (brand of humour). 3 identifying mark burned esp. On livestock. 4 iron used for this. 5 piece of burning or charred wood. 6 stigma; mark of disgrace. 7 poet. Torch. —v. 1 mark with a hot iron. 2 stigmatize (branded him a liar). 3 impress unforgettably. 4 assign a trademark etc. To. [old english]
Brandish v. Wave or flourish as a threat or display. [french from germanic]
Brand-new adj. Completely new.
Brandy n. (pl. -ies) strong alcoholic spirit distilled from wine or fermented fruit juice. [dutch brandewijn]
Brandy butter n. Mixture of brandy, butter, and sugar.
Brandy-snap n. Crisp rolled gingerbread wafer usu. Filled with cream.
Bran-tub n. Lucky dip with prizes hidden in bran.
Brash adj. Vulgarly self-assertive; impudent. brashly adv. Brashness n. [dial.]
Brass —n. 1 yellow alloy of copper and zinc. 2 brass objects collectively. 3 brass wind instruments. 4 slang money. 5 brass memorial tablet. 6 colloq. Effrontery. —adj. Made of brass. brassed off slang fed up. [old english]
Brass band n. Band of brass instruments.
Brasserie n. Restaurant, orig. One serving beer with food. [french brasser brew]
Brassica n. Plant of the cabbage family. [latin, = cabbage]
Brassière n. = *bra. [french]
Brass monkey n. Coarse slang used in various phrases to indicate extreme cold.
Brass-rubbing n. 1 practice of taking impressions by rubbing heelball etc. Over paper laid on engraved brasses. 2 impression obtained by this.
Brass tacks n.pl. Slang essential details.
Brassy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like brass. 2 impudent. 3 vulgarly showy. 4 loud and blaring.
Brat n. Usu. Derog. Child, esp. An ill-behaved one. [origin unknown]
Bravado n. Show of boldness. [spanish]
Brave —adj. 1 able or ready to face and endure danger, disgrace, or pain. 2 formal splendid, spectacular. —n. American indian warrior. —v. (-ving) face bravely or defiantly. bravely adv. Braveness n. Bravery n. [ultimately latin barbarus barbarian]
Bravo —int. Expressing approval. —n. (pl. -s) cry of ‘bravo’. [french from italian]
Bravura n. 1 brilliance of execution. 2 (often attrib.) Passage of (esp. Vocal) music requiring brilliant technique. [italian]
Brawl —n. Noisy quarrel or fight. —v. 1 engage in a brawl. 2 (of a stream) run noisily. [provençal]
Brawn n. 1 muscular strength. 2 muscle; lean flesh. 3 jellied meat made from a pig’s head. brawny adj. (-ier, -iest). [french from germanic]
Bray —n. 1 cry of a donkey. 2 harsh sound like this. —v. 1 make a bray. 2 utter harshly. [french braire]
Braze v. (-zing) solder with an alloy of brass and zinc. [french braser]
Brazen —adj. 1 shameless; insolent. 2 of or like brass. 3 harsh in sound. —v. (foll. By out) face or undergo defiantly (brazen it out). brazenly adv. [old english]
Brazier1 n. Metal pan or stand holding burning coals etc. [french: related to *braise]
Brazier2 n. Worker in brass. [probably from *brass]
Brazil n. 1 tall s. American tree. 2 (in full brazil nut) its large three-sided nut. [brazil in s. America]
Breach —n. 1 (often foll. By of) breaking or non-observation of a law, contract, etc. 2 breaking of relations; quarrel. 3 opening, gap. —v. 1 break through; make a gap in. 2 break (a law, contract, etc.). step into the breach help in a crisis, esp. As a replacement. [germanic: related to *break]
Breach of promise n. Breaking of a promise, esp. To marry.
Breach of the peace n. Crime of causing a public disturbance.
Bread —n. 1 baked dough of flour and water, usu. Leavened with yeast. 2 necessary food. 3 slang money. —v. Coat with breadcrumbs for cooking. [old english]
Bread and butter —n. One’s livelihood. —attrib. Adj. (bread-and-butter) done or produced to earn a basic living.
Breadboard n. 1 board for cutting bread on. 2 board for making an experimental model of an electric circuit.
Breadcrumb n. Small fragment of bread, esp. (in pl.) For use in cooking.
Breadfruit n. 1 fruit which resembles new bread when roasted. 2 tropical evergreen tree bearing it.
Breadline n. Subsistence level (esp. On the breadline).
Bread sauce n. White sauce thickened with breadcrumbs.
Breadth n. 1 distance or measurement from side to side of a thing. 2 freedom from prejudice or intolerance. [old english: related to *broad]
Breadwinner n. Person who works to support a family.
Break —v. (past broke; past part. Broken) 1 a separate into pieces under a blow or strain; shatter. B make or become inoperative. C break a bone in or dislocate (part of the body). 2 a interrupt (broke our journey). B have an interval (broke for tea). 3 fail to keep (a law, promise, etc.). 4 a make or become subdued or weak; (cause to) yield; destroy. B weaken the effect of (a fall, blow, etc.). C = break in 3c. 5 surpass (a record). 6 (foll. By with) end a friendship with (a person etc.). 7 a be no longer subject to (a habit). B (foll. By of) free (a person) from a habit (broke them of their addiction). 8 reveal or be revealed (broke the news; story broke). 9 a (of fine weather) change suddenly. B (of waves) curl over and foam. C (of the day) dawn. D (of clouds) move apart. E (of a storm) begin violently. 10 electr. Disconnect (a circuit). 11 a (of the voice) change with emotion. B (of a boy’s voice) change at puberty. 12 a (often foll. By up) divide (a set etc.). B change (a banknote etc.) For coins. 13 ruin financially (see also *broke adj.). 14 penetrate (e.g. A safe) by force. 15 decipher (a code). 16 make (a way, path, etc.) By force. 17 burst forth (sun broke through). 18 a (of troops) disperse in confusion. B rupture (ranks). 19 a (usu. Foll.
Breakable —adj. Easily broken. —n. (esp. In pl.) Breakable thing.
Breakage n. 1 a broken thing. B damage caused by breaking. 2 act or instance of breaking.
Breakaway n. (often attrib.) Breaking away; secession (breakaway group).
Break-dancing n. Acrobatic style of street-dancing.
Breakdown n. 1 a mechanical failure. B loss of (esp. Mental) health. 2 collapse (breakdown of communication). 3 analysis (of statistics etc.).
Breaker n. 1 heavy breaking wave. 2 person or thing that breaks something, esp. Disused machinery.
Breakfast —n. First meal of the day. —v. Have breakfast.
Breakin n. Illegal forced entry, esp. With criminal intent.
Breaking and entering n. (formerly) the illegal entering of a building with intent to commit a felony.
Breakthrough n. 1 major advance or discovery. 2 act of breaking through an obstacle etc.
Breakup n. 1 disintegration or collapse. 2 dispersal.
Breakwater n. Barrier breaking the force of waves.
Bream n. (pl. Same) 1 yellowish arch-backed freshwater fish. 2 (in full sea bream) similar marine fish. [french from germanic]
Breast —n. 1 a either of two milk-secreting organs on a woman’s chest. B corresponding part of a man’s body. 2 a chest. B corresponding part of an animal. 3 part of a garment that covers the breast. 4 breast as a source of nourishment or emotion. —v. 1 contend with. 2 reach the top of (a hill). make a clean breast of confess fully. [old english]
Breastbone n. Thin flat vertical bone in the chest between the ribs.
Breast-feed v. Feed (a baby) from the breast.
Breastplate n. Armour covering the breast.
Breast-stroke n. Swimming stroke made by extending both arms forward and sweeping them back.
Breastwork n. Low temporary defence or parapet.
Breath n. 1 a air drawn into or expelled from the lungs. B one respiration of air. C breath as perceived by the senses. 2 a slight movement of air. B whiff (of perfume etc.). 3 whisper, murmur (esp. Of scandal). catch one’s breath 1 cease breathing momentarily in surprise etc. 2 rest to restore normal breathing. Hold one’s breath cease breathing temporarily. Out of breath gasping for air, esp. After exercise. Take one’s breath away surprise, delight, etc. Under one’s breath in a whisper. [old english]
Breathalyser n. (also -lyzer) propr. Instrument for measuring alcohol levels in the breath exhaled into it. breathalyse v. (also -lyze) (-sing or -zing). [from breath, analyse]
Breathe v. (-thing) 1 draw air into and expel it from the lungs. 2 be or seem alive. 3 a utter or sound (esp. Quietly). B express (breathed defiance). 4 pause. 5 send out or take in (as if) with the breath (breathed new life into them; breathed whisky). 6 (of wine etc.) Be exposed to the air. breathe again (or freely) feel relief.
Breather n. 1 colloq. Brief pause for rest. 2 brief period in the fresh air.
Breathing-space n. Time to recover; pause.
Breathless adj. 1 panting, out of breath. 2 holding the breath. 3 still, windless. breathlessly adv.
Breech n. Back part of a rifle or gun barrel. [old english]
Breech birth n. (also breech delivery) delivery of a baby with the buttocks or feet foremost.
Breeches n.pl. Short trousers, esp. Fastened below the knee.
Breeches buoy n. Lifebuoy with canvas breeches for the user’s legs.
Breed —v. (past and past part. Bred) 1 (of animals) produce young. 2 propagate; raise (animals). 3 yield; result in. 4 arise; spread. 5 bring up; train. 6 create (fissile material) by nuclear reaction. —n. 1 stock of similar animals or plants within a species, usu. Developed by deliberate selection. 2 race; lineage. 3 sort, kind. breeder n. [old english]
Breeder reactor n. Nuclear reactor creating surplus fissile material.
Breeding n. 1 raising of offspring; propagation. 2 social behaviour; ancestry.
Bren n. (in full bren gun) lightweight quick-firing machine-gun. [brno in czechoslovakia, enfield in england]
Brent n. (in full brent-goose) small migratory goose. [origin unknown]
Brethren see *brother.
Breton —n. 1 native of brittany. 2 celtic language of brittany. —adj. Of brittany, its people, or language. [french, = *briton]
Breve n. 1 mus. Note twice the length of a semibreve. 2 mark ( ) indicating a short or unstressed vowel. [var. Of *brief]
Breviary n. (pl. -ies) book containing the roman catholic daily office. [latin: related to *brief]
related to *brief]
Brevity n. 1 economy of expression; conciseness. 2 shortness (of time etc.). [anglo-french: related to *brief]
Brew —v. 1 a make (beer etc.) By infusion, boiling, and fermentation. B make (tea etc.) By infusion. 2 undergo these processes. 3 gather force; threaten (storm is brewing). 4 concoct (a plan etc.). —n. 1 liquid or amount brewed; concoction. 2 process of brewing. brew up make tea. brewer n. [old english]
Brewery n. (pl. -ies) factory for brewing beer etc.
Brew-up n. Instance of making tea.
Briar1 var. Of *brier1.
Briar2 var. Of *brier2.
Bribe —v. (-bing) (often foll. By to + infin.) Persuade to act improperly in one’s favour by a gift of money etc. —n. Money or services offered in bribing. bribery n. [french briber beg]
Bric-à-brac n. (also bric-a-brac) cheap ornaments, trinkets, etc. [french]
Brick —n. 1 a small usu. Rectangular block of fired or sun-dried clay used in
Brick —n. 1 a small usu. Rectangular block of fired or sun-dried clay used in building. B material of this. 2 child’s toy block. 3 brick-shaped thing. 4 slang generous or loyal person. —v. (foll. By in, up) close or block with brickwork. — adj. 1 built of brick (brick wall). 2 (also brick-red) dull red. [low german or dutch]
Brickbat n. 1 piece of brick, esp. As a missile. 2 insult.
Brickie n. Slang bricklayer.
Bricklayer n. Person who builds with bricks, esp. For a living. bricklaying n.
Brickwork n. Building or work in brick.
Brickyard n. Place where bricks are made.
Bridal adj. Of a bride or wedding. [old english]
Bride n. Woman on her wedding day and during the period just before and after it. [old english]
Bridegroom n. Man on his wedding day and during the period just before and after it. [old english]
Bridesmaid n. Girl or unmarried woman attending a bride at her wedding.
Bridge1 —n. 1 a structure providing a way across a river, road, railway, etc. B thing joining or connecting. 2 operational superstructure on a ship. 3 upper bony part of the nose. 4 piece of wood on a violin etc. Over which the strings are stretched. 5 = *bridgework. —v. (-ging) 1 be or make a bridge over. 2 reduce (a gap, deficiency, etc.). [old english]
Bridge2 n. Card-game derived from whist. [origin unknown]
Bridgehead n. Fortified position held on the enemy’s side of a river etc.
Bridge roll n. Small soft bread roll.
Bridgework n. Dentistry dental structure covering a gap, joined to the teeth on either side.
Bridging loan n. Loan to cover the interval between buying a house etc. And selling another.
Bridle —n. 1 headgear for controlling a horse, including reins and bit. 2 restraining thing. —v. (-ling) 1 put a bridle on. 2 curb, restrain. 3 (often foll. By up) express anger, offence, etc., esp. By throwing up the head and drawing in the chin. [old english]
Bridle-path n. (also bridle-way) rough path for riders or walkers.
Bridle-path n. (also bridle-way) rough path for riders or walkers.
Brie n. A kind of soft cheese. [brie in n. France]
Brief —adj. 1 of short duration. 2 concise; abrupt, brusque. 3 scanty (brief skirt). —n. 1 (in pl.) Short pants. 2 a summary of a case drawn up for counsel. B piece of work for a barrister. 3 instructions for a task. 4 papal letter on discipline. —v. 1 instruct (a barrister) by brief. 2 inform or instruct in advance. hold a brief for argue in favour of. In brief to sum up. briefly adv. Briefness n. [latin brevis short]
Briefcase n. Flat document case.
Brier1 n. (also briar) wild rose or other prickly bush. [old english]
Brier2 n. (also briar) 1 white heath of s. Europe. 2 tobacco pipe made from its root. [french bruyère]
Brig. Abbr. Brigadier.
Brig1 n. Two-masted square-rigged ship. [abbreviation of *brigantine]
Brig2 n. Scot. & n.engl. Bridge. [var. Of *bridge1]
Brigade n. 1 military unit, usu. Three battalions, as part of a division. 2 group organized for a special purpose. [italian briga strife]
organized for a special purpose. [italian briga strife]
Brigadier n. 1 officer commanding a brigade. 2 staff officer of similar standing.
Brigand n. Member of a robber band; bandit. brigandage n. [italian brigante: related to *brigade]
Brigantine n. Two-masted ship with a square-rigged foremast and a fore-and-aft rigged mainmast. [french or italian: related to *brigand]
Bright —adj. 1 emitting or reflecting much light; shining. 2 intense, vivid. 3 clever. 4 cheerful. —adv. Esp. Poet. Brightly. brightly adv. Brightness n. [old english]
Brighten v. Make or become brighter.
Bright’s disease n. Kidney disease. [bright, name of a physician]
Brill1 n. (pl. Same) european flat-fish. [origin unknown]
Brilliant —adj. 1 very bright; sparkling. 2 outstandingly talented. 3 showy. 4 colloq. Excellent. —n. Diamond of the finest cut with many facets. brilliance n. Brilliantly adv. [french briller shine, from italian]
Brilliantly adv. [french briller shine, from italian]
Brilliantine n. Dressing for making the hair glossy. [french: related to *brilliant]
Brim —n. 1 edge or lip of a vessel. 2 projecting edge of a hat. —v. (-mm-) fill or be full to the brim. brim over overflow. [origin unknown]
Brim-full adj. (also brimful) filled to the brim.
Brimstone n. Archaic sulphur. [from burn1, stone]
Brindled adj. (esp. Of domestic animals) brown or tawny with streaks of another colour. [scandinavian]
Brine n. 1 water saturated or strongly impregnated with salt. 2 sea water. [old english]
Bring v. (past and past part. Brought) 1 come carrying; lead, accompany; convey. 2 cause or result in (war brings misery). 3 be sold for; produce as income. 4 a prefer (a charge). B initiate (legal action). 5 cause to become or to reach a state (brings me alive; cannot bring myself to agree). 6 adduce (evidence, an argument, etc.). bring about cause to happen. Bring back call to mind. Bring down 1 cause to fall. 2 lower (a price). Bring forth 1 give birth to. 2 cause. Bring forward 1 move to an earlier time. 2 transfer from the previous page or account. 3 draw attention to. Bring home to cause to realize fully. Bring the house down receive rapturous applause. Bring in 1 introduce. 2 yield as income or profit. Bring off achieve successfully. Bring on cause to happen, appear, or make progress. Bring out 1 emphasize; make evident. 2 publish. Bring over convert to
progress. Bring out 1 emphasize; make evident. 2 publish. Bring over convert to one’s own side. Bring round 1 restore to consciousness. 2 persuade. Bring through aid (a person) through adversity, esp. Illness. Bring to restore to consciousness (brought him to). Bring up 1 rear (a child). 2 vomit. 3 call attention to. 4 (absol.) Stop suddenly. [old english]
Bring-and-buy sale n. Charity sale at which people bring items for sale and buy those brought by others.
Brink n. 1 extreme edge of land before a precipice, river, etc. 2 furthest point before danger, discovery, etc. on the brink of about to experience or suffer; in imminent danger of. [old norse]
Brinkmanship n. Pursuit (esp. Habitual) of danger etc. To the brink of catastrophe.
Briny —adj. (-ier, -iest) of brine or the sea; salty. —n. (prec. By the) slang the sea.
Briquette n. Block of compressed coal-dust as fuel. [french diminutive: related to *brick]
Brisk —adj. 1 quick, lively, keen (brisk pace, trade). 2 enlivening (brisk wind). —v. (often foll. By up) make or grow brisk. briskly adv. Briskness n. [probably french *brusque]
Brisket n. Animal’s breast, esp. As a joint of meat. [french]
Brisling n. Small herring or sprat. [norwegian and danish]
Bristle —n. Short stiff hair, esp. One on an animal’s back, used in brushes. —v. (-ling) 1 a (of hair) stand upright. B make (hair) do this. 2 show irritation. 3 (usu. Foll. By with) be covered or abundant (in). bristly adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Brit n. Colloq. British person. [abbreviation]
Britannia n. Personification of britain, esp. As a helmeted woman with shield and trident. [latin]
Britannia metal n. Silvery alloy of tin, antimony, and copper.
Britannic adj. (esp. In his or her britannic majesty) of britain.
Briticism n. Idiom used only in britain. [after gallicism]
British —adj. Of great britain, the british commonwealth, or their people. —n. (prec. By the; treated as pl.) The british people. [old english]
British english n. English as used in great britain.
British legion n. = *royal british legion.
British summer time n. = *summer time.
British thermal unit n. Amount of heat needed to raise 1 lb of water through one degree fahrenheit, equivalent to 1.055 x 103 joules.
Briton n. 1 inhabitant of s. Britain before the roman conquest. 2 native or inhabitant of great britain. [latin britto -onis]
Brittle adj. Hard and fragile; apt to break. brittlely adv. (also brittly). [old english]
Brittle-bone disease n. = *osteoporosis.
Broach —v. 1 raise for discussion. 2 pierce (a cask) to draw liquor. 3 open and start using. —n. 1 bit for boring. 2 roasting-spit. [latin broccus projecting]
Broad —adj. 1 large in extent from one side to the other; wide. 2 in breadth (two metres broad). 3 extensive (broad acres). 4 full and clear (broad daylight). 5 explicit (broad hint). 6 general (broad intentions, facts). 7 tolerant, liberal (broad view). 8 coarse (broad humour). 9 markedly regional (broad scots). —n. 1 broad part (broad of the back). 2 us slang woman. 3 (the broads) large areas of water in e. Anglia, formed where rivers widen. broadly adv. Broadness n. [old english]
Broad bean n. 1 bean with large edible flat seeds. 2 one such seed.
Broad bean n. 1 bean with large edible flat seeds. 2 one such seed.
Broadcast —v. (past and past part. Broadcast) 1 transmit by radio or television. 2 take part in such a transmission. 3 scatter (seed etc.). 4 disseminate (information) widely. —n. Radio or television programme or transmission. broadcaster n. Broadcasting n.
Broadcloth n. Fine cloth of wool, cotton, or silk.
Broaden v. Make or become broader.
Broad gauge n. Railway track with a wider than standard gauge.
Broad-leaved adj. (of a tree) deciduous and hard-timbered.
Broadloom adj. (esp. Of carpet) woven in broad widths.
Broad-minded adj. Tolerant, liberal.
Broadsheet n. 1 large-sized newspaper. 2 large sheet of paper printed on one side only.
Broadside n. 1 vigorous verbal attack. 2 simultaneous firing of all guns from one side of a ship. 3 side of a ship above the water between the bow and quarter.
side of a ship. 3 side of a ship above the water between the bow and quarter. broadside on sideways on.
Broadsword n. Broad-bladed sword, for cutting rather than thrusting.
Brocade —n. Rich fabric woven with a raised pattern. —v. (-ding) weave in this way. [italian brocco twisted thread]
Broccoli n. Brassica with greenish flower-heads. [italian]
Brochure n. Pamphlet or booklet, esp. With descriptive information. [french brocher stitch]
Broderie anglaise n. Open embroidery on white linen etc. [french, = english embroidery]
Brogue1 n. 1 strong outdoor shoe with ornamental perforations. 2 rough shoe of untanned leather. [gaelic and irish brog from old norse]
Brogue2 n. Marked accent, esp. Irish. [perhaps related to *brogue1]
Broil v. Esp. Us 1 grill (meat). 2 make or become very hot, esp. From the sun. [french bruler burn]
Broiler n. Young chicken for broiling or roasting.
Broke past of *break. —predic. Adj. Colloq. Having no money.
Broken past part. Of *break. —adj. 1 having been broken. 2 reduced to despair; beaten. 3 (of language) badly spoken, esp. By a foreigner. 4 interrupted (broken sleep).
Broken-down adj. 1 worn out by age, use, etc. 2 not functioning.
Broken-hearted adj. Overwhelmed with grief.
Broken home n. Family disrupted by divorce or separation.
Broker n. 1 agent; middleman. 2 member of the stock exchange dealing in stocks and shares. 3 official appointed to sell or appraise distrained goods. broking n. [anglo-french]
Usage in sense 2, brokers have officially been called broker-dealers in the uk since oct. 1986, and entitled to act as agents and principals in share dealings.
Brokerage n. Broker’s fee or commission.
Brolly n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Umbrella. [abbreviation]
Bromide n. 1 any binary compound of bromine. 2 trite remark. 3 reproduction or proof on paper coated with silver bromide emulsion.
Bromine n. Poisonous liquid element with a choking smell. [greek bromos stink]
Bronchial adj. Of the bronchi (see *bronchus) or of the smaller tubes into which they divide.
Bronchitis n. Inflammation of the mucous membrane in the bronchial tubes.
Bronchus n. (pl. -chi) either of the two main divisions of the windpipe. [latin from greek]
Bronco n. (pl. -s) wild or half-tamed horse of the western us. [spanish, = rough]
Brontosaurus n. (pl. -ruses) large plant-eating dinosaur with a long whiplike tail. [greek bronte thunder, sauros lizard]
Bronze —n. 1 alloy of copper and tin. 2 its brownish colour. 3 thing of bronze, esp. A sculpture. —adj. Made of or coloured like bronze. —v. (-zing) make or become brown; tan. [french from italian]
Bronze age n. Archaeol. Period when weapons and tools were usu. Made of bronze.
bronze.
Bronze medal n. Medal, usu. Awarded as third prize.
Brooch n. Ornamental hinged pin. [french broche: related to *broach]
Brood —n. 1 young of esp. A bird born or hatched at one time. 2 colloq. Children in a family. —v. 1 worry or ponder (esp. Resentfully). 2 (of a bird) sit on eggs to hatch them. [old english]
Broody adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a hen) wanting to brood. 2 sullenly thoughtful. 3 colloq. (of a woman) wanting pregnancy.
Brook1 n. Small stream. [old english]
Brook2 v. (usu. With neg.) Literary tolerate, allow. [old english]
Broom n. 1 long-handled brush for sweeping. 2 shrub with bright yellow flowers. [old english]
Broomstick n. Handle of a broom.
Bros. Abbr. Brothers (esp. In the name of a firm).
Broth n. Thin soup of meat or fish stock. [old english]
Brothel n. Premises for prostitution. [originally = worthless fellow, from old english]
Brother n. 1 man or boy in relation to his siblings. 2 close male friend or associate. 3 (pl. Also brethren) a member of a male religious order, esp. A monk. B fellow christian etc. 4 fellow human being. brotherly adj. [old english]
Brother german see *german.
Brotherhood n. 1 relationship between brothers. 2 association of people with a common interest. 3 community of feeling between human beings.
Brother-in-law n. (pl. Brothers-in-law) 1 one’s wife’s or husband’s brother. 2 one’s sister’s or sister-in-law’s husband.
Brought past and past part. Of *bring.
Brouhaha n. Commotion; sensation. [french]
Brow n. 1 forehead. 2 eyebrow. 3 summit of a hill etc. 4 edge of a cliff etc. [old english]
Browbeat v. (past -beat; past part. -beaten) intimidate, bully.
Brown —adj. 1 having the colour of dark wood or rich soil. 2 dark-skinned or suntanned. 3 (of bread) made from wholemeal or wheatmeal flour. —n. 1 brown colour or pigment. 2 brown clothes or material. —v. Make or become brown. browned off colloq. Fed up, disheartened.
Brown bear n. Large n. American brown bear.
Brown coal n. = *lignite.
Brownie n. 1 (in full brownie guide) junior guide. 2 (brownie) small square of chocolate cake with nuts. 3 (brownie) benevolent elf.
Brownie point n. Colloq. Notional mark awarded for good conduct etc.
Browning n. Additive to colour gravy.
Brown owl n. 1 any of various owls, esp. The tawny owl. 2 (brown owl) adult leader of brownie guides.
Brown rice n. Unpolished rice.
Brown sugar n. Unrefined or partially refined sugar.
Brown sugar n. Unrefined or partially refined sugar.
Browse —v. (-sing) 1 read desultorily or look over goods for sale. 2 (often foll. By on) feed on leaves, twigs, etc. —n. 1 twigs, shoots, etc. As fodder. 2 act of browsing. [french brost bud]
Brucellosis n. Bacterial disease, esp. Of cattle. [sir d. Bruce, name of a physician]
Bruise —n. 1 discolouration of the skin caused esp. By a blow. 2 similar damage on a fruit etc. —v. (-sing) 1 a inflict a bruise on. B hurt mentally. 2 be susceptible to bruising. [originally = crush, from old english]
Bruiser n. Colloq. 1 large tough-looking person. 2 professional boxer.
Bruit v. (often foll. By abroad, about) spread (a report or rumour). [french, = noise]
Brunch n. Combined breakfast and lunch. [portmanteau word]
Brunette n. Woman with dark brown hair. [french diminutive]
Brunt n. Chief impact of an attack, task, etc. (esp. Bear the brunt of). [origin unknown]
Brush —n. 1 implement with bristles, hair, wire, etc. Set into a block, for cleaning, painting, arranging the hair, etc. 2 act of brushing. 3 (usu. Foll. By with) short esp. Unpleasant encounter. 4 fox’s bushy tail. 5 piece of carbon or metal as an electrical contact esp. With a moving part. 6 = *brushwood 2. —v. 1 sweep, scrub, treat, or tidy with a brush. 2 remove or apply with a brush. 3 graze in passing. brush aside dismiss curtly or lightly. Brush off dismiss abruptly. Brush up 1 clean up or smarten. 2 revise (a subject). [french]
Brush-off n. Abrupt dismissal.
Brush-up n. Act of brushing up.
Brushwood n. 1 undergrowth, thicket. 2 cut or broken twigs etc.
Brushwork n. 1 use of the brush in painting. 2 painter’s style in this.
Brusque adj. Abrupt or offhand. brusquely adv. Brusqueness n. [italian brusco sour]
Brussels sprout n. 1 brassica with small cabbage-like buds on a stem. 2 such a bud. [brussels in belgium]
Brutal adj. 1 savagely cruel. 2 harsh, merciless. brutality n. (pl. -ies). Brutally adv. [french: related to *brute]
Brutalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make brutal. 2 treat brutally.
Brute —n. 1 a brutal or violent person. B colloq. Unpleasant person or difficult thing. 2 animal. —attrib. Adj. 1 unthinking (brute force). 2 cruel; stupid; sensual. brutish adj. Brutishly adv. Brutishness n. [latin brutus stupid]
Bryony n. (pl. -ies) climbing plant with red berries. [latin from greek]
Bs abbr. 1 bachelor of surgery. 2 british standard(s).
B.sc. Abbr. Bachelor of science.
Bse abbr. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, a usu. Fatal cattle disease.
Bsi abbr. British standards institution.
Bst abbr. 1 british summer time. 2 bovine somatotrophin, a growth hormone added to cattle-feed to boost milk production.
Bt abbr. British telecom.
Bt. Abbr. Baronet.
Bt. Abbr. Baronet.
B.th.u. Abbr. (also b.t.u., btu, b.th.u.) British thermal unit(s).
Bubble —n. 1 a thin sphere of liquid enclosing air etc. B air-filled cavity in a liquid or solidified liquid. 2 transparent domed canopy. 3 visionary or unrealistic project. —v. (-ling) 1 rise in or send up bubbles. 2 make the sound of boiling. bubble over (often foll. By with) be exuberant. [imitative]
Bubble and squeak n. Cooked cabbage etc. Fried with cooked potatoes.
Bubble bath n. Foaming preparation for adding to bath water.
Bubble car n. Small domed car.
Bubble gum n. Chewing-gum that can be blown into bubbles.
Bubbly —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having or like bubbles. 2 exuberant. —n. Colloq. Champagne.
Bubo n. (pl. -es) inflamed swelling in the armpit or groin. [greek boubon groin]
Bubonic plague n. Contagious disease with buboes.
Buccaneer n. 1 pirate. 2 unscrupulous adventurer. buccaneering n. & adj.
Buccaneer n. 1 pirate. 2 unscrupulous adventurer. buccaneering n. & adj. [french]
Buck1 —n. 1 male deer, hare, rabbit, etc. 2 archaic dandy. 3 (attrib.) Slang male. —v. 1 (of a horse) jump upwards with its back arched. 2 (usu. Foll. By off) throw (a rider) in this way. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) colloq. A cheer up. B hurry up; make an effort. [old english]
Buck2 n. Us slang dollar. [origin unknown]
Buck3 n. Slang (in poker) article placed before the next dealer. pass the buck colloq. Shift responsibility (to another). [origin unknown]
Bucket —n. 1 a round open container with a handle, for carrying or drawing water etc. B amount contained in this. 2 (in pl.) Colloq. Large quantities, esp. Of rain or tears. 3 scoop in a water wheel, dredger, etc. —v. (-t-) colloq. 1 (often foll. By down) (esp. Of rain) pour heavily. 2 (often foll. By along) move or drive fast or bumpily. [anglo-french]
Bucket seat n. Seat with a rounded back for one person, esp. In a car.
Bucket-shop n. 1 unregistered broking agency. 2 colloq. Travel agency specializing in cheap air tickets.
Buckle —n. Clasp with a hinged pin for securing a belt, strap, etc. —v. (-ling) 1 (often foll. By up, on, etc.) Fasten with a buckle. 2 (often foll. By up) (cause to) crumple under pressure. buckle down make a determined effort. [latin buccula
cheek-strap]
Buckler n. Hist. Small round shield.
Buckram n. Coarse linen etc. Stiffened with paste etc. [french boquerant]
Buck’s fizz n. Cocktail of champagne and orange juice. [buck’s club in london]
Buckshee adj. & adv. Slang free of charge. [corruption of *baksheesh]
Buckshot n. Coarse lead shot.
Buckskin n. 1 leather from a buck’s skin. 2 thick smooth cotton or woollen cloth.
Buckthorn n. Thorny shrub with berries formerly used as a purgative.
Buck-tooth n. Upper projecting tooth.
Buckwheat n. Seed of a plant related to rhubarb, used to make flour, or as an alternative to rice. [dutch, = beech-wheat]
Bucolic —adj. Of shepherds; rustic, pastoral. —n. (usu. In pl.) Pastoral poem or
Bucolic —adj. Of shepherds; rustic, pastoral. —n. (usu. In pl.) Pastoral poem or poetry. [greek boukolos herdsman]
Bud —n. 1 a knoblike shoot from which a stem, leaf, or flower develops. B flower or leaf not fully open. 2 asexual outgrowth from an organism separating to form a new individual. —v. (-dd-) 1 form buds. 2 begin to grow or develop (budding artist). 3 graft a bud of (a plant) on to another. [origin unknown]
Buddha n. 1 title of the indian philosopher gautama (5th c. Bc) and his successors. 2 sculpture etc. Of buddha. [sanskrit, = enlightened]
Buddhism n. Asian religion or philosophy founded by gautama buddha. buddhist n. & adj.
Buddleia n. Shrub with fragrant flowers attractive to butterflies. [buddle, name of a botanist]
Buddy —n. (pl. -ies) esp. Us colloq. Friend or mate. [perhaps from *brother]
Budge v. (-ging) (usu. With neg.) 1 move slightly. 2 (cause to) change an opinion. budge up (or over) make room for another person by moving. [french bouger]
Budgerigar n. Small parrot, often kept as a cage-bird. [aboriginal]
Budget —n. 1 amount of money needed or available. 2 a (the budget) government’s annual estimate or plan of revenue and expenditure. B similar
estimate by a company etc. 3 (attrib.) Inexpensive. —v. (-t-) (often foll. By for) allow or arrange for in a budget. budgetary adj. [latin bulga bag]
Budgie n. Colloq. = *budgerigar. [abbreviation]
Buff —adj. Of a yellowish beige colour (buff envelope). —n. 1 this colour. 2 (in comb.) Colloq. Enthusiast (railway buff). 3 velvety dull-yellow ox-leather. —v. 1 polish (metal etc.). 2 make (leather) velvety. in the buff colloq. Naked. [originally = buffalo, from french buffle]
Buffalo n. (pl. Same or -es) 1 wild ox of africa or asia. 2 n. American bison. [greek boubalos ox]
Buffer1 n. 1 thing that deadens impact, esp. A device on a train or at the end of a track. 2 substance that maintains the constant acidity of a solution. 3 computing temporary memory area or queue for data. [imitative]
Buffer2 n. Slang silly or incompetent old man. [perhaps from *buffer1]
Buffer state n. Small state between two larger ones, regarded as reducing friction.
Buffet1 n. 1 room or counter where refreshments are sold. 2 self-service meal of several dishes set out at once. 3 also sideboard or recessed cupboard. [french, = stool]
Buffet2 —v. (-t-) 1 strike repeatedly. 2 contend with (waves etc.). —n. 1 blow, esp. Of the hand. 2 shock. [french diminutive of bufe blow]
Buffet car n. Railway coach serving refreshments.
Buffoon n. Clownish or stupid person. buffoonery n. [latin buffo clown]
Bug —n. 1 a any of various insects with mouthparts modified for piercing and sucking. B esp. Us small insect. 2 slang virus; infection. 3 slang concealed microphone. 4 slang error in a computer program or system etc. 5 slang obsession, enthusiasm, etc. —v. (-gg-) 1 slang conceal a microphone in. 2 slang annoy. [origin unknown]
Bugbear n. 1 cause of annoyance. 2 object of baseless fear. [bug = bogey]
Bugger coarse slang (except in sense 2 of n. And 3 of v.) —n. 1 a unpleasant or awkward person or thing. B person of a specified kind (clever bugger!). 2 person who commits buggery. —v. 1 as an exclamation of annoyance (bugger it!). 2 (often foll. By up) a ruin; spoil. B exhaust. 3 commit buggery with. —int. Expressing annoyance. bugger-all nothing. Bugger about (or around) (often foll. By with) mess about. Bugger off (often in imper.) Go away. [latin bulgarus bulgarian heretic]
Buggery n. 1 anal intercourse. 2 = *bestiality 2.
Buggy n. (pl. -ies) 1 small, sturdy, esp. Open, motor vehicle. 2 lightweight pushchair. 3 light, horse-drawn vehicle for one or two people. [origin unknown]
pushchair. 3 light, horse-drawn vehicle for one or two people. [origin unknown]
Bugle —n. Brass military instrument like a small trumpet. —v. (-ling) 1 sound a bugle. 2 sound (a call etc.) On a bugle. bugler n. [latin buculus young bull]
Bugloss n. Plant with bright blue tubular flowers, related to borage. [french buglosse from greek, = ox-tongued]
Build —v. (past and past part. Built) 1 construct or cause to be constructed. 2 a (often foll. By up) establish or develop (built the business up). B (often foll. By on) base (hopes, theories, etc.). 3 (as built adj.) Of specified build (sturdily built). —n. 1 physical proportions (slim build). 2 style of construction; make. build in incorporate. Build on add (an extension etc.). Build up 1 increase in size or strength. 2 praise; boost. 3 gradually become established. [old english]
Builder n. Person who builds, esp. A building contractor.
Building n. 1 permanent fixed structure e.g. A house, factory, or stable. 2 constructing of these.
Building society n. Public finance company paying interest to investors and lending capital for mortgages etc.
Build-up n. 1 favourable advance publicity. 2 gradual approach to a climax. 3 accumulation or increase.
Built past and past part. Of *build.
Built past and past part. Of *build.
Built-in adj. Integral.
Built-up adj. 1 (of a locality) densely developed. 2 increased in height etc. By addition. 3 made of prefabricated parts.
Bulb n. 1 a globular base of the stem of some plants, sending roots downwards and leaves upwards. B plant grown from this, e.g. A daffodil. 2 = *light-bulb. 3 object or part shaped like a bulb. [latin bulbus from greek, = onion]
Bulimia n. (in full bulimia nervosa) disorder in which overeating alternates with self-induced vomiting, fasting, etc. [greek bous ox, limos hunger]
Bulk —n. 1 a size; magnitude (esp. Large). B large mass, body, etc. C large quantity. 2 (treated as pl. & usu. Prec. By the) greater part or number (the bulk of the applicants are women). 3 roughage. —v. 1 seem (in size or importance) (bulks large). 2 make (a book etc.) Thicker etc. in bulk in large quantities. [old norse]
Bulk buying n. Buying in quantity at a discount.
Bulkhead n. Upright partition in a ship, aircraft, etc.
Bulky adj. (-ier, -iest) awkwardly large. bulkiness n.
Bull1 n. 1 a uncastrated male bovine animal. B male of the whale, elephant, etc. 2 (the bull) zodiacal sign or constellation taurus. 3 bull’s-eye of a target. 4 person who buys shares hoping to sell them at a profit. take the bull by the horns face danger or a challenge boldly. bullish adj. [old norse]
Bull2 n. Papal edict. [latin bulla seal]
Bull3 n. 1 slang a nonsense. B unnecessary routine tasks. 2 absurdly illogical statement. [origin unknown]
Bulldog n. 1 short-haired heavy-jowled sturdy dog. 2 tenacious and courageous person.
Bulldog clip n. Strong sprung clip for papers.
Bulldoze v. (-zing) 1 clear with a bulldozer. 2 colloq. A intimidate. B make (one’s way) forcibly.
Bulldozer n. Powerful tractor with a broad vertical blade at the front for clearing ground.
ground.
Bullet n. Small pointed missile fired from a rifle, revolver, etc. [french diminutive of boule ball]
Bulletin n. 1 short official news report. 2 society’s regular list of information etc. [italian diminutive: related to *bull2]
Bulletproof adj. Designed to protect from bullets.
Bullfight n. Public baiting, and usu. Killing, of bulls. bullfighter n. Bullfighting n.
Bullfinch n. Pink and black finch.
Bullfrog n. Large n. American frog with a booming croak.
Bull-headed n. Obstinate, blundering.
Bullion n. Gold or silver in bulk before coining, or valued by weight. [french: related to *boil1]
Bullock n. Castrated male of domestic cattle. [old english diminutive of *bull1]
Bullring n. Arena for bullfights.
Bull’s-eye n. 1 centre of a target. 2 hard minty sweet. 3 hemispherical ship’s window. 4 small circular window. 5 a hemispherical lens. B lantern with this. 6 boss of glass in a blown glass sheet.
Bullshit coarse slang —n. (often as int.) Nonsense; pretended knowledge. —v. (-tt-) talk nonsense or as if one has specialist knowledge (to). bullshitter n. [from *bull3]
Bull-terrier n. Cross between a bulldog and a terrier.
Bully1 —n. (pl. -ies) person coercing others by fear. —v. (-ies, -ied) persecute or oppress by force or threats. —int. (foll. By for) often iron. Expressing approval (bully for you). [dutch]
Bully2 (in full bully off) —n. (pl. -ies) start of play in hockey in which two opponents strike each other’s sticks three times and then go for the ball. —v. (-ies, -ied) start play in this way. [origin unknown]
Bully3 n. (in full bully beef) corned beef. [french: related to *boil1]
Bulrush n. 1 a kind of tall rush. 2 bibl. Papyrus. [perhaps from *bull1 = coarse + *rush2]
Bulwark n. 1 defensive wall, esp. Of earth. 2 protecting person or thing. 3 (usu. In pl.) Ship’s side above deck. [low german or dutch]
Bum1 n. Slang buttocks. [origin uncertain]
Bum2 us slang —n. Loafer or tramp; dissolute person. —v. (-mm-) 1 (often foll. By around) loaf or wander around. 2 cadge. —attrib. Adj. Of poor quality. [german bummler loafer]
Bum-bag n. Slang small pouch worn on a belt round the waist or hips.
Bumble v. (-ling) 1 (foll. By on) speak in a rambling way. 2 (often as bumbling adj.) Be inept; blunder. [from *boom1]
Bumble-bee n. Large bee with a loud hum.
Bumf n. Colloq. Usu. Derog. Papers, documents. [abbreviation of bum-fodder = toilet-paper]
Bump —n. 1 dull-sounding blow or collision. 2 swelling or dent so caused. 3 uneven patch on a road etc. 4 prominence on the skull thought to indicate a mental faculty. —v. 1 a hit or come against with a bump. B (often foll. By against, into) collide. 2 (often foll. By against, on) hurt or damage by striking (bumped my head, the car). 3 (usu. Foll. By along) move along with jolts. —adv. With a bump; suddenly; violently. bump into colloq. Meet by chance. Bump off slang murder. Bump up colloq. Increase (prices etc.). bumpy adj. (-ier, -iest).
[imitative]
Bumper n. 1 horizontal bar at the front or back of a motor vehicle, reducing damage in a collision. 2 (usu. Attrib.) Unusually large or fine example (bumper crop). 3 cricket ball rising high after pitching. 4 brim-full glass.
Bumper car n. = *dodgem.
Bumpkin n. Rustic or socially inept person. [dutch]
Bumptious adj. Offensively self-assertive or conceited. [from *bump, after fractious]
Bun n. 1 small sweet bread roll or cake, often with dried fruit. 2 hair coiled and pinned to the head. [origin unknown]
Bunch —n. 1 things gathered together. 2 collection; lot (best of the bunch). 3 colloq. Group; gang. —v. 1 make into a bunch; gather into close folds. 2 form into a group or crowd. [origin unknown]
Bundle —n. 1 things tied or fastened together. 2 set of nerve fibres etc. 3 slang large amount of money. —v. (-ling) 1 (usu. Foll. By up) tie or make into a bundle. 2 (usu. Foll. By into) throw or move carelessly. 3 (usu. Foll. By out, off, away, etc.) Send away hurriedly. be a bundle of nerves (or fun etc.) Be extremely nervous (or amusing etc.). Go a bundle on slang admire; like. [low german or dutch]
Bun fight n. Slang tea party.
Bung —n. Stopper, esp. For a cask. —v. 1 stop with a bung. 2 slang throw. bunged up blocked up. [dutch]
Bungalow n. One-storeyed house. [gujarati, = of bengal]
Bungee n. (in full bungee cord, rope) elasticated cord or rope used for securing baggage or in bungee jumping.
Bungee jumping n. Sport of jumping from a height while secured by a bungee from the ankles or a harness.
Bungle —v. (-ling) 1 mismanage or fail at (a task). 2 work badly or clumsily. — n. Bungled attempt or work. [imitative]
Bunion n. Swelling on the foot, esp. On the big toe. [french]
Bunk1 n. Shelflike bed against a wall, esp. In a ship. [origin unknown]
Bunk2 slang —v. (often foll. By off) play truant (from). —n. (in do a bunk) leave or abscond hurriedly. [origin unknown]
Bunk3 n. Slang nonsense, humbug. [shortening of *bunkum]
Bunk-bed n. Each of two or more tiered beds forming a unit.
Bunker n. 1 container for fuel. 2 reinforced underground shelter. 3 sandy hollow in a golf-course. [origin unknown]
Bunkum n. Nonsense, humbug. [buncombe in us]
Bunny n. (pl. -ies) 1 child’s name for a rabbit. 2 (in full bunny girl) club hostess, waitress, etc., wearing rabbit ears and tail. [dial. Bun rabbit]
Bunsen burner n. Small adjustable gas burner used in a laboratory. [bunsen, name of a chemist]
Bunting1 n. Small bird related to the finches. [origin unknown]
Bunting2 n. 1 flags and other decorations. 2 loosely-woven fabric for these. [origin unknown]
Bunting2 n. 1 flags and other decorations. 2 loosely-woven fabric for these. [origin unknown]
Buoy —n. 1 anchored float as a navigation mark etc. 2 lifebuoy. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By up) a keep afloat. B encourage, uplift. 2 (often foll. By out) mark with a buoy. [dutch, perhaps from latin boia collar]
Buoyant adj. 1 able or apt to keep afloat. 2 resilient; exuberant. buoyancy n. [french or spanish: related to *buoy]
Bupa abbr. British united provident association, a private health insurance organization.
Bur n. 1 a prickly clinging seed-case or flower-head. B any plant having these. 2 clinging person. 3 var. Of *burr n. 2. [scandinavian]
Burble v. 1 talk ramblingly. 2 make a bubbling sound. [imitative]
Burbot n. (pl. Same) eel-like freshwater fish. [french]
Burden —n. 1 load, esp. A heavy one. 2 oppressive duty, expense, emotion, etc. 3 bearing of loads (beast of burden). 4 a refrain of a song. B chief theme of a speech, book, etc. —v. Load with a burden; oppress. burdensome adj. [old english: related to *birth]
Burden of proof n. Obligation to prove one’s case.
Burdock n. Plant with prickly flowers and docklike leaves. [from bur, dock3]
Bureau n. (pl. -x or -s) 1 a desk with drawers and usu. An angled hinged top. B us chest of drawers. 2 a office or department for specific business. B government department. [french, originally = baize]
Bureaucracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 a government by central administration. B state etc. So governed. 2 government officials, esp. Regarded as oppressive and inflexible. 3 conduct typical of these.
Bureaucrat n. 1 official in a bureaucracy. 2 inflexible administrator. bureaucratic adj. Bureaucratically adv.
Buret n. (brit. Burette) graduated glass tube with an end-tap for measuring liquid in chemical analysis. [french]
Burette n. (us buret) graduated glass tube with an end-tap for measuring liquid in chemical analysis. [french]
Burgeon v. Literary grow rapidly; flourish. [latin burra wool]
Burger n. Colloq. Hamburger. [abbreviation]
Burgher n. Citizen of a continental town. [german or dutch]
Burglar n. Person who commits burglary. [anglo-french]
Burglar n. Person who commits burglary. [anglo-french]
Burglary n. (pl. -ies) 1 illegal entry with intent to commit theft, do bodily harm, or do damage. 2 instance of this.
Usage before 1968 in english law, burglary was a crime under statute and common law; since 1968 it has been a statutory crime only; cf. *housebreaking.
Burgle v. (-ling) commit burglary (on).
Burgomaster n. Mayor of a dutch or flemish town. [dutch]
Burgundy n. (pl. -ies) 1 (also burgundy) a red or white wine from burgundy in e. France. B hist. Similar wine from elsewhere. 2 dark red colour of this.
Burial n. 1 a burying of a corpse. B funeral. 2 archaeol. Grave or its remains.
Burin n. 1 tool for engraving copper or wood. 2 archaeol. Chisel-pointed flint tool. [french]
Burk var. Of *berk.
Burlesque —n. 1 a comic imitation, parody. B this as a genre. 2 us variety show, esp. With striptease. —adj. Of or using burlesque. —v. (-ques, -qued, -quing)
esp. With striptease. —adj. Of or using burlesque. —v. (-ques, -qued, -quing) parody. [italian burla mockery]
Burly adj. (-ier, -iest) large and sturdy. [old english]
Burn1 —v. (past and past part. Burnt or burned) 1 (cause to) be consumed or destroyed by fire. 2 blaze or glow with fire. 3 (cause to) be injured or damaged by fire, heat, radiation, acid, etc. 4 use or be used as fuel etc. 5 char in cooking. 6 produce (a hole, mark, etc.) By fire or heat. 7 a heat (clay, chalk, etc.). B harden (bricks) by fire. 8 colour, tan, or parch with heat or light. 9 (be) put to death by fire. 10 cauterize, brand. 11 make, be, or feel hot, esp. Painfully. 12 (often foll. By with) (cause to) feel great emotion or passion (burn with shame). 13 slang drive fast. —n. Mark or injury caused by burning. burn one’s boats (or bridges) commit oneself irrevocably. Burn the candle at both ends work etc. Excessively.
Burn2 n. Scot. Brook. [old english]
Burner n. Part of a gas cooker, lamp, etc. That emits the flame.
Burning-glass n. Lens for concentrating the sun’s rays to produce a flame.
Burnish v. Polish by rubbing. [french brunir from brun brown]
Burnous n. Arab or moorish hooded cloak. [arabic from greek]
Burn-out n. Exhaustion. burnt-out adj.
Burnt see *burn1.
Burnt ochre n. (also burnt sienna or umber) pigment darkened by burning.
Burnt offering n. Offering burnt on an altar as a sacrifice.
Burp colloq. —v. 1 belch. 2 make (a baby) belch. —n. Belch. [imitative]
Burr —n. 1 a whirring sound. B rough sounding of the letter r. 2 (also bur) a rough edge on metal or paper. B surgeon’s or dentist’s small drill. 3 var. Of *bur 1, 2. —v. Make a burr. [imitative]
Burrow —n. Hole or tunnel dug by a rabbit etc. As a dwelling or shelter. —v. 1 make a burrow. 2 make (a hole, one’s way, etc.) (as) by digging. 3 (foll. By into) investigate, search. [apparently var. Of *borough]
Bursar n. 1 treasurer, esp. Of a college. 2 holder of a bursary. [medieval latin bursarius from bursa purse]
Bursary n. (pl. -ies) grant, esp. A scholarship. [medieval latin: related to *bursar]
Burst —v. (past and past part. Burst) 1 (cause to) break violently apart; open forcibly from within. 2 a (usu. Foll. By in, out) make one’s way suddenly or by force. B break away from or through (river burst its banks). 3 be full to overflowing. 4 appear or come suddenly (burst into flame). 5 (foll. By into) suddenly begin to shed (tears) or utter. 6 seem about to burst from effort, excitement, etc. —n. 1 act of bursting. 2 sudden issue or outbreak (burst of flame; burst of applause). 3 sudden effort, spurt. burst out 1 suddenly begin (burst out laughing). 2 exclaim. [old english]
Burton n. go for a burton slang be lost, destroyed, or killed. [origin uncertain]
Bury v. (-ies, -ied) 1 place (a corpse) in the earth, a tomb, or the sea. 2 lose by death (buried two sons). 3 a put or hide under ground. B cover up; conceal. 4 consign to obscurity; forget. 5 (refl. Or passive) involve deeply (buried in a book). bury the hatchet cease to quarrel. [old english]
Bus —n. (pl. Buses or us busses) 1 large esp. Public passenger vehicle, usu. Travelling a fixed route. 2 colloq. Car, aeroplane, etc. —v. (buses or busses, bussed, bussing) 1 go by bus. 2 us transport by bus, esp. To aid racial integration. [abbreviation of *omnibus]
Busby n. (pl. -ies) tall fur hat worn by hussars etc. [origin unknown]
Bush1 n. 1 shrub or clump of shrubs. 2 thing like a bush, esp. A clump of hair. 3 (esp. In australia and africa) uncultivated area; woodland or forest. [old english and old norse]
Bush2 —n. 1 metal lining for a hole enclosing a revolving shaft etc. 2 sleeve giving electrical insulation. —v. Fit with a bush. [dutch busse box]
Bush-baby n. (pl. -ies) small african lemur.
Bushed adj. Colloq. Tired out.
Bushel n. Measure of capacity for corn, fruit, etc. (8 gallons or 36.4 litres). [french]
Bushfire n. Forest or scrub fire often spreading widely.
Bushman n. 1 traveller or dweller in the australian bush. 2 (bushman) member or language of a s.african aboriginal people.
Bush telegraph n. Rapid spreading of information, rumour, etc.
Bushy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 growing thickly like a bush. 2 having many bushes.
Business n. 1 one’s regular occupation or profession. 2 one’s own concern. 3 task or duty. 4 serious work or activity. 5 (difficult or unpleasant) matter or affair. 6 thing(s) needing attention or discussion. 7 buying and selling; trade. 8 commercial firm. mind one’s own business not meddle. [old english: related to *busy]
Businesslike adj. Efficient, systematic.
Businessman n. (fem. Businesswoman) man or woman engaged in trade or commerce.
Business park n. Area designed for commerce and light industry.
Business person n. Businessman or businesswoman.
Busk v. Perform esp. Music in the street etc. For tips. busker n. [obsolete busk peddle]
Bus lane n. Part of a road mainly for use by buses.
Busman n. Bus driver.
Busman’s holiday n. Holiday spent in an activity similar to one’s regular work.
Bus shelter n. Shelter beside a bus-stop.
Bus station n. Centre where buses depart and arrive.
Bus-stop n. 1 regular stopping-place of a bus. 2 sign marking this.
Bust1 n. 1 human chest, esp. Of a woman; bosom. 2 sculpture of a person’s head, shoulders, and chest. busty adj. (-ier, -iest). [french from italian]
Bust2 —v. (past and past part. Busted or bust) colloq. 1 break, burst. 2 a raid, search. B arrest. —adj. (also busted) 1 broken, burst. 2 bankrupt. bust up 1 collapse. 2 (esp. Of a married couple) separate. [var. Of *burst]
Bustard n. Large land bird that can run very fast. [latin avis tarda slow bird (‘slow’ unexplained)]
Buster n. Esp. Us slang mate; fellow. [from *bust2]
Bustier n. Strapless close-fitting bodice. [french]
Bustle1 —v. (-ling) 1 (often foll. By about) (cause to) move busily and energetically. 2 (as bustling adj.) Active, lively. —n. Excited or energetic activity. [perhaps from obsolete busk prepare]
Bustle2 n. Hist. Padding worn under a skirt to puff it out behind. [origin unknown]
Bust-up n. 1 quarrel. 2 collapse.
Busy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 occupied or engaged in work etc. 2 full of activity; fussy (busy evening, street; busy design). 3 esp. Us (of a telephone line) engaged. —v. (-ies, -ied) (often refl.) Keep busy; occupy. busily adv. [old english]
Busybody n. (pl. -ies) meddlesome person.
Busy lizzie n. Plant with abundant esp. Red, pink, or white flowers.
But —conj. 1 a nevertheless, however (tried but failed). B on the other hand; on the contrary (i am old but you are young). 2 except, otherwise than (cannot choose but do it; what could we do but run?). 3 without the result that (it never rains but it pours). —prep. Except; apart from; other than (all cried but me; nothing but trouble). —adv. 1 only; no more than; only just (we can but try; is but a child; had but arrived). 2 in emphatic repetition; definitely (would see nobody, but nobody). —rel. Pron. Who not; that not (not a man but feels pity). —n. Objection (ifs and buts). but for without the help or hindrance etc. Of (but for you i’d be rich). But one (or two etc.) Excluding one (or two etc.) From the number (next door but one; last but one). But then however (i won, but then i am older). [old english]
Butane n. Gaseous alkane hydrocarbon, used in liquefied form as fuel. [from *butyl]
Butcher —n. 1 a person who deals in meat. B slaughterer. 2 brutal murderer. — v. 1 slaughter or cut up (an animal) for food. 2 kill wantonly or cruelly. 3 colloq. Ruin through incompetence. [french boc *buck1]
Butchery n. (pl. -ies) 1 needless or cruel slaughter (of people). 2 butcher’s trade.
Butler n. Principal manservant of a household. [french bouteille bottle]
Butt1 —v. 1 push or strike with the head or horns. 2 (cause to) meet edge to edge. —n. 1 push with the head. 2 join of two edges. butt in interrupt, meddle. [french from germanic]
Butt2 n. 1 (often foll. By of) object of ridicule etc. 2 a mound behind a target. B (in pl.) Shooting-range. [french but goal]
Butt3 n. 1 thicker end, esp. Of a tool or weapon. 2 stub of a cigarette etc. 3 esp. Us slang buttocks. [dutch]
Butt4 n. Cask. [latin buttis]
Butter —n. 1 solidified churned cream, used as a spread and in cooking. 2 substance of similar texture (peanut butter). —v. Spread, cook, or serve with butter. butter up colloq. Flatter. [greek bouturon]
Butter-bean n. 1 flat, dried, white lima bean. 2 yellow-podded bean.
Butter-cream n. Mixture of butter, icing sugar, etc., as a filling etc. For a cake.
Buttercup n. Wild plant with yellow cup-shaped flowers.
Butterfat n. Essential fats of pure butter.
Butter-fingers n. Colloq. Person prone to drop things.
Butterfly n. (pl. -flies) 1 insect with four usu. Brightly coloured wings. 2 (in pl.) Colloq. Nervous sensation in the stomach.
Butterfly nut n. A kind of wing-nut.
Butterfly stroke n. Stroke in swimming, with arms raised and lifted forwards together.
Butter-icing n. = *butter-cream.
Buttermilk n. Liquid left after churning butter.
Butter muslin n. Thin loosely-woven cloth, orig. For wrapping butter.
Butterscotch n. Brittle toffee made from butter, brown sugar, etc.
Buttery1 n. (pl. -ies) food store, esp. In a college; snack-bar etc. [related to *butt4]
Buttery2 adj. Like or containing butter.
Buttock n. 1 each of the two fleshy protuberances at the rear of the human trunk. 2 corresponding part of an animal. [butt ridge]
Button —n. 1 small disc etc. Sewn to a garment as a fastener or worn as an ornament. 2 small round knob etc. Pressed to operate electronic equipment. —v. = button up 1. button up 1 fasten with buttons. 2 colloq. Complete satisfactorily. 3 colloq. Be silent. [french from germanic]
Buttonhole —n. 1 slit in cloth for a button. 2 flower etc. Worn in a lapel buttonhole. —v. (-ling) colloq. Accost and detain (a reluctant listener).
Button mushroom n. Young unopened mushroom.
Buttress —n. 1 projecting support built against a wall. 2 source of help etc. —v. (often foll. By up) 1 support with a buttress. 2 support by argument etc. (buttressed by facts). [related to *butt1]
Butty n. (pl. -ies) n.engl. Sandwich. [from *butter]
Butyl n. The univalent alkyl radical c4h9. [latin butyrum *butter]
Buxom adj. (esp. Of a woman) plump and rosy; busty. [earlier = pliant: related to *bow2]
Buy —v. (buys, buying; past and past part. Bought) 1 a obtain for money etc. B serve to obtain (money can’t buy happiness; the best that money can buy). 2 a procure by bribery etc. B bribe. 3 get by sacrifice etc. 4 slang believe in, accept. 5 be a buyer for a store etc. —n. Colloq. Purchase. buy in buy a stock of. Buy into pay for a share in (an enterprise). Buy off pay to get rid of. Buy oneself out obtain one’s release (esp. From the armed services) by payment. Buy out pay (a person) for ownership, an interest, etc. Buy up 1 buy as much as possible of. 2 absorb (a firm etc.) By purchase. [old english]
Buyer n. 1 person employed to purchase stock for a large store etc. 2 purchaser, customer.
Buyer’s market n. (also buyers’ market) trading conditions favourable to buyers.
Buyout n. Purchase of a controlling share in a company etc.
Buzz —n. 1 hum of a bee etc. 2 sound of a buzzer. 3 a low murmur as of conversation. B stir; hurried activity (buzz of excitement). 4 slang telephone call. 5 slang thrill. —v. 1 hum. 2 a summon with a buzzer. B slang telephone. 3 a (often foll. By about) move busily. B (of a place) appear busy or full of excitement. buzz off slang go or hurry away. [imitative]
Buzzard n. Large bird of the hawk family. [latin buteo falcon]
Buzzer n. Electrical buzzing device as a signal.
Buzz-word n. Colloq. Fashionable technical or specialist word; catchword.
By —prep. 1 near, beside (sit by me; path by the river). 2 through the agency or means of (by proxy; poem by donne; by bus; by cheating; divide by two; killed by robbers). 3 not later than (by next week). 4 a past, beyond (drove by the church). B through; via (went by paris). 5 during (by day; by daylight). 6 to the extent of (missed by a foot; better by far). 7 according to; using as a standard or unit (judge by appearances; paid by the hour). 8 with the succession of (worse by the minute; day by day). 9 concerning; in respect of (did our duty by them; smith by name). 10 used in mild oaths (by god). 11 expressing dimensions of an area etc. (three feet by two). 12 avoiding, ignoring (passed us by). 13 inclining to (north by north-west). —adv. 1 near (sat by). 2 aside; in reserve (put £5 by). 3 past (marched by). —n. (pl. Byes) = *bye1. by and by before long; eventually. By and large on the whole. By the by (or bye) incidentally. By oneself 1 a unaided. B unprompted. 2 alone. [old english]
Bye1 n. 1 cricket run scored from a ball that passes the batsman without being hit. 2 status of an unpaired competitor in a sport, who proceeds to the next round by default. [from *by as a noun]
By-election n. Election to fill a vacancy arising between general elections.
By-election n. Election to fill a vacancy arising between general elections.
Byelorussian (also belorussian) —n. Native or language of byelorussia in eastern europe. —adj. Of byelorussia, its people, or language. [russian from belyi white, russiya russia]
Bygone —adj. Past, antiquated. —n. (in phr. Let bygones be bygones) forgive and forget past quarrels.
By-law n. Regulation made by a local authority or corporation. [obsolete by town]
Byline n. 1 line naming the writer of a newspaper article etc. 2 secondary line of work. 3 goal-line or touchline.
Bypass —n. 1 main road passing round a town or its centre. 2 a secondary channel or pipe etc. Used in emergencies. B alternative passage for the circulation of blood through the heart. —v. Avoid, go round (a town, difficulty, etc.).
Byplay n. Secondary action, esp. In a play.
By-product n. 1 incidental product made in the manufacture of something else. 2 secondary result.
Byre n. Cowshed. [old english]
Byroad n. Minor road.
Byroad n. Minor road.
Byssinosis n. Lung disease caused by textile fibre dust. [greek bussinos made of linen]
Bystander n. Person present but not taking part; onlooker.
Byte n. Computing group of eight binary digits, often representing one character. [origin uncertain]
Byway n. 1 byroad or secluded path. 2 minor activity.
Byword n. 1 person or thing as a notable example (is a byword for luxury). 2 familiar saying.
Byzantine —adj. 1 of byzantium or the e. Roman empire. 2 of its highly decorated style of architecture. 3 (of a political situation etc.) Complex, inflexible, or underhand. —n. Citizen of byzantium or the e. Roman empire. byzantinism n. Byzantinist n. [latin byzantium, now istanbul]
Cab n. 1 taxi. 2 driver’s compartment in a lorry, train, or crane etc. [abbreviation
of *cabriolet]
Cabal n. 1 secret intrigue. 2 political clique. [french from latin]
Cabaret n. Entertainment in a nightclub or restaurant. [french, = tavern]
Cabbage n. 1 vegetable with a round head and green or purple leaves. 2 = *vegetable 2. [french caboche head]
Cabbage white n. Butterfly whose caterpillars feed on cabbage leaves.
Cabby n. (also cabbie) (pl. -ies) colloq. Taxi-driver.
Caber n. Trimmed tree-trunk tossed as a sport in the scottish highlands. [gaelic]
Cabin n. 1 small shelter or house, esp. Of wood. 2 room or compartment in an aircraft or ship for passengers or crew. 3 driver’s cab. [french from latin]
Cabin-boy n. Boy steward on a ship.
Cabin cruiser n. Large motor boat with accommodation.
Cabinet n. 1 a cupboard or case for storing or displaying things. B casing of a radio, television, etc. 2 (cabinet) committee of senior ministers in a government. [diminutive of *cabin]
Cabinet-maker n. Skilled joiner.
Cable —n. 1 encased group of insulated wires for transmitting electricity etc. 2 thick rope of wire or hemp. 3 cablegram. 4 (in full cable stitch) knitting stitch resembling twisted rope. —v. (-ling) transmit (a message) or inform (a person) by cablegram. [latin caplum halter, from arabic]
Cable-car n. Small cabin suspended on a looped cable, for carrying passengers up and down a mountain etc.
Cablegram n. Telegraph message sent by undersea cable.
Cable television n. Television transmission by cable to subscribers.
Cabman n. Driver of a cab.
Caboodle n. the whole caboodle slang the whole lot. [origin uncertain]
Caboose n. 1 kitchen on a ship’s deck. 2 us guard’s van on a train etc. [dutch]
Cabriole n. A kind of esp. 18th-c. Curved table or chair leg. [french: related to *capriole]
Cabriolet n. 1 car with a folding top. 2 light two-wheeled one-horse carriage with a hood. [french: related to *capriole]
Cacao n. (pl. -s) 1 seed from which cocoa and chocolate are made. 2 tree bearing these. [spanish from nahuatl]
Cache —n. 1 hiding-place for treasure, stores, guns, etc. 2 things so hidden. —v. (-ching) put in a cache. [french cacher hide]
Cachet n. 1 prestige. 2 distinguishing mark or seal. 3 flat capsule of medicine. [french cacher press]
Cachou n. Lozenge to sweeten the breath. [portuguese cachu from malay kachu]
Cackle —n. 1 clucking of a hen etc. 2 raucous laugh. 3 noisy chatter. —v. (-ling) 1 emit a cackle. 2 chatter noisily. [imitative]
Cacophony n. (pl. -ies) harsh discordant sound. cacophonous adj. [greek kakos bad, phone sound]
Cactus n. (pl. -ti or cactuses) plant with a thick fleshy stem and usu. Spines but
Cactus n. (pl. -ti or cactuses) plant with a thick fleshy stem and usu. Spines but no leaves. [latin from greek]
Cad abbr. Computer aided design.
Cad n. Man who behaves dishonourably. caddish adj. [abbreviation of *caddie]
Cadaver n. Esp. Med. Corpse. [latin cado fall]
Cadaverous adj. Corpselike; very pale and thin.
Caddie (also caddy) —n. (pl. -ies) person who carries a golfer’s clubs during play. —v. (-ies, -ied, caddying) act as a caddie. [french *cadet]
Caddis-fly n. Small nocturnal insect living near water. [origin unknown]
Caddis-worm n. (also caddis) larva of the caddis-fly. [origin unknown]
Caddy1 n. (pl. -ies) small container for tea. [malay]
Caddy2 var. Of *caddie.
Cadence n. 1 rhythm; the measure or beat of a sound or movement. 2 fall in pitch
Cadence n. 1 rhythm; the measure or beat of a sound or movement. 2 fall in pitch of the voice. 3 tonal inflection. 4 close of a musical phrase. [latin cado fall]
Cadenza n. Virtuoso passage for a soloist. [italian: related to *cadence]
Cadet n. Young trainee for the armed services or police force. cadetship n. [french, ultimately from latin caput head]
Cadge v. (-ging) colloq. Get or seek by begging. [origin unknown]
Cadi n. (pl. -s) judge in a muslim country. [arabic]
Cadmium n. Soft bluish-white metallic element. [greek kadmia cadmean (earth)]
Cadre n. 1 basic unit, esp. Of servicemen. 2 group of esp. Communist activists. [french from latin quadrus square]
Caecum n. (us cecum) (pl. -ca) blind-ended pouch at the junction of the small and large intestines. [latin caecus blind]
Caenozoic var. Of *cenozoic.
Caerphilly n. A kind of mild white cheese. [caerphilly in wales]
Caesar n. 1 title of roman emperors. 2 autocrat. [latin (c. Julius) caesar]
Caesura n. (pl. -s) pause in a line of verse. caesural adj. [latin caedo cut]
Café n. Small coffee-house or restaurant. [french]
Cafeteria n. Self-service restaurant. [american spanish, = coffee-shop]
Caffeine n. Alkaloid stimulant in tea-leaves and coffee beans. [french café coffee]
Caftan n. (also kaftan) 1 long tunic worn by men in the near east. 2 long loose dress or shirt. [turkish]
Cage —n. 1 structure of bars or wires, esp. For confining animals or birds. 2 similar open framework, esp. A lift in mine etc. —v. (-ging) place or keep in a cage. [latin cavea]
Cagey adj. (also cagy) (-ier, -iest) colloq. Cautious and non-committal. cagily adv. Caginess n. [origin unknown]
Cagoule n. Thin hooded windproof jacket. [french]
Cahoots n.pl. in cahoots slang in collusion. [origin uncertain]
Caiman var. Of *cayman.
Cain n. raise cain colloq. = raise the roof. [cain, eldest son of adam (gen. 4)]
Cainozoic var. Of *cenozoic.
Cairn n. 1 mound of stones as a monument or landmark. 2 (in full cairn terrier) small shaggy short-legged terrier. [gaelic]
Cairngorm n. Semiprecious form of quartz. [cairngorms, in scotland]
Caisson n. Watertight chamber for underwater construction work. [italian cassone]
Cajole v. (-ling) persuade by flattery, deceit, etc. cajolery n. [french]
Cake —n. 1 mixture of flour, butter, eggs, sugar, etc., baked in the oven and often iced and decorated. 2 other food in a flat round shape (fish cake). 3 flattish compact mass (cake of soap). —v. (-king) 1 form into a compact mass. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) cover (with a hard or sticky mass). have one’s cake and eat it colloq. Enjoy both of two mutually exclusive alternatives. A piece of cake colloq. Something easily achieved. Sell (or go) like hot cakes colloq. Be sold (or
colloq. Something easily achieved. Sell (or go) like hot cakes colloq. Be sold (or go) quickly; be popular. [old norse]
Cakewalk n. 1 obsolete american black dance. 2 colloq. Easy task. 3 fairground entertainment consisting of a promenade moved by machinery.
Cal abbr. Large calorie(s).
Cal abbr. Small calorie(s).
Calabash n. 1 gourd-bearing tree of tropical america. 2 such a gourd, esp. As a vessel for water, etc. [french from spanish]
Calabrese n. Variety of broccoli. [italian, = calabrian]
Calamine n. Powdered form of zinc carbonate and ferric oxide used as a skin lotion. [french from latin]
Calamity n. (pl. -ies) disaster, great misfortune. calamitous adj. [french from latin]
Calcareous adj. Of or containing calcium carbonate. [related to *calx]
Calceolaria n. Plant with slipper-shaped flowers. [latin calceus shoe]
Calces pl. Of *calx.
Calciferol n. Vitamin (d2) promoting calcium deposition in the bones. [related to *calx]
Calcify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 harden by the depositing of calcium salts. 2 convert or be converted to calcium carbonate. calcification n.
Calcine v. (-ning) decompose or be decomposed by strong heat. calcination n. [french or medieval latin: related to *calx]
Calcite n. Natural crystalline calcium carbonate. [latin: related to *calx]
Calcium n. Soft grey metallic element occurring in limestone, marble, chalk, etc. [related to *calx]
Calcium carbide n. Greyish solid used in the production of acetylene.
Calcium carbonate n. White insoluble solid occurring as chalk, marble, etc.
Calcium hydroxide n. White crystalline powder used in the manufacture of mortar.
Calcium oxide n. White crystalline solid from which many calcium compounds are manufactured.
Calculate v. (-ting) 1 ascertain or forecast esp. By mathematics or reckoning. 2 plan deliberately. 3 (foll. By on) rely on; reckon on. calculable adj. [latin: related to *calculus]
Calculated adj. 1 (of an action) done deliberately or with foreknowledge. 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Designed or suitable; intended.
Calculating adj. Scheming, mercenary.
Calculation n. Act, process, or result of calculating. [latin: related to *calculus]
Calculator n. Device (esp. A small electronic one) for making mathematical calculations.
Calculus n. (pl. -luses or -li) 1 particular method of mathematical calculation or reasoning. 2 stone or mineral mass in the body. [latin, = small stone (used on an abacus)]
Caldron var. Of *cauldron.
Caledonian literary —adj. Of scotland. —n. Scotsman. [latin caledonia n. Britain]
Calendar —n. 1 system fixing the year’s beginning, length, and subdivision. 2 chart etc. Showing such subdivisions. 3 timetable of dates, events, etc. —v. Enter in a calendar; register (documents). [latin: related to *calends]
Calendar year n. Period from 1 jan. To 31 dec. Inclusive.
Calender —n. Machine in which cloth, paper, etc. Is rolled to glaze or smooth it. —v. Press in a calender. [french]
Calends n.pl. (also kalends) first of the month in the ancient roman calendar. [latin kalendae]
Calendula n. Plant with large yellow or orange flowers, esp. The marigold. [latin diminutive of kalendae]
Calf1 n. (pl. Calves) 1 young cow or bull. 2 young of other animals, e.g. The elephant, deer, and whale. 3 calfskin. [old english]
Calf2 n. (pl. Calves) fleshy hind part of the human leg below the knee. [old norse]
Calf-love n. Romantic adolescent love.
Calfskin n. Calf-leather.
Caliber n. (brit. Calibre) 1 a internal diameter of a gun or tube. B diameter of a bullet or shell. 2 strength or quality of character; ability, importance. [french from italian from arabic, = mould]
Calibrate v. (-ting) 1 mark (a gauge) with a scale of readings. 2 correlate the readings of (an instrument or system of measurement) with a standard. 3 determine the calibre of (a gun). calibration n.
Calibre n. (us caliber) 1 a internal diameter of a gun or tube. B diameter of a bullet or shell. 2 strength or quality of character; ability, importance. [french from italian from arabic, = mould]
Calices pl. Of *calix.
Calico —n. (pl. -es or us -s) 1 cotton cloth, esp. Plain white or unbleached. 2 us printed cotton fabric. —adj. 1 of calico. 2 us multicoloured. [calicut in india]
Californium n. Artificial radioactive metallic element. [california in us, where first made]
Caliper var. Of *calliper.
Caliph n. Esp. Hist. Chief muslim civil and religious ruler. caliphate n. [arabic, = successor (of muhammad)]
Calisthenics var. Of *callisthenics.
Calix var. Of *calyx.
Calk us var. Of *caulk.
Call —v. 1 a (often foll. By out) cry, shout; speak loudly. B (of a bird etc.) Emit its characteristic sound. 2 communicate with by telephone or radio. 3 summon. 4 (often foll. By at, in, on) pay a brief visit. 5 order to take place (called a meeting). 6 name; describe as. 7 regard as (i call that silly). 8 rouse from sleep. 9 (foll. By for) demand. 10 (foll. By on, upon) appeal to (called on us to be quiet). 11 name (a suit) in bidding at cards. 12 guess the outcome of tossing a coin etc. —n. 1 shout, cry. 2 a characteristic cry of a bird etc. B instrument for imitating it. 3 brief visit. 4 a act of telephoning. B telephone conversation. 5 a invitation, summons. B vocation. 6 need, occasion (no call for rudeness). 7 demand (a call on one’s time). 8 signal on a bugle etc. 9 option of buying stock at a fixed price at a given date. 10 cards a player’s right or turn to make a bid. B bid made. call in 1 withdraw from circulation. 2 seek the advice or services of. Call off 1 cancel (an arrangement). 2 order (an attacker or pursuer) to desist. Call out 1 summon to action. 2 order (workers) to strike. Call the shots (or tune) colloq. Be in control; take the initiative. Call up 1 telephone. 2 recall. 3 summon to military service. On call ready or available if required. [old english from old norse]
Call-box n. Telephone box.
Caller n. Person who calls, esp. One who pays a visit or makes a telephone call.
Caller n. Person who calls, esp. One who pays a visit or makes a telephone call.
Call-girl n. Prostitute accepting appointments by telephone.
Calligraphy n. 1 handwriting, esp. When fine. 2 art of this. calligrapher n. Calligraphic adj. Calligraphist n. [greek kallos beauty]
Calling n. 1 profession or occupation. 2 vocation.
Calliper n. (also caliper) 1 (in pl.) Compasses for measuring diameters. 2 metal splint to support the leg. [var. Of *calibre]
Callisthenics n.pl. (also calisthenics) exercises for fitness and grace. callisthenic adj. [greek kallos beauty, sthenos strength]
Callosity n. (pl. -ies) area of hard thick skin. [latin: related to *callous]
Callous adj. 1 unfeeling, insensitive. 2 (also calloused) (of skin) hardened. callously adv. Callousness n. [latin: related to *callus]
Callus n. (pl. Calluses) 1 area of hard thick skin or tissue. 2 hard tissue formed round bone ends after a fracture. [latin]
Calm —adj. 1 tranquil, quiet, windless. 2 serene; not agitated. —n. Calm condition or period. —v. (often foll. By down) make or become calm. calmly adv. Calmness n. [greek kauma heat]
Calomel n. Compound of mercury used as a cathartic. [greek kalos beautiful, melas black]
Calor gas n. Propr. Liquefied butane gas stored under pressure in containers for domestic use. [latin calor heat]
Caloric adj. Of heat or calories.
Calorie n. (pl. -ies) unit of quantity of heat, the amount needed to raise the temperature of one gram (small calorie) or one kilogram (large calorie) of water by 1 °c. [latin calor heat]
Calibre n. (us caliber) 1 a internal diameter of a gun or tube. B diameter of a bullet or shell. 2 strength or quality of character; ability, importance. [french from italian from arabic, = mould]
Calices pl. Of *calix.
Calico —n. (pl. -es or us -s) 1 cotton cloth, esp. Plain white or unbleached. 2 us
Calico —n. (pl. -es or us -s) 1 cotton cloth, esp. Plain white or unbleached. 2 us printed cotton fabric. —adj. 1 of calico. 2 us multicoloured. [calicut in india]
Californium n. Artificial radioactive metallic element. [california in us, where first made]
Caliper var. Of *calliper.
Caliph n. Esp. Hist. Chief muslim civil and religious ruler. caliphate n. [arabic, = successor (of muhammad)]
Calisthenics var. Of *callisthenics.
Calix var. Of *calyx.
Calk us var. Of *caulk.
Call —v. 1 a (often foll. By out) cry, shout; speak loudly. B (of a bird etc.) Emit its characteristic sound. 2 communicate with by telephone or radio. 3 summon. 4 (often foll. By at, in, on) pay a brief visit. 5 order to take place (called a meeting). 6 name; describe as. 7 regard as (i call that silly). 8 rouse from sleep. 9 (foll. By for) demand. 10 (foll. By on, upon) appeal to (called on us to be quiet). 11 name (a suit) in bidding at cards. 12 guess the outcome of tossing a coin etc. —n. 1 shout, cry. 2 a characteristic cry of a bird etc. B instrument for imitating it. 3 brief visit. 4 a act of telephoning. B telephone conversation. 5 a invitation, summons. B vocation. 6 need, occasion (no call for rudeness). 7 demand (a call on one’s time). 8 signal on a bugle etc. 9 option of buying stock at a fixed price
at a given date. 10 cards a player’s right or turn to make a bid. B bid made. call in 1 withdraw from circulation. 2 seek the advice or services of. Call off 1 cancel (an arrangement). 2 order (an attacker or pursuer) to desist. Call out 1 summon to action. 2 order (workers) to strike. Call the shots (or tune) colloq. Be in control; take the initiative. Call up 1 telephone. 2 recall. 3 summon to military service. On call ready or available if required. [old english from old norse]
Call-box n. Telephone box.
Caller n. Person who calls, esp. One who pays a visit or makes a telephone call.
Call-girl n. Prostitute accepting appointments by telephone.
Calligraphy n. 1 handwriting, esp. When fine. 2 art of this. calligrapher n. Calligraphic adj. Calligraphist n. [greek kallos beauty]
Calling n. 1 profession or occupation. 2 vocation.
Calliper n. (also caliper) 1 (in pl.) Compasses for measuring diameters. 2 metal splint to support the leg. [var. Of *calibre]
Callisthenics n.pl. (also calisthenics) exercises for fitness and grace. callisthenic adj. [greek kallos beauty, sthenos strength]
Callosity n. (pl. -ies) area of hard thick skin. [latin: related to *callous]
Callous adj. 1 unfeeling, insensitive. 2 (also calloused) (of skin) hardened. callously adv. Callousness n. [latin: related to *callus]
Callus n. (pl. Calluses) 1 area of hard thick skin or tissue. 2 hard tissue formed round bone ends after a fracture. [latin]
Calm —adj. 1 tranquil, quiet, windless. 2 serene; not agitated. —n. Calm condition or period. —v. (often foll. By down) make or become calm. calmly adv. Calmness n. [greek kauma heat]
Calomel n. Compound of mercury used as a cathartic. [greek kalos beautiful, melas black]
Calor gas n. Propr. Liquefied butane gas stored under pressure in containers for domestic use. [latin calor heat]
Caloric adj. Of heat or calories.
Calorie n. (pl. -ies) unit of quantity of heat, the amount needed to raise the temperature of one gram (small calorie) or one kilogram (large calorie) of water
temperature of one gram (small calorie) or one kilogram (large calorie) of water by 1 °c. [latin calor heat]
Calorific adj. Producing heat.
Calorimeter n. Instrument for measuring quantity of heat.
Calumniate v. (-ting) slander. [latin]
Calumny n. (pl. -ies) slander; malicious representation. calumnious adj. [latin]
Calvados n. Apple brandy. [calvados in france]
Calve v. (-ving) give birth to a calf. [old english: related to *calf1]
Calves pl. Of calf1, calf2.
Calvinism n. Theology of calvin or his followers, stressing predestination and divine grace. calvinist n. & adj. Calvinistic adj. [calvin, name of a theologian]
Calx n. (pl. Calces) powdery substance formed when an ore or mineral has been heated. [latin calx calc-lime]
Calypso n. (pl. -s) w. Indian song with improvised usu. Topical words and a
Calypso n. (pl. -s) w. Indian song with improvised usu. Topical words and a syncopated rhythm. [origin unknown]
Calyx n. (pl. Calyces or -es) (also calix) 1 sepals forming the protective case of a flower in bud. 2 cuplike cavity or structure. [greek, = husk]
Cam n. Projection on a wheel etc., shaped to convert circular into reciprocal or variable motion. [dutch kam comb]
Camaraderie n. Friendly comradeship. [french]
Camber —n. Convex surface of a road, deck, etc. —v. Build with a camber. [latin camurus curved]
Cambrian —adj. 1 welsh. 2 geol. Of the first period in the palaeozoic era. —n. This period. [welsh: related to *cymric]
Cambric n. Fine linen or cotton fabric. [cambrai in france]
Cambridge blue adj. & n. (as adj. Often hyphenated) pale blue. [cambridge in england]
Camcorder n. Combined video camera and sound recorder. [from *camera, *recorder]
Came past of *come.
Camel n. 1 long-legged ruminant with one hump (arabian camel) or two humps (bactrian camel). 2 fawn colour. [greek]
Camel-hair n. Fine soft hair used in artists’ brushes or for fabric.
Camellia n. Evergreen shrub with shiny leaves and showy flowers. [camellus, name of a botanist]
Camembert n. A kind of soft creamy pungent cheese. [camembert in france]
Cameo n. (pl. -s) 1 small piece of hard stone carved in relief with a background of a different colour. 2 a short descriptive literary sketch or acted scene. B small character part in a play or film, usu. Brief and played by a distinguished actor. [french and medieval latin]
Camera n. 1 apparatus for taking photographs or moving film. 2 equipment for converting images into electrical signals. in camera law in private. [latin: related to *chamber]
Cameraman n. Person who operates a camera professionally, esp. In film-making or television.
Camiknickers n.pl. Women’s knickers and vest combined. [from *camisole, *knickers]
*knickers]
Camisole n. Women’s lightweight vest. [italian or spanish: related to *chemise]
Camomile n. (also chamomile) aromatic plant with daisy-like flowers used esp. To make tea. [greek, = earth-apple]
Camouflage —n. 1 a disguising of soldiers, tanks, etc. So that they blend into the background. B such a disguise. 2 the natural blending colouring of an animal. 3 misleading or evasive behaviour etc. —v. (-ging) hide by camouflage. [french camoufler disguise]
Camp1 —n. 1 place where troops are lodged or trained. 2 temporary accommodation of huts, tents, etc., for detainees, holiday-makers, etc. 3 ancient fortified site. 4 party supporters etc. Regarded collectively. —v. Set up or spend time in a camp. [latin campus level ground]
Camp2 colloq. —adj. 1 affected, effeminate, theatrically exaggerated. 2 homosexual. —n. Camp manner or style. —v. Behave or do in a camp way. camp it up overact; behave affectedly. campy adj. (-ier, -iest). [origin uncertain]
Campaign —n. 1 organized course of action, esp. To gain publicity. 2 military operations towards a particular objective. —v. Take part in a campaign. campaigner n. [latin: related to *camp1]
Campanile n. Bell-tower (usu. Free-standing), esp. In italy. [italian campana ‘bell’, from latin]
Campanology n. 1 the study of bells. 2 bell-ringing. campanologist n. [latin campana bell]
Campanula n. Plant with bell-shaped usu. Blue, purple, or white flowers. [diminutive: related to *campanology]
Camp-bed n. Portable folding bed.
Camper n. 1 person who camps. 2 large motor vehicle with beds etc.
Camp-follower n. 1 civilian worker in a military camp. 2 disciple or adherent.
Camphor n. Pungent white crystalline substance used in making celluloid, medicine, and mothballs. [french ultimately from sanskrit]
Camphorate v. (-ting) impregnate or treat with camphor.
Campion n. Wild plant with usu. Pink or white notched flowers. [origin uncertain]
Campsite n. Place for camping.
Campus n. (pl. -es) 1 grounds of a university or college. 2 esp. Us a university. [latin, = field]
[latin, = field]
Camra abbr. Campaign for real ale.
Camshaft n. Shaft with one or more cams.
Can1 v.aux. (3rd sing. Present can; past could) 1 a be able to; know how to. B be potentially capable of (these storms can last for hours). 2 be permitted to. [old english, = know]
Can2 —n. 1 metal vessel for liquid. 2 sealed tin container for the preservation of food or drink. 3 (in pl.) Slang headphones. 4 (prec. By the) slang a prison. B us lavatory. —v. (-nn-) put or preserve in a can. in the can colloq. Completed, ready. [old english]
Canada goose n. Wild n. American goose with a brownish-grey body and white neck and breast.
Canaille n. Rabble; populace. [french from italian]
Canal n. 1 artificial inland waterway. 2 tubular duct in a plant or animal. [latin canalis]
Canalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 provide with or convert into a canal or canals. 2 channel. canalization n. [french: related to *canal]
Canapé n. Small piece of bread or pastry with a savoury topping. [french]
Canard n. Unfounded rumour or story. [french, = duck]
Canary n. (pl. -ies) small songbird with yellow feathers. [canary islands]
Canasta n. Card-game using two packs and resembling rummy. [spanish, = basket]
Cancan n. Lively stagedance with high kicking. [french]
Cancel v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 revoke or discontinue (an arrangement). 2 delete (writing etc.). 3 mark (a ticket, stamp, etc.) To invalidate it. 4 annul; make void. 5 (often foll. By out) neutralize or counterbalance. 6 math. Strike out (an equal factor) on each side of an equation etc. cancellation n. [latin: related to *chancel]
Cancer n. 1 a malignant tumour of body cells. B disease caused by this. 2 evil influence or corruption. 3 (cancer) a constellation and fourth sign of the zodiac (the crab). B person born when the sun is in this sign. cancerous adj. Cancroid adj. [latin, = crab]
Candela n. Si unit of luminous intensity. [latin, = candle]
Candelabrum n. (also -bra) (pl. -bra, us -brums, -bras) large branched candlestick
Candelabrum n. (also -bra) (pl. -bra, us -brums, -bras) large branched candlestick or lamp-holder. [latin: related to *candela]
Usage the form candelabra is, strictly speaking, the plural. However, candelabra (singular) and candelabras (plural) are often found in informal use.
Candid adj. 1 frank; open. 2 (of a photograph) taken informally, usu. Without subject’s knowledge. candidly adv. Candidness n. [latin candidus white]
Candida n. Fungus causing thrush. [latin candidus: related to *candid]
Candidate n. 1 person nominated for or seeking office, an award, etc. 2 person or thing likely to gain some distinction or position. 3 person entered for an examination. candidacy n. Candidature n. [latin, = white-robed]
Candle n. Cylinder or block of wax or tallow with a central wick which gives light when burning. cannot hold a candle to is much inferior to. Not worth the candle not justifying cost or trouble. [latin candela]
Candlelight n. Light from candles. candlelit adj.
Candlemas n. Feast of the purification of the virgin mary (2 feb.). [old english: related to *mass2]
Candlepower n. Unit of luminous intensity.
Candlestick n. Holder for one or more candles.
Candlewick n. 1 thick soft cotton yarn. 2 tufted material from this.
Candor n. (brit. Candour) frankness; openness. [latin candor]
Candour n. (us candor) frankness; openness. [latin candor]
C. & w. Abbr. Country-and-western (music).
Candy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 (in full sugar-candy) sugar crystallized by repeated boiling and slow evaporation. 2 us sweets; a sweet. —v. (-ies, -ied) (usu. As candied adj.) Preserve (fruit etc.) In candy. [french from arabic]
Candyfloss n. Fluffy mass of spun sugar round a stick.
Candystripe n. Alternate stripes of white and a colour. candystriped adj.
Candytuft n. Plant with white, pink, or purple flowers in tufts. [candia crete, *tuft]
Cane —n. 1 a hollow jointed stem of giant reeds or grasses. B solid stem of slender palms. 2 = *sugar cane. 3 cane used for wickerwork etc. 4 cane used as a
walking-stick, plant support, for punishment, etc. —v. (-ning) 1 beat with a cane. 2 weave cane into (a chair etc.). [greek kanna reed]
Cane sugar n. Sugar from sugar-cane.
Canine —adj. Of a dog or dogs. —n. 1 dog. 2 (in full canine tooth) pointed tooth between incisors and premolars. [latin canis dog]
Canister n. 1 small container for tea etc. 2 cylinder of shot, tear-gas, etc., exploding on impact. [greek kanastron wicker basket]
Canker —n. 1 destructive disease of trees and plants. 2 ulcerous ear disease of animals. 3 corrupting influence. —v. 1 infect with canker. 2 corrupt. 3 (as cankered adj.) Soured, malignant. cankerous adj. [latin: related to *cancer]
Canna n. Tropical plant with bright flowers and ornamental leaves. [latin: related to *cane]
Cannabis n. 1 hemp plant. 2 parts of it used as a narcotic. [latin from greek]
Canned adj. 1 pre-recorded (canned music). 2 sold in a can (canned beer). 3 slang drunk.
Cannelloni n.pl. Tubes of pasta stuffed with a savoury mixture. [italian]
Cannery n. (pl. -ies) canning-factory.
Cannibal n. Person or animal that eats its own species. cannibalism n. Cannibalistic adj. [spanish from carib]
Cannibalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) use (a machine etc.) As a source of spare parts. cannibalization n.
Cannon —n. 1 hist. (pl. Usu. Same) large heavy esp. Mounted gun. 2 billiards hitting of two balls successively by the player’s ball. —v. (usu. Foll. By against, into) collide. [italian: related to *cane]
Cannonade —n. Period of continuous heavy gunfire. —v. (-ding) bombard with a cannonade. [italian: related to *cannon]
Cannon-ball n. Hist. Large ball fired by a cannon.
Canoe —n. Small narrow boat with pointed ends, usu. Paddled. —v. (-noes, -noed, -noeing) travel in a canoe. canoeist n. [spanish and haitian]
Canon n. 1 a general law, rule, principle, or criterion. B church decree or law. 2 member of a cathedral chapter. 3 body of (esp. Sacred) writings accepted as genuine. 4 the part of the roman catholic mass containing the words of consecration. 5 mus. Piece with different parts taking up the same theme successively. [greek kanon rule]
Cañon var. Of *canyon.
Canonical —adj. (also canonic) 1 a according to canon law. B included in the canon of scripture. 2 authoritative, accepted. 3 of a cathedral chapter or a member of it. —n. (in pl.) Canonical dress of clergy. [medieval latin: related to *canon]
Canonist n. Expert in canon law.
Canonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 a declare officially to be a saint, usu. With a ceremony. B regard as a saint. 2 admit to the canon of scripture. 3 sanction by church authority. canonization n. [medieval latin: related to *canon]
Canon law n. Ecclesiastical law.
Canoodle v. (-ling) colloq. Kiss and cuddle. [origin unknown]
Canopy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 a covering suspended over a throne, bed, etc. B sky. C overhanging shelter. 2 archit. Rooflike projection over a niche etc. 3 expanding part of a parachute. —v. (-ies, -ied) supply or be a canopy to. [greek, = mosquito-net]
Canst archaic 2nd person sing. Of *can1.
Cant1 —n. 1 insincere pious or moral talk. 2 language peculiar to a class, profession, etc.; jargon. —v. Use cant. [probably from latin: related to *chant]
Cant2 —n. 1 slanting surface, bevel. 2 oblique push or jerk. 3 tilted position. — v. Push or pitch out of level; tilt. [low german or dutch, = edge]
Can’t contr. Can not.
Cantab abbr. Of cambridge university. [latin cantabrigiensis]
Cantabile mus. —adv. & adj. In smooth flowing style. —n. Cantabile passage or movement. [italian, = singable]
Cantabrigian —adj. Of cambridge or its university. —n. Person from cambridge or its university. [cantabrigia, latinized name of cambridge]
Cantaloup n. (also cantaloupe) small round ribbed melon. [cantaluppi near rome, where it was first grown in europe]
Cantankerous adj. Bad-tempered, quarrelsome. cantankerously adv. Cantankerousness n. [origin uncertain]
Cantata n. Mus. Composition with vocal solos and usu. Choral and orchestral accompaniment. [italian: related to *chant]
Canteen n. 1 a restaurant for employees in an office, factory, etc. B shop for provisions in a barracks or camp. 2 case of cutlery. 3 soldier’s or camper’s water-flask. [italian, = cellar]
Canter —n. Horse’s pace between a trot and a gallop. —v. Go or make go at a canter. [canterbury gallop of medieval pilgrims]
Canticle n. Song or chant with a biblical text. [latin canticum *chant]
Cantilever n. 1 bracket or beam etc. Projecting from a wall to support a balcony etc. 2 beam or girder fixed at one end only. cantilevered adj. [origin unknown]
Cantilever bridge n. Bridge made of cantilevers projecting from piers and connected by girders.
Canto n. (pl. -s) division of a long poem. [latin cantus: related to *chant]
Canton —n. Subdivision of a country, esp. Of switzerland. —v. Put (troops) into
Canton —n. Subdivision of a country, esp. Of switzerland. —v. Put (troops) into quarters. [french, = corner: related to *cant2]
Cantonment n. 1 lodging assigned to troops. 2 hist. Permanent military station in india. [french: related to *canton]
Cantor n. 1 church choir leader. 2 precentor in a synagogue. [latin, = singer]
Canvas —n. 1 strong coarse cloth used for sails and tents etc. And for oil-painting. 2 a painting on canvas, esp. In oils. —v. (-ss-; us -s-) cover with canvas. under canvas 1 in tents. 2 with sails spread. [latin: related to *cannabis]
Canvass —v. 1 solicit votes, esp. From a constituency electorate. 2 a ascertain the opinions of. B seek custom from. 3 propose (an idea or plan etc.). —n. Canvassing, esp. Of electors. canvasser n. [originally = toss in sheet, from *canvas]
Canyon n. (also cañon) deep gorge. [spanish cañón tube]
Cap abbr. Common agricultural policy (of the ec).
Cap abbr. Common agricultural policy (of the ec).
Cap —n. 1 a soft brimless hat, usu. With a peak. B head-covering worn in a particular profession. C cap as a sign of membership of a sports team. D mortarboard. 2 a cover like a cap (kneecap). B top for a bottle, jar, pen, camera lens, etc. 3 = dutch cap. 4 = percussion cap. 5 dental crown. —v. (-pp-) 1 a put a
cap on. B cover the top or end of. C set a limit to (charge-capping). 2 award a sports cap to. 3 form the top of. 4 surpass, excel. cap in hand humbly. If the cap fits (of a remark) if it applies to you, so be it. To cap it all after everything else. [latin cappa]
Capability n. (pl. -ies) 1 ability, power. 2 undeveloped or unused faculty.
Capable adj. 1 competent, able, gifted. 2 (foll. By of) a having the ability, fitness, etc. For. B admitting of (explanation, improvement, etc.). capably adv. [latin capio hold]
Capacious adj. Roomy. capaciousness n. [latin capax: related to *capable]
Capacitance n. 1 ability to store electric charge. 2 ratio of change in the electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its potential.
Capacitor n. Device able to store electric charge.
Capacity n. (pl. -ies) 1 a power to contain, receive, experience, or produce (capacity for heat, pain, etc.). B maximum amount that can be contained or produced etc. C (attrib.) Fully occupying the available space etc. (capacity crowd). 2 mental power. 3 position or function. 4 legal competence. to capacity fully. [latin: related to *capacious]
Caparison literary —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Horse’s trappings. 2 equipment, finery. — v. Adorn. [spanish, = saddle-cloth]
Cape1 n. 1 sleeveless cloak. 2 this worn over or as part of a longer cloak or coat. [latin cappa *cap]
Cape2 n. 1 headland, promontory. 2 (the cape) the cape of good hope. [latin caput head]
Caper1 —v. Jump or run playfully. —n. 1 playful leap. 2 a prank. B slang illicit activity. cut a caper frolic. [abbreviation of *capriole]
Caper2 n. 1 bramble-like shrub. 2 (in pl.) Its pickled buds used esp. In a sauce. [greek kapparis]
Capercaillie n. (also capercailzie) large european grouse. [gaelic, = horse of the forest]
Capillarity n. The rise or depression of a liquid in a narrow tube. [french: related to *capillary]
Capillary —attrib. Adj. 1 of or like a hair, esp. (of a tube) of very small diameter. 2 of the branching blood-vessels connecting arteries and veins. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 capillary tube. 2 capillary blood vessel. [latin capillus hair]
Capillary action n. = *capillarity.
Capital —n. 1 chief town or city of a country or region. 2 a money etc. With which a company starts in business. B accumulated wealth. 3 capitalists collectively. 4 capital letter. 5 head of a column or pillar. —adj. 1 a principal, most important. B colloq. Excellent. 2 a involving punishment by death. B (of an error etc.) Vitally harmful, fatal. 3 (of letters of the alphabet) large in size, used to begin sentences and names etc. make capital out of use to one’s advantage. [latin caput -itis head]
Capital gain n. Profit from the sale of investments or property.
Capital goods n.pl. Machinery, plant, etc.
Capitalism n. Economic and political system dependent on private capital and profit-making.
Capitalist —n. 1 person investing or possessing capital. 2 advocate of capitalism. —adj. Of or favouring capitalism. capitalistic adj.
Capitalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 (foll. By on) use to one’s advantage. 2 convert into or provide with capital. 3 a write (a letter of the alphabet) as a capital. B begin (a word) with a capital letter. capitalization n. [french: related to *capital]
Capital levy n. Tax on wealth or property.
Capital sum n. Lump sum, esp. Payable to an insured person.
Capital transfer tax n. Hist. Tax levied on the transfer of capital by gift or bequest etc.
Capital transfer tax n. Hist. Tax levied on the transfer of capital by gift or bequest etc.
Usage this tax was replaced in 1986 by inheritance tax.
Capitation n. Tax or fee paid per person. [latin: related to *capital]
Capitular adj. Of a cathedral chapter. [latin capitulum *chapter]
Capitulate v. (-ting) surrender. capitulation n. [medieval latin, = put under headings]
Capo n. (pl. -s) device fitted across the strings of a guitar etc. To raise their pitch equally. [italian capo tasto head stop]
Capon n. Castrated cock fattened for eating. [latin capo]
Cappuccino n. (pl. -s) frothy milky coffee. [italian, = *capuchin]
Caprice n. 1 a whim. B tendency to this. 2 lively or fanciful work of art, music,
etc. [italian capriccio sudden start]
Capricious adj. Subject to whims; unpredictable. capriciously adv. Capriciousness n.
Capricorn n. 1 constellation and tenth sign of the zodiac (the goat). 2 person born when the sun is in this sign. [latin caper -pri goat, cornu horn]
Capriole —n. Leap, caper, esp. Of a trained horse. —v. (-ling) perform this. [italian: related to *capricorn]
Capsicum n. 1 plant with edible fruits, esp. Any of several varieties of pepper. 2 red, green, or yellow fruit of these. [latin capsa case]
Capsize v. (-zing) (of a boat etc.) Be overturned; overturn. [spanish capuzar sink]
Capstan n. 1 thick revolving cylinder for winding a cable etc. 2 revolving spindle carrying the spool on a tape recorder. [provençal]
Capstan lathe n. Lathe with a revolving tool-holder.
Capsule n. 1 small edible soluble case enclosing medicine. 2 detachable compartment of a spacecraft or nose of a rocket. 3 enclosing membrane in the body. 4 dry fruit that releases its seeds when ripe. 5 (attrib.) Concise; condensed. capsular adj. [latin capsa case]
capsular adj. [latin capsa case]
Capsulize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) put (information etc.) In compact form.
Capt. Abbr. Captain.
Captain —n. 1 a chief, leader. B leader of a team. 2 a commander of a ship. B pilot of a civil aircraft. 3 army officer next above lieutenant. —v. Be captain of; lead. captaincy n. (pl. -ies). [latin caput head]
Caption —n. 1 wording appended to an illustration, cartoon, etc. 2 wording on a cinema or television screen. 3 heading of a chapter, article, etc. —v. Provide with a caption. [latin capio take]
Captious adj. Fault-finding. [latin: related to *caption]
Captivate v. (-ting) fascinate; charm. captivation n. [latin: related to *captive]
Captive —n. Confined or imprisoned person or animal. —adj. 1 taken prisoner; restrained. 2 unable to escape (captive audience). captivity n. [latin capio capt-take]
Captor n. Person who captures. [latin: related to *captive]
Capture —v. (-ring) 1 a take prisoner; seize. B obtain by force or trickery. 2 portray; record on film etc. 3 absorb (a subatomic particle). 4 record (data) for use in a computer. —n. 1 act of capturing. 2 thing or person captured. [latin: related to *captive]
Capuchin n. 1 franciscan friar. 2 (capuchin) a monkey with cowl-like head hair. B pigeon with a cowl-like head and neck. [italian cappuccio cowl]
Capybara n. Large semi-aquatic s. American rodent. [tupi]
Car n. 1 (in full motor car) motor vehicle for a driver and small number of passengers. 2 (in comb.) Road vehicle or railway carriage esp. Of a specified kind (tramcar; dining-car). 3 us any railway carriage or van. 4 passenger compartment of a lift, balloon, etc. [french from latin]
Caracul var. Of *karakul.
Carafe n. Glass container for water or wine. [french from arabic]
Caramel n. 1 a burnt sugar or syrup as a flavouring or colouring. B a kind of soft toffee. 2 light-brown colour. caramelize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). [french from spanish]
Carapace n. Upper shell of a tortoise or crustacean. [french from spanish]
Carat n. 1 unit of weight for precious stones (200 mg). 2 measure of purity of gold (pure gold = 24 carats). [french ultimately from greek keras horn]
Caravan —n. 1 vehicle equipped for living in and usu. Towed by a car. 2 people travelling together, esp. Across a desert. —v. (-nn-) travel or live in a caravan. caravanner n. [french from persian]
Caravanserai n. Eastern inn with a central court. [persian, = caravan place]
Caravel n. (also carvel) hist. Small light fast ship. [greek karabos, literally ‘horned beetle’]
Caraway n. Plant with tiny white flowers. [spanish from arabic]
Caraway seed n. Fruit of the caraway as flavouring and a source of oil.
Carb n. Colloq. Carburettor. [abbreviation]
Carbide n. 1 binary compound of carbon. 2 = *calcium carbide.
Carbine n. Short rifle orig. For cavalry use. [french]
Carbohydrate n. Energy-producing organic compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (e.g. Starch, sugar).
Carbolic n. (in full carbolic acid) phenol. [from *carbon]
Carbolic soap n. Soap containing carbolic.
Car bomb n. Terrorist bomb placed in or under a parked car.
Carbon n. 1 non-metallic element occurring naturally as diamond, graphite, and charcoal, and in all organic compounds. 2 a = carbon copy. B = carbon paper. 3 rod of carbon in an arc lamp. [latin carbo charcoal]
Carbon-14 n. Radioisotope of mass 14, used in carbon dating.
Carbon-12 n. Stable isotope of carbon, used as a standard.
Carbonaceous adj. 1 consisting of or containing carbon. 2 of or like coal or charcoal.
Carbonate —n. Chem. Salt of carbonic acid. —v. (-ting) fill with carbon dioxide. [french: related to *carbon]
Carbon copy n. 1 copy made with carbon paper. 2 exact copy.
Carbon dating n. Determination of the age of an organic object from the ratio of isotopes, which changes as carbon-14 decays.
isotopes, which changes as carbon-14 decays.
Carbon dioxide n. Gas occurring naturally in the atmosphere and formed by respiration.
Carbon fibre n. Thin strong crystalline filament of carbon used as a strengthening material.
Carbonic adj. Containing carbon.
Carbonic acid n. Weak acid formed from carbon dioxide in water.
Carboniferous —adj. 1 producing coal. 2 (carboniferous) of the fifth period in the palaeozoic era, with extensive formation of coal. —n. (carboniferous) this period.
Carbonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 convert into carbon. 2 reduce to charcoal or coke. 3 coat with carbon. carbonization n.
Carbon monoxide n. Toxic gas formed by the incomplete burning of carbon.
Carbon paper n. Thin carbon-coated paper used for making copies.
Carbon tetrachloride n. Colourless liquid used as a solvent.
Carbon tetrachloride n. Colourless liquid used as a solvent.
Car-boot sale n. Sale of goods from (tables stocked from) the boots of cars.
Carborundum n. Compound of carbon and silicon used esp. As an abrasive. [from *carbon, *corundum]
Carboy n. Large globular glass bottle usu. In a frame. [persian]
Carbuncle n. 1 severe skin abscess. 2 bright-red gem. [latin: related to *carbon]
Carburettor n. (us carburetor) apparatus in an internal-combustion engine for mixing petrol and air to make an explosive mixture.
Carcass n. (also carcase) 1 dead body of an animal, esp. As meat. 2 bones of a cooked bird. 3 colloq. Human body; corpse. 4 framework. 5 worthless remains. [french]
Carcinogen n. Substance producing cancer. carcinogenic adj. [related to *carcinoma]
Carcinoma n. (pl. -s or -mata) cancerous tumour. [greek karkinos crab]
Card1 n. 1 thick stiff paper or thin pasteboard. 2 a piece of this for writing or
printing on, esp. To send greetings, to identify a person, or to record information. B small rectangular piece of plastic used for identity etc. 3 a = *playing-card. B (in pl.) Card-playing. 4 (in pl.) Colloq. Tax and national insurance documents etc., held by an employer. 5 programme of events at a race-meeting etc. 6 colloq.
Card2 —n. Wire brush etc. For raising a nap on cloth etc. —v. Brush or comb with a card. [latin caro card (v.)]
Cardamom n. Seeds of an aromatic se asian plant used as a spice. [latin from greek]
Cardboard n. Pasteboard or stiff paper, esp. For making boxes.
Cardboard city n. Area where homeless people make shelters from cardboard boxes etc.
Card-carrying adj. Registered as a member (esp. Of a political party or trade union).
Card-game n. Game using playing-cards.
Cardiac adj. Of the heart. [greek kardia heart]
Cardigan n. Knitted jacket. [earl of cardigan]
Cardinal —adj. 1 chief, fundamental. 2 deep scarlet. —n. 1 (as a title cardinal)
Cardinal —adj. 1 chief, fundamental. 2 deep scarlet. —n. 1 (as a title cardinal) leading roman catholic dignitary, one of the college electing the pope. 2 small scarlet american songbird. [latin cardo -din-hinge]
Cardinal number n. Number denoting quantity (1, 2, 3, etc.), as opposed to an ordinal number.
Cardinal points n.pl. Four main points of the compass (n., s., e., w.).
Cardinal virtues n.pl. Justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude.
Card index n. Index with a card for each entry.
Cardiogram n. Record of heart movements. [greek kardia heart]
Cardiograph n. Instrument recording heart movements. cardiographer n. Cardiography n.
Cardiology n. Branch of medicine concerned with the heart. cardiologist n.
Cardiovascular adj. Of the heart and blood-vessels.
Cardoon n. Thistle-like plant with leaves used as a vegetable. [french from latin]
Cardphone n. Public telephone operated by a machine-readable card instead of money.
Card-sharp n. (also card-sharper) swindler at card-games.
Card-table n. (esp. Folding) table for card-playing.
Card vote n. = *block vote.
Care —n. 1 worry, anxiety. 2 cause of this. 3 serious attention; caution. 4 a protection, looking after, charge. B = *child care. 5 thing to be done or seen to. —v. (-ring) 1 (usu. Foll. By about, for, whether) feel concern or interest. 2 (usu. Foll. By for) like, be fond of (don’t care for jazz). 3 (foll. By to + infin.) Wish or be willing (would you care to try?). care for provide for; look after. Care of at the address of. In care (of a child) in local authority care. Not care a damn etc. = not give a damn etc. (see *give). Take care 1 be careful. 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Not fail or neglect. Take care of 1 look after. 2 deal with, dispose of. [old english, = sorrow]
Careen v. 1 turn (a ship) on one side for repair etc. 2 tilt, lean over. 3 swerve about. [latin carina keel]
Usage sense 3 of careen is influenced by the verb career.
Career —n. 1 one’s professional etc. Progress through life. 2 profession or
occupation, esp. As offering advancement. 3 (attrib.) A pursuing or wishing to pursue a career (career woman). B working permanently in a specified profession (career diplomat). 4 swift course (in full career). —v. 1 move or swerve about wildly. 2 go swiftly. [latin: related to *car]
Careerist n. Person predominantly concerned with personal advancement.
Carefree adj. Light-hearted; joyous.
Careful adj. 1 painstaking, thorough. 2 cautious. 3 taking care; not neglecting (careful to remind them). carefully adv. Carefulness n.
Careless adj. 1 lacking care or attention. 2 unthinking, insensitive. 3 light-hearted. 4 (foll. By of) not concerned about. carelessly adv. Carelessness n.
Carer n. Person who cares for a sick or elderly person, esp. A relative at home.
Caress —v. Touch or stroke gently or lovingly. —n. Loving or gentle touch. [latin carus dear]
Caret n. Mark (^) indicating a proposed insertion in printing or writing. [latin, = is lacking]
Caretaker n. 1 person employed to look after a house, building, etc. 2 (attrib.) Exercising temporary authority (caretaker government).
Careworn adj. Showing the effects of prolonged worry.
Cargo n. (pl. -es or -s) goods carried on a ship or aircraft. [spanish: related to *charge]
Carib —n. 1 aboriginal inhabitant of the southern w. Indies or adjacent coasts. 2 their language. —adj. Of the caribs. [spanish from haitian]
Caribbean adj. Of the caribs or the w. Indies generally.
Caribou n. (pl. Same) n. American reindeer. [french from american indian]
Caricature —n. 1 grotesque usu. Comically exaggerated representation esp. Of a person. 2 ridiculously poor imitation or version. —v. (-ring) make or give a caricature of. caricaturist n. [italian caricare exaggerate]
Caries n. (pl. Same) decay of a tooth or bone. [latin]
Carillon n. 1 set of bells sounded either from a keyboard or mechanically. 2 tune played on bells. [french]
Caring adj. 1 kind, humane. 2 (attrib.) Concerned with looking after people (caring professions).
Carioca n. 1 brazilian dance like the samba. 2 music for this. [portuguese]
Carmelite —n. 1 friar of the order of our lady of carmel. 2 nun of a similar order. —adj. Of the carmelites. [mt. Carmel in palestine, where the order was founded]
Carmine —adj. Of vivid crimson colour. —n. 1 this colour. 2 carmine pigment made from cochineal. [probably from latin carmesinum *crimson]
Carnage n. Great slaughter, esp. In battle. [latin: related to *carnal]
Carnal adj. 1 of the body or flesh; worldly. 2 sensual, sexual. carnality n. [latin caro carn-flesh]
Carnation —n. 1 clove-scented pink. 2 rosy-pink colour. —adj. Rosy-pink. [italian: related to *carnal because of the flesh-colour]
Carnelian var. Of *cornelian.
Carnet n. Permit to drive across a frontier, use a camp-site, etc. [french, = notebook]
Carnival n. 1 a annual festivities including a parade through the streets in fancy dress. B festival preceding lent. 2 merrymaking. 3 us funfair or circus. [latin carnem levo put away meat]
Carnivore n. Carnivorous animal or plant, esp. A mammal of the order including cats, dogs, and bears.
Carnivorous adj. (of an animal or plant) feeding on flesh. [latin: related to *carnal, voro devour]
Carob n. Seed pod of a mediterranean tree used as a chocolate substitute. [arabic karruba]
Carol —n. Joyous song, esp. A christmas hymn. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 sing carols. 2 sing joyfully. [french]
Carolingian —adj. Of the frankish dynasty founded by charlemagne. —n. Member of this dynasty. [latin carolus charles]
Carotene n. Orange-coloured pigment found in carrots, tomatoes, etc., acting as a source of vitamin a. [latin: related to *carrot]
Carotid —n. Each of the two main arteries carrying blood to the head and neck. —adj. Of these arteries. [latin from greek]
Carouse —v. (-sing) have a lively drinking-party. —n. Such a party. carousal n.
Carouse —v. (-sing) have a lively drinking-party. —n. Such a party. carousal n. Carouser n. [german gar aus (drink) right out]
Carousel n. 1 us merry-go-round. 2 rotating luggage delivery system at an airport etc. [french from italian]
Carp1 n. (pl. Same) freshwater fish often bred for food. [provençal or latin]
Carp2 v. Find fault; complain pettily. carper n. [old norse, = brag]
Carp2 v. Find fault; complain pettily. carper n. [old norse, = brag]
Carpal —adj. Of the bones in the wrist. —n. Wrist-bone. [from *carpus]
Car park n. Area for parking cars.
Carpel n. Female reproductive organ of a flower. [greek karpos fruit]
Carpenter —n. Person skilled in woodwork. —v. 1 make or construct in wood. 2 construct; fit together. carpentry n. [latin carpentum wagon]
Carpet —n. 1 a thick fabric for covering floor or stairs. B piece of this. 2 thing resembling this etc. (carpet of snow). —v. (-t-) 1 cover with or as with carpet. 2 colloq. Reprimand. on the carpet colloq. 1 being reprimanded. 2 under consideration. Sweep under the carpet conceal (a problem or difficulty). [latin
carpo pluck]
Carpet-bag n. Travelling-bag, orig. Made of carpet-like material.
Carpet-bagger n. Colloq. 1 esp. Us political candidate etc. Without local connections. 2 unscrupulous opportunist.
Carpeting n. 1 material for carpets. 2 carpets collectively.
Carpet slipper n. Soft slipper.
Carpet-sweeper n. Household implement for sweeping carpets.
Car phone n. Radio-telephone for use in a car etc.
Carport n. Roofed open-sided shelter for a car.
Carpus n. (pl. -pi) small bones forming the wrist in humans and similar parts in other mammals. [latin from greek]
Carrageen n. (also carragheen) edible red seaweed. [origin uncertain]
Carrel n. Small cubicle for a reader in a library. [french from medieval latin]
Carriage n. 1 railway passenger vehicle. 2 wheeled horse-drawn passenger vehicle. 3 a conveying of goods. B cost of this. 4 carrying part of a machine (e.g. A typewriter). 5 gun-carriage. 6 bearing, deportment. [french: related to *carry]
Carriage clock n. Portable clock with a handle.
Carriageway n. The part of a road intended for vehicles.
Carrier n. 1 person or thing that carries. 2 transport or freight company. 3 = *carrier bag. 4 framework on a bicycle for luggage or a passenger. 5 person or animal that may transmit disease etc. Without suffering from it. 6 = *aircraft-carrier.
Carrier bag n. Plastic or paper bag with handles.
Carrier pigeon n. Pigeon trained to carry messages.
Carrier wave n. High-frequency electromagnetic wave modulated in amplitude or frequency to convey a signal.
Carrion n. 1 dead putrefying flesh. 2 something vile or filthy. [latin caro flesh]
Carrion crow n. Crow feeding on carrion.
Carrot n. 1 a plant with a tapering orange-coloured root. B this as a vegetable. 2 incentive. carroty adj. [greek karoton]
Carry —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 support or hold up, esp. While moving. 2 convey with one or have on one’s person. 3 conduct or transmit (pipe carries water). 4 (often foll. By to) take (a process etc.) To a specified point; continue; prolong (carry into effect; carry a joke too far). 5 involve, imply (carries 6% interest). 6 math. Transfer (a figure) to a column of higher value. 7 hold in a specified way (carry oneself erect). 8 a (of a newspaper etc.) Publish. B (of a radio or television station) broadcast. 9 keep a regular stock of. 10 a (of sound) be audible at a distance. B (of a missile or gun etc.) Travel or propel to a specified distance. 11 a win victory or acceptance for (a proposal etc.). B win acceptance from (carried the audience with her). C win, capture (a prize, fortress, etc.). 12 a endure the weight of; support. B be the driving force in (you carry the department). 13 be pregnant with. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 act of carrying. 2 golf distance a ball travels before reaching the ground. carry away 1 remove. 2 inspire. 3 deprive of self-control (got carried away). Carry the can colloq. Bear the responsibility or blame. Carry the day be victorious or successful. Carry forward transfer to a new page or account. Carry it off do well under difficulties. Carry off 1 take away, esp. By force. 2 win (a prize). 3 (esp.
Carry-out attrib. Adj. & n. Esp. Scot. & us = *take-away.
Carsick adj. Nauseous from car travel. carsickness n.
Cart —n. 1 open usu. Horse-drawn vehicle for carrying loads. 2 light vehicle for pulling by hand. —v. 1 convey in a cart. 2 slang carry or convey with effort. put the cart before the horse reverse the proper order or procedure. [old norse]
Carte blanche n. Full discretionary power. [french, = blank paper]
Cartel n. Union of suppliers etc. To control prices. [italian diminutive: related to *card1]
Cartesian —adj. Of descartes or his philosophy. —n. Follower of descartes. [latin cartesius descartes]
Cartesian coordinates n.pl. System for locating a point by reference to its distance from axes intersecting at right angles.
Cart-horse n. Thickset horse.
Carthusian —n. Monk of a contemplative order founded by st bruno. —adj. Of this order. [latin: related to *chartreuse]
Cartilage n. Firm flexible connective tissue, mainly replaced by bone in adulthood. cartilaginous adj. [french from latin]
Cartography n. Map-drawing. cartographer n. Cartographic adj. [french carte map]
Carton n. Light esp. Cardboard box or container. [french: related to *cartoon]
Cartoon n. 1 humorous, esp. Topical, drawing in a newspaper etc. 2 sequence of drawings telling a story. 3 animated sequence of these on film. 4 full-size preliminary design for a tapestry etc. cartoonist n. [italian: related to *card1]
Cartouche n. 1 scroll-like ornamentation. 2 oval ring enclosing the name and title of a pharaoh. [french: related to *cartoon]
Cartridge n. 1 case containing an explosive charge or bullet for firearms or blasting. 2 sealed container of film etc. 3 component carrying the stylus on a record-player. 4 ink-container for insertion in a pen. [french: related to *cartoon]
Cartridge-belt n. Belt with pockets or loops for cartridges.
Cartridge paper n. Thick paper for drawing etc.
Cartwheel n. 1 wheel of a cart. 2 circular sideways handspring with arms and legs extended.
Cart-wright n. Maker of carts.
Carve v. (-ving) 1 produce or shape by cutting. 2 a cut patterns etc. In. B (foll. By into) form a pattern etc. From (carved it into a bust). 3 (absol.) Cut (meat etc.) Into slices. carve out 1 take from a larger whole. 2 establish (a career etc.) Purposefully. Carve up 1 subdivide. 2 drive aggressively into the path of (another vehicle). [old english]
Carvel var. Of *caravel.
Carvel-built adj. (of a boat) made with planks flush, not overlapping.
Carver n. 1 person who carves. 2 carving knife. 3 chair with arms, for a person carving.
Carvery n. (pl. -ies) buffet or restaurant with joints displayed for carving.
Carve-up n. Slang sharing-out, esp. Of spoils.
Carving n. Carved object, esp. As a work of art.
Carving knife n. Knife for carving meat.
Casanova n. Notorious womanizer. [italian adventurer]
Cascade —n. 1 small waterfall, esp. One of series. 2 thing falling or arranged like a cascade. —v. (-ding) fall in or like a cascade. [latin: related to *case1]
Cascara n. Bark of a californian buckthorn, used as a laxative. [spanish]
Case1 n. 1 instance of something occurring. 2 hypothetical or actual situation. 3
a person’s illness, circumstances, etc., as regarded by a doctor, social worker, etc. B such a person. 4 matter under esp. Police investigation. 5 suit at law. 6 a sum of the arguments on one side, esp. In a lawsuit. B set of arguments (have a good case). C valid set of arguments (have no case). 7 gram. A relation of a word to other words in a sentence. B form of a noun, adjective, or pronoun expressing this. 8 colloq. Comical person. in any case whatever the truth is; whatever may happen. In case 1 in the event that; if. 2 lest; in provision against a possibility (took it in case). In case of in the event of. Is (or is not) the case is (or is not) so. [latin casus from cado fall]
Case2 —n. 1 container or enclosing covering. 2 this with its contents. 3 protective outer covering. 4 item of luggage, esp. A suitcase. —v. (-sing) 1 enclose in a case. 2 (foll. By with) surround. 3 slang reconnoitre (a house etc.) Before burgling it. [latin capsa box]
Case-harden v. 1 harden the surface of (esp. Iron by carbonizing). 2 make callous.
Case history n. Record of a person’s life or medical history for use in professional treatment.
Casein n. The main protein in milk and cheese. [latin caseus cheese]
Case-law n. Law as established by the outcome of former cases.
Casemate n. 1 embrasured room in a fortress wall. 2 armoured enclosure for guns on a warship. [french and italian]
Casement n. Window or part of a window hinged to open like a door. [anglo-latin: related to *case2]
Casework n. Social work concerned with studying a person’s family and background. caseworker n.
Cash —n. 1 money in coins or notes. 2 (also cash down) full payment at the time of purchase. 3 colloq. Wealth. —v. Give or obtain cash for (a note, cheque, etc.). cash in 1 obtain cash for. 2 colloq. (usu. Foll. By on) profit (from); take advantage (of). Cash up count and check the day’s takings. [latin: related to *case2]
Cash and carry n. 1 system (esp. In wholesaling) of cash payment for goods taken away by the purchaser. 2 store where this operates.
Cash-book n. Book for recording receipts and cash payments.
Cashcard n. Plastic card for withdrawing money from a cash dispenser.
Cash crop n. Crop produced for sale.
Cash desk n. Counter etc. Where payment is made in a shop.
Cash dispenser n. Automatic machine for the withdrawal of cash, esp. With a
Cash dispenser n. Automatic machine for the withdrawal of cash, esp. With a cashcard.
Cashew n. 1 evergreen tree bearing kidney-shaped nuts. 2 this edible nut. [portuguese from tupi]
Cash flow n. Movement of money into and out of a business.
Cashier1 n. Person dealing with cash transactions in a shop, bank, etc.
Cashier2 v. Dismiss from service, esp. With disgrace. [french: related to *quash]
Cashmere n. 1 fine soft wool, esp. That of a kashmir goat. 2 material made from this. [kashmir in asia]
Cash on delivery n. Payment for goods when they are delivered.
Cashpoint n. = *cash dispenser.
Cash register n. Till recording sales, totalling receipts, etc.
Casing n. Protective or enclosing cover or material.
Casino n. (pl. -s) public room or building for gambling. [italian diminutive of
Casino n. (pl. -s) public room or building for gambling. [italian diminutive of casa house]
Cask n. 1 barrel, esp. For alcohol. 2 its contents. [french casque or spanish casco helmet]
Casket n. 1 small often ornamental box for jewels etc. 2 us coffin. [latin: related to *case2]
Cassata n. Ice-cream containing fruit and nuts. [italian]
Cassava n. 1 plant with starchy roots. 2 starch or flour from these, used e.g. In tapioca. [taino]
Casserole —n. 1 covered dish for cooking food in the oven. 2 food cooked in this. —v. (-ling) cook in a casserole. [greek kuathion little cup]
Cassette n. Sealed case containing magnetic tape, film etc., ready for insertion in a tape recorder, camera, etc. [french diminutive: related to *case2]
Cassia n. 1 tree from the leaves of which senna is extracted. 2 cinnamon-like bark of this used as a spice. [greek kasia from hebrew]
Cassis n. Blackcurrant flavouring for drinks etc. [french]
Cassock n. Long usu. Black or red clerical garment. cassocked adj. [french from italian]
Cassoulet n. Ragout of meat and beans. [french]
Cassowary n. (pl. -ies) large flightless australasian bird. [malay]
Cast —v. (past and past part. Cast) 1 throw, esp. Deliberately or forcefully. 2 (often foll. By on, over) a direct or cause (one’s eyes, a glance, light, a shadow, a spell, etc.) To fall. B express (doubts, aspersions, etc.). 3 throw out (a fishing-line etc.) Into the water. 4 let down (an anchor etc.). 5 a throw off, get rid of. B shed or lose (horns, skin, a horseshoe, etc.). 6 register (a vote). 7 a shape (molten metal etc.) In a mould. B make thus. 8 a (usu. Foll. By as) assign (an actor) to a role. B allocate roles in (a play etc.). 9 (foll. By in, into) arrange (facts etc.) In a specified form. 10 reckon, add up (accounts or figures). 11 calculate (a horoscope). —n. 1 throwing of a missile, dice, line, net, etc. 2 a object made in a mould. B moulded mass of solidified material, esp. Plaster for a broken limb. 3 actors in a play etc. 4 form, type, or quality. 5 tinge or shade of colour. 6 slight squint. 7 worm-cast. cast about (or around) search. Cast adrift leave to drift. Cast aside abandon. Cast loose detach (oneself). Cast lots see *lot. Cast off 1 abandon. 2 finish a piece of knitting. 3 set a ship free from a quay etc. Cast on make the first row of a piece of knitting. Cast up 1 deposit on the shore. 2 add up (figures etc.). [old norse]
Castanet n. (usu. In pl.) Each of a pair of hand-held pieces of wood etc., clicked together as an accompaniment, esp. By spanish dancers. [latin: related to *chestnut]
Caste n. 1 any of the hindu hereditary classes whose members have no social contact with other classes. 2 exclusive social class or system of classes. lose caste descend in social order. [spanish and portuguese: related to *chaste]
Casteism n. Caste system.
Castellated adj. 1 having battlements. 2 castle-like. castellation n. [medieval latin: related to *castle]
Caster var. Of *castor.
Castigate v. (-ting) rebuke or punish severely. castigation n. Castigator n. [latin castus pure]
Casting n. Cast, esp. Of molten metal.
Casting vote n. Deciding vote when the votes on two sides are equal. [from an obsolete sense of cast, = turn the scale]
Cast iron n. Hard alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon cast in a mould.
Cast-iron adj. 1 of cast iron. 2 very strong; rigid; unchallengeable.
Castle —n. 1 large fortified building with towers and battlements. 2 chess =
Castle —n. 1 large fortified building with towers and battlements. 2 chess = *rook2. —v. (-ling) chess move a rook next to the king and the king to the other side of the rook. castles in the air day-dream; impractical scheme. [latin castellum]
Cast-off —adj. Abandoned, discarded. —n. Cast-off thing, esp. A garment.
Castor n. (also caster) 1 small swivelled wheel on the leg or underside of a piece of furniture. 2 small perforated container for sprinkling sugar, flour, etc. [from *cast]
Castor oil n. Oil from the seeds of a tropical plant, used as a purgative and lubricant. [origin uncertain]
Castor sugar n. Finely granulated white sugar.
Castrate v. (-ting) 1 remove the testicles of; geld. 2 deprive of vigour. castration n. [latin castro]
Castrato n. (pl. -ti) hist. Castrated male soprano or alto singer. [italian: related to *castrate]
Casual —adj. 1 accidental; chance. 2 not regular or permanent (casual work). 3 a unconcerned. B careless; unthinking. 4 (of clothes) informal. —n. 1 casual worker. 2 (usu. In pl.) Casual clothes or shoes. casually adv. Casualness n. [french and latin: related to *case1]
Casualty n. (pl. -ies) 1 person killed or injured in a war or accident. 2 thing lost or destroyed. 3 = casualty department. 4 accident, mishap. [medieval latin: related to casual]
Casualty department n. Part of a hospital where casualties are dealt with.
Casuist n. 1 person who uses clever but false reasoning in matters of conscience etc. 2 sophist, quibbler. casuistic adj. Casuistry n. [latin: related to *case1]
Cat n. 1 small soft-furred four-legged domesticated animal. 2 wild animal of the same family, e.g. Lion, tiger. 3 colloq. Malicious or spiteful woman. 4 = *cat-o’-nine-tails. the cat’s whiskers colloq. Excellent person or thing. Let the cat out of the bag reveal a secret. Like a cat on hot bricks very agitated. Put (or set) the cat among the pigeons cause trouble. Rain cats and dogs rain hard. [latin cattus]
Cata-prefix 1 down. 2 wrongly. [greek]
Catabolism n. Breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to release energy; destructive metabolism. catabolic adj. [greek katabole throwing down]
Catachresis n. (pl. -chreses) incorrect use of words. catachrestic adj. [greek khraomai use]
Cataclysm n. 1 a violent upheaval or disaster. B great change. 2 great flood. cataclysmic adj. [greek kluzo wash]
Catacomb n. (often in pl.) Underground cemetery, esp. Roman. [french from latin]
Catafalque n. Decorated bier, used esp. In state funerals or for lying in state. [french from italian]
Catalan —n. Native or language of catalonia in spain. —adj. Of catalonia. [french from spanish]
Catalepsy n. Trance or seizure with unconsciousness and rigidity of the body. cataleptic adj. & n. [greek lepsis seizure]
Catalog (brit. Catalogue) —n. 1 complete alphabetical or otherwise ordered list of items, often with a description of each. 2 extensive list (catalog of disasters). —v. (-logs, -loged, -loging; brit. -logues, -logued, -loguing) 1 make a catalog of. 2 enter in a catalog. [greek lego choose]
Catalogue (us catalog) —n. 1 complete alphabetical or otherwise ordered list of items, often with a description of each. 2 extensive list (catalogue of disasters). —v. (-logues, -logued, -loguing; us -logs, -loged, -loging) 1 make a catalogue of. 2 enter in a catalogue. [greek lego choose]
Catalpa n. Tree with long pods and showy flowers. [n. American indian]
Catalyse v. (us -yze) (-sing or -zing) produce (a reaction) by catalysis.
Catalysis n. (pl. -lyses) acceleration of a chemical reaction by a catalyst. [greek luo set free]
Catalyst n. 1 substance that does not itself change, but speeds up a chemical reaction. 2 person or thing that precipitates change.
Catalytic adj. Of or involving catalysis.
Catalytic converter n. Device incorporated in a vehicle’s exhaust system, with a catalyst for converting pollutant gases into harmless products.
Catalyze v. (brit. -yse) produce (a reaction) by catalysis.
Catamaran n. 1 boat with parallel twin hulls. 2 raft of yoked logs or boats. [tamil]
Catamite n. Passive partner (esp. A boy) in homosexual practices. [latin, = ganymede]
Cat-and-dog adj. (of a relationship etc.) Quarrelsome.
Catapult —n. 1 forked stick etc. With elastic for shooting stones. 2 mil hist. Machine for hurling large stones etc. 3 device for launching a glider etc. —v. 1 a hurl from or launch with a catapult. B fling forcibly. 2 leap or be hurled forcibly. [latin from greek]
Cataract n. 1 a large waterfall. B downpour; rush of water. 2 eye condition in which the lens becomes progressively opaque. [greek katarrhaktes, = down-rushing]
Catarrh n. 1 inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nose, air-passages, etc. 2 mucus caused by this. catarrhal adj. [greek rheo flow]
Catastrophe n. 1 great and usu. Sudden disaster. 2 denouement of a drama. catastrophic adj. Catastrophically adv. [greek strepho turn]
Catatonia n. 1 schizophrenia with intervals of catalepsy and sometimes violence. 2 catalepsy. catatonic adj. & n. [greek: related to cata-, tone]
Cat burglar n. Burglar who enters by climbing to an upper storey.
Catcall —n. Shrill whistle of disapproval. —v. Make a catcall.
Catch —v. (past and past part. Caught) 1 capture in a trap, one’s hands, etc. 2 detect or surprise (esp. A guilty person). 3 a intercept and hold (a moving thing) in the hands etc. B cricket dismiss (a batsman) by catching the ball before it reaches the ground. 4 a contract (a disease) from an infected person. B acquire (a quality etc.) From another. 5 a reach in time and board (a train, bus, etc.). B be in time to see etc. (a person or thing about to leave or finish). 6 apprehend with the senses or mind (esp. A thing occurring quickly or briefly). 7 (of an artist etc.) Reproduce faithfully. 8 a (cause to) become fixed, entangled, or checked. B (often foll. By on) hit, deal a blow to (caught his elbow on the table). 9 draw the
attention of; captivate (caught his eye; caught her fancy). 10 begin to burn. 11 reach or overtake (a person etc. Ahead). 12 (foll. By at) try to grasp. —n. 1 a act of catching. B cricket etc. Chance or act of catching the ball. 2 a amount of a thing caught, esp. Of fish. B thing or person caught or worth catching, esp. In marriage. 3 a question, trick, etc., intended to deceive, incriminate, etc. B unexpected or hidden difficulty or disadvantage. 4 device for fastening a door or window etc. 5 mus. Round, esp. With words arranged to produce a humorous effect. catch fire see *fire. Catch hold of grasp, seize. Catch it slang be punished. Catch on colloq. 1 become popular. 2 understand what is meant. Catch out 1 detect in a mistake etc. 2 take unawares. 3 = sense 3b of v. Catch up 1 a (often foll. By with) reach a person etc. Ahead (caught us up; caught up with us). B (often foll. By with, on) make up arrears. 2 pick up hurriedly. 3 (often in passive) a involve; entangle (caught up in crime). B fasten up (hair caught up in a ribbon). [latin capto try to catch]
Catch-all n. (often attrib.) Thing designed to be all-inclusive.
Catch-as-catch-can n. Wrestling with few holds barred.
Catching adj. (of a disease, practice, etc.) Infectious.
Catchline n. Short line of type, esp. At the head of copy or as a running headline.
Catchment n. Collection of rainfall.
Catchment area n. 1 area served by a school, hospital, etc. 2 area from which rainfall flows into a river etc.
Catchpenny attrib. Adj. Intended merely to sell quickly; superficially attractive.
Catch-phrase n. Phrase in frequent use.
Catch-22 n. (often attrib.) Colloq. Unresolvable situation containing conflicting or mutually dependent conditions.
Catchweight —adj. Unrestricted as regards weight. —n. Unrestricted weight category in sports.
Catchword n. 1 phrase, word, or slogan in frequent current use. 2 word so placed as to draw attention.
Catchy adj. (-ier, -iest) (of a tune) easy to remember, attractive.
Cat door var. Of *cat flap.
Catechism n. 1 a principles of a religion in the form of questions and answers. B book containing this. 2 series of questions. [church latin: related to *catechize]
Catechist n. Religious teacher, esp. One using a catechism.
Catechize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) instruct by using a catechism. [greek katekheo cause to hear]
katekheo cause to hear]
Catechumen n. Christian convert under instruction before baptism. [church latin catechumenus]
Categorical adj. Unconditional, absolute; explicit. categorically adv. [related to *category]
Categorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) place in a category. categorization n.
Category n. (pl. -ies) class or division (of things, ideas, etc.). [greek, = statement]
Cater v. 1 supply food. 2 (foll. By for) provide what is needed or desired (caters for all tastes). 3 (foll. By to) pander to (esp. Low tastes). [anglo-french acatour buyer, from latin capto: related to *catch]
Caterer n. Professional supplier of food for social events.
Caterpillar n. 1 larva of a butterfly or moth. 2 (caterpillar) a (in full caterpillar track or tread) propr. Steel band passing round the wheels of a tractor etc. For travel on rough ground. B vehicle with these. [anglo-french, = hairy cat]
Caterwaul —v. Make the shrill howl of a cat. —n. This noise. [from *cat, -waul imitative]
Catfish n. (pl. Same) freshwater fish with whisker-like barbels round the mouth.
Cat flap n. (also cat door) small swinging flap in an outer door, for a cat to pass in and out.
Catgut n. Material used for the strings of musical instruments and surgical sutures, made of intestines of the sheep, horse, etc. (but not cat).
Catharsis n. (pl. Catharses) 1 emotional release in drama or art. 2 psychol. Freeing and elimination of repressed emotion. 3 emptying of the bowels. [greek katharos clean]
Cathedral n. Principal church of a diocese. [greek kathedra seat]
Catherine wheel n. Flat coiled firework spinning when lit. [st catherine, who was martyred on a spiked wheel]
Catheter n. Tube inserted into a body cavity for introducing or removing fluid. [greek kathiemi send down]
Cathode n. Electr. 1 negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. 2 positive terminal
of a battery etc. [greek kathodos way down]
Cathode ray n. Beam of electrons from the cathode of a vacuum tube.
Cathode-ray tube n. Vacuum tube in which cathode rays produce a luminous image on a fluorescent screen.
Catholic —adj. 1 all-embracing; of wide sympathies or interests. 2 of interest or use to all; universal. 3 (catholic) a roman catholic. B including all christians, or all of the western church. —n. (catholic) roman catholic. catholicism n. Catholicity n. [greek holos whole]
Cation n. Positively charged ion. cationic adj. [from cata-, ion]
Catkin n. Small spike of usu. Hanging flowers on a willow, hazel, etc. [dutch, = kitten]
Catlick n. Colloq. Perfunctory wash.
Catmint n. Pungent plant attractive to cats.
Catnap —n. Short sleep. —v. (-pp-) have a catnap.
Catnip n. = catmint. [from cat, dial. Nip catmint]
Cat-o’-nine-tails n. Hist. Whip with nine knotted lashes.
Cat’s cradle n. Child’s game of forming patterns from a loop of string.
Cat’s-eye n. Propr. Reflector stud set into a road.
Cat’s-eye n. Precious stone.
Cat’s-paw n. 1 person used as a tool by another. 2 slight breeze.
Catsuit n. Close-fitting garment with trouser legs, covering the whole body.
Catsup us var. Of *ketchup.
Cattery n. (pl. -ies) place where cats are boarded or bred.
Cattle n.pl. Large ruminant animals with horns and cloven hoofs, esp. Bred for milk or meat. [anglo-french catel: related to *capital]
Cattle-grid n. Grid over a ditch, allowing people and vehicles but not livestock to pass over.
Catty adj. (-ier, -iest) spiteful. cattily adv. Cattiness n.
Catwalk n. Narrow footway or platform.
Caucasian —adj. 1 of the white or light-skinned race. 2 of the caucasus. —n. Caucasian person. [caucasus in georgia]
Caucasoid adj. Of caucasians.
Caucus n. (pl. -es) 1 us meeting of party members, esp. In the senate etc., to decide policy. 2 often derog. A meeting of a group within a larger organization or party. B such a group. [perhaps from algonquian]
Caudal adj. 1 of or like a tail. 2 of the posterior part of the body. [latin cauda tail]
Caudate adj. Tailed.
Caught past and past part. Of *catch.
Caul n. 1 membrane enclosing a foetus. 2 part of this occasionally found on a child’s head at birth. [french]
Cauldron n. (also caldron) large deep vessel used for boiling. [latin caldarium hot bath]
Cauliflower n. Cabbage with a large white flower-head. [french chou fleuri flowered cabbage]
Cauliflower ear n. Ear thickened by repeated blows.
Caulk v. (also calk) 1 stop up (the seams of a boat etc.). 2 make (esp. A boat) watertight. [latin calco tread]
Causal adj. 1 of or forming a cause. 2 relating to cause and effect. causally adv.
Causality n. 1 relation of cause and effect. 2 principle that everything has a cause.
Causation n. 1 act of causing. 2 = *causality.
Causative adj. Acting as or expressing a cause.
Cause —n. 1 a thing that produces an effect. B person or thing that occasions or produces something. C reason or motive. 2 adequate reason (show cause). 3 principle, belief, or purpose. 4 a matter to be settled at law. B case offered at law (plead a cause). —v. (-sing) be the cause of, produce, make happen. [latin causa]
Cause célèbre n. (pl. Causes célèbres pronunc. Same) lawsuit that attracts much interest. [french]
Causerie n. (pl. -s pronunc. Same) informal article or talk. [french]
Causeway n. 1 raised road across low ground or water. 2 raised path by a road. [anglo-french caucée from latin *calx]
Cauterize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) burn (tissue), esp. To stop bleeding. [french: related to *caustic]
Caution —n. 1 attention to safety; prudence, carefulness. 2 a law warning, esp. A formal one. B warning and reprimand. 3 colloq. Amusing or surprising person or thing. —v. 1 warn or admonish. 2 issue a caution to. [latin caveo take heed]
Cautionary adj. Giving or serving as a warning.
Cautious adj. Having or showing caution. cautiously adv. Cautiousness n.
Cavalcade n. Procession or assembly of riders, vehicles, etc. [italian: related to *chevalier]
Cavalier —n. 1 hist. (cavalier) supporter of charles i in the civil war. 2 courtly gentleman. 3 archaic horseman. —adj. Offhand, supercilious, curt. [related to *cavalcade]
Cavalry n. (pl. -ies) (usu. Treated as pl.) Soldiers on horseback or in armoured vehicles. [related to *cavalcade]
Cave —n. Large hollow in the side of a cliff, hill, etc., or underground. —v. (-ving) explore caves. cave in 1 (cause to) subside or collapse. 2 yield, give up. [latin cavus hollow]
Caveat n. 1 warning, proviso. 2 law process in court to suspend proceedings. [latin, = let him beware]
Caveat emptor n. Principle that the buyer alone is responsible if dissatisfied. [latin, = let the buyer beware]
Caveman n. 1 prehistoric person living in caves. 2 crude person.
Cavern n. Cave, esp. A large or dark one. cavernous adj. [latin caverna: related to *cave]
Caviar n. (brit. Caviare) pickled roe of sturgeon or other large fish. [italian from
Caviar n. (brit. Caviare) pickled roe of sturgeon or other large fish. [italian from turkish]
Caviare n. (us caviar) pickled roe of sturgeon or other large fish. [italian from turkish]
Cavil —v. (-ll-, us -l-) (usu. Foll. By at, about) make petty objections; carp. —n. Petty objection. [latin cavillor]
Cavity n. (pl. -ies) 1 hollow within a solid body. 2 decayed part of a tooth. [latin: related to *cave]
Cavity wall n. Double wall with a space between.
Cavort v. Caper excitedly. [origin uncertain]
Cavy n. (pl. -ies) small s. American rodent, esp. The guinea pig. [latin from galibi]
Caw —n. Harsh cry of a rook, crow, etc. —v. Utter this cry. [imitative]
Cayenne n. (in full cayenne pepper) powdered red pepper. [tupi]
Cayman n. (also caiman) (pl. -s) s. American alligator-like reptile. [spanish and
Cayman n. (also caiman) (pl. -s) s. American alligator-like reptile. [spanish and portuguese from carib]
Cb abbr. 1 citizens’ band. 2 companion of the order of the bath.
Cbe abbr. Commander of the order of the british empire.
Cbi abbr. Confederation of british industry.
Cc abbr. (also c.c.) 1 cubic centimetre(s). 2 copy or copies (to).
Cd abbr. 1 compact disc. 2 civil defence. 3 corps diplomatique.
Cd symb. Cadmium.
Cd abbr. Candela.
Cd-rom abbr. Compact disc read-only memory (for the retrieval of text or data on a vdu screen).
Cdt abbr. Craft, design, and technology.
Cd-video n. (pl. -s) 1 system of simultaneously reproducing high-quality sound
Cd-video n. (pl. -s) 1 system of simultaneously reproducing high-quality sound and video pictures from a compact disc. 2 such a compact disc.
Ce symb. Cerium.
Cease formal —v. (-sing) stop; bring or come to an end. —n. (in without cease) unending. [latin cesso]
Cease-fire n. 1 period of truce. 2 order to stop firing.
Ceaseless adj. Without end. ceaselessly adv.
Cecum n. (brit. Caecum) (pl. -ca) blind-ended pouch at the junction of the small and large intestines. [latin caecus blind]
Cedar n. 1 spreading evergreen conifer. 2 its hard fragrant wood. [greek kedros]
Cede v. (-ding) formal give up one’s rights to or possession of. [latin cedo cess-yield]
Cedilla n. 1 mark written under c, esp. In french, to show it is sibilant (as in façade). 2 similar mark under s in turkish etc. [spanish diminutive of zeda z]
Ceefax n. Propr. Teletext service provided by the bbc. [representing a
Ceefax n. Propr. Teletext service provided by the bbc. [representing a pronunciation of seeing + facsimile]
Ceilidh n. Informal gathering for music, dancing, etc. [gaelic]
Ceiling n. 1 upper interior surface of a room or other compartment. 2 upper limit. 3 maximum altitude a given aircraft can reach. [origin uncertain]
Celandine n. Yellow-flowered plant. [greek khelidon a swallow]
Celebrant n. Person who performs a rite, esp. The priest at the eucharist.
Celebrate v. (-ting) 1 mark with or engage in festivities. 2 perform (a rite or ceremony). 3 praise publicly. celebration n. Celebrator n. Celebratory adj. [latin celeber renowned]
Celebrity n. (pl. -ies) 1 well-known person. 2 fame. [latin: related to *celebrate]
Celeriac n. Variety of celery. [from *celery]
Celerity n. Archaic or literary swiftness. [latin celer swift]
Celery n. Plant with crisp long whitish leaf-stalks used as a vegetable. [greek selinon parsley]
Celesta n. Small keyboard instrument with steel plates struck to give a bell-like sound. [french: related to *celestial]
Celestial adj. 1 of the sky or heavenly bodies. 2 heavenly; divinely good; sublime. [latin caelum sky]
Celestial equator n. The great circle of the sky in the plane perpendicular to the earth’s axis.
Celestial sphere n. Imaginary sphere, of any radius, of which the observer is the centre and in which celestial bodies are represented as lying.
Celibate —adj. 1 unmarried or committed to sexual abstention, esp. For religious reasons. 2 having no sexual relations. —n. Celibate person. celibacy n. [latin caelebs unmarried]
Cell n. 1 small room, esp. In a prison or monastery. 2 small compartment, e.g. In a honeycomb. 3 small, active, esp. Subversive, political group. 4 a smallest structural and functional unit of living matter, consisting of cytoplasm and a nucleus enclosed in a membrane. B enclosed cavity in an organism etc. 5 vessel containing electrodes for current-generation or electrolysis. [latin cella]
Cellar —n. 1 storage room below ground level in a house. 2 stock of wine in a cellar. —v. Store in a cellar. [latin cellarium: related to *cell]
Cello n. (pl. -s) bass instrument of the violin family, held between the legs of the seated player. cellist n. [abbreviation of *violoncello]
seated player. cellist n. [abbreviation of *violoncello]
Cellular adj. Consisting of cells, of open texture; porous. cellularity n. [french: related to *cell]
Cellular radio n. System of mobile radio-telephone transmission with an area divided into ‘cells’, each served by a small transmitter.
Cellulite n. Lumpy fat, esp. On the hips and thighs of women. [french: related to *cell]
Celluloid n. 1 plastic made from camphor and cellulose nitrate. 2 cinema film.
Cellulose n. 1 carbohydrate forming plant-cell walls, used in textile fibres. 2 (in general use) paint or lacquer consisting of esp. Cellulose acetate or nitrate in solution. [latin: related to *cell]
Celsius adj. Of a scale of temperature on which water freezes at 0° and boils at 100°. [name of an astronomer]
Usage see note at centigrade.
Celt n. (also kelt) member of an ethnic group, including the inhabitants of ireland, wales, scotland, cornwall, and brittany. [latin from greek]
Celtic —adj. Of the celts. —n. Group of celtic languages, including gaelic and irish, welsh, cornish, and breton.
Cement —n. 1 powdery substance of calcined lime and clay, mixed with water to form mortar or used in concrete. 2 similar substance. 3 uniting factor or principle. 4 substance used in filling teeth, doing hip replacements, etc. —v. 1 a unite with or as with cement. B establish or strengthen (a friendship etc.). 2 apply cement to. 3 line or cover with cement. cementation n. [latin caedo cut]
Cemetery n. (pl. -ies) burial ground, esp. One not in a churchyard. [greek koimao put to sleep]
Cenobite n. (brit. Coenobite) member of a monastica community. [greek koinos bios common life]
Cenotaph n. Tomblike monument to a person whose body is elsewhere. [greek kenos empty, taphos tomb]
Cenozoic (also cainozoic, caenozoic) —adj. Of the most recent geological era, marked by the evolution and development of mammals etc. —n. This era. [greek kainos new, zoion animal]
Censer n. Vessel for burning incense. [anglo-french: related to *incense1]
Censor —n. Official authorized to suppress or expurgate books, films, news, etc., on grounds of obscenity, threat to security, etc. —v. 1 act as a censor of. 2 make deletions or changes in. censorial adj. Censorship n. [latin censeo assess]
Usage as a verb, censor is often confused with censure.
Censure —v. (-ring) criticize harshly; reprove. —n. Hostile criticism; disapproval. [latin: related to *censor]
Usage as a verb, censure is often confused with censor.
Census n. (pl. -suses) official count of population etc. [latin: related to *censor]
Cent n. 1 a one-hundredth of a dollar or other decimal currency unit. B coin of this value. 2 colloq. Very small amount. [latin centum 100]
Centaur n. Creature in greek mythology with the upper half of a man and the lower half of a horse. [latin from greek]
Centenarian —n. Person a hundred or more years old. —adj. A hundred or more
Centenarian —n. Person a hundred or more years old. —adj. A hundred or more years old.
Centenary —n. (pl. -ies) 1 hundredth anniversary. 2 celebration of this. —adj. 1 of a centenary. 2 occurring every hundred years. [latin centeni 100 each]
Centennial —adj. 1 lasting for a hundred years. 2 occurring every hundred years. —n. Us = centenary n. [latin centum 100: cf. biennial]
Center (brit. Centre) —n. 1 middle point. 2 pivot or axis of rotation. 3 a place or buildings forming a central point or a main area for an activity (shopping centre; town centre). B (with a preceding word) equipment for a number of connected functions (music centre). 4 point of concentration or dispersion; nucleus, source. 5 political party or group holding moderate opinions. 6 filling in chocolate etc. 7 sport a middle player in a line in some field games. B kick or hit from the side to the centre of a pitch. 8 (attrib.) Of or at the centre. —v. (-ring) 1 (foll. By in, on, round) have as its main centre. 2 place in the centre. 3 (foll. By in etc.) Concentrate. [greek kentron sharp point]
Centerboard n. (brit. Centreboard) board lowered through a boat’s keel to prevent leeway.
Centerfold n. (brit. Centrefold) centre spread of a magazine etc., esp. With nude photographs.
Centesimal adj. Reckoning or reckoned by hundredths. [latin centum 100]
Centi-comb. Form 1 one-hundredth. 2 hundred. [latin centum 100]
Centi-comb. Form 1 one-hundredth. 2 hundred. [latin centum 100]
Centigrade adj. 1 = *celsius. 2 having a scale of a hundred degrees. [latin gradus step]
Usage in sense 1, celsius is usually preferred in technical contexts.
Centigram n. (also centigramme) metric unit of mass, equal to 0.01 gram.
Centiliter n. (brit. Centilitre) 0.01 litre.
Centilitre n. (us centiliter) 0.01 litre.
Centime n. 1 one-hundredth of a franc. 2 coin of this value. [latin centum 100]
Centimeter n. (brit. Centimetre) 0.01 metre.
Centimetre n. (us centimeter) 0.01 metre.
Centipede n. Arthropod with a segmented wormlike body and many legs. [latin pes ped-foot]
Central adj. 1 of, at, or forming the centre. 2 from the centre. 3 chief, essential,
Central adj. 1 of, at, or forming the centre. 2 from the centre. 3 chief, essential, most important. centrality n. Centrally adv.
Central bank n. National bank issuing currency etc.
Central heating n. Method of heating a building by pipes, radiators, etc., fed from a central source.
Centralism n. System that centralizes (esp. Administration). centralist n.
Centralize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 concentrate (esp. Administration) at a single centre. 2 subject (a state) to this system. centralization n.
Central nervous system n. Brain and spinal cord.
Central processor n. (also central processing unit) principal operating part of a computer.
Centre (us center) —n. 1 middle point. 2 pivot or axis of rotation. 3 a place or buildings forming a central point or a main area for an activity (shopping centre; town centre). B (with a preceding word) equipment for a number of connected functions (music centre). 4 point of concentration or dispersion; nucleus, source. 5 political party or group holding moderate opinions. 6 filling in chocolate etc. 7 sport a middle player in a line in some field games. B kick or hit from the side to the centre of a pitch. 8 (attrib.) Of or at the centre. —v. (-ring) 1 (foll. By in, on, round) have as its main centre. 2 place in the centre. 3 (foll. By in etc.) Concentrate. [greek kentron sharp point]
Usage the use of the verb in sense 1 with round is common and used by good writers, but is still considered incorrect by some people.
Centre back n. Sport middle player or position in a half-back line.
Centreboard n. (us centerboard) board lowered through a boat’s keel to prevent leeway.
Centrefold n. (us centerfold) centre spread of a magazine etc., esp. With nude photographs.
Centre forward n. Sport middle player or position in a forward line.
Centre half n. = *centre back.
Centre of gravity n. (also centre of mass) point at which the weight of a body may be considered to act.
Centre-piece n. 1 ornament for the middle of a table. 2 principal item.
Centre spread n. Two facing middle pages of a newspaper etc.
Centric adj. 1 at or near the centre. 2 from a centre. centrical adj. Centrically adv.
Centrifugal adj. Moving or tending to move from a centre. centrifugally adv. [from *centre, latin fugio flee]
Centrifugal force n. Apparent force that acts outwards on a body moving about a centre.
Centrifuge n. Rapidly rotating machine designed to separate liquids from solids etc.
Centripetal adj. Moving or tending to move towards a centre. centripetally adv. [latin peto seek]
Centripetal force n. Force acting on a body causing it to move towards a centre.
Centrist n. Polit. Often derog. Person holding moderate views. centrism n.
Centurion n. Commander of a century in the ancient roman army. [latin: related to *century]
Century n. (pl. -ies) 1 a 100 years. B any century reckoned from the birth of christ (twentieth century = 1901–2000; fifth century bc = 500–401 bc). 2 score etc. Of 100 esp. By one batsman in cricket. 3 company in the ancient roman army, orig. Of 100 men. [latin centuria: related to *cent]
Usage strictly speaking, since the first century ran from the year 1 to 100, the first year of a given century should be that ending in 01. However, in popular use this has been moved back a year, and so the twenty-first century will commonly be regarded as running from 2000–2099.
Cephalic adj. Of or in the head. [greek kephale head]
Cephalopod n. Mollusc with a distinct tentacled head, e.g. The octopus. [from *cephalic, greek pous pod-foot]
Ceramic —adj. 1 made of (esp.) Baked clay. 2 of ceramics. —n. Ceramic article or product. [greek keramos pottery]
Ceramics n.pl. 1 ceramic products collectively. 2 (usu. Treated as sing.) Art of making ceramic articles.
Cereal —n. 1 a grain used for food. B wheat, maize, rye, etc. Producing this. 2 breakfast food made from a cereal. —adj. Of edible grain. [latin ceres goddess of agriculture]
Cerebellum n. (pl. -s or -bella) part of the brain at the back of the skull. [latin diminutive of *cerebrum]
Cerebral adj. 1 of the brain. 2 intellectual; unemotional. [related to *cerebrum]
Cerebral palsy n. Paralysis resulting from brain damage before or at birth,
Cerebral palsy n. Paralysis resulting from brain damage before or at birth, involving spasm of the muscles and involuntary movements.
Cerebration n. Working of the brain.
Cerebrospinal adj. Of the brain and spine.
Cerebrum n. (pl. -bra) principal part of the brain in vertebrates, at the front of the skull. [latin]
Ceremonial —adj. Of or with ceremony; formal. —n. System of rites or ceremonies. ceremonially adv.
Ceremonious adj. Fond of or characterized by ceremony; formal. ceremoniously adv.
Ceremony n. (pl. -ies) 1 formal procedure, esp. At a public event or anniversary. 2 formalities, esp. Ritualistic. 3 excessively polite behaviour. stand on ceremony insist on formality. [latin caerimonia worship]
Cerise n. Light clear red. [french: related to *cherry]
Cerium n. Silvery metallic element of the lanthanide series. [ceres, name of an asteroid]
Cern abbr. European organization for nuclear research. [french conseil européen pour la recherche nucléaire, former title]
Cert n. (esp. Dead cert) slang a certainty. [abbreviation]
Cert. Abbr. 1 certificate. 2 certified.
Cern abbr. European organization for nuclear research. [french conseil européen pour la recherche nucléaire, former title]
Cert n. (esp. Dead cert) slang a certainty. [abbreviation]
Cert. Abbr. 1 certificate. 2 certified.
Certain —adj. 1 a confident, convinced. B indisputable (it is certain that he is guilty). 2 (often foll. By to + infin.) Sure; destined (it is certain to rain; certain to win). 3 unerring, reliable. 4 that need not be specified or may not be known to the reader or hearer (of a certain age; a certain john smith). 5 some but not much (a certain reluctance). —pron. (as pl.) Some but not all (certain of them knew). for certain without doubt. [latin certus]
Certainly adv. 1 undoubtedly. 2 (in answer) yes; by all means.
Certainty n. (pl. -ies) 1 a undoubted fact. B indubitable prospect. 2 absolute conviction. 3 reliable thing or person.
Cert. Ed. Abbr. Certificate in education.
Certifiable adj. 1 able or needing to be certified. 2 colloq. Insane.
Certificate —n. Formal document attesting a fact, esp. Birth, marriage, or death, a medical condition, or a qualification. —v. (-ting) (esp. As certificated adj.) Provide with, license, or attest by a certificate. certification n. [latin: related to *certify]
Certificate of secondary education n. Hist. Secondary-school leaving examination in england, wales, and northern ireland.
Usage this examination was replaced in 1988 by the general certificate of secondary education (gcse).
Certified cheque n. Cheque guaranteed by a bank.
Certify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 attest; attest to, esp. Formally. 2 declare by certificate. 3 officially declare insane. [latin certus]
Certitude n. Feeling of certainty. [latin: related to *certain]
Cerulean adj. & n. Literary deep sky-blue. [latin caeruleus]
Cervical adj. Of the neck or the cervix (cervical vertebrae). [related to *cervix]
Cervical screening n. Mass routine examination for cervical cancer.
Cervical smear n. Specimen from the neck of the womb for examination.
Cervix n. (pl. Cervices) 1 necklike structure, esp. The neck of the womb. 2 the neck. [latin]
Cesarean (brit. Caesarean) —adj. (of birth) effected by caesarean section. —n. Caesarean section. [from *caesar: julius caesar was supposedly born this way]
Cesium n. (brit. Caesium) soft silver-white element. [latin caesius blue-grey]
Cessation n. Ceasing or pause. [latin: related to *cease]
Cession n. 1 ceding. 2 territory etc. Ceded. [latin: related to *cede]
Cesspit n. (also cesspool) covered pit for the temporary storage of liquid waste or sewage. [origin uncertain]
Cetacean —n. Marine mammal, e.g. The whale. —adj. Of cetaceans. [greek ketos whale]
Cetane n. Liquid hydrocarbon used in standardizing ratings of diesel fuel. [from *spermaceti]
Cf symb. Californium.
Cf. Abbr. Compare. [latin confer]
Cfc abbr. Chlorofluorocarbon, a usu. Gaseous compound of carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, and fluorine, used in refrigerants, aerosol propellants, etc., and thought to harm the ozone layer.
Cfe abbr. College of further education.
Cg abbr. Centigram(s).
Ch abbr. Companion of honour.
Chablis n. (pl. Same) very dry white wine from chablis in e. France.
Cha-cha n. (also cha-cha-cha) 1 latin-american dance. 2 music for this. [american spanish]
[american spanish]
Chaconne n. 1 musical variations over a ground bass. 2 dance performed to this. [french from spanish]
Chafe —v. (-fing) 1 make or become sore or damaged by rubbing. 2 make or become annoyed; fret. 3 rub (esp. The skin to restore warmth or sensation). —n. Sore caused by rubbing. [latin calefacio make warm]
Chaff —n. 1 separated husks of corn etc. 2 chopped hay or straw. 3 light-hearted teasing. 4 worthless things. —v. Tease, banter. [old english]
Chaffinch n. A common european finch. [old english: related to chaff, finch]
Chafing-dish n. Vessel in which food is cooked or kept warm at table.
Chagrin —n. Acute annoyance or disappointment. —v. Affect with chagrin. [french]
Chain —n. 1 a connected flexible series of esp. Metal links. B thing resembling this. 2 (in pl.) Fetters; restraining force. 3 sequence, series, or set. 4 group of associated hotels, shops, etc. 5 badge of office in the form of a chain worn round the neck. 6 unit of length (66 ft). —v. (often foll. By up) secure or confine with a chain. [latin catena]
Chain-gang n. Hist. Team of convicts chained together to work out of doors.
Chain-mail n. Armour made of interlaced rings.
Chain reaction n. 1 chemical or nuclear reaction forming products which initiate further reactions. 2 series of events, each caused by the previous one.
Chain-saw n. Motor-driven saw with teeth on an endless chain.
Chain-smoke v. Smoke continually, esp. By lighting the next cigarette etc. From the previous one. chain-smoker n.
Chain store n. One of a series of similar shops owned by one firm.
Chair —n. 1 seat for one person usu. With a back. 2 professorship. 3 a chairperson. B seat or office of a chairperson. 4 us = *electric chair. —v. 1 preside over (a meeting). 2 carry (a person) aloft in triumph. take the chair preside over a meeting. [greek kathedra]
Chair-lift n. Series of chairs on a looped cable, for carrying passengers up and down a mountain etc.
Chairman n. (fem. Also chairwoman) 1 person chosen to preside over a meeting. 2 permanent president of a committee, board of directors, etc.
Chairperson n. Chairman or chairwoman.
Chairperson n. Chairman or chairwoman.
Chaise n. Esp. Hist. Horse-drawn usu. Open carriage for one or two persons. [french]
Chaise longue n. (pl. Chaise longues or chaises longues pronunc. Same) sofa with only one arm rest. [french, = long chair]
Chalcedony n. (pl. -ies) type of quartz with many varieties, e.g. Onyx. [latin from greek]
Chalet n. 1 swiss mountain hut or cottage with overhanging eaves. 2 house in a similar style. 3 small cabin in a holiday camp etc. [swiss french]
Chalice n. 1 goblet. 2 eucharistic cup. [latin *calix]
Chalk —n. 1 white soft limestone. 2 a similar substance, sometimes coloured, for writing or drawing. B piece of this. —v. 1 rub, mark, draw, or write with chalk. 2 (foll. By up) a write or record with chalk. B register or gain (success etc.). by a long chalk by far. chalky adj. (-ier, -iest). Chalkiness n. [latin *calx]
Challenge —n. 1 summons to take part in a contest etc. Or to prove or justify something. 2 demanding or difficult task. 3 objection made to a jury member. 4 call to respond. —v. (-ging) 1 issue a challenge to. 2 dispute, deny. 3 (as challenging adj.) Stimulatingly difficult. 4 object to (a jury member, evidence, etc.). challenger n. [latin calumnia calumny]
Chalybeate adj. (of water etc.) Impregnated with iron salts. [latin chalybs steel, from greek]
Chamber n. 1 a hall used by a legislative or judicial body. B body that meets in it, esp. Any of the houses of a parliament. 2 (in pl.) A rooms used by a barrister or barristers, esp. In inns of court. B judge’s room for hearing cases not needing to be taken in court. 3 archaic room, esp. A bedroom. 4 mus. (attrib.) Of or for a small group of instruments. 5 cavity or compartment in the body, machinery, etc. (esp. The part of a gun-bore that contains the charge). [greek kamara vault]
Chamberlain n. 1 officer managing a royal or noble household. 2 treasurer of a corporation etc. [germanic: related to *chamber]
Chambermaid n. Woman who cleans hotel bedrooms.
Chamber of commerce n. Association to promote local commercial interests.
Chamber-pot n. Receptacle for urine etc., used in the bedroom.
Chameleon n. 1 small lizard able to change colour for camouflage. 2 variable or inconstant person. [greek, = groundlion]
Chamfer —v. Bevel symmetrically (a right-angled edge or corner). —n. Bevelled surface at an edge or corner. [french chant edge, fraint broken]
Chamois n. (pl. Same) 1 agile european and asian mountain antelope. 2 (in full chamois leather) a soft leather from sheep, goats, deer, etc. B piece of this. [french]
Chamomile var. Of *camomile.
Champ1 —v. Munch or chew noisily. —n. Chewing noise. champ at the bit be restlessly impatient. [imitative]
Champ2 n. Slang champion. [abbreviation]
Champagne n. 1 a white sparkling wine from champagne. B similar wine from elsewhere. 2 pale cream colour. [champagne, former province in e. France]
Usage the use of this word in sense 1b is, strictly speaking, incorrect.
Champers n. Slang champagne.
Champion —n. 1 (often attrib.) Person or thing that has defeated or surpassed all rivals. 2 person who fights or argues for a cause or another person. —v. Support the cause of, defend. —adj. Colloq. Splendid. —adv. Colloq. Splendidly. [medieval latin campio fighter]
Championship n. 1 (often in pl.) Contest to decide the champion in a sport etc. 2 position of champion.
Chance —n. 1 possibility. 2 (often in pl.) Probability. 3 unplanned occurrence. 4 opportunity. 5 fortune; luck. 6 (often chance) course of events regarded as a power; fate. —attrib. Adj. Fortuitous, accidental. —v. (-cing) 1 colloq. Risk. 2 happen (i chanced to find it). by any chance perhaps. By chance fortuitously. Chance one’s arm try though unlikely to succeed. Chance on (or upon) happen to find, meet, etc. Game of chance one decided by luck, not skill. On the off chance just in case (the unlikely occurs). Stand a chance have a prospect of success etc. Take a chance (or chances) risk failure; behave riskily. Take a (or one’s) chance on (or with) risk the consequences of. [latin cado fall]
Chancel n. Part of a church near the altar. [latin cancelli grating]
Chancellery n. (pl. -ies) 1 chancellor’s department, staff, or residence. 2 us office attached to an embassy or consulate.
Chancellor n. 1 state or legal official. 2 head of government in some european countries. 3 non-resident honorary head of a university. [latin cancellarius secretary]
Chancellor of the exchequer n. Uk finance minister.
Chancery n. (pl. -ies) 1 (chancery) lord chancellor’s division of the high court of justice. 2 records office. 3 chancellery. [contraction of *chancellery]
Chandelier n. Ornamental branched hanging support for lighting. [french: related to *candle]
Chandler n. Dealer in candles, oil, soap, paint, etc. [french: related to *candle]
Change —n. 1 a making or becoming different. B alteration or modification. 2 a money exchanged for money in larger units or a different currency. B money returned as the balance of that given in payment. 3 new experience; variety (need a change). 4 substitution of one thing for another (change of scene). 5 (in full change of life) colloq. Menopause. 6 (usu. In pl.) One of the different orders in which bells can be rung. —v. (-ging) 1 undergo, show, or subject to change; make or become different. 2 a take or use another instead of; go from one to another (change one’s socks; changed trains). B (usu. Foll. By for) give up or get rid of in exchange (changed the car for a van). 3 give or get money in exchange for. 4 put fresh clothes or coverings on. 5 (often foll. By with) give and receive, exchange. 6 change trains etc. 7 (of the moon) arrive at a fresh phase. change down engage a lower gear. Change gear engage a different gear. Change hands 1 pass to a different owner. 2 substitute one hand for the other. Change one’s mind adopt a different opinion or plan. Change over change from one system or situation to another.
Changeable adj. 1 inconstant. 2 that can change or be changed.
Changeling n. Child believed to be substituted for another.
Change of clothes n. Second outfit in reserve.
Change of heart n. Conversion to a different view.
Change-over n. Change from one system to another.
Channel —n. 1 a piece of water wider than a strait, joining esp. Two seas. B (the channel) the english channel. 2 medium of communication; agency. 3 band of frequencies used in radio and television transmission, esp. By a particular station. 4 course in which anything moves. 5 a hollow bed of water. B navigable part of a waterway. 6 passage for liquid. 7 lengthwise strip on recording tape etc. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 guide, direct. 2 form channel(s) in. [latin: related to *canal]
Chant —n. 1 spoken singsong phrase. 2 a simple tune used for singing unmetrical words, e.g. Psalms. B song, esp. Monotonous or repetitive. —v. 1 talk or repeat monotonously. 2 sing or intone (a psalm etc.). [latin canto from cano sing]
Chanter n. Melody-pipe of bagpipes.
Chanticleer n. Name given to a domestic cock in stories. [french: related to *chant, *clear]
Chantry n. (pl. -ies) 1 endowment for the singing of masses. 2 priests, chapel, etc., so endowed. [french: related to *chant]
Chaos n. 1 utter confusion. 2 formless matter supposed to have existed before the creation of the universe. chaotic adj. Chaotically adv. [latin from greek]
Chap1 n. Colloq. Man, boy, fellow. [abbreviation of *chapman]
Chap1 n. Colloq. Man, boy, fellow. [abbreviation of *chapman]
Chap2 —v. (-pp-) 1 (esp. Of the skin) develop cracks or soreness. 2 (of the wind, cold, etc.) Cause to chap. —n. (usu. In pl.) Crack in the skin etc. [origin uncertain]
Chaparral n. Us dense tangled brushwood. [spanish]
Chapatti n. (also chapati, chupatty) (pl. Chapat(t)is or chupatties) flat thin cake of unleavened bread. [hindi]
Chapel n. 1 a place for private christian worship in a cathedral or large church, with its own altar. B this attached to a private house etc. 2 a place of worship for nonconformists. B chapel service. 3 members or branch of a printers’ trade union at a place of work. [medieval latin cappa cloak: the first chapel was a sanctuary in which st martin’s cloak (cappella) was preserved]
Chaperon —n. Person, esp. An older woman, ensuring propriety by accompanying a young unmarried woman on social occasions. —v. Act as chaperon to. chaperonage n. [french from chape cope: related to *cape1]
Chaplain n. Member of the clergy attached to a private chapel, institution, ship, regiment, etc. chaplaincy n. (pl. -ies). [latin: related to *chapel]
Chaplet n. 1 garland or circlet for the head. 2 short string of beads; rosary. [latin: related to *cap]
Chapman n. Hist. Pedlar. [old english: related to cheap, man]
Chappie n. Colloq. = *chap1.
Chapter n. 1 main division of a book. 2 period of time (in a person’s life etc.). 3 a canons of a cathedral or members of a religious community. B meeting of these. [latin diminutive of caput head]
Chapter and verse n. Exact reference or details.
Chapter of accidents n. Series of misfortunes.
Char1 v. (-rr-) 1 make or become black by burning; scorch. 2 burn to charcoal. [from *charcoal]
Char2 colloq. —n. = *charwoman. —v. (-rr-) work as a charwoman. [old english, = turn]
Char3 n. Slang tea. [chinese cha]
Char4 n. (pl. Same) a kind of small trout. [origin unknown]
Charabanc n. Hist. Early form of motor coach. [french char à bancs seated carriage]
carriage]
Character n. 1 collective qualities or characteristics that distinguish a person or thing. 2 a moral strength. B reputation, esp. Good reputation. 3 a person in a novel, play, etc. B part played by an actor; role. 4 colloq. Person, esp. An eccentric one. 5 printed or written letter, symbol, etc. 6 written description of a person’s qualities. 7 characteristic (esp. Of a biological species). in (or out of) character consistent (or inconsistent) with a person’s character. characterless adj. [greek kharakter]
Characterize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 a describe the character of. B (foll. By as) describe as. 2 be characteristic of. 3 impart character to. characterization n.
Charade n. 1 (usu. In pl., treated as sing.) Game of guessing a word from acted clues. 2 absurd pretence. [provençal charra chatter]
Charcoal n. 1 a form of carbon consisting of black residue from partially burnt wood etc. B piece of this for drawing. C a drawing in charcoal. 2 (in full charcoal grey) dark grey. [origin unknown]
Charge —v. (-ging) 1 a ask (an amount) as a price. B ask (a person) for an amount as a price. 2 a (foll. By to, up to) debit the cost of to (a person or account). B debit (a person or account). 3 a (often foll. By with) accuse (of an offence). B (foll. By that + clause) make an accusation that. 4 (foll. By to + infin.) Instruct or urge. 5 (foll. By with) entrust with. 6 make a rushing attack
(on). 7 (often foll. By up) a give an electric charge to. B store energy in (a battery). 8 (often foll. By with) load or fill (a vessel, gun, etc.) To the full or proper extent. 9 (usu. As charged adj.) A (foll. By with) saturated with. B (usu. Foll. By with) pervaded (with strong feelings etc.). —n. 1 a price asked for services or goods. B financial liability or commitment. 2 accusation. 3 a task, duty, commission. B care, custody. C person or thing entrusted. 4 a impetuous rush or attack, esp. In battle. B signal for this. 5 appropriate amount of material to be put into a receptacle, mechanism, etc. At one time, esp. Of explosive for a gun. 6 a property of matter causing electrical phenomena. B quantity of this carried by the body. C energy stored chemically for conversion into electricity. 7 exhortation; directions, orders. 8 heraldic device or bearing. in charge having command. Take charge (often foll. By of) assume control. chargeable adj. [latin carrus *car]
Charge-capping n. Imposition of an upper limit on the community charge leviable by a local authority.
Charge card n. = *credit card.
Chargé d’affaires n. (pl. Chargés pronunc. Same) 1 ambassador’s deputy. 2 envoy to a minor country. [french]
Charger n. 1 cavalry horse. 2 apparatus for charging a battery.
Chariot n. Hist. Two-wheeled vehicle drawn by horses, used in ancient warfare and racing. [french: related to *car]
Charioteer n. Chariot-driver.
Charisma n. 1 power to inspire or attract others; exceptional charm. 2 divinely conferred power or talent. charismatic adj. [greek kharis grace]
Charitable adj. 1 generous in giving to those in need. 2 of or relating to a charity or charities. 3 generous in judging others. charitably adv.
Charity n. (pl. -ies) 1 giving voluntarily to those in need. 2 organization set up to help those in need or for the common good. 3 a kindness, benevolence. B tolerance in judging others. C love of fellow men. [latin caritas from carus dear]
Charlady n. = *charwoman.
Charlatan n. Person falsely claiming knowledge or skill. charlatanism n. [italian, = babbler]
Charleston n. (also charleston) lively dance of the 1920s with side-kicks from the knee. [charleston in s. Carolina]
Charlotte n. Pudding of stewed fruit covered with bread etc. [french]
Charm —n. 1 power or quality of delighting, arousing admiration, or influencing; fascination, attractiveness. 2 trinket on a bracelet etc. 3 object, act, or word(s) supposedly having magic power. —v. 1 delight, captivate. 2 influence or protect as if by magic (a charmed life). 3 obtain or gain by charm (charmed his way into the bbc). charmer n. [latin carmen song]
Charming adj. Delightful. charmingly adv.
Charnel-house n. Repository of corpses or bones. [latin: related to *carnal]
Chart —n. 1 geographical map or plan, esp. For navigation. 2 sheet of information in the form of a table, graph, or diagram. 3 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Listing of the currently best-selling pop records. —v. Make a chart of, map. [latin charta: related to *card1]
Charter —n. 1 a document granting rights, issued esp. By a sovereign or legislature. B written constitution or description of an organization’s functions etc. 2 contract to hire an aircraft, ship, etc., for a special purpose. —v. 1 grant a charter to. 2 hire (an aircraft, ship, etc.). [latin chartula: related to *chart]
Chartered attrib. Adj. (of an accountant, engineer, librarian, etc.) Qualified member of a professional body that has a royal charter.
Charter flight n. Flight by chartered aircraft.
Chartism n. Hist. Uk parliamentary reform movement of 1837–48. chartist n. [from *charter: name taken from ‘people’s charter’]
Chartreuse n. Pale green or yellow brandy-based liqueur. [chartreuse, monastery in s. France]
Charwoman n. Woman employed as a cleaner in a house.
Charwoman n. Woman employed as a cleaner in a house.
Chary adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 cautious, wary. 2 sparing; ungenerous. [old english: related to *care]
Charybdis see *scylla and charybdis.
Chase1 —v. (-sing) 1 run after; pursue. 2 (foll. By from, out of, to, etc.) Force to run away or flee. 3 a (foll. By after) hurry in pursuit of. B (foll. By round etc.) Colloq. Act or move about hurriedly. 4 (usu. Foll. By up) colloq. Pursue (a thing overdue). 5 colloq. A try to attain. B court persistently. —n. 1 pursuit. 2 unenclosed hunting-land. 3 (prec. By the) hunting, esp. As a sport. [latin capto: related to *catch]
Chase2 v. (-sing) emboss or engrave (metal). [french: related to *case2]
Chaser n. 1 horse for steeplechasing. 2 colloq. Drink taken after another of a different kind.
Chasm n. 1 deep cleft or opening in the earth, rock, etc. 2 wide difference of feeling, interests, etc. [latin from greek]
Chassis n. (pl. Same) 1 base-frame of a motor vehicle, carriage, etc. 2 frame to carry radio etc. Components. [latin: related to *case2]
Chaste adj. 1 abstaining from extramarital, or from all, sexual intercourse. 2
Chaste adj. 1 abstaining from extramarital, or from all, sexual intercourse. 2 pure, virtuous. 3 simple, unadorned. chastely adv. Chasteness n. [latin castus]
Chasten v. 1 (esp. As chastening, chastened adjs.) Subdue, restrain. 2 discipline, punish.
Chastise v. (-sing) 1 rebuke severely. 2 punish, esp. By beating. chastisement n.
Chastity n. Being chaste.
Chasuble n. Loose sleeveless usu. Ornate outer vestment worn by a celebrant at mass or the eucharist. [latin casubla]
Chat —v. (-tt-) talk in a light familiar way. —n. 1 pleasant informal talk. 2 any of various songbirds. chat up colloq. Chat to, esp. Flirtatiously or with an ulterior motive. [shortening of *chatter]
Château n. (pl. -x) large french country house or castle. [french: related to *castle]
Chatelaine n. 1 mistress of a large house. 2 hist. Set of short chains attached to a woman’s belt, for carrying keys etc. [medieval latin castellanus: related to *castle]
Chatline n. Telephone service which sets up a conference call among youngsters.
Chat show n. Television or radio broadcast in which celebrities are interviewed informally.
Chattel n. (usu. In pl.) Movable possession. [french: related to *cattle]
Chatter —v. 1 talk quickly, incessantly, trivially, or indiscreetly. 2 (of a bird, monkey, etc.) Emit short quick sounds. 3 (of teeth) click repeatedly together. — n. Chattering talk or sounds. [imitative]
Chatterbox n. Talkative person.
Chatty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 fond of chatting. 2 resembling chat. chattily adv. Chattiness n.
Chauffeur —n. (fem. Chauffeuse) person employed to drive a car. —v. Drive (a car or person) as a chauffeur. [french, = stoker]
Chauvinism n. 1 exaggerated or aggressive patriotism. 2 excessive or prejudiced support or loyalty for one’s cause or group. [chauvin, name of a character in a french play 1831]
Chauvinist n. 1 person exhibiting chauvinism. 2 (in full male chauvinist) man who shows prejudice against women. chauvinistic adj. Chauvinistically adv.
Cheap —adj. 1 low in price; worth more than its cost. 2 charging low prices; offering good value. 3 of poor quality; inferior. 4 costing little effort and hence
offering good value. 3 of poor quality; inferior. 4 costing little effort and hence of little worth. —adv. Cheaply. on the cheap cheaply. cheaply adv. Cheapness n. [old english, = price, bargain]
Cheapen v. Make or become cheap; depreciate, degrade.
Cheapjack —n. Seller of inferior goods at low prices. —adj. Inferior, shoddy.
Cheapskate n. Esp. Us colloq. Stingy person.
Cheat —v. 1 a (often foll. By into, out of) deceive or trick. B (foll. By of) deprive of. 2 gain an unfair advantage by deception or breaking rules. —n. 1 person who cheats. 2 trick, deception. cheat on colloq. Be sexually unfaithful to. [from *escheat]
Check —v. 1 a examine the accuracy or quality of. B make sure, verify. 2 a stop or slow the motion of; curb. B colloq. Rebuke. 3 chess directly threaten (the opposing king). 4 us agree on comparison. 5 us mark with a tick etc. 6 us deposit (luggage etc.). —n. 1 means or act of testing or ensuring accuracy, quality, etc. 2 a stopping or slowing of motion. B rebuff or rebuke. C person or thing that restrains. 3 a pattern of small squares. B fabric so patterned. C (attrib.) So patterned. 4 (also as int.) Chess exposure of a king to direct attack. 5 us restaurant bill. 6 us = *cheque. 7 esp. Us token of identification for left luggage etc. 8 us cards counter used in games. 9 temporary loss of the scent in hunting. check in 1 arrive or register at a hotel, airport, etc. 2 record the arrival of. Check into register one’s arrival at (a hotel etc.). Check off mark on a list etc. As having been examined. Check on examine, verify, keep watch on. Check out 1 (often foll. By of) leave a hotel etc. With due formalities. 2 esp. Us investigate. Check up make sure, verify. Check up on = check on. [persian, = king]
Checked adj. Having a check pattern.
Checker1 n. Person etc. That examines, esp. In a factory etc.
Checker2 n. 1 var. Of *chequer. 2 us a (in pl., usu. Treated as sing.) Draughts. B piece used in this game.
Checkin n. Act or place of checking in.
Checkmate —n. (also as int.) Chess check from which a king cannot escape. — v. (-ting) 1 chess put into checkmate. 2 frustrate. [french: related to *check, persian mat is dead]
Checkout n. 1 act of checking out. 2 pay-desk in a supermarket etc.
Checkpoint n. Place, esp. A barrier or entrance, where documents, vehicles, etc., are inspected.
Check-up n. Thorough (esp. Medical) examination.
Cheddar n. A kind of firm smooth cheese. [cheddar in somerset]
Cheek —n. 1 a side of the face below the eye. B side-wall of the mouth. 2 a impertinence; cool confidence. B impertinent speech. 3 slang buttock. —v. Be
impertinence; cool confidence. B impertinent speech. 3 slang buttock. —v. Be impertinent to. cheek by jowl close together; intimate. [old english]
Cheek-bone n. Bone below the eye.
Cheeky adj. (-ier, -iest) impertinent. cheekily adv. Cheekiness n.
Cheep —n. Weak shrill cry of a young bird. —v. Make such a cry. [imitative]
Cheer —n. 1 shout of encouragement or applause. 2 mood, disposition (full of good cheer). 3 (in pl.; as int.) Colloq. A expressing good wishes on parting or before drinking. B expressing gratitude. —v. 1 a applaud with shouts. B (usu. Foll. By on) urge with shouts. 2 shout for joy. 3 gladden; comfort. cheer up make or become less depressed. [latin cara face, from greek]
Cheerful adj. 1 in good spirits, noticeably happy. 2 bright, pleasant. cheerfully adv. Cheerfulness n.
Cheerio int. Colloq. Expressing good wishes on parting.
Cheer-leader n. Person who leads cheers of applause etc.
Cheerless adj. Gloomy, dreary.
Cheery adj. (-ier, -iest) cheerful. cheerily adv. Cheeriness n.
Cheese n. 1 a food made from curds of milk. B cake of this with rind. 2 conserve with the consistency of soft cheese. cheesy adj. [latin caseus]
Cheeseburger n. Hamburger with cheese in or on it.
Cheesecake n. 1 tart filled with sweetened curds etc. 2 slang portrayal of women in a sexually stimulating manner.
Cheese plant n. Climbing plant with holes in its leaves.
Cheetah n. Swift-running spotted leopard-like feline. [hindi]
Chef n. (usu. Male) cook, esp. The chief cook in a restaurant. [french]
Chelsea bun n. Currant bun in the form of a flat spiral. [chelsea in london]
Chelsea pensioner n. Inmate of the chelsea royal hospital for old or disabled soldiers.
Chemical —adj. Of, made by, or employing chemistry or chemicals. —n. Substance obtained or used in chemistry. chemically adv. [french or medieval latin: related to *alchemy]
Chemical engineering n. Creation and operation of industrial chemical plants.
Chemical warfare n. Warfare using poison gas and other chemicals.
Chemise n. Hist. Woman’s loose-fitting undergarment or dress. [latin camisia shirt]
Chemist n. 1 dealer in medicinal drugs etc. 2 expert in chemistry. [french: related to *alchemy]
Chemistry n. (pl. -ies) 1 branch of science dealing with the elements and the compounds they form and the reactions they undergo. 2 chemical composition and properties of a substance. 3 colloq. Sexual attraction.
Chemotherapy n. Treatment of disease, esp. Cancer, by chemical substances.
Chenille n. 1 tufty velvety cord or yarn. 2 fabric of this. [french, = caterpillar, from latin canicula little dog]
Cheque n. 1 written order to a bank to pay the stated sum from the drawer’s account. 2 printed form on which this is written. [from *check]
Cheque-book n. Book of forms for writing cheques.
Cheque card n. Card issued by a bank to guarantee the honouring of cheques up to a stated amount.
Cheque card n. Card issued by a bank to guarantee the honouring of cheques up to a stated amount.
Chequer —n. 1 (often in pl.) Pattern of squares often alternately coloured. 2 var. Of *checker2 2. —v. 1 mark with chequers. 2 variegate; break the uniformity of. 3 (as chequered adj.) With varied fortunes (chequered career). [from *exchequer]
Cherish v. 1 protect or tend lovingly. 2 hold dear, cling to (hopes, feelings, etc.). [french cher dear, from latin carus]
Cheroot n. Cigar with both ends open. [french from tamil]
Cherry —n. (pl. -ies) 1 a small soft round stone-fruit. B tree bearing this or grown for its ornamental flowers. C its wood. 2 light red colour. —adj. Of light
grown for its ornamental flowers. C its wood. 2 light red colour. —adj. Of light red colour. [greek kerasos]
Cherub n. 1 (pl. -im) angelic being of the second order of the celestial hierarchy. 2 a representation of a winged child or its head. B beautiful or innocent child. cherubic adj. [ultimately from hebrew]
Chervil n. Herb used for flavouring. [greek khairephullon]
Cheshire n. A kind of firm crumbly cheese. like a cheshire cat with a broad fixed grin. [cheshire in england]
Chess n. Game for two with 16 men each, played on a chessboard. [french: related to *check]
Chessboard n. Chequered board of 64 squares on which chess and draughts are played.
Chessman n. Any of the 32 pieces and pawns with which chess is played.
Chest n. 1 large strong box. 2 a part of the body enclosed by the ribs. B front surface of the body from the neck to the bottom of the ribs. 3 small cabinet for medicines etc. get a thing off one’s chest colloq. Disclose a secret etc. To relieve one’s anxiety about it. [latin cista]
Chesterfield n. Sofa with arms and back of the same height and curved outwards
Chesterfield n. Sofa with arms and back of the same height and curved outwards at the top. [earl of chesterfield]
Chestnut —n. 1 a glossy hard brown edible nut. B tree bearing it. 2 = *horse chestnut. 3 wood of any chestnut. 4 horse of a reddish-brown colour. 5 colloq. Stale joke etc. 6 reddish-brown. —adj. Reddish-brown. [greek kastanea nut]
Chest of drawers n. Piece of furniture consisting of a set of drawers in a frame.
Chesty adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Inclined to or symptomatic of chest disease. chestily adv. Chestiness n.
Cheval-glass n. Tall mirror swung on an upright frame. [latin caballus horse]
Chevalier n. Member of certain orders of knighthood, or of the french legion of honour etc. [medieval latin caballarius horseman]
Chevron n. V-shaped line or stripe. [latin caper goat]
Chew —v. Work (food etc.) Between the teeth. —n. 1 act of chewing. 2 chewy sweet. chew on 1 work continuously between the teeth. 2 think about. Chew over 1 discuss, talk over. 2 think about. [old english]
Chewing-gum n. Flavoured gum for chewing.
Chewy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 needing much chewing. 2 suitable for chewing. chewiness n.
Chez prep. At the home of. [latin casa cottage]
Chi n. Twenty-second letter of the greek alphabet (c, c). [greek]
Chianti n. (pl. -s) red wine from the chianti area in italy.
Chiaroscuro n. 1 treatment of light and shade in drawing and painting. 2 use of contrast in literature etc. [italian, = clear dark]
Chicane —n. 1 artificial barrier or obstacle on a motor racecourse. 2 chicanery. —v. (-ning) archaic 1 use chicanery. 2 (usu. Foll. By into, out of, etc.) Cheat (a person). [french]
Chicanery n. (pl. -ies) 1 clever but misleading talk. 2 trickery, deception. [french]
Chick n. 1 young bird. 2 slang young woman. [old english: related to *chicken]
Chicken —n. 1 a domestic fowl. B its flesh as food. 2 young bird of a domestic fowl. 3 youthful person (is no chicken). —adj. Colloq. Cowardly. —v. (foll. By out) colloq. Withdraw through cowardice. [old english]
Chicken-feed n. 1 food for poultry. 2 colloq. Trivial amount, esp. Of money.
Chickenpox n. Infectious disease, esp. Of children, with a rash of small blisters.
Chicken-wire n. Light wire netting with a hexagonal mesh.
Chick-pea n. Yellow pea-like seed used as a vegetable. [latin cicer]
Chickweed n. Small weed with tiny white flowers.
Chicle n. Milky juice of a tropical tree, used in chewing-gum. [spanish from nahuatl]
Chicory n. (pl. -ies) 1 plant with leaves used in salads. 2 its root, roasted and ground and used with or instead of coffee. 3 esp. Us = *endive. [greek kikhorion]
Chide v. (past chided or chid; past part. Chided or chidden) archaic scold, rebuke. [old english]
Chief —n. 1 a leader or ruler. B head of a tribe, clan, etc. 2 head of a department; highest official. —adj. 1 first in position, importance, influence, etc. 2 prominent, leading. [latin caput head]
Chief constable n. Head of the police force of a county etc.
Chiefly adv. Above all; mainly but not exclusively.
Chief of staff n. Senior staff officer of a service or command.
Chieftain n. Leader of a tribe, clan, etc. chieftaincy n. (pl. -ies). [latin: related to *chief]
Chiffchaff n. Small european warbler. [imitative]
Chiffon n. Light diaphanous fabric of silk, nylon, etc. [french chiffe rag]
Chignon n. Coil of hair at the back of a woman’s head. [french]
Chihuahua n. Dog of a very small smooth-haired breed. [chihuahua in mexico]
Chilblain n. Painful itching swelling on a hand, foot, etc., caused by exposure to cold. [from *chill, blain inflamed sore, blister]
Child n. (pl. Children) 1 a young human being below the age of puberty. B unborn or newborn human being. 2 one’s son or daughter. 3 (foll. By of) descendant, follower, or product of. 4 childish person. childless adj. [old english]
Child abuse n. Maltreatment of a child, esp. By physical violence or sexual molestation.
Child benefit n. Regular payment by the state to the parents of a child up to a certain age.
Childbirth n. Giving birth to a child.
Child care n. The care of children, esp. By a local authority.
Childhood n. State or period of being a child.
Childish adj. 1 of, like, or proper to a child. 2 immature, silly. childishly adv. Childishness n.
Childlike adj. Having the good qualities of a child, such as innocence, frankness, etc.
Child-minder n. Person looking after children for payment.
Child’s play n. Easy task.
Chili var. Of *chilli.
Chill —n. 1 a unpleasant cold sensation; lowered body temperature. B feverish cold. 2 unpleasant coldness (of air, water, etc.). 3 depressing influence. 4 coldness of manner. —v. 1 make or become cold. 2 depress; horrify. 3 preserve (food or drink) by cooling. —adj. Literary chilly. [old english]
Chilli n. (also chili) (pl. -es) hot-tasting dried red capsicum pod. [spanish from aztec]
Chilli con carne n. Dish of chilli-flavoured mince and beans.
Chilly adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 somewhat cold. 2 sensitive to the cold. 3 unfriendly; unemotional.
Chiltern hundreds n.pl. Crown manor, whose administration is a nominal office for which an mp applies as a way of resigning from the house of commons. [chiltern hills in s. England]
Chime —n. 1 set of attuned bells. 2 sounds made by this. —v. (-ming) 1 (of bells) ring. 2 show (the time) by chiming. 3 (usu. Foll. By together, with) be in
Agreement. chime in 1 interject a remark. 2 join in harmoniously. 3 (foll. By with) agree with. [old english: related to *cymbal]
with) agree with. [old english: related to *cymbal]
Chimera n. 1 (in greek mythology) monster with a lion’s head, goat’s body, and serpent’s tail. 2 bogey. 3 wild or fantastic conception. chimerical adj. [latin from greek]
Chimney n. (pl. -s) 1 channel conducting smoke etc. Up and away from a fire, engine, etc. 2 part of this above a roof. 3 glass tube protecting the flame of a lamp. 4 narrow vertical crack in a rock-face. [latin caminus oven, from greek]
Chimney-breast n. Projecting wall surrounding a chimney.
Chimney-pot n. Earthenware or metal pipe at the top of a chimney.
Chimney-stack n. Number of chimneys grouped in one structure.
Chimney-sweep n. Person who removes soot from inside chimneys.
Chimp n. Colloq. = *chimpanzee. [abbreviation]
Chimpanzee n. Small african manlike ape. [french from kongo]
Chin n. Front of the lower jaw. keep one’s chin up colloq. Remain cheerful. Take on the chin suffer a severe blow from; endure courageously. [old english]
Take on the chin suffer a severe blow from; endure courageously. [old english]
China —n. 1 fine white or translucent ceramic ware, porcelain, etc. 2 things made of this. —adj. Made of china. [china in asia]
China clay n. Kaolin.
Chinaman n. 1 archaic or derog. (now usu. Offens.) Native of china. 2 cricket ball bowled by a left-handed bowler that spins from off to leg.
Chinchilla n. 1 a small s. American rodent. B its soft grey fur. 2 breed of cat or rabbit. [spanish chinche bug]
Chine —n. 1 a backbone. B joint of meat containing all or part of this. 2 ridge. —v. (-ning) cut (meat) through the backbone. [latin spina *spine]
Chinese —adj. Of china. —n. 1 chinese language. 2 (pl. Same) a native or national of china. B person of chinese descent.
Chinese lantern n. 1 collapsible paper lantern. 2 plant with an orange-red papery calyx.
Chinese leaf n. Lettuce-like cabbage.
Chink n. Slang offens. A chinese. [abbreviation]
Chink n. Slang offens. A chinese. [abbreviation]
Chink1 n. Narrow opening; slit. [related to chine narrow ravine]
Chink2 —v. (cause to) make a sound like glasses or coins striking together. —n. This sound. [imitative]
Chinless adj. Colloq. Weak or feeble in character.
Chinless wonder n. Ineffectual esp. Upper-class person.
Chinoiserie n. 1 imitation of chinese motifs in painting and in decorating furniture. 2 object(s) in this style. [french]
Chintz n. Printed multicoloured usu. Glazed cotton fabric. [hindi from sanskrit]
Chintzy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 like chintz. 2 gaudy, cheap. 3 characteristic of décor associated with chintz soft furnishings.
Chin-wag slang —n. Talk or chat. —v. (-gg-) chat.
Chip —n. 1 small piece removed by chopping etc. 2 place or mark where a piece has been broken off. 3 a strip of potato, usu. Deep-fried. B us potato crisp. 4
counter used in some games to represent money. 5 = *microchip. —v. (-pp-) 1 (often foll. By off, away) cut or break (a piece) from a hard material. 2 (often foll. By at, away at) cut pieces off (a hard material) to alter its shape etc. 3 be apt to break at the edge. 4 (usu. As chipped adj.) Make (potatoes) into chips. chip in colloq. 1 interrupt. 2 contribute (money etc.). A chip off the old block child resembling its parent, esp. In character. A chip on one’s shoulder colloq. Inclination to feel resentful or aggrieved. When the chips are down colloq. When it comes to the point. [old english]
Chipboard n. Board made from compressed wood chips.
Chipmunk n. Striped n. American ground squirrel. [algonquian]
Chipolata n. Small thin sausage. [french from italian]
Chippendale adj. (of furniture) of an elegantly ornate 18th-c. Style. [name of a cabinet-maker]
Chiro-comb. Form hand. [greek kheir]
Chiromancy n. Palmistry. [greek mantis seer]
Chiropody n. Treatment of the feet and their ailments. chiropodist n. [greek pous podos foot]
Chiropractic n. Treatment of disease by manipulation of esp. The spinal column. chiropractor n. [greek pratto do]
Chirp —v. 1 (of small birds, grasshoppers, etc.) Utter a short sharp note. 2 speak or utter merrily. —n. Chirping sound. [imitative]
Chisel —n. Hand tool with a squared bevelled blade for shaping wood, stone, or metal. —v. 1 (-ll-; us -l-) cut or shape with a chisel. 2 (as chiselled adj.) (of facial features) clear-cut, fine. 3 slang cheat. [latin caedo cut]
Chit1 n. 1 derog. Or joc. Young small woman (esp. A chit of a girl). 2 young child. [originally = whelp, cub]
Chit2 n. 1 note of requisition, of a sum owed, etc. 2 note or memorandum. [hindi from sanskrit]
Chit-chat n. Colloq. Light conversation; gossip. [reduplication of *chat]
Chivalrous adj. 1 gallant, honourable. 2 of or showing chivalry. chivalrously adv. [latin: related to *chevalier]
Chivalry n. 1 medieval knightly system with its religious, moral, and social code. 2 honour, courtesy, and readiness to help the weak. chivalric adj.
2 honour, courtesy, and readiness to help the weak. chivalric adj.
Chive n. Small plant with long onion-flavoured leaves. [latin cepa onion]
Chivvy v. (-ies, -ied) urge persistently, nag. [probably from ballad of chevy chase]
Chloral n. 1 colourless liquid aldehyde used in making ddt. 2 (in full chloral hydrate) pharm. Crystalline solid made from this and used as a sedative. [french: related to chlorine, alcohol]
Chloride n. 1 compound of chlorine and another element or group. 2 bleaching agent containing this.
Chlorinate v. (-ting) impregnate or treat with chlorine. chlorination n.
Chlorine n. Poisonous gaseous element used for purifying water etc. [greek khloros green]
Chlorofluorocarbon see *cfc.
Chloroform —n. Colourless volatile liquid formerly used as a general anaesthetic. —v. Render unconscious with this. [from chlorine, formic acid]
Chlorophyll n. Green pigment found in most plants. [greek khloros green, phullon leaf]
Choc n. Colloq. Chocolate. [abbreviation]
Choc-ice n. Bar of ice-cream covered with chocolate.
Chock —n. Block or wedge to check the motion of a wheel etc. —v. Make fast with chocks. [french]
Chock-a-block predic. Adj. (often foll. By with) crammed together or full.
Chock-full predic. Adj. (often foll. By of) crammed full.
Chocolate —n. 1 a food preparation in the form of a paste or solid block made from ground cacao seeds and usu. Sweetened. B sweet made of or coated with this. C drink containing this. 2 deep brown. —adj. 1 made from chocolate. 2 deep brown. [aztec chocolatl]
Choice —n. 1 a act of choosing. B thing or person chosen. 2 range from which to choose. 3 power or opportunity to choose. —adj. Of superior quality. [germanic: related to *choose]
Choir n. 1 regular group of singers, esp. In a church. 2 part of a cathedral or large church between the altar and nave. [latin: related to *chorus]
Choirboy n. (fem. Choirgirl) boy singer in a church choir.
Choke —v. (-king) 1 stop the breathing of (a person or animal), esp. By constricting the windpipe or (of gas, smoke, etc.) By being unbreathable. 2 suffer a stoppage of breath. 3 make or become speechless from emotion. 4 retard the growth of or kill (esp. Plants) by depriving of light etc. 5 (often foll. By back) suppress (feelings) with difficulty. 6 block or clog (a passage, tube, etc.). 7 (as choked adj.) Colloq. Disgusted, disappointed. —n. 1 valve in a carburettor controlling the intake of air. 2 device for smoothing the variations of an alternating current. choke up block (a channel etc.). [old english]
Choker n. Close-fitting necklace.
Cholecalciferol n. A vitamin (d3) produced by the action of sunlight on a steroid in the skin. [from *choler, *calciferol]
Choler n. 1 hist. One of the four humours, bile. 2 poet. Or archaic anger, irascibility. [greek khole bile]
Cholera n. Infectious often fatal bacterial disease of the small intestine. [related to *choler]
Choleric adj. Irascible, angry.
Cholesterol n. Sterol found in most body tissues, including the blood where high concentrations promote arteriosclerosis. [from *choler, greek stereos stiff]
Chomp v. = *champ1. [imitative]
Choose v. (-sing; past chose; past part. Chosen) 1 select out of a greater number. 2 (usu. Foll. By between, from) take or select one or another. 3 (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Decide, be determined. 4 select as (was chosen leader). nothing (or little) to choose between them they are very similar. [old english]
Choosy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Fastidious. choosiness n.
Chop1 —v. (-pp-) 1 (usu. Foll. By off, down, etc.) Cut or fell by the blow of an axe etc. 2 (often foll. By up) cut into small pieces. 3 strike (esp. A ball) with a short heavy edgewise blow. —n. 1 cutting blow. 2 thick slice of meat (esp. Pork or lamb) usu. Including a rib. 3 short chopping stroke in cricket etc. 4 (prec. By the) slang a = sack1 n. 2. B killing or being killed. [related to chap2]
Chop2 n. (usu. In pl.) Jaw. [origin unknown]
Chop3 v. (-pp-) chop and change vacillate; change direction frequently. Chop logic argue pedantically. [perhaps related to *cheap]
Chopper n. 1 a short axe with a large blade. B butcher’s cleaver. 2 colloq. Helicopter. 3 colloq. Type of bicycle or motor cycle with high handlebars.
Choppy adj. (-ier, -iest) (of the sea etc.) Fairly rough. choppily adv. Choppiness n. [from *chop1]
Chopstick n. Each of a pair of sticks held in one hand as eating utensils by the chinese, japanese, etc. [pidgin english from chinese, = nimble ones]
Chopsuey n. (pl. -s) chinese-style dish of meat fried with vegetables and rice. [chinese, = mixed bits]
Choral adj. Of, for, or sung by a choir or chorus. [medieval latin: related to *chorus]
Chorale n. 1 simple stately hymn tune; harmonized form of this. 2 esp. Us choir. [german: related to *choral]
Chord1 n. Group of notes sounded together. [originally cord from *accord]
Chord2 n. 1 straight line joining the ends of an arc or curve. 2 poet. String of a harp etc. strike a chord elicit sympathy. [var. Of *cord]
Chordate —n. Animal having a cartilaginous skeletal rod at some stage of its development. —adj. Of chordates. [latin chorda *chord2 after vertebrata etc.]
Chore n. Tedious or routine task, esp. Domestic. [from *char2]
Choreograph v. Compose choreography for (a ballet etc.). choreographer n.
Choreography n. Design or arrangement of a ballet etc. choreographic adj. [greek khoreia dance]
Chorister n. Member of a choir, esp. A choirboy. [french: related to *choir]
Chortle —n. Gleeful chuckle. —v. (-ling) utter or express with a chortle. [probably from *chuckle, *snort]
Chorus —n. (pl. -es) 1 group of singers; choir. 2 music composed for a choir. 3 refrain or main part of a song. 4 simultaneous utterance. 5 group of singers and dancers performing together. 6 gk antiq. A group of performers who comment on the action in a greek play. B utterance made by it. 7 character speaking the prologue in a play. —v. (-s-) speak or utter simultaneously. [latin from greek]
Chose past of *choose.
Chosen past part. Of *choose.
Chough n. Bird with glossy blue-black plumage and red legs. [imitative]
Choux pastry n. Very light pastry enriched with eggs. [french]
Chow n. 1 slang food. 2 dog of a chinese breed with long woolly hair. [chinese chow-chow]
chow-chow]
Chow mein n. Chinese-style dish of fried noodles with shredded meat or shrimps etc. And vegetables. [chinese chao mian fried flour]
Christ —n. 1 title, also now treated as a name, given to jesus. 2 messiah as prophesied in the old testament. —int. Slang expressing surprise, anger, etc. [greek, = anointed]
Christen v. 1 baptize as a sign of admission to the christian church. 2 give a name to. 3 colloq. Use for the first time. christening n. [latin: related to *christian]
Christendom n. Christians worldwide.
Christian —adj. 1 of christ’s teaching. 2 believing in or following the religion of christ. 3 showing the associated qualities. 4 colloq. Kind. —n. Adherent of christianity. [latin christianus of *christ]
Christian era n. Era reckoned from christ’s birth.
Christianity n. 1 christian religion. 2 being a christian; christian quality or character.
Christian name n. Forename, esp. As given at baptism.
Christian science n. Christian sect believing in the power of healing by prayer alone. christian scientist n.
Christmas n. 1 (also christmas day) annual festival of christ’s birth, celebrated on 25 dec. 2 period around this. christmassy adj. [old english: related to *christ, *mass2]
Christmas-box n. Present or gratuity given at christmas.
Christmas eve n. 24 dec.
Christmas pudding n. Rich boiled pudding of flour, suet, dried fruit, etc.
Christmas rose n. White-flowered winter-blooming hellebore.
Christmas tree n. Evergreen tree or imitation of this set up and decorated at christmas.
Chromatic adj. 1 of colour; in colours. 2 mus. A of or having notes not belonging to a particular diatonic scale. B (of a scale) ascending or descending by semitones. chromatically adv. [greek khroma -mat-colour]
Chromatin n. Chromosome material in a cell nucleus which stains with basic dyes. [greek: related to *chrome]
Chromatography n. Separation of the components of a mixture by slow passage through or over material which adsorbs them differently. [greek: related to *chrome]
Chrome n. 1 chromium, esp. As plating. 2 (in full chrome yellow) yellow pigment got from a certain compound of chromium. [greek khroma colour]
Chromite n. Mineral of chromium and iron oxides.
Chromium n. Metallic element used as a shiny decorative or protective coating.
Chromium plate n. Protective coating of chromium.
Chromosome n. Threadlike structure, usu. Found in the cell nucleus of animals and plants, carrying genes. [greek: related to *chrome, soma body]
Chronic adj. 1 (esp. Of an illness) long-lasting. 2 having a chronic complaint. 3 colloq. Very bad; intense, severe. 4 colloq. Habitual, inveterate (a chronic liar). chronically adv. [greek khronos time]
Usage the use of chronic in sense 3 is very informal, and its use in sense 4 is considered incorrect by some people.
Chronicle —n. Register of events in order of occurrence. —v. (-ling) record
Chronicle —n. Register of events in order of occurrence. —v. (-ling) record (events) thus. [greek khronika: related to *chronic]
Chronological adj. 1 according to order of occurrence. 2 of chronology. chronologically adv.
Chronology n. (pl. -ies) 1 science of determining dates. 2 a arrangement of events etc. In order of occurrence. B table or document displaying this. [greek khronos time, *-logy]
Chronometer n. Time-measuring instrument, esp. One used in navigation. [from chronology, -meter]
Chrysalis n. (pl. -lises) 1 pupa of a butterfly or moth. 2 case enclosing it. [greek khrusos gold]
Chrysanthemum n. Garden plant of the daisy family blooming in autumn. [greek, = gold flower]
Chrysoberyl n. Yellowish-green gem. [greek khrusos gold, *beryl]
Chrysolite n. Precious variety of olivine. [greek khrusos gold, lithos stone]
Chrysoprase n. Apple-green variety of chalcedony. [greek khrusos gold, prason leek]
Chub n. (pl. Same) thick-bodied river fish. [origin unknown]
Chubb n. (in full chubb lock) propr. Lock with a device for fixing the bolt immovably should someone try to pick it. [chubb, name of a locksmith]
Chubby adj. (-ier, -iest) plump and rounded. [from *chub]
Chuck1 —v. 1 colloq. Fling or throw carelessly or casually. 2 (often foll. By in, up) colloq. Give up; reject. 3 touch playfully, esp. Under the chin. —n. 1 playful touch under the chin. 2 toss. the chuck slang dismissal; rejection. Chuck out colloq. 1 expel (a person) from a gathering etc. 2 get rid of, discard. [perhaps from french chuquer knock]
Chuck2 —n. 1 cut of beef from neck to ribs. 2 device for holding a workpiece or bit. —v. Fix to a chuck. [var. Of *chock]
Chuckle —v. (-ling) laugh quietly or inwardly. —n. Quiet or suppressed laugh. [chuck cluck]
Chuff v. (of an engine etc.) Work with a regular sharp puffing sound. [imitative]
Chuffed adj. Slang delighted. [dial. Chuff]
Chug —v. (-gg-) 1 emit a regular muffled explosive sound, as of an engine running slowly. 2 move with this sound. —n. Chugging sound. [imitative]
Chukka boot n. Ankle-high leather boot.
Chukker n. (also chukka) period of play in polo. [sanskrit cakra wheel]
Chum n. Colloq. Close friend. chum up (-mm-) (often foll. By with) become a close friend (of). chummy adj. (-ier, -iest). Chummily adv. Chumminess n. [abbreviation of chamber-fellow]
Chump n. 1 colloq. Foolish person. 2 thick end of a loin of lamb or mutton (chump chop). 3 short thick block of wood. off one’s chump slang crazy. [blend of *chunk, *lump1]
Chunk n. 1 thick piece cut or broken off. 2 substantial amount. [var. Of *chuck2]
Chunky adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 consisting of or resembling chunks; thick, substantial. 2 small and sturdy. chunkiness n.
Chunter v. Colloq. Mutter, grumble. [probably imitative]
Chupatty var. Of *chapatti.
Church n. 1 building for public christian worship. 2 public worship (met after church). 3 (church) a body of all christians. B clergy or clerical profession. C organized christian society (the early church). [greek kuriakon lord’s (house)]
organized christian society (the early church). [greek kuriakon lord’s (house)]
Churchgoer n. Person attending church regularly.
Churchman n. Member of the clergy or of a church.
Church of england n. English protestant church.
Churchwarden n. Either of two elected lay representatives of an anglican parish.
Churchyard n. Enclosed ground around a church used for burials.
Churlish adj. Surly; mean. churlishly adv. Churlishness n. [from *churl]
Churn —n. 1 large milk-can. 2 butter-making machine. —v. 1 agitate (milk or cream) in a churn. 2 produce (butter) in a churn. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) upset, agitate. churn out produce in large quantities. [old english]
Chute1 n. Sloping channel or slide for sending things to a lower level. [latin cado fall]
Chute2 n. Colloq. Parachute. [abbreviation]
Chutney n. (pl. -s) pungent condiment of fruits, vinegar, spices, etc. [hindi]
Chutzpah n. Slang shameless audacity. [yiddish]
Chyle n. Milky fluid of food materials formed in the intestine after digestion. [greek khulos juice]
Chyme n. Acid pulp formed from partly-digested food. [greek khumos juice]
Cia abbr. (in the us) central intelligence agency.
Ciao int. Colloq. 1 goodbye. 2 hello. [italian]
Cicada n. Large transparent-winged insect making a rhythmic chirping sound. [latin]
Cicatrice n. Scar left by a wound. [latin]
Cicely n. (pl. -ies) flowering plant related to parsley and chervil. [greek seselis]
Cicerone n. (pl. -roni pronunc. Same) person who guides sightseers. [latin cicero, name of a roman statesman]
Cid abbr. Criminal investigation department.
-cide suffix 1 person or substance that kills (regicide; insecticide). 2 killing of (infanticide). [latin caedo kill]
-cide suffix 1 person or substance that kills (regicide; insecticide). 2 killing of (infanticide). [latin caedo kill]
Cider n. Drink of fermented apple juice. [hebrew, = strong drink]
Cigar n. Tight roll of tobacco-leaves for smoking. [french or spanish]
Cigarette n. Finely-cut tobacco rolled in paper for smoking. [french diminutive]
Cilium n. (pl. Cilia) 1 minute hairlike structure on the surface of many animal cells. 2 eyelash. ciliary adj. Ciliate adj. [latin, = eyelash]
Cinchona n. 1 a s. American evergreen tree or shrub. B its bark, containing
Cinchona n. 1 a s. American evergreen tree or shrub. B its bark, containing quinine. 2 drug from this. [countess of chinchón]
Cincture n. Literary girdle, belt, or border. [latin cingo gird]
Cinder n. 1 residue of coal or wood etc. After burning. 2 (in pl.) Ashes. [old english sinder = slag]
Cinderella n. Person or thing of unrecognized or disregarded merit or beauty. [name of a girl in a fairy tale]
Cine-comb. Form cinematographic (cine-camera). [abbreviation]
Cinema n. 1 theatre where films are shown. 2 a films collectively. B art or industry of producing films. cinematic adj. [french: related to *kinematics]
Cinematography n. Art of making films. cinematographer n. Cinematographic adj.
Cineraria n. Composite plant with bright flowers and ash-coloured down on its leaves. [latin cinis -ner-ashes]
Cinnabar n. 1 bright red mercuric sulphide. 2 vermilion. 3 moth with reddish-marked wings. [latin from greek]
Cinnamon n. 1 aromatic spice from the bark of a se asian tree. 2 this tree. 3 yellowish-brown. [greek kinnamon]
Cinque n. The five on dice. [latin quinque five]
Cinquefoil n. 1 plant with compound leaves of five leaflets. 2 archit. Five-cusped ornament in a circle or arch. [latin: related to *cinque, folium leaf]
Cinque ports n.pl. Group of (orig. Five) ports in se england with ancient privileges. [latin quinque portus five ports]
Cipher (also cypher) —n. 1 a secret or disguised writing. B thing so written. C key to it. 2 arithmetical symbol (0) used to occupy a vacant place in decimal etc. Numeration. 3 person or thing of no importance. —v. Write in cipher. [arabic sifr]
Circa prep. (preceding a date) about. [latin]
Circadian adj. Physiol. Occurring about once per day. [from *circa, latin dies day]
Circle —n. 1 round plane figure whose circumference is everywhere equidistant from its centre. 2 circular or roundish enclosure or structure. 3 curved upper tier of seats in a theatre etc. 4 circular route. 5 persons grouped round a centre of interest. 6 set or restricted group (literary circles). —v. (-ling) 1 (often foll. By
round, about) move in a circle. 2 a revolve round. B form a circle round. come full circle return to the starting-point. [latin diminutive: related to *circus]
Circlet n. 1 small circle. 2 circular band, esp. As an ornament.
Circuit n. 1 line or course enclosing an area; the distance round. 2 a path of an electric current. B apparatus through which a current passes. 3 a judge’s itinerary through a district to hold courts. B such a district. C lawyers following a circuit. 4 chain of theatres, cinemas, etc. Under a single management. 5 motor-racing track. 6 itinerary or specific sphere of operation (election circuit; cabaret circuit). 7 sequence of sporting events or athletic exercises. [latin: related to *circum-, eo it-go]
Circuit-breaker n. Automatic device for interrupting an electric circuit.
Circuitous adj. 1 indirect. 2 going a long way round.
Circuitry n. (pl. -ies) 1 system of electric circuits. 2 equipment forming this.
Circular —adj. 1 a having the form of a circle. B moving (roughly) in a circle, finishing at the starting-point (circular walk). 2 (of reasoning) using the point it is trying to prove as evidence for its conclusion, hence invalid.
Circularize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) distribute circulars to.
Circular saw n. Power saw with a rapidly rotating toothed disc.
Circulate v. (-ting) 1 be in circulation; spread. 2 a put into circulation. B send circulars to. 3 move about among guests etc. [latin: related to *circle]
Circulation n. 1 movement to and fro, or from and back to a starting-point, esp. That of the blood from and to the heart. 2 a transmission or distribution. B number of copies sold. in (or out of) circulation active (or not active) socially.
Circulatory adj. Of circulation, esp. Of the blood.
Circum-comb. Form round, about. [latin]
Circumcise v. (-sing) cut off the foreskin or clitoris of. circumcision n. [latin caedo cut]
Circumference n. 1 enclosing boundary, esp. Of a circle. 2 distance round. circumferential adj. [latin fero carry]
Circumflex n. (in full circumflex accent) mark (ˆ) placed over a vowel to show contraction, length, etc. [latin: related to *flex1]
Circumlocution n. 1 a roundabout expression. B evasive talk. 2 verbosity. circumlocutory adj.
Circumnavigate v. (-ting) sail round (esp. The world). circumnavigation n.
Circumnavigate v. (-ting) sail round (esp. The world). circumnavigation n.
Circumscribe v. (-bing) 1 (of a line etc.) Enclose or outline. 2 lay down the limits of; confine, restrict. 3 geom. Draw (a figure) round another, touching it at points but not cutting it. circumscription n. [latin scribo write]
Circumspect adj. Cautious; taking everything into account. circumspection n. Circumspectly adv. [latin specio spect-look]
Circumstance n. 1 fact, occurrence, or condition, esp. (in pl.) Connected with or influencing an event; (bad) luck (victim of circumstance(s)). 2 (in pl.) One’s financial or material condition. 3 ceremony, fuss. in (or under) the circumstances the state of affairs being what it is. In (or under) no circumstances not at all; never. circumstanced adj. [latin sto stand]
Circumstantial adj. 1 giving full details (circumstantial account). 2 (of evidence etc.) Indicating a conclusion by inference from known facts hard to explain otherwise. circumstantiality n.
Circumvent v. 1 evade, find a way round. 2 baffle, outwit. circumvention n. [latin venio vent-come]
Circus n. (pl. -es) 1 travelling show of performing acrobats, clowns, animals, etc. 2 colloq. A scene of lively action. B group of people in a common activity, esp. Sport. 3 open space in a town, where several streets converge. 4 rom. Antiq. Arena for sports and games. [latin, = ring]
Cirrhosis n. Chronic liver disease, as a result of alcoholism etc. [greek kirrhos tawny]
Cirrus n. (pl. Cirri) 1 white wispy cloud at high altitude. 2 tendril or appendage of a plant or animal. [latin, = curl]
Cisalpine adj. On the south side of the alps. [latin cis-on this side of]
Cissy var. Of *sissy.
Cistercian —n. Monk or nun of the order founded as a stricter branch of the benedictines. —adj. Of the cistercians. [french cîteaux in france]
Cistern n. 1 tank for storing water. 2 underground reservoir. [latin cista box, from greek]
Cistus n. Shrub with large white or red flowers. [latin from greek]
Citadel n. Fortress, usu. On high ground, protecting or dominating a city. [french citadelle]
Citation n. 1 citing; passage cited. 2 mil. Mention in dispatches. 3 description of the reasons for an award.
Cite v. (-ting) 1 mention as an example etc. 2 quote (a book etc.) In support. 3 mil. Mention in dispatches. 4 summon to appear in court. [latin cieo set in motion]
Citizen n. 1 member of a state, either native or naturalized. 2 inhabitant of a city. 3 us civilian. citizenry n. Citizenship n. [anglo-french: related to *city]
Citizen’s band n. System of local intercommunication by individuals on special radio frequencies.
Citrate n. A salt of citric acid.
Citric adj. Derived from citrus fruit.
Citric acid n. Sharp-tasting acid in citrus fruits.
Citron n. 1 tree with large lemon-like fruits. 2 this fruit. [french from latin *citrus]
Citronella n. 1 a fragrant oil. 2 grass from s. Asia yielding it.
Citrus n. (pl. -es) 1 tree of a group including the lemon, orange, and grapefruit. 2 (in full citrus fruit) fruit of such a tree. [latin]
City n. (pl. -ies) 1 large town, strictly one created by charter and containing a cathedral. 2 (the city) a part of london governed by the lord mayor and
cathedral. 2 (the city) a part of london governed by the lord mayor and corporation. B business part of this. C commercial circles. [latin civitas: related to *civic]
City-state n. Esp. Hist. City that with its surrounding territory forms an independent state.
Civet n. 1 (in full civet-cat) catlike animal of central africa. 2 strong musky perfume obtained from it. [french ultimately from arabic]
Civic adj. 1 of a city. 2 of citizens or citizenship. civically adv. [latin civis citizen]
Civic centre n. 1 area where municipal offices etc. Are situated. 2 the offices themselves.
Civics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) The study of the rights and duties of citizenship.
Civil adj. 1 of or belonging to citizens. 2 of ordinary citizens; non-military. 3 polite, obliging, not rude. 4 law concerning private rights and not criminal offences. 5 (of the length of a day, year, etc.) Fixed by custom or law, not natural or astronomical. civilly adv. [latin civilis: related to *civic]
Civil defence n. Organizing of civilians for protection during wartime attacks.
Civil disobedience n. Refusal to comply with certain laws as a peaceful protest.
Civil engineer n. One who designs or maintains roads, bridges, dams, etc.
Civilian —n. Person not in the armed services or police force. —adj. Of or for civilians.
Civility n. (pl. -ies) 1 politeness. 2 act of politeness. [latin: related to *civil]
Civilization n. (also -isation) 1 advanced stage or system of social development. 2 peoples of the world that are regarded as having this. 3 a people or nation (esp. Of the past) regarded as an element of social evolution (inca civilization).
Civilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 bring out of a barbarous or primitive stage of society. 2 enlighten; refine and educate. [french: related to *civil]
Civil liberty n. (often in pl.) Freedom of action subject to the law.
Civil list n. Annual allowance voted by parliament for the royal family’s household expenses.
Civil marriage n. One solemnized without religious ceremony.
Civil rights n.pl. Rights of citizens to freedom and equality.
Civil rights n.pl. Rights of citizens to freedom and equality.
Civil servant n. Member of the civil service.
Civil service n. Branches of state administration, excluding military and judicial branches and elected politicians.
Civil war n. War between citizens of the same country.
Civvy street n. Slang civilian life. [abbreviation]
Cl symb. Chlorine.
Cl abbr. Centilitre(s).
Clack —v. 1 make a sharp sound as of boards struck together. 2 chatter. —n. Clacking noise or talk. [imitative]
Clad adj. 1 clothed. 2 provided with cladding. [past part. Of *clothe]
Cladding n. Covering or coating on a structure or material etc.
Cladistics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Biol. Method of classifying animals and plants on the basis of shared characteristics. [greek klados branch]
Claim —v. 1 state, declare, assert. 2 demand as one’s due or property. 3 represent oneself as having or achieving (claim victory). 4 (foll. By to + infin.) Profess. 5 have as an achievement or consequence (fire claimed two victims). 6 (of a thing) deserve (attention etc.). —n. 1 demand or request for a thing considered one’s due (lay claim to; put in a claim). 2 (foll. By to, on) right or title to a thing. 3 assertion. 4 thing claimed. [latin clamo call out]
Claimant n. Person making a claim, esp. In a lawsuit, or claiming state benefit.
Clairvoyance n. Supposed faculty of perceiving the future or things beyond normal sensory perception. clairvoyant n. & adj. [french: related to *clear, voir see]
Clam —n. Edible bivalve mollusc. —v. (-mm-) (foll. By up) colloq. Refuse to talk. [related to *clamp1]
Clamber —v. Climb laboriously using hands and feet. —n. Difficult climb. [from *climb]
Clammy adj. (-ier, -iest) unpleasantly damp and sticky. clammily adv. Clamminess n. [clam to daub]
Clamor (brit. Clamour) —n. 1 loud or vehement shouting or noise. 2 protest,
Clamor (brit. Clamour) —n. 1 loud or vehement shouting or noise. 2 protest, demand. —v. 1 make a clamour. 2 utter with a clamour. clamorous adj. [latin: related to *claim]
Clamour (us clamor) —n. 1 loud or vehement shouting or noise. 2 protest, demand. —v. 1 make a clamour. 2 utter with a clamour. clamorous adj. [latin: related to *claim]
Clamp1 —n. 1 device, esp. A brace or band of iron etc., for strengthening or holding things together. 2 device for immobilizing an illegally parked vehicle. —v. 1 strengthen or fasten with a clamp; fix firmly. 2 immobilize (a vehicle) with a clamp. clamp down (usu. Foll. By on) become stricter (about); suppress. [low german or dutch]
Clamp2 n. Potatoes etc. Stored under straw or earth. [dutch: related to *clump]
Clamp-down n. Sudden policy of suppression.
Clan n. 1 group of people with a common ancestor, esp. In the scottish highlands. 2 large family as a social group. 3 group with a strong common interest. [gaelic]
Clandestine adj. Surreptitious, secret. [latin]
Clang —n. Loud resonant metallic sound. —v. (cause to) make a clang. [imitative: cf. Latin clango resound]
Clanger n. Slang mistake, blunder.
Clangor n. (brit. Clangour) prolonged clanging. clangorous adj.
Clangour n. (us clangor) prolonged clanging. clangorous adj.
Clank —n. Sound as of metal on metal. —v. (cause to) make a clank. [imitative]
Clannish adj. Often derog. (of a family or group) associating closely with each other; inward-looking.
Clansman n. (fem. Clanswoman) member or fellow-member of a clan.
Clap1 —v. (-pp-) 1 a strike the palms of one’s hands together, esp. Repeatedly as applause. B strike (the hands) together in this way. 2 applaud thus. 3 put or place quickly or with determination (clapped him in prison; clap a tax on whisky). 4 (foll. By on) give a friendly slap (clapped him on the back). —n. 1 act of clapping, esp. As applause. 2 explosive sound, esp. Of thunder. 3 slap, pat. clap eyes on colloq. See. [old english]
Clap2 n. Coarse slang venereal disease, esp. Gonorrhoea. [french]
Clapped out adj. Slang worn out; exhausted.
Clapper n. Tongue or striker of a bell. like the clappers slang very fast or hard.
Clapperboard n. Device in film-making of hinged boards struck together to synchronize the starting of picture and sound machinery.
Claptrap n. Insincere or pretentious talk, nonsense.
Claque n. Group of people hired to applaud. [french]
Claret n. 1 red wine, esp. From bordeaux. 2 purplish-red. [french: related to *clarify]
Clarify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make or become clearer. 2 a free (liquid etc.) From impurities. B make transparent. clarification n. [latin: related to *clear]
Clarinet n. Woodwind instrument with a single reed. clarinettist n. (us clarinetist). [french diminutive of clarine, a kind of bell]
Clarion n. 1 clear rousing sound. 2 hist. Shrill war-trumpet. [latin: related to *clear]
Clarity n. Clearness.
Clash —n. 1 a loud jarring sound as of metal objects struck together. B collision. 2 a conflict. B discord of colours etc. —v. 1 (cause to) make a clashing sound. 2 collide; coincide awkwardly. 3 (often foll. By with) a come into conflict or be at variance. B (of colours) be discordant. [imitative]
Clasp —n. 1 device with interlocking parts for fastening. 2 a embrace. B grasp, handshake. 3 bar on a medal-ribbon. —v. 1 fasten with or as with a clasp. 2 a grasp, hold closely. B embrace. [old english]
Clasp-knife n. Folding knife, usu. With a catch to hold the blade open.
Class —n. 1 any set of persons or things grouped together, or graded or differentiated from others esp. By quality (first class; economy class). 2 division or order of society (upper class). 3 colloq. Distinction, high quality. 4 a group of students taught together. B occasion when they meet. C their course of instruction. 5 division of candidates by merit in an examination. 6 biol. Next grouping of organisms below a division or phylum. —v. Assign to a class or category. in a class of (or on) its (or one’s) own unequalled. classless adj. [latin classis assembly]
Class-conscious adj. Aware of social divisions or one’s place in them. class-consciousness n.
Classic —adj. 1 first-class; of lasting value and importance. 2 very typical (a classic case). 3 a of ancient greek and latin literature, art, etc. B (of style) simple, harmonious. 4 famous because long-established. —n. 1 classic writer, artist, work, or example. 2 (in pl.) Ancient greek and latin. [latin classicus: related to *class]
Classical adj. 1 a of ancient greek or roman literature or art. B (of a language) having the form used by ancient standard authors. 2 (of music) serious or conventional, or of the period from c.1750–1800. 3 restrained in style. classicality n. Classically adv.
Classicism n. 1 following of a classic style. 2 classical scholarship. 3 ancient greek or latin idiom. classicist n.
Classify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 a arrange in classes or categories. B assign to a class or category. 2 designate as officially secret or not for general disclosure. classifiable adj. Classification n. Classificatory adj. [french: related to *class]
Classmate n. Person in the same class at school.
Classroom n. Room where a class of students is taught.
Clatter —n. Sound as of hard objects struck together. —v. (cause to) make a clatter. [old english]
Clause n. 1 gram. Part of a sentence, including a subject and predicate. 2 single statement in a treaty, law, contract, etc. clausal adj. [latin clausula: related to *close2]
Clause 28 n. Clause in the local government bill (and later act) banning local
Clause 28 n. Clause in the local government bill (and later act) banning local authorities from promoting homosexuality.
Claustrophobia n. Abnormal fear of confined places. claustrophobic adj. [latin claustrum *cloister, *-phobia]
Clavichord n. Small keyboard instrument with a very soft tone. [medieval latin: related to *clavicle]
Clavicle n. Collar-bone. [latin clavis key]
Claw —n. 1 a pointed nail on an animal’s foot. B foot armed with claws. 2 pincers of a shellfish. 3 device for grappling, holding, etc. —v. Scratch, maul, or pull with claws or fingernails. [old english]
Claw back v. Regain laboriously or gradually.
Claw-hammer n. Hammer with one side of the head forked for extracting nails.
Claw-hammer n. Hammer with one side of the head forked for extracting nails.
Clay n. 1 stiff sticky earth, used for making bricks, pottery, etc. 2 poet. Substance of the human body. clayey adj. [old english]
Claymore n. Hist. Scottish two-edged broadsword. [gaelic, = great sword]
Clay pigeon n. Breakable disc thrown up from a trap as a target for shooting.
Clean —adj. 1 free from dirt or impurities, unsoiled. 2 clear; unused; pristine (clean air; clean page). 3 not obscene or indecent. 4 attentive to personal hygiene and cleanliness. 5 complete, clear-cut. 6 showing no record of crime, disease, etc. 7 fair (a clean fight). 8 streamlined; well-formed. 9 adroit, skilful. 10 (of a nuclear weapon) producing relatively little fallout. —adv. 1 completely, outright, simply. 2 in a clean manner. —v. Make or become clean. —n. Act or process of cleaning. clean out 1 clean thoroughly. 2 slang empty or deprive (esp. Of money). Clean up 1 a clear away (a mess). B (also absol.) Put (things) tidy. C make (oneself) clean. 2 restore order or morality to. 3 slang acquire as or make a profit. Come clean colloq. Confess fully. Make a clean breast of see *breast. [old english]
Clean bill of health n. Declaration that there is no disease or defect.
Clean-cut adj. 1 sharply outlined or defined. 2 (of a person) clean and tidy.
Cleaner n. 1 person employed to clean rooms etc. 2 establishment for cleaning clothes etc. 3 device or substance for cleaning. take a person to the cleaners slang 1 defraud or rob a person. 2 criticize severely.
Cleanly1 adv. In a clean way.
Cleanly2 adj. (-ier, -iest) habitually clean; with clean habits. cleanliness n.
Cleanse v. (-sing) make clean or pure. cleanser n.
Clean-shaven adj. Without beard or moustache.
Clean sheet n. (also clean slate) freedom from commitments or imputations; removal of these from one’s record.
Clean-up n. Act of cleaning up.
Clear —adj. 1 free from dirt or contamination. 2 (of weather, the sky, etc.) Not dull. 3 transparent. 4 a easily perceived; distinct; evident (a clear voice; it is clear that). B easily understood. 5 discerning readily and accurately (clear mind). 6 confident, convinced. 7 (of a conscience) free from guilt. 8 (of a road etc.) Unobstructed. 9 a net, without deduction. B complete (three clear days). 10 (often foll. By of) free, unhampered; unencumbered. —adv. 1 clearly. 2 completely (got clear away). 3 apart, out of contact (keep clear). —v. 1 make or become clear. 2 (often foll. By of) make or become free from obstruction etc. 3 (often foll. By of) show (a person) to be innocent. 4 approve (a person etc.) For a special duty, access, etc. 5 pass over or by, safely or without touching. 6 make (an amount of money) as a net gain or to balance expenses. 7 pass (a cheque) through a clearing-house. 8 pass through (customs etc.). 9 disappear (mist cleared). clear the air remove suspicion, tension, etc. Clear away 1 remove (esp. Dishes etc.). 2 disappear. Clear the decks prepare for action. Clear off colloq. Go away. Clear out 1 empty, tidy by emptying. 2 remove. 3 colloq. Go away. Clear up 1 tidy up. 2 solve. 3 (of weather) become fine. 4 disappear (cold has cleared up). Clear a thing with get approval or authorization for it from (a person). In the clear free from suspicion or difficulty. clearly adj. Clearness n. [latin clarus]
Clearance n. 1 removal of obstructions etc. 2 space allowed for the passing of two objects or parts in machinery etc. 3 special authorization. 4 a clearing by customs. B certificate showing this. 5 clearing of cheques. 6 clearing out.
Clear-cut adj. Sharply defined.
Clear-headed adj. Thinking clearly, sensible.
Clearing n. Open area in a forest.
Clearing bank n. Bank which is a member of a clearing-house.
Clearing-house n. 1 bankers’ establishment where cheques and bills are exchanged, only the balances being paid in cash. 2 agency for collecting and distributing information etc.
Clear-out n. Tidying by emptying and sorting.
Clear-sighted adj. Seeing, thinking, or understanding clearly.
Clear-up n. 1 tidying up. 2 (usu. Attrib.) Solving of crimes (clear-up rates).
Clearway n. Main road (other than a motorway) on which vehicles may not normally stop.
Cleat n. 1 piece of metal, wood, etc., bolted on for fastening ropes to, or to strengthen woodwork etc. 2 projecting piece on a spar, gangway, etc. To prevent slipping. [old english]
Cleavage n. 1 hollow between a woman’s breasts. 2 division, splitting. 3 line along which rocks, crystals, etc. Split.
Cleave1 v. (-ving; past clove or cleft or cleaved; past part. Cloven or cleft or cleaved) literary 1 chop or break apart; split, esp. Along the grain or line of cleavage. 2 make one’s way through (air or water). [old english]
Cleave2 v. (-ving) (foll. By to) literary stick fast; adhere. [old english]
Cleaver n. Butcher’s heavy chopping tool.
Clef n. Mus. Symbol indicating the pitch of notes on a staff. [latin clavis key]
Cleft1 adj. Split, partly divided. [past part. Of *cleave1]
Cleft2 n. Split, fissure. [old english: related to *cleave1]
Cleft palate n. Congenital split in the roof of the mouth.
Clematis n. Climbing plant with white, pink, or purple flowers. [greek]
Clementine n. Small tangerine-like citrus fruit. [french]
Clench —v. 1 close (the teeth, fingers, etc.) Tightly. 2 grasp firmly. —n. Clenching action; clenched state. [old english]
Clerestory n. (pl. -ies) upper row of windows in a cathedral or large church, above the level of the aisle roofs. [clear storey]
Clergy n. (pl. -ies) (usu. Treated as pl.) Those ordained for religious duties. [french (related to *cleric) and church latin]
Clergyman n. Member of the clergy.
Cleric n. Member of the clergy. [greek klerikos from kleros lot, heritage]
Clerical adj. 1 of clergy or clergymen. 2 of or done by clerks.
Clerical collar n. Stiff upright white collar fastening at the back.
Clerical collar n. Stiff upright white collar fastening at the back.
Clerihew n. Short comic biographical verse in two rhyming couplets. [e. Clerihew bentley, name of its inventor]
Clerk —n. 1 person employed to keep records, accounts, etc. 2 secretary or agent of a local council, court, etc. 3 lay officer of a church. —v. Work as clerk. [old english and french: related to *cleric]
Clever adj. (-er, -est) 1 skilful, talented; quick to understand and learn. 2 adroit, dexterous. 3 ingenious. cleverly adv. Cleverness n. [old english]
Cliché n. 1 hackneyed phrase or opinion. 2 metal casting of a stereotype or electrotype. clichéd adj. (also cliché‘d). [french]
Click —n. Slight sharp sound. —v. 1 (cause to) make a click. 2 colloq. A become clear or understood. B be popular. C (foll. By with) strike up a rapport. [imitative]
Client n. 1 person using the services of a lawyer, architect, or other professional person. 2 customer. [latin cliens]
Clientele n. 1 clients collectively. 2 customers. [french and latin: related to *client]
Cliff n. Steep rock-face, esp. On a coast. [old english]
Cliff n. Steep rock-face, esp. On a coast. [old english]
Cliff-hanger n. Story etc. With a strong element of suspense.
Climacteric n. Period of life when fertility and sexual activity are in decline. [greek: related to *climax]
Climate n. 1 prevailing weather conditions of an area. 2 region with particular weather conditions. 3 prevailing trend of opinion or feeling. climatic adj. Climatically adv. [greek klima]
Climax —n. 1 event or point of greatest intensity or interest; culmination. 2 orgasm. —v. Colloq. Reach or bring to a climax. climactic adj. [greek, = ladder]
Climb —v. 1 (often foll. By up) ascend, mount, go or come up. 2 grow up a wall etc. By clinging or twining. 3 progress, esp. In social rank. —n. 1 ascent by climbing. 2 hill etc. Climbed or to be climbed. climb down 1 descend, esp. Using hands. 2 withdraw from a stance taken up in an argument etc. climber n. [old english]
Climb-down n. Withdrawal from a stance taken up.
Climbing-frame n. Structure of joined bars etc. For children to climb on.
Clime n. Literary 1 region. 2 climate. [latin: related to *climate]
Clinch —v. 1 confirm or settle (an argument, bargain, etc.) Conclusively. 2 (of boxers etc.) Become too closely engaged. 3 secure (a nail or rivet) by driving the point sideways when through. —n. 1 a clinching action. B clinched state. 2 colloq. Embrace. [var. Of *clench]
Clincher n. Colloq. Point or remark that settles an argument etc.
Cling v. (past and past part. Clung) 1 (often foll. By to) adhere. 2 (foll. By to) be unwilling to give up; be emotionally dependent on (a habit, idea, friend, etc.). 3 (often foll. By to) maintain grasp; keep hold; resist separation. clingy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Cling film n. Thin transparent plastic covering for food.
Clinic n. 1 private or specialized hospital. 2 place or occasion for giving medical treatment or specialist advice. 3 gathering at a hospital bedside for medical teaching. [greek kline bed]
Clinical adj. 1 of or for the treatment of patients. 2 dispassionate, coolly detached. 3 (of a room, building, etc.) Bare, functional. clinically adv. [greek: related to *clinic]
Clinical death n. Death judged by professional observation of a person’s condition.
Clink1 —n. Sharp ringing sound. —v. (cause to) make a clink. [dutch: imitative]
Clink2 n. Slang prison. [origin unknown]
Clinker n. 1 mass of slag or lava. 2 stony residue from burnt coal. [dutch: related to *clink1]
Clinker-built adj. (of a boat) having external planks overlapping downwards and secured with clinched nails. [clink, northern english var. Of *clinch]
Clip1 —n. 1 device for holding things together or for attaching something. 2 piece of jewellery fastened by a clip. 3 set of attached cartridges for a firearm. — v. (-pp-) fix with a clip. [old english]
Clip2 —v. (-pp-) 1 cut (hair, wool, etc.) Short with shears or scissors. 2 trim or remove the hair or wool of. 3 colloq. Hit smartly. 4 a omit (a letter etc.) From a word. B omit letters or syllables of (words uttered). 5 punch a hole in (a ticket) to show it has been used. 6 cut from a newspaper etc. 7 slang swindle, rob. —n. 1 act of clipping. 2 colloq. Smart blow. 3 sequence from a motion picture. 4 yield of wool etc. 5 colloq. Speed, esp. Rapid. [old norse]
Clipboard n. Small board with a spring clip for holding papers etc.
Clip-joint n. Slang club etc. Charging exorbitant prices.
Clip-on adj. Attached by a clip.
Clipper n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Instrument for clipping hair etc. 2 hist. Fast sailing-ship.
Clipping n. Piece clipped, esp. From a newspaper.
Clique n. Small exclusive group of people. cliquey adj. (cliquier, cliquiest). Cliquish adj. [french]
Clitoris n. Small erectile part of the female genitals at the upper end of the vulva. clitoral adj. [latin from greek]
Cllr. Abbr. Councillor.
Cloak —n. 1 outdoor usu. Long and sleeveless over-garment. 2 covering (cloak of snow). —v. 1 cover with a cloak. 2 conceal, disguise. under the cloak of using as pretext. [ultimately from medieval latin clocca bell]
Cloak-and-dagger adj. Involving intrigue and espionage.
Cloakroom n. 1 room where outdoor clothes or luggage may be left. 2 euphem. Lavatory.
Clobber2 n. Slang clothing, belongings. [origin unknown]
Clobber2 n. Slang clothing, belongings. [origin unknown]
Cloche n. 1 small translucent cover for protecting outdoor plants. 2 (in full cloche hat) woman’s close-fitting bell-shaped hat. [french, = bell, medieval latin clocca]
Clock1 —n. 1 instrument for measuring and showing time. 2 a measuring device resembling this. B colloq. Speedometer, taximeter, or stopwatch. 3 slang person’s face. 4 seed-head of the dandelion. —v. 1 colloq. A (often foll. By up) attain or register (a stated time, distance, or speed). B time (a race) with a stopwatch. 2 slang hit. clock in (or on) register one’s arrival at work. Clock off (or out) register one’s departure from work. Round the clock all day and (usu.) Night. [medieval latin clocca bell]
Clock2 n. Ornamental pattern on the side of a stocking or sock near the ankle. [origin unknown]
Clockwise adj. & adv. In a curve corresponding in direction to that of the hands of a clock.
Clockwork n. 1 mechanism like that of a clock, with a spring and gears. 2 (attrib.) Driven by clockwork. like clockwork smoothly, regularly, automatically.
Clod n. Lump of earth, clay, etc. [var. Of *clot]
Cloddish adj. Loutish, foolish, clumsy.
Clodhopper n. (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Large heavy shoe.
Clog —n. Shoe with a thick wooden sole. —v. (-gg-) 1 (often foll. By up) obstruct or become obstructed; choke. 2 impede. [origin unknown]
Cloister —n. 1 covered walk round a quadrangle, esp. In a college or ecclesiastical building. 2 monastic life or seclusion. —v. Seclude. cloistered adj. Cloistral adj. [latin claustrum: related to *close2]
Clomp var. Of *clump v. 2.
Clone —n. 1 a group of organisms produced asexually from one stock or ancestor. B one such organism. 2 colloq. Person or thing regarded as identical to another. —v. (-ning) propagate as a clone. clonal adj. [greek klon twig]
Clonk —n. Abrupt heavy sound of impact. —v. 1 make this sound. 2 colloq. Hit. [imitative]
Close1 —adj. 1 (often foll. By to) situated at a short distance or interval. 2 a having a strong or immediate relation or connection (close friend). B in intimate friendship or association. C corresponding almost exactly (close resemblance). 3 in or almost in contact (close combat). 4 dense, compact, with no or only slight intervals. 5 (of a contest etc.) In which competitors are almost equal. 6 leaving no gaps or weaknesses, rigorous (close reasoning). 7 concentrated, searching. 8 (of air etc.) Stuffy, humid. 9 closed, shut. 10 limited to certain persons etc. (close corporation). 11 hidden, secret; secretive. 12 niggardly. —adv. At only a short
distance or interval. —n. 1 street closed at one end. 2 precinct of a cathedral. at close quarters very close together. closely adv. Closeness n. [latin clausus from claudo shut]
Close2 —v. (-sing) 1 a shut. B block up. 2 bring or come to an end. 3 end the day’s business. 4 bring or come closer or into contact. 5 make (an electric circuit etc.) Continuous. —n. Conclusion, end. close down (of a shop etc.) Discontinue business. Close in 1 enclose. 2 come nearer. 3 (of days) get successively shorter. Close up 1 (often foll. By to) move closer. 2 shut. 3 block up. 4 (of an aperture) grow smaller. [latin: related to *close1]
Closed book n. Subject one does not understand.
Closed-circuit adj. (of television) transmitted by wires to a restricted set of receivers.
Closed shop n. Business etc. Where employees must belong to a specified trade union.
Close harmony n. Harmony in which the notes of a chord are close together.
Close-knit adj. Tightly interlocked; closely united in friendship.
Close season n. Season when the killing of game etc. Is illegal.
Close shave n. (also close thing) colloq. Narrow escape.
Close shave n. (also close thing) colloq. Narrow escape.
Closet —n. 1 small room. 2 cupboard. 3 = water-closet. 4 (attrib.) Secret (closet homosexual). —v. (-t-) shut away, esp. In private conference or study. [french diminutive: related to close2]
Close-up n. Photograph etc. Taken at close range.
Closure n. 1 closing. 2 closed state. 3 procedure for ending a debate and taking a vote. [latin: related to *close2]
Clot —n. 1 thick mass of coagulated liquid etc., esp. Of blood. 2 colloq. Foolish person. —v. (-tt-) form into clots. [old english]
Cloth n. 1 woven or felted material. 2 piece of this, esp. For a particular purpose; tablecloth, dishcloth, etc. 3 fabric for clothes. 4 a status, esp. Of the clergy, as shown by clothes. B (prec. By the) the clergy. [old english]
Clothe v. (-thing; past and past part. Clothed or formal clad) 1 put clothes on; provide with clothes. 2 cover as with clothes. [old english]
Clothes n.pl. 1 garments worn to cover the body and limbs. 2 bedclothes. [old english]
Clothes-horse n. Frame for airing washed clothes.
Clothes-line n. Rope etc. On which clothes are hung to dry.
Clothes-peg n. Clip etc. For securing clothes to a clothes-line.
Clothier n. Seller of men’s clothes.
Clothing n. Clothes collectively.
Clotted cream n. Thick cream obtained by slow scalding.
Cloud —n. 1 visible mass of condensed watery vapour floating high above the ground. 2 mass of smoke or dust. 3 (foll. By of) mass of insects etc. Moving together. 4 state of gloom, trouble, or suspicion. —v. 1 cover or darken with clouds or gloom or trouble. 2 (often foll. By over, up) become overcast or gloomy. 3 make unclear. on cloud nine colloq. Extremely happy. Under a cloud out of favour, under suspicion. With one’s head in the clouds day-dreaming. cloudless adj. [old english]
Cloudburst n. Sudden violent rainstorm.
Cloud chamber n. Device containing vapour for tracking the paths of charged particles, x-rays, and gamma rays.
Cloud-cuckoo-land n. Fanciful or ideal place. [translation of greek nephelokokkugia in aristophanes’ birds]
Cloudy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of the sky, weather) covered with clouds, overcast. 2 not transparent; unclear. cloudily adv. Cloudiness n.
Clout —n. 1 heavy blow. 2 colloq. Influence, power of effective action. 3 dial. Piece of cloth or clothing. —v. Hit hard. [old english]
Clove1 n. Dried bud of a tropical plant used as a spice. [latin clavus nail (from its shape)]
Clove2 n. Small segment of a compound bulb, esp. Of garlic. [old english: related to *cleave1]
Clove3 past of *cleave1.
Clove hitch n. Knot by which a rope is secured to a spar etc. [clove, old past part. Of *cleave1]
Cloven adj. Split, partly divided. [past part. Of *cleave1]
Cloven hoof n. (also cloven foot) divided hoof, esp. Of oxen, sheep, or goats, or of the devil.
Clover n. Trefoil fodder plant. in clover in ease and luxury. [old english]
Clown —n. 1 comic entertainer, esp. In a circus. 2 foolish or playful person. —v. (often foll. By about, around) behave like a clown. [origin uncertain]
Cloy v. Satiate or sicken with sweetness, richness, etc. [obsolete acloy from anglo-french: related to *enclave]
Club —n. 1 heavy stick with a thick end, esp. As a weapon. 2 stick with a head used in golf. 3 association of persons meeting periodically for a shared activity. 4 organization or premises offering members social amenities, meals, temporary residence, etc. 5 a playing-card of the suit denoted by a black trefoil. B (in pl.) This suit. 6 commercial organization offering subscribers special deals (book club). —v. (-bb-) 1 beat with or as with a club. 2 (foll. By together, with) combine, esp. To raise a sum of money for a purpose. [old norse]
Clubbable adj. Sociable; fit for club membership.
Club class n. Class of fare on an aircraft etc. Designed for business travellers.
Club-foot n. Congenitally deformed foot.
Club-foot n. Congenitally deformed foot.
Clubhouse n. Premises of a (usu. Sporting) club.
Clubland n. Area where there are many nightclubs.
Club-root n. Disease of cabbages etc. With swelling at the base of the stem.
Club sandwich n. Sandwich with two layers of filling between three slices of toast or bread.
Cluck —n. Guttural cry like that of a hen. —v. Emit cluck(s). [imitative]
Clue —n. 1 fact or idea that serves as a guide, or suggests a line of inquiry, in a problem or investigation. 2 piece of evidence etc. In the detection of a crime. 3 verbal formula as a hint to what is to be inserted in a crossword. —v. (clues, clued, cluing or clueing) provide a clue to. clue in (or up) slang inform. Not have a clue colloq. Be ignorant or incompetent. [var. Of old english clew]
Clueless adj. Colloq. Ignorant, stupid.
Clump —n. (foll. By of) cluster or mass, esp. Of trees. —v. 1 a form a clump. B heap or plant together. 2 (also clomp) walk with a heavy tread. [low german or dutch]
Clumsy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 awkward in movement or shape; ungainly. 2 difficult to handle or use. 3 tactless. clumsily adv. Clumsiness n. [obsolete clumse be numb with cold]
Clung past and past part. Of *cling.
Clunk —n. Dull sound as of thick pieces of metal meeting. —v. Make such a sound. [imitative]
Cluster —n. Close group or bunch of similar people or things growing or occurring together. —v. 1 bring into, come into, or be in cluster(s). 2 (foll. By round, around) gather. [old english]
Clutch1 —v. 1 seize eagerly; grasp tightly. 2 (foll. By at) try desperately to seize. —n. 1 tight grasp. 2 (in pl.) Grasping hands; cruel or relentless grasp or control. 3 a (in a vehicle) device for connecting and disconnecting the engine and the transmission. B pedal operating this. [old english]
Clutch2 n. 1 set of eggs for hatching. 2 brood of chickens. [old norse, = hatch]
Clutch bag n. Slim flat handbag without handles.
Clutter —n. 1 crowded and untidy collection of things. 2 untidy state. —v. (often foll. By up, with) crowd untidily, fill with clutter. [related to *clot]
Cm symb. Curium.
Cm abbr. Centimetre(s).
Cmg abbr. Companion (of the order) of st michael and st george.
Cmg abbr. Companion (of the order) of st michael and st george.
Cnd abbr. Campaign for nuclear disarmament.
Co abbr. Commanding officer.
Co symb. Cobalt.
Co. Abbr. 1 company. 2 county.
Co-prefix added to: 1 nouns, with the sense ‘joint, mutual, common’ (co-author; coequality). 2 adjectives and adverbs, with the sense ‘jointly, mutually’ (coequal). 3 verbs, with the sense ‘together with another or others’ (cooperate). [var. Of *com-]
C/o abbr. Care of.
Coach —n. 1 single-decker bus, usu. Comfortably equipped for long journeys. 2 railway carriage. 3 closed horse-drawn carriage. 4 a instructor or trainer in a sport. B private tutor. —v. Train or teach as a coach. [french from magyar]
Coachload n. Group of tourists etc. Taken by coach.
Coachman n. Driver of a horse-drawn carriage.
Coachman n. Driver of a horse-drawn carriage.
Coachwork n. Bodywork of a road or rail vehicle.
Coagulate v. (-ting) 1 change from a fluid to a semisolid. 2 clot, curdle. coagulant n. Coagulation n. [latin coagulum rennet]
Coal n. 1 hard black rock, mainly carbonized plant matter, found underground and used as a fuel. 2 piece of this, esp. One that is burning. coals to newcastle something brought to a place where it is already plentiful. Haul (or call) over the coals reprimand. [old english]
Coalesce v. (-cing) come together and form a whole. coalescence n. Coalescent adj. [latin alo nourish]
Coalface n. Exposed working surface of coal in a mine.
Coalfield n. Extensive area yielding coal.
Coal gas n. Mixed gases formerly extracted from coal and used for lighting and heating.
Coalition n. 1 temporary alliance, esp. Of political parties. 2 fusion into one whole. [medieval latin: related to *coalesce]
Coalman n. Man who carries or delivers coal.
Coalman n. Man who carries or delivers coal.
Coalmine n. Mine in which coal is dug. coalminer n.
Coal-scuttle n. Container for coal for a domestic fire.
Coal tar n. Thick black oily liquid distilled from coal and used as a source of benzene.
Coal-tit n. Small greyish bird with a black head.
Coaming n. Raised border round a ship’s hatches etc. To keep out water. [origin unknown]
Coarse adj. 1 rough or loose in texture; made of large particles. 2 lacking refinement; crude, obscene. coarsely adv. Coarseness n. [origin unknown]
Coarse fish n. Freshwater fish other than salmon and trout.
Coarsen v. Make or become coarse.
Coast —n. Border of land near the sea; seashore. —v. 1 ride or move, usu.
Coast —n. Border of land near the sea; seashore. —v. 1 ride or move, usu. Downhill, without the use of power. 2 make progress without much effort. 3 sail along the coast. the coast is clear there is no danger of being observed or caught. coastal adj. [latin costa side]
Coaster n. 1 ship that travels along the coast. 2 small tray or mat for a bottle or glass.
Coastguard n. 1 member of a group of people employed to keep watch on coasts to save life, prevent smuggling, etc. 2 such a group.
Coastline n. Line of the seashore, esp. With regard to its shape.
Coat —n. 1 outer garment with sleeves, usu. Extending below the hips; overcoat or jacket. 2 animal’s fur or hair. 3 covering of paint etc. Laid on a surface at one time. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By with, in) cover with a coat or layer. 2 (of paint etc.) Form a covering to. [french from germanic]
Coat-hanger see *hanger 2.
Coating n. 1 layer of paint etc. 2 material for coats.
Coat of arms n. Heraldic bearings or shield of a person, family, or corporation.
Coat of mail n. Jacket covered with mail.
Coat-tail n. Each of the flaps formed by the back of a tailcoat.
Coax v. 1 persuade gradually or by flattery. 2 (foll. By out of) obtain (a thing from a person) thus. 3 manipulate (a thing) carefully or slowly. [obsolete cokes a fool]
Coaxial adj. 1 having a common axis. 2 electr. (of a cable or line) transmitting by means of two concentric conductors separated by an insulator.
Cob n. 1 roundish lump. 2 domed loaf. 3 = *corn-cob. 4 large hazelnut. 5 sturdy riding-horse with short legs. 6 male swan. [origin unknown]
Cobalt n. 1 silvery-white metallic element. 2 a pigment made from this. B its deep-blue colour. [german, probably = kobold demon in mines]
Cobber n. Austral. & nz colloq. Companion, friend. [origin uncertain]
Cobble1 —n. (in full cobblestone) small rounded stone used for paving. —v. (-ling) pave with cobbles. [from *cob]
Cobble2 v. (-ling) 1 mend or patch up (esp. Shoes). 2 (often foll. By together) join or assemble roughly. [from *cobbler]
Cobbler n. 1 person who mends shoes professionally. 2 stewed fruit topped with
Cobbler n. 1 person who mends shoes professionally. 2 stewed fruit topped with scones. 3 (in pl.) Slang nonsense. [origin unknown]
Cobol n. Computer language for use in commerce. [common business oriented language]
Cobra n. Venomous hooded snake of africa and asia. [latin colubra snake]
Cobweb n. 1 fine network spun by a spider from liquid it secretes. 2 thread of this. cobwebby adj. [obsolete coppe spider]
Coca n. 1 s. American shrub. 2 its dried leaves, chewed as a stimulant. [spanish from quechua]
Cocaine n. Drug from coca, used as a local anaesthetic and as a stimulant.
Coccyx n. (pl. Coccyges) small triangular bone at the base of the spinal column. [greek, = cuckoo (from shape of its bill)]
Cochineal n. 1 scarlet dye used esp. For colouring food. 2 insects whose dried bodies yield this. [latin coccinus scarlet, from greek]
Cock1 —n. 1 male bird, esp. Of the domestic fowl. 2 slang (as a form of address) friend; fellow. 3 coarse slang penis. 4 slang nonsense. 5 a firing lever in a gun, raised to be released by the trigger. B cocked position of this. 6 tap or valve controlling flow. —v. 1 raise or make upright or erect. 2 turn or move (the
valve controlling flow. —v. 1 raise or make upright or erect. 2 turn or move (the eye or ear) attentively or knowingly.
Cock2 n. Conical heap of hay or straw. [perhaps from scandinavian]
Cockade n. Rosette etc. Worn in the hat as a badge. [french: related to *cock1]
Cock-a-doodle-doo n. Cock’s crow.
Cock-a-hoop adj. Exultant.
Cock-a-leekie n. Scottish soup of boiling fowl and leeks.
Cock-and-bull story n. Absurd or incredible account.
Cockatoo n. Crested parrot. [dutch from malay]
Cockchafer n. Large pale-brown beetle. [from *cock1]
Cock crow n. Dawn.
Cocker n. (in full cocker spaniel) small spaniel with a silky coat. [related to *cock1]
Cockle n. 1 a edible bivalve shellfish. B its shell. 2 (in full cockle-shell) small shallow boat. 3 pucker or wrinkle in paper, glass, etc. warm the cockles of one’s heart make one contented. [french coquille from greek: related to *conch]
Cockney —n. (pl. -s) 1 native of london, esp. Of the east end. 2 dialect or accent used there. —adj. Of cockneys or their dialect. [cokeney ‘cock’s egg’]
Cockpit n. 1 a compartment for the pilot (and crew) of an aircraft or spacecraft. B driver’s seat in a racing car. C space for the helmsman in some yachts. 2 arena of war or other conflict. 3 place for cock-fights.
Cockroach n. Flat dark-brown beetle-like insect infesting kitchens, bathrooms, etc. [spanish cucaracha]
Cockscomb n. Crest of a cock.
Cocksure adj. Arrogantly confident. [from *cock1]
Cocktail n. 1 drink made of various spirits, fruit juices, etc. 2 appetizer containing shellfish or fruit. 3 any hybrid mixture. [origin unknown]
Cocktail dress n. Short evening dress worn at a drinks party.
Cocktail stick n. Small pointed stick for serving an olive, cherry, etc.
Cod3 n. Slang nonsense. [abbreviation of *codswallop]
Coda n. 1 mus. Final additional passage of a piece or movement. 2 concluding section of a ballet. [latin cauda tail]
section of a ballet. [latin cauda tail]
Coddle v. (-ling) 1 treat as an invalid; protect attentively; pamper. 2 cook (an egg) in water below boiling point. coddler n. [a dialect form of caudle invalids’ gruel]
Code —n. 1 system of words, letters, symbols, etc., used to represent others for secrecy or brevity. 2 system of prearranged signals used to ensure secrecy in transmitting messages. 3 computing piece of program text. 4 systematic set of laws etc. 5 prevailing standard of moral behaviour. —v. (-ding) put into code. [latin *codex]
Codeine n. Alkaloid derived from morphine, used to relieve pain. [greek kodeia poppy-head]
Codependency n. Addiction to a supportive role in a relationship. codependent adj. & n.
Codex n. (pl. Codices) 1 ancient manuscript text in book form. 2 collection of descriptions of drugs etc. [latin, = tablet, book]
Codfish n. (pl. Same) = *cod1.
Codger n. (usu. In old codger) colloq. Person, esp. A strange one. [origin uncertain]
Codicil n. Addition to a will. [latin diminutive of *codex]
Codify v. (-ies, -ied) arrange (laws etc.) Systematically into a code. codification n. Codifier n.
Codling1 n. (also codlin) 1 a kind of cooking apple. 2 moth whose larva feeds on apples. [anglo-french quer de lion lion-heart]
Codling2 n. Small codfish.
Cod-liver oil n. Oil from cod livers, rich in vitamins d and a.
Codpiece n. Hist. Bag or flap at the front of a man’s breeches. [cod scrotum]
Codswallop n. Slang nonsense. [origin unknown]
Coed colloq. —n. 1 school for both sexes. 2 esp. Us female pupil of a coed school. —adj. Coeducational. [abbreviation]
Coeducation n. Education of pupils of both sexes together. coeducational adj.
Coefficient n. 1 math. Quantity placed before and multiplying an algebraic expression. 2 physics multiplier or factor by which a property is measured (coefficient of expansion). [related to *co-, *efficient]
Coelacanth n. Large sea fish formerly thought to be extinct. [greek koilos hollow, akantha spine]
Coelenterate n. Marine animal with a simple tube-shaped or cup-shaped body, e.g. Jellyfish, corals, and sea anemones. [greek koilos hollow, enteron intestine]
Coeliac disease n. Disease of the small intestine, brought on by contact with dietary gluten. [latin coeliacus from greek koilia belly]
Coenobite n. (us cenobite) member of a monastic community. [greek koinos bios common life]
Coequal adj. & n. Archaic or literary equal.
Coerce v. (-cing) persuade or restrain by force. coercible adj. Coercion n. Coercive adj. [latin coerceo restrain]
Coeval formal —adj. Of the same age; existing at the same time; contemporary. —n. Coeval person or thing. coevally adv. [latin aevum age]
Coexist v. (often foll. By with) 1 exist together. 2 (esp. Of nations) exist in mutual tolerance of each other’s ideologies etc. coexistence n. Coexistent adj.
Coextensive adj. Extending over the same space or time.
Coextensive adj. Extending over the same space or time.
C. Of e. Abbr. Church of england.
Coffee n. 1 a drink made from roasted and ground beanlike seeds of a tropical shrub. B cup of this. 2 a the shrub. B its seeds. 3 pale brown. [turkish from arabic]
Coffee bar n. Bar or café serving coffee and light refreshments from a counter.
Coffee-mill n. Small machine for grinding roasted coffee beans.
Coffee morning n. Morning gathering, esp. For charity, at which coffee is served.
Coffee shop n. Small informal restaurant, esp. In a hotel or department store.
Coffee-table n. Small low table.
Coffee-table book n. Large lavishly illustrated book.
Coffer n. 1 large strong box for valuables. 2 (in pl.) Treasury, funds. 3 sunken panel in a ceiling etc. [latin cophinus basket]
Coffer-dam n. Watertight enclosure pumped dry to permit work below the waterline, e.g. Building bridges etc. Or repairing a ship.
Coffin n. Box in which a corpse is buried or cremated. [latin: related to *coffer]
Cog n. 1 each of a series of projections on the edge of a wheel or bar transferring motion by engaging with another series. 2 unimportant member of an organization etc. [probably scandinavian]
Cogent adj. (of an argument etc.) Convincing, compelling. cogency n. Cogently adv. [latin cogo drive]
Cogitate v. (-ting) ponder, meditate. cogitation n. Cogitative adj. [latin cogito]
Cognac n. High-quality brandy, properly that distilled in cognac in w. France.
Cognate —adj. 1 related to or descended from a common ancestor. 2 (of a word) having the same linguistic family or derivation. —n. 1 relative. 2 cognate word. [latin cognatus]
Cognate object n. Gram. Object related in origin and sense to its verb (as in live a good life).
Cognition n. 1 knowing, perceiving, or conceiving as an act or faculty distinct from emotion and volition. 2 result of this. cognitional adj. Cognitive adj. [latin cognitio: related to *cognizance]
cognitio: related to *cognizance]
Cognizance n. Formal 1 knowledge or awareness; perception. 2 sphere of observation or concern. 3 heraldry distinctive device or mark. [latin cognosco get to know]
Cognizant adj. (foll. By of) formal having knowledge or being aware of.
Cognomen n. 1 nickname. 2 ancient roman’s third or fourth name designating a branch of a family, as in marcus tullius cicero, or as an epithet, as in p. Cornelius scipio africanus. [latin]
Cognoscente n. (pl. -ti) connoisseur. [italian]
Cog-wheel n. Wheel with cogs.
Cohabit v. (-t-) (esp. Of an unmarried couple) live together as husband and wife. cohabitation n. Cohabitee n. [latin habito dwell]
Cohere v. (-ring) 1 (of parts or a whole) stick together, remain united. 2 (of reasoning etc.) Be logical or consistent. [latin haereo haes-stick]
Coherent adj. 1 intelligible and articulate. 2 (of an argument etc.) Consistent; easily followed. 3 cohering. 4 physics (of waves) having a constant phase relationship. coherence n. Coherently adv.
Cohesion n. 1 a sticking together. B tendency to cohere. 2 chem. Force with which molecules cohere. cohesive adj.
Cohort n. 1 ancient roman military unit, one-tenth of a legion. 2 band of warriors. 3 a persons banded together. B group of persons with a common statistical characteristic. [latin]
Coif n. Hist. Close-fitting cap. [latin cofia helmet]
Coiff v. (usu. As coiffed adj.) Dress or arrange (the hair). [french coiffer]
Coiffeur n. (fem. Coiffeuse) hairdresser. [french]
Coiffure n. Hairstyle. [french]
Coil —v. 1 arrange or be arranged in spirals or concentric rings. 2 move sinuously. —n. 1 coiled arrangement. 2 coiled length of rope etc. 3 single turn of something coiled. 4 flexible loop as a contraceptive device in the womb. 5 coiled wire for the passage of an electric current and acting as an inductor. [latin: related to *collect1]
Coin —n. 1 stamped disc of metal as official money. 2 (collect.) Metal money. —v. 1 make (coins) by stamping. 2 make (metal) into coins. 3 invent (esp. A new word or phrase). coin money make much money quickly. [latin cuneus wedge]
Coinage n. 1 coining. 2 a coins. B system of coins in use. 3 invention, esp. Of a word.
Coin-box n. 1 telephone operated by inserting coins. 2 receptacle for these.
Coincide v. (-ding) 1 occur at the same time. 2 occupy the same portion of space. 3 (often foll. By with) agree or be identical. [latin: related to *incident]
Coincidence n. 1 coinciding. 2 remarkable concurrence of events etc. Apparently by chance. coincident adj.
Coincidental adj. In the nature of or resulting from a coincidence. coincidentally adv.
Coir n. Coconut fibre used for ropes, matting, etc. [malayalam kayar cord]
Coition n. = *coitus. [latin coitio from eo go]
Coitus n. Sexual intercourse. coital adj. [latin: related to *coition]
Coitus interruptus n. Sexual intercourse with withdrawal of the penis before ejaculation.
Coke1 —n. Solid substance left after gases have been extracted from coal. —v.
Coke1 —n. Solid substance left after gases have been extracted from coal. —v. (-king) convert (coal) into coke. [dial. Colk core]
Coke2 n. Slang cocaine. [abbreviation]
Col. Abbr. Colonel.
Col n. Depression in a chain of mountains. [latin collum neck]
Col. Abbr. Column.
Col-see *com-.
Cola n. (also kola) 1 w. African tree bearing seeds containing caffeine. 2 carbonated drink usu. Flavoured with these. [west african]
Colander n. Perforated vessel used to strain off liquid in cookery. [latin colo strain]
Cold —adj. 1 of or at a low temperature. 2 not heated; cooled after heat. 3 feeling cold. 4 lacking ardour, friendliness, or affection. 5 a depressing, uninteresting. B (of colour) suggestive of cold. 6 a dead. B colloq. Unconscious. 7 (of a scent in hunting) grown faint. 8 (in games) far from finding what is sought. —n. 1 a prevalence of low temperature. B cold weather or environment. 2 infection of the nose or throat with sneezing, catarrh, etc. —adv. Unrehearsed.
in cold blood without emotion, deliberately. Out in the cold ignored, neglected. Throw (or pour) cold water on be discouraging about. coldly adv. Coldness n. [old english]
Cold-blooded adj. 1 having a body temperature varying with that of the environment. 2 callous; deliberately cruel. cold-bloodedly adv. Cold-bloodedness n.
Cold call —n. Marketing call on a person who has previously not shown interest in the product. —v. Visit or telephone (a person) in this way.
Cold chisel n. Chisel for cutting metal, stone, or brick.
Cold comfort n. Poor consolation.
Cold cream n. Ointment for cleansing and softening the skin.
Cold feet n.pl. Colloq. Loss of nerve.
Cold frame n. Unheated glass-topped frame for growing small plants.
Cold fusion n. Nuclear fusion at room temperature, esp. As a possible energy source.
Cold-hearted adj. Lacking sympathy or kindness. cold-heartedly adv. Cold-heartedness n.
Cold shoulder —n. (prec. By the) intentional unfriendliness. —v. (cold-shoulder) be deliberately unfriendly towards.
Cold sore n. Inflammation and blisters in and around the mouth, caused by a virus infection.
Cold storage n. 1 storage in a refrigerator. 2 temporary putting aside (of an idea etc.), postponement.
Cold sweat n. Sweating induced by fear or illness.
Cold table n. Selection of dishes of cold food.
Cold turkey n. Slang abrupt withdrawal from addictive drugs.
Cold war n. Hostility between nations without actual fighting.
Cole n. (usu. In comb.) Cabbage. [latin caulis]
Coleopteron n. Insect with front wings serving as sheaths, e.g. The beetle and
Coleslaw n. Dressed salad of sliced raw cabbage etc. [from *cole, dutch sla salad]
Coleus n. Plant with variegated leaves. [greek koleon sheath]
Coley n. (pl. -s) any of several fish used as food, e.g. The rock-salmon. [origin uncertain]
Colic n. Severe spasmodic abdominal pain. colicky adj. [latin: related to *colon2]
Colitis n. Inflammation of the lining of the colon.
Collaborate v. (-ting) (often foll. By with) 1 work together. 2 cooperate with an enemy. collaboration n. Collaborative adj. Collaborator n. [latin: related to *labour]
Collage n. Form or work of art in which various materials are fixed to a backing. [french, = gluing]
Collagen n. Protein found in animal connective tissue, yielding gelatin on boiling. [greek kolla glue]
Collapse —n. 1 falling down or in of a structure; folding up; giving way. 2 sudden failure of a plan etc. 3 physical or mental breakdown; exhaustion. —v. (-sing) 1 (cause to) undergo collapse. 2 colloq. Lie or sit down and relax, esp. After prolonged effort. 3 fold up. collapsible adj. [latin labor laps-slip]
Collar —n. 1 neckband, upright or turned over. 2 band of leather etc. Round an animal’s neck. 3 band or ring or pipe in machinery. 4 piece of meat rolled up and tied. —v. 1 capture, seize. 2 colloq. Accost. 3 slang appropriate. [latin collum neck]
Collar-bone n. Bone joining the breastbone and shoulder-blade.
Collate v. (-ting) 1 assemble and arrange systematically. 2 compare (texts, statements, etc.). collator n. [latin: related to *confer]
Collateral —n. 1 security pledged as a guarantee for the repayment of a loan. 2 person having the same ancestor as another but by a different line. —adj. 1 descended from the same ancestor but by a different line. 2 side by side; parallel. 3 a additional but subordinate. B contributory. C connected but aside from the main subject, course, etc. collaterally adv. [latin: related to *lateral]
Collation n. 1 collating. 2 thing collated. 3 light meal. [latin: related to *confer]
Colleague n. Fellow worker, esp. In a profession or business. [latin collega]
Collect1 —v. 1 bring or come together; assemble, accumulate. 2 systematically seek and acquire, esp. As a hobby. 3 obtain (contributions etc.) From a number
seek and acquire, esp. As a hobby. 3 obtain (contributions etc.) From a number of people. 4 call for; fetch. 5 a refl. Regain control of oneself. B concentrate (one’s thoughts etc.). C (as collected adj.) Not perturbed or distracted. —adj. & adv. Us (of a telephone call, parcel, etc.) To be paid for by the receiver. [latin lego lect-pick]
Collect2 n. Short prayer of the anglican or roman catholic church. [latin collecta: related to *collect1]
Collection n. 1 collecting or being collected. 2 things collected, esp. Systematically. 3 money collected, esp. At a meeting or church service.
Collective —adj. Of, by, or relating to a group or society as a whole; joint; shared. —n. 1 cooperative enterprise; its members. 2 = *collective noun. collectively adv.
Collective bargaining n. Negotiation of wages etc. By an organized body of employees.
Collective farm n. Jointly-operated esp. State-owned amalgamation of several smallholdings.
Collective noun n. Singular noun denoting a collection or number of individuals (e.g. Assembly, family, troop).
Collective ownership n. Ownership of land etc., by all for the benefit of all.
Collectivism n. Theory and practice of collective ownership of land and the means of production. collectivist n. & adj.
Collectivize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) organize on the basis of collective ownership. collectivization n.
Collector n. 1 person who collects things of interest. 2 person who collects money etc. Due.
Collector’s item n. (also collector’s piece) thing of interest to collectors.
Colleen n. Ir. Girl. [irish cailín]
College n. 1 establishment for further, higher, or professional education. 2 college premises (lived in college). 3 students and teachers in a college. 4 school. 5 organized body of persons with shared functions and privileges. [latin: related to *colleague]
Collegiate adj. 1 of, or constituted as, a college; corporate. 2 (of a university) consisting of different colleges.
Collegiate church n. Church endowed for a chapter of canons but without a
Collegiate church n. Church endowed for a chapter of canons but without a bishop’s see.
Collide v. (-ding) (often foll. By with) come into collision or conflict. [latin collido -lis-clash]
Collie n. Sheepdog of an orig. Scottish breed. [perhaps from coll *coal]
Collier n. 1 coalminer. 2 a coal ship. B member of its crew. [from *coal]
Colliery n. (pl. -ies) coalmine and its buildings.
Collision n. 1 violent impact of a moving body with another or with a fixed object. 2 clashing of interests etc. [latin: related to *collide]
Collocate v. (-ting) juxtapose (a word etc.) With another. collocation n. [latin: related to *locus]
Colloid n. 1 substance consisting of ultramicroscopic particles. 2 mixture of such particles dispersed in another substance. colloidal adj. [greek kolla glue]
Colloquial adj. Of ordinary or familiar conversation, informal. colloquially adv. [latin: related to *colloquy]
Colloquialism n. 1 colloquial word or phrase. 2 use of these.
Colloquium n. (pl. -s or -quia) academic conference or seminar. [latin: related to *colloquy]
Colloquy n. (pl. -quies) literary conversation, talk. [latin loquor speak]
Collude v. (-ding) conspire together. collusion n. Collusive adj. [latin ludo lus-play]
Collywobbles n.pl. Colloq. 1 rumbling or pain in the stomach. 2 apprehensive feeling. [from *colic, *wobble]
Cologne n. Eau-de-cologne or similar toilet water. [abbreviation]
Colon1 n. Punctuation mark (:), used esp. To mark illustration or antithesis. [greek, = clause]
Colon2 n. Lower and greater part of the large intestine. [latin from greek]
Colonel n. Army officer in command of a regiment, ranking next below brigadier. colonelcy n. (pl. -ies). [italian colonnello: related to *column]
Colonial —adj. 1 of a colony or colonies. 2 of colonialism. —n. Inhabitant of a colony.
Colonialism n. 1 policy of acquiring or maintaining colonies. 2 derog. Exploitation of colonies. colonialist n. & adj.
Colonist n. Settler in or inhabitant of a colony.
Colonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 establish a colony in. 2 join a colony. colonization n.
Colonnade n. Row of columns, esp. Supporting an entablature or roof. colonnaded adj. [french: related to *column]
Colony n. (pl. -ies) 1 a settlement or settlers in a new country, fully or partly subject to the mother country. B their territory. 2 a people of one nationality, occupation, etc., esp. Forming a community in a city. B separate or segregated group (nudist colony). 3 group of animals, plants, etc., living close together. [latin colonia farm]
Colophon n. 1 publisher’s imprint, esp. On the title-page. 2 tailpiece in a manuscript or book, giving the writer’s or printer’s name, date, etc. [greek, = summit]
Color (brit. Colour) —n. 1 sensation produced on the eye by rays of light when resolved as by a prism into different wavelengths. 2 one, or any mixture, of the constituents into which light can be separated as in a spectrum or rainbow, sometimes including (loosely) black and white. 3 colouring substance, esp. Paint. 4 use of all colours in photography etc. 5 a pigmentation of the skin, esp.
When dark. B this as ground for discrimination. 6 ruddiness of complexion. 7 (in pl.) Appearance or aspect (saw them in their true colours). 8 (in pl.) A coloured ribbon or uniform etc. Worn to signify membership of a school, club, team, etc. B flag of a regiment or ship. 9 quality, mood, or variety in music, literature, etc. 10 show of reason; pretext (lend colour to; under colour of). —v. 1 apply colour to, esp. By painting, dyeing, etc. 2 influence. 3 misrepresent, exaggerate. 4 take on colour; blush. show one’s true colours reveal one’s true character or intentions. [latin color]
Colorado beetle n. Yellow and black beetle, with larva destructive to the potato plant. [colorado in us]
Coloration n. (also colouration) 1 appearance as regards colour. 2 act or mode of colouring. [latin: related to *colour]
Coloratura n. 1 elaborate ornamentation of a vocal melody. 2 soprano skilled in this. [italian: related to *colour]
Colored (brit. Coloured) —adj. 1 having colour. 2 (coloured) often offens. A wholly or partly of non-white descent. B s.afr. Of mixed descent. —n. 1 (coloured) often offens. A coloured person.
Colored (brit. Coloured) —adj. 1 having colour. 2 (coloured) often offens. A wholly or partly of non-white descent. B s.afr. Of mixed descent. —n. 1 (coloured) often offens. A coloured person. B s.afr. Person of mixed descent. 2 (in pl.) Coloured clothing etc. For washing.
Colorful adj. (brit. Colour-) 1 full of colour; bright. 2 full of interest; vivid. colourfully adv.
Coloring n. (brit. Colour-) 1 appearance as regards colour, esp. Facial complexion. 2 use or application of colour. 3 substance giving colour.
Colorless adj. (brit. Colour-) 1 without colour. 2 lacking character or interest.
Colossus n. (pl. -ssi or -ssuses) 1 statue much bigger than life size. 2 gigantic or remarkable person etc. 3 imperial power personified. [latin from greek]
Colostomy n. (pl. -ies) operation on the colon to make an opening in the abdominal wall to provide an artificial anus. [from *colon2]
Colour (us color) —n. 1 sensation produced on the eye by rays of light when resolved as by a prism into different wavelengths. 2 one, or any mixture, of the constituents into which light can be separated as in a spectrum or rainbow, sometimes including (loosely) black and white. 3 colouring substance, esp. Paint. 4 use of all colours in photography etc. 5 a pigmentation of the skin, esp. When dark. B this as ground for discrimination. 6 ruddiness of complexion. 7 (in pl.) Appearance or aspect (saw them in their true colours). 8 (in pl.) A coloured ribbon or uniform etc. Worn to signify membership of a school, club, team, etc. B flag of a regiment or ship. 9 quality, mood, or variety in music, literature, etc. 10 show of reason; pretext (lend colour to; under colour of). —v. 1 apply colour to, esp. By painting, dyeing, etc. 2 influence. 3 misrepresent, exaggerate. 4 take on colour; blush. show one’s true colours reveal one’s true character or intentions. [latin color]
Colouration var. Of *coloration.
Colour bar n. Racial discrimination against non-white people.
Colour-blind adj. Unable to distinguish certain colours. colour-blindness n.
Colour code —n. Use of colours as a means of identification. —v. (colour-code) identify by means of a colour code.
Coloured (us colored) —adj. 1 having colour. 2 (coloured) often offens. A wholly or partly of non-white descent. B s.afr. Of mixed descent. —n. 1 (coloured) often offens. A coloured person. B s.afr. Person of mixed descent. 2 (in pl.) Coloured clothing etc. For washing.
Colourful adj. (us color-) 1 full of colour; bright. 2 full of interest; vivid. colourfully adv.
Colouring n. (us color-) 1 appearance as regards colour, esp. Facial complexion. 2 use or application of colour. 3 substance giving colour.
Colourless adj. (us color-) 1 without colour. 2 lacking character or interest.
Colour scheme n. Arrangement of colours, esp. In interior design.
Colour-sergeant n. Senior sergeant of an infantry company.
Colour supplement n. Magazine with colour printing, as a supplement to a newspaper.
Colposcopy n. Examination of the vagina and neck of the womb. colposcope n. [greek kolpos womb]
Colt n. 1 young male horse. 2 sport inexperienced player. coltish adj. [old english]
Colter n. (brit. Coulter) vertical blade in front of a ploughshare. [latin culter knife]
Coltsfoot n. (pl. -s) wild plant with large leaves and yellow flowers.
Columbine n. Garden plant with purple-blue flowers like a cluster of doves. [latin columba dove]
Column n. 1 pillar, usu. Of circular section and with a base and capital. 2 column-shaped object. 3 vertical cylindrical mass of liquid or vapour. 4 vertical division of a printed page. 5 part of a newspaper etc. Regularly devoted to a particular subject.
Columnist n. Journalist contributing regularly to a newspaper etc.
Usage com-is used before b, m, p, and occasionally before vowels and f; co-esp. Before vowels, h, and gn; col-before l, cor-before r, and con-before other consonants.
Coma n. (pl. -s) prolonged deep unconsciousness. [latin from greek]
Comatose adj. 1 in a coma. 2 drowsy, sleepy.
Comb —n. 1 a toothed strip of rigid material for tidying the hair. B similar curved decorative strip worn in the hair. 2 thing like a comb, esp. A device for tidying and straightening wool etc. 3 red fleshy crest of a fowl, esp. A cock. 4 honeycomb. —v. 1 draw a comb through (the hair). 2 dress (wool etc.) With a comb. 3 colloq. Search (a place) thoroughly. comb out 1 arrange (the hair) loosely by combing. 2 remove with a comb. 3 search out and get rid of. [old english]
Combat —n. Fight, struggle, contest. —v. (-t-) 1 engage in combat (with). 2 oppose; strive against. [latin: related to *battle]
Combatant —n. Person engaged in fighting. —adj. 1 fighting. 2 for fighting.
Combative adj. Pugnacious.
Combe var. Of *coomb.
Combination n. 1 combining or being combined. 2 combined set of things or people. 3 sequence of numbers or letters used to open a combination lock. 4 motor cycle with a side-car attached. 5 (in pl.) Single undergarment for the body and legs. [latin: related to *combine]
Combination lock n. Lock that can be opened only by a specific sequence of movements.
Combine —v. (-ning) 1 join together; unite for a common purpose. 2 possess (qualities usually distinct) together. 3 form or cause to form a chemical compound. 4 harvest with a combine harvester. —n. 1 combination of esp. Commercial interests. 2 (in full combine harvester) machine that reaps and threshes in one operation. [latin bini a pair]
Combings n.pl. Hairs combed off.
Combining form n. Linguistic element used in combination with another to form a word (e.g. Anglo- = english).
Combo n. (pl. -s) slang small jazz or dance band. [abbreviation of *combination]
Combustible —adj. Capable of or used for burning. —n. Combustible substance. combustibility n. [latin comburo -bust-burn up]
Combustion n. 1 burning. 2 development of light and heat from the chemical combination of a substance with oxygen.
Come —v. (-ming; past came; past part. Come) 1 move, be brought towards, or reach a place. 2 reach a specified situation or result (came to no harm). 3 reach or extend to a specified point. 4 traverse or accomplish (with compl.: have come a long way). 5 occur, happen; (of time) arrive in due course (how did you come to break your leg?; the day soon came). 6 take or occupy a specified position in space or time (nero came after claudius). 7 become perceptible or known (it will come to me). 8 be available (comes in three sizes). 9 become (come loose). 10 (foll. By from, of) a be descended from. B be the result of (that comes of complaining). 11 colloq. Play the part of; behave like (don’t come the bully with me). 12 slang have an orgasm. 13 (in subjunctive) colloq. When a specified time is reached (come next month). 14 (as int.) Expressing mild protest or encouragement (come, it cannot be that bad). —n. Slang semen ejaculated. come about happen. Come across 1 meet or find by chance. 2 colloq. Be effective or understood; give a specified impression. Come again colloq. 1 make a further effort.
Comeback n. 1 return to a previous (esp. Successful) state. 2 slang retaliation or retort.
Comecon n. Economic association of socialist countries in e. Europe. [abbreviation of council for mutual economic assistance]
Comedy n. (pl. -ies) 1 a play, film, etc., of amusing character, usu. With a happy ending. B such works as a dramatic genre. 2 humour; amusing aspects. comedic adj. [greek: related to *comic]
Comedy of manners n. Satirical play portraying the social behaviour of the upper classes.
Comer n. Person who comes as an applicant etc. (offered it to the first comer).
Comestibles n.pl. Formal or joc. Food. [french from latin]
Comet n. Hazy object moving in a path about the sun, usu. With a nucleus of ice surrounded by gas and with a tail pointing away from the sun. [greek kometes]
Comeuppance n. Colloq. Deserved punishment. [come up, *-ance]
Comfit n. Archaic sweet consisting of a nut etc. In sugar. [latin: related to *confection]
Comfort —n. 1 a state of physical well-being. B (usu. In pl.) Things that make life easy or pleasant. 2 relief of suffering or grief, consolation. 3 person or thing giving consolation. —v. Soothe in grief; console. [latin fortis strong]
Comfortable adj. 1 giving ease. 2 free from discomfort; at ease. 3 having an easy conscience. 4 a having an adequate standard of living; free from financial worry. B sufficient (comfortable income). 5 a with a wide margin (comfortable win). B appreciable (comfortable margin). comfortably adv.
Comforter n. 1 person who comforts. 2 baby’s dummy. 3 archaic woollen scarf.
Comfortless adj. 1 dreary, cheerless. 2 without comfort.
Comfort station n. Us euphem. Public lavatory.
Comfrey n. (pl. -s) tall bell-flowered plant growing in damp, shady places. [french from latin]
Comic —adj. 1 of or like comedy. 2 funny. —n. 1 comedian. 2 periodical in the
Comic —adj. 1 of or like comedy. 2 funny. —n. 1 comedian. 2 periodical in the form of comic strips. comical adj. Comically adv. [greek komos revel]
Comic strip n. Sequence of drawings telling a story.
Coming —attrib. Adj. 1 approaching, next (the coming week). 2 of potential importance (coming man). —n. Arrival.
Comity n. (pl. -ies) formal 1 courtesy, friendship. 2 a association of nations etc. B (in full comity of nations) mutual recognition by nations of the laws and customs of others. [latin comis courteous]
Comma n. Punctuation mark (,) indicating a pause or break between parts of a sentence etc. [greek, = clause]
Command —v. 1 (often foll. By to + infin., or that + clause) give a formal order or instruction to. 2 (also absol.) Have authority or control over. 3 have at one’s disposal or within reach (a skill, resources, etc.). 4 deserve and get (sympathy, respect, etc.). 5 dominate (a strategic position) from a superior height; look down over. —n. 1 order, instruction. 2 mastery, control, possession. 3 exercise or tenure of authority, esp. Naval or military. 4 a body of troops etc. B district under a commander. [latin: related to *mandate]
Commandant n. Commanding officer, esp. Of a military academy. [french or italian or spanish: related to *command]
Commandeer v. 1 seize (esp. Goods) for military use. 2 take arbitrary possession of. [afrikaans kommanderen]
of. [afrikaans kommanderen]
Commander n. 1 person who commands, esp. A naval officer next below captain. 2 (in full knight commander) member of a higher class in some orders of knighthood.
Commander-in-chief n. (pl. Commanders-in-chief) supreme commander, esp. Of a nation’s forces.
Commanding adj. 1 exalted, impressive. 2 (of a position) giving a wide view. 3 (of an advantage etc.) Substantial (commanding lead).
Commandment n. Divine command.
Command module n. Control compartment in a spacecraft.
Commando n. (pl. -s) 1 unit of shock troops. 2 member of this. [portuguese: related to *command]
Command paper n. Paper laid before parliament by royal command.
Command performance n. Theatrical or film performance given at royal request.
Commemorate v. (-ting) 1 preserve in memory by a celebration or ceremony. 2 be a memorial of. commemoration n. Commemorative adj. [latin: related to *memory]
*memory]
Commence v. (-cing) formal begin. [latin: related to *com-, *initiate]
Commencement n. Formal beginning.
Commend v. 1 praise. 2 entrust, commit. 3 recommend. commendation n. [latin: related to *mandate]
Commendable adj. Praiseworthy. commendably adv.
Commensurable adj. 1 (often foll. By with, to) measurable by the same standard. 2 (foll. By to) proportionate to. 3 math. (of numbers) in a ratio equal to the ratio of integers. commensurability n. [latin: related to *measure]
Commensurate adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By with) coextensive. 2 (often foll. By to, with) proportionate.
Comment —n. 1 brief critical or explanatory remark or note; opinion. 2 commenting; criticism (aroused much comment; his art is a comment on society). —v. (often foll. By on or that) make (esp. Critical) remarks. no comment colloq. I decline to answer your question. [latin]
Commentary n. (pl. -ies) 1 descriptive spoken esp. Broadcast account of an event or performance as it happens. 2 set of explanatory notes on a text etc. [latin]
Commentate v. (-ting) act as a commentator.
Commentator n. 1 person who provides a commentary. 2 person who comments on current events. [latin]
Commerce n. Financial transactions, esp. Buying and selling; trading. [latin: related to *mercer]
Commercial —adj. 1 of or engaged in commerce. 2 having financial profit as its primary aim. 3 (of chemicals) for industrial use. —n. Television or radio advertisement. commercially adv.
Commercial broadcasting n. Broadcasting financed by advertising.
Commercialism n. 1 commercial practices. 2 emphasis on financial profit.
Commercialize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 exploit or spoil for profit. 2 make commercial. commercialization n.
Commercial traveller n. Firm’s representative visiting shops etc. To get orders.
Commie n. Slang derog. Communist. [abbreviation]
Commination n. Literary threatening of divine vengeance. comminatory adj. [latin: related to *menace]
Commingle v. (-ling) literary mingle together.
Comminute v. (-ting) 1 reduce to small fragments. 2 divide (property) into small portions. comminution n. [latin: related to *minute2]
Comminuted fracture n. Fracture producing multiple bone splinters.
Commiserate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By with) express or feel sympathy. commiseration n. [latin: related to *miser]
Commissar n. Hist. 1 official of the soviet communist party responsible for political education and organization. 2 head of a government department in the ussr. [latin: related to *commit]
Commissariat n. 1 esp. Mil. A department for the supply of food etc. B food supplied. 2 hist. Government department of the ussr. [related to *commissary]
Commissary n. (pl. -ies) 1 deputy, delegate. 2 us mil. Store for supplies of food etc. [latin: related to *commit]
Commission —n. 1 a authority to perform a task etc. B person(s) entrusted with such authority. C task etc. Given to such person(s). 2 order for something to be produced specially. 3 a warrant conferring the rank of officer in the armed forces. B rank so conferred. 4 pay or percentage paid to an agent. 5 act of committing (a crime etc.). —v. 1 empower by commission.
Commission-agent n. Bookmaker.
Commissionaire n. Uniformed door-attendant. [french: related to *commissioner]
Commissioner n. 1 person appointed by a commission to perform a specific task, e.g. The head of the london police etc. 2 member of a government commission. 3 representative of government in a district, department, etc. [medieval latin: related to *commission]
Commissioner for oaths n. Solicitor authorized to administer an oath in an affidavit etc.
Commit v. (-tt-) 1 do or make (a crime, blunder, etc.). 2 (usu. Foll. By to) entrust or consign for safe keeping or treatment. 3 send (a person) to prison. 4 pledge or bind (esp. Oneself) to a certain course or policy. 5 (as committed adj.) (often foll. By to) a dedicated. B obliged. commit to memory memorize. Commit to paper write down. [latin committo -miss-]
Commitment n. 1 engagement or obligation. 2 committing or being committed. 3 dedication; committing oneself.
Committal n. Act of committing, esp. To prison.
Committal n. Act of committing, esp. To prison.
Committee n. 1 body of persons appointed for a special function by (and usu. Out of) a larger body. 2 (committee) house of commons sitting as a committee. [from commit, -ee]
Committee stage n. Third of five stages of a bill’s progress through parliament.
Commode n. 1 chamber-pot in a chair with a cover. 2 chest of drawers. [latin commodus convenient]
Commodious adj. Roomy.
Commodity n. (pl. -ies) article of trade, esp. A raw material or product as opposed to a service. [latin: related to *commode]
Commodore n. 1 naval officer above captain and below rear-admiral. 2 commander of a squadron or other division of a fleet. 3 president of a yacht-club. [french: related to *commander]
Common —adj. (-er, -est) 1 a occurring often. B ordinary; without special rank or position. 2 a shared by, coming from, more than one (common knowledge). B belonging to the whole community; public. 3 derog. Low-class; vulgar; inferior. 4 of the most familiar type (common cold). 5 math. Belonging to two or more quantities (common denominator). 6 gram. (of gender) referring to individuals of either sex. —n. 1 piece of open public land. 2 slang = *common sense. in common 1 in joint use; shared. 2 of joint interest. In common with in the same way as. [latin communis]
way as. [latin communis]
Commonality n. (pl. -ies) 1 sharing of an attribute. 2 common occurrence. 3 = *commonalty. [var. Of *commonalty]
Commonalty n. (pl. -ies) 1 the common people. 2 the general body (esp. Of mankind). [medieval latin: related to *common]
Commoner n. 1 one of the common people (below the rank of peer). 2 university student without a scholarship. [medieval latin: related to *common]
Common ground n. Point or argument accepted by both sides in a dispute.
Common law n. Unwritten law based on custom and precedent.
Common-law husband n. (also common-law wife) partner recognized by common law without formal marriage.
Commonly adv. Usually, frequently; ordinarily.
Common market n. European community.
Common noun n. Gram. Name denoting a class of objects or a concept, not a particular individual.
Common or garden adj. Colloq. Ordinary.
Common noun n. Gram. Name denoting a class of objects or a concept, not a particular individual.
Common or garden adj. Colloq. Ordinary.
Commonplace —adj. Lacking originality; trite; ordinary. —n. 1 event, topic, etc. That is ordinary or usual. 2 trite remark. [translation of latin locus communis]
Common-room n. Room for the social use of students or teachers at a college etc.
Commons n.pl. 1 (the commons) = *house of commons. 2 the common people.
Common sense n. Sound practical sense.
Commonsensical adj. Having or marked by common sense.
Common time n. Mus. Four crotchets in a bar.
Commonwealth n. 1 independent state or community, esp. A democratic republic. 2 (the commonwealth) a association of the uk with states that were previously part of the british empire. B republican government of britain 1649–
previously part of the british empire. B republican government of britain 1649– 60. 3 federation of states.
Commotion n. Confused and noisy disturbance, uproar. [latin: related to *com-]
Communal adj. 1 shared between members of a group or community; for common use. 2 (of conflict etc.) Between esp. Ethnic or religious communities. communally adv. [latin: related to *commune1]
Commune1 n. 1 group of people sharing accommodation, goods, etc. 2 small district of local government in france etc. [medieval latin: related to *common]
Commune2 v. (-ning) (usu. Foll. By with) 1 speak intimately. 2 feel in close touch (with nature etc.). [french: related to *common]
Communicable adj. (esp. Of a disease) able to be passed on. [latin: related to *communicate]
Communicant n. 1 person who receives holy communion. 2 person who imparts information. [related to *communicate]
Communicate v. (-ting) 1 impart, transmit (news, heat, motion, feelings, disease, ideas, etc.). 2 succeed in conveying information. 3 (often foll. By with) relate socially; have dealings. 4 be connected (they have communicating rooms). communicator n. Communicatory adj. [latin: related to *common]
Communication n. 1 a communicating or being communicated. B information etc. Communicated. C letter, message, etc. 2 connection or means of access. 3 social dealings. 4 (in pl.) Science and practice of transmitting information.
Communication cord n. Cord or chain pulled to stop a train in an emergency.
Communication(s) satellite n. Artificial satellite used to relay telephone circuits or broadcast programmes.
Communicative adj. Ready to talk and impart information.
Communion n. 1 sharing, esp. Of thoughts etc.; fellowship. 2 participation; sharing in common (communion of interests). 3 (communion or holy communion) eucharist. 4 body or group within the christian faith (the methodist communion). [latin: related to *common]
Communiqué n. Official communication, esp. A news report. [french, = communicated]
Communism n. 1 a social system in which most property is publicly owned and each person works for the common benefit. B political theory advocating this. 2 (usu. Communism) the form of socialist society established in cuba, china, etc., and previously, the ussr. [french: related to *common]
Communist —n. 1 person advocating communism. 2 (usu. Communist) supporter of communism or member of a communist party. —adj. 1 of or relating to communism. 2 (usu. Communist) of communists or a communist
relating to communism. 2 (usu. Communist) of communists or a communist party. communistic adj.
Communist party n. Political party advocating communism or communism.
Community n. (pl. -ies) 1 body of people living in one place, district, or country. 2 body of people having religion, ethnic origin, profession, etc., in common. 3 fellowship (community of interest). 4 commune. 5 joint ownership or liability. [latin: related to *common]
Community centre n. Place providing social facilities for a neighbourhood.
Community charge n. Tax levied locally on every adult.
Community charge n. Tax levied locally on every adult.
Usage the community charge, or poll tax, replaced household rates in 1989-90 and is itself to be replaced by a council tax in 1993.
Community home n. Centre housing young offenders and other juveniles.
Community service n. Unpaid work in the community, esp. By an offender.
Community singing n. Singing by a large group, esp. Of old popular songs or hymns.
Community spirit n. Feeling of belonging to a community, expressed in mutual support etc.
Commute v. (-ting) 1 travel some distance to and from work. 2 (usu. Foll. By to) change (a punishment) to one less severe. 3 (often foll. By into, for) change (one kind of payment or obligation) for another. 4 exchange. commutable adj. Commutation n. [latin muto change]
Commuter n. Person who commutes to and from work.
Compact1 —adj. 1 closely or neatly packed together. 2 small and economically designed. 3 concise. 4 (of a person) small but well-proportioned. —v. Make compact. —n. (in full powder compact) small flat case for face-powder. compactly adv. Compactness n. [latin pango fasten]
Compact2 n. Agreement, contract. [latin: related to *pact]
Compact disc n. Disc on which information or sound is recorded digitally and reproduced by reflection of laser light.
Companion n. 1 a person who accompanies or associates with another. B (foll. By in, of) partner, sharer. C person employed to live with and assist another. 2 handbook or reference book. 3 thing that matches another. 4 (companion) member of some orders of knighthood. [latin panis bread]
Companion-way n. Staircase from a ship’s deck to the saloon or cabins.
Company n. (pl. -ies) 1 a number of people assembled. B guest(s). 2 person’s associate(s). 3 a commercial business. B partners in this. 4 actors etc. Working together. 5 subdivision of an infantry battalion. 6 body of people combined for a common purpose (the ship’s company). 7 being with another or others. in company with together with. Keep a person company remain with a person to be sociable. Part company (often foll. By with) cease to associate; separate; disagree. [french: related to *companion]
Comparable adj. (often foll. By with, to) able or fit to be compared. comparability n. Comparably adv. [latin: related to *compare]
Usage use of comparable with to and with corresponds to the senses of compare: to is more common.
Comparative —adj. 1 perceptible or estimated by comparison; relative (in comparative comfort). 2 of or involving comparison (a comparative study). 3 gram. (of an adjective or adverb) expressing a higher degree of a quality (e.g. Braver, more quickly). —n. Gram. Comparative expression or word. comparatively adv. [latin: related to *compare]
Compare —v. (-ring) 1 (usu. Foll. By to) express similarities in; liken. 2 (often foll. By to, with) estimate the similarity of. 3 (often foll. By with) bear
foll. By to, with) estimate the similarity of. 3 (often foll. By with) bear comparison. 4 gram. Form comparative and superlative degrees of (an adjective or adverb). —n. Literary comparison (beyond compare). compare notes exchange ideas or opinions. [latin compar equal]
Usage in current use, to and with are generally interchangeable, but with often implies a greater element of formal analysis.
Comparison n. 1 comparing. 2 illustration or example of similarity. 3 capacity for being likened (there’s no comparison). 4 (in full degrees of comparison) gram. Positive, comparative, and superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs. bear (or stand) comparison (often foll. By with) be able to be compared favourably. Beyond comparison 1 totally different in quality. 2 greatly superior; excellent.
Compartment n. 1 space within a larger space, separated by partitions. 2 watertight division of a ship. 3 area of activity etc. Kept apart from others in a person’s mind. [latin: related to *part]
Compartmental adj. Of or divided into compartments or categories.
Compartmentalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) divide into compartments or categories.
Compass n. 1 instrument showing the direction of magnetic north and bearings from it. 2 (usu. In pl.) Instrument for taking measurements and describing circles, with two arms connected at one end by a hinge. 3 circumference or boundary. 4 area, extent; scope; range. [latin passus pace]
Compassion n. Pity inclining one to help or be merciful. [church latin: related to *passion]
Compassionate leave n. Leave granted on grounds of bereavement etc.
Compatible adj. 1 a able to coexist; well-suited. B (often foll. By with) consistent. 2 (of equipment etc.) Able to be used in combination. compatibility n. [medieval latin: related to *passion]
Compatriot n. Fellow-countryman. [latin compatriota]
Compendious adj. Comprehensive but brief. [latin: related to *compendium]
Compendium n. (pl. -s or -dia) 1 concise summary or abridgement. 2 collection of table-games etc. [latin]
Compensate v. (-ting) 1 a (often foll. By for) recompense (a person). B recompense (loss, damage, etc.). 2 (usu. Foll. By for a thing) make amends. 3 counterbalance. 4 offset disability or frustration by development in another direction. compensatory adj. [latin pendo pens-weigh]
Compensation n. 1 compensating or being compensated. 2 money etc. Given as recompense.
Compère —n. Person who introduces a variety show etc. —v. (-ring) act as compère (to). [french, = godfather]
Compete v. (-ting) 1 take part in a contest etc. 2 (often foll. By with, against a person, for a thing) strive. [latin peto seek]
Competence n. (also competency) 1 ability; being competent. 2 income large enough to live on. 3 legal capacity.
Competent adj. 1 adequately qualified or capable. 2 effective. competently adv. [latin: related to *compete]
Competition n. 1 (often foll. By for) competing. 2 event in which people compete. 3 the other people or trade competing; opposition. [latin: related to *compete]
Competitive adj. 1 of or involving competition. 2 (of prices etc.) Comparing favourably with those of rivals. 3 having a strong urge to win. competitiveness n.
Competitor n. Person who competes; rival, esp. In business.
Compile v. (-ling) 1 a collect and arrange (material) into a list, book, etc. B produce (a book etc.) Thus. 2 computing translate (a programming language) into machine code. compilation n. [latin compilo plunder]
Compiler n. 1 person who compiles. 2 computing program for translating a programming language into machine code.
Complacent adj. Smugly self-satisfied or contented. complacence n. Complacency n. Complacently adv. [latin placeo please]
Usage complacent is often confused with complaisant.
Complain v. 1 express dissatisfaction. 2 (foll. By of) a say that one is suffering from (an ailment). B state a grievance concerning. 3 creak under strain. [latin plango lament]
Complainant n. Plaintiff in certain lawsuits.
Complaint n. 1 complaining. 2 grievance, cause of dissatisfaction. 3 ailment. 4 formal accusation.
Complaisant adj. Formal 1 deferential. 2 willing to please; acquiescent. complaisance n. [french: related to *complacent]
Usage complaisant is often confused with complacent.
Complement —n. 1 thing that completes; counterpart. 2 full number needed. 3 word(s) added to a verb to complete the predicate of a sentence. 4 amount by which an angle is less than 90°. —v. 1 complete. 2 form a complement to. [latin compleo fill up]
Complementary adj. 1 completing; forming a complement. 2 (of two or more things) complementing each other.
Complementary medicine n. Alternative medicine.
Complete —adj. 1 having all its parts; entire. 2 finished. 3 total, in every way. — v. (-ting) 1 finish. 2 make complete. 3 fill in (a form etc.). 4 conclude the sale or purchase of property. complete with having (as an important feature) (comes complete with instructions). completely adv. Completeness n. Completion n. [latin: related to *complement]
Complex —n. 1 building, series of rooms, etc., made up of related parts (shopping complex). 2 psychol. Group of usu. Repressed feelings or thoughts which cause abnormal behaviour or mental states. 3 preoccupation; feeling of inadequacy. —adj. 1 complicated. 2 consisting of related parts; composite. complexity n. (pl. -ies). [latin complexus]
Complexion n. 1 natural colour, texture, and appearance of the skin, esp. Of the face. 2 aspect, character (puts a different complexion on the matter). [latin: related to *complex]
Compliance n. 1 obedience to a request, command, etc. 2 capacity to yield. in compliance with according to.
Complicate v. (-ting) 1 make difficult or complex. 2 (as complicated adj.) Complex; intricate. [latin plico to fold]
Complication n. 1 a involved or confused condition or state. B complicating circumstance; difficulty. 2 (often in pl.) Disease or condition aggravating or arising out of a previous one. [latin: related to *complicate]
Complicity n. Partnership in wrongdoing. [french: related to *complex]
Compliment —n. 1 a polite expression of praise. B act implying praise. 2 (in pl.) A formal greetings accompanying a present etc. B praise. —v. (often foll. By on) congratulate; praise. [latin: related to *complement]
Complimentary adj. 1 expressing a compliment. 2 given free of charge.
Compline n. 1 last of the canonical hours of prayer. 2 service during this. [latin: related to *comply]
Comply v. (-ies, -ied) (often foll. By with) act in accordance (with a request or command). [latin compleo fill up]
Component —n. Part of a larger whole. —adj. Being part of a larger whole. [latin: related to *compound1]
Comport v.refl. Literary conduct oneself; behave. comport with suit, befit. comportment n. [latin porto carry]
Compose v. (-sing) 1 create in music or writing. 2 constitute; make up. 3 arrange artistically, neatly, or for a specified purpose. 4 a (often refl.) Calm; settle. B (as composed adj.) Calm, self-possessed. 5 printing a set up (type). B arrange (an article etc.) In type. composed of made up of, consisting of. composedly adv. [french: related to *pose]
Usage see note at comprise.
Composer n. Person who composes (esp. Music).
Composite —adj. 1 made up of parts. 2 of mixed ionic and corinthian style. 3 (of a plant) having a head of many flowers forming one bloom. —n. Composite thing or plant. [latin: related to *compose]
Composition n. 1 a act or method of putting together; composing. B thing composed, esp. Music. 2 constitution of a substance. 3 school essay. 4 arrangement of the parts of a picture etc. 5 compound artificial substance. compositional adj.
Compositor n. Person who sets up type for printing. [latin: related to *compose]
Compositor n. Person who sets up type for printing. [latin: related to *compose]
Compos mentis adj. Sane. [latin]
Compost —n. 1 mixture of decayed organic matter. 2 loam soil with fertilizer for growing plants. —v. 1 treat with compost. 2 make into compost. [latin: related to *compose]
Composure n. Tranquil manner. [from *compose]
Compote n. Fruit preserved or cooked in syrup. [french: related to *compose]
Compound1 —n. 1 mixture of two or more things. 2 word made up of two or more existing words. 3 substance formed from two or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions. —adj. 1 made up of two or more ingredients or parts. 2 combined; collective. —v. 1 mix or combine (ingredients or elements). 2 increase or complicate (difficulties etc.). 3 make up (a composite whole). 4 settle (a matter) by mutual agreement. 5 law condone or conceal (a liability or offence) for personal gain. 6 (usu. Foll. By with) law come to terms with a person. [latin compono -pos-put together]
Compound2 n. 1 enclosure or fenced-in space. 2 enclosure, esp. In india, china, etc., in which a factory or house stands. [malay kampong]
Compound fracture n. Fracture complicated by a wound.
Compound interest n. Interest payable on capital and its accumulated interest.
Comprehensible adj. That can be understood. [latin: related to *comprehend]
Comprehension n. 1 a understanding. B text set as a test of understanding. 2 inclusion.
Comprehensive —adj. 1 including all or nearly all, inclusive. 2 (of motor insurance) providing protection against most risks. —n. (in full comprehensive school) secondary school for children of all abilities. comprehensively adv. Comprehensiveness n.
Compress —v. 1 squeeze together. 2 bring into a smaller space or shorter time. —n. Pad of lint etc. Pressed on to part of the body to relieve inflammation, stop bleeding, etc. compressible adj. [latin: related to *press1]
Compression n. 1 compressing. 2 reduction in volume of the fuel mixture in an internal-combustion engine before ignition.
Compressor n. Machine for compressing air or other gases.
Comprise v. (-sing) 1 include. 2 consist of. 3 make up, compose. [french: related to *comprehend]
Usage the use of this word in sense 3 is considered incorrect and compose is generally preferred.
Compromise —n. 1 settlement of a dispute by mutual concession. 2 (often foll. By between) intermediate state between conflicting opinions, actions, etc. —v. (-sing) 1 a settle a dispute by mutual concession. B modify one’s opinions, demands, etc. 2 bring into disrepute or danger by indiscretion. [latin: related to *promise]
Comptroller n. Controller (used in the title of some financial officers). [var. Of *controller]
Compulsion n. 1 compelling or being compelled; obligation. 2 irresistible urge. [latin: related to *compel]
Compulsive adj. 1 compelling. 2 resulting or acting (as if) from compulsion (compulsive gambler). 3 irresistible (compulsive entertainment). compulsively adv. [medieval latin: related to *compel]
Compulsory adj. 1 required by law or a rule. 2 essential. compulsorily adv.
Compulsory purchase n. Enforced sale of land or property to a local authority etc.
Compunction n. 1 pricking of conscience. 2 slight regret; scruple. [church latin: related to *point]
related to *point]
Compute v. (-ting) 1 reckon or calculate. 2 use a computer. computation n. [latin puto reckon]
Computer n. Electronic device for storing and processing data, making calculations, or controlling machinery.
Computerize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 equip with a computer. 2 store, perform, or produce by computer. computerization n.
Computer-literate adj. Able to use computers.
Computer science n. The study of the principles and use of computers.
Computer virus n. Self-replicating code maliciously introduced into a computer program and intended to corrupt the system or destroy data.
Comrade n. 1 associate or companion in some activity. 2 fellow socialist or communist. comradely adj. Comradeship n. [spanish: related to *chamber]
Con2 —n. (usu. In pl.) Reason against. —prep. & adv. Against (cf. *pro2). [latin contra against]
Con3 n. Slang convict. [abbreviation]
Con4 v. (us conn) (-nn-) direct the steering of (a ship). [originally cond from french: related to *conduct]
Con-see *com-.
Concatenation n. Series of linked things or events. [latin catena chain]
Concave adj. Curved like the interior of a circle or sphere. concavity n. [latin: related to *cave]
Conceal v. 1 keep secret. 2 hide. concealment n. [latin celo hide]
Concede v. (-ding) 1 admit to be true. 2 admit defeat in. 3 grant (a right, privilege, etc.). [latin: related to *cede]
Conceit n. 1 personal vanity; pride. 2 literary a far-fetched comparison. B fanciful notion. [from *conceive]
Conceited adj. Vain. conceitedly adv.
Conceivable adj. Capable of being grasped or imagined. conceivably adv.
Conceive v. (-ving) 1 become pregnant (with). 2 a (often foll. By of) imagine, think. B (usu. In passive) formulate (a belief, plan, etc.). [latin concipio -cept-]
Concentrate —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By on) focus one’s attention or thought. 2 bring together to one point. 3 increase the strength of (a liquid etc.) By removing water etc. 4 (as concentrated adj.) Intense, strong. —n. Concentrated substance. [latin: related to *centre]
Concentration n. 1 concentrating or being concentrated. 2 mental attention. 3 something concentrated. 4 weight of a substance in a given amount of material.
Concentration camp n. Camp where political prisoners etc. Are detained.
Concentric adj. Having a common centre. concentrically adv. [french or medieval latin: related to *centre]
Concept n. General notion; abstract idea. [latin: related to *conceive]
Conception n. 1 conceiving or being conceived. 2 idea, plan. 3 understanding (has no conception). conceptional adj. [french from latin: related to *concept]
Conceptual adj. Of mental conceptions or concepts. conceptually adv.
Conceptualize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) form a concept or idea of. conceptualization n.
Concern —v. 1 a be relevant or important to. B relate to; be about. 2 (refl.; often foll. By with, about, in) interest or involve oneself. 3 worry, affect. —n. 1 anxiety, worry. 2 a matter of interest or importance to one. B interest, connection (has a concern in politics). 3 business, firm. 4 colloq. Complicated thing, contrivance. [latin cerno sift]
Concerned adj. 1 involved, interested. 2 troubled, anxious. be concerned (often foll. By in) take part. concernedly adv. Concernedness n.
Concerning prep. About, regarding.
Concert n. 1 musical performance of usu. Several separate compositions. 2 agreement. 3 combination of voices or sounds. [italian: related to *concerto]
Concerted adj. 1 jointly arranged or planned. 2 mus. Arranged in parts for voices or instruments.
Concertina —n. Musical instrument like an accordion but smaller. —v. (-nas, -naed or -na’d, -naing) compress or collapse in folds like those of a concertina.
Concerto n. (pl. -s or -ti) composition for solo instrument(s) and orchestra. [italian]
Concert pitch n. Pitch internationally agreed whereby the a above middle c = 440 hz.
Concession n. 1 a conceding. B thing conceded. 2 reduction in price for a certain category of persons. 3 a right to use land etc. B right to sell goods in a particular territory. concessionary adj. [latin: related to *concede]
Concessive adj. Gram. (of a preposition or conjunction) introducing a phrase or clause which contrasts with the main clause (e.g. In spite of, although). [latin: related to *concede]
Conch n. 1 thick heavy spiral shell of various marine gastropod molluscs. 2 any such gastropod. [latin concha]
Conchology n. The study of shells. [from *conch]
Concierge n. (esp. In france) doorkeeper or porter of a block of flats etc. [french]
Conciliate v. (-ting) 1 make calm and amenable; pacify; gain the goodwill of. 2 reconcile. conciliation n. Conciliator n. Conciliatory adj. [latin: related to *council]
Concise adj. Brief but comprehensive in expression. concisely adv. Conciseness n. Concision n. [latin caedo cut]
Conclave n. 1 private meeting. 2 rc ch. A assembly of cardinals for the election
Conclave n. 1 private meeting. 2 rc ch. A assembly of cardinals for the election of a pope. B meeting-place for this. [latin clavis key]
Conclude v. (-ding) 1 bring or come to an end. 2 (often foll. By from or that) infer. 3 settle (a treaty etc.). [latin concludo: related to *close1]
Conclusion n. 1 ending, end. 2 judgement reached by reasoning. 3 summing-up. 4 settling (of peace etc.). 5 logic proposition reached from given premisses. in conclusion lastly, to conclude. [latin: related to *conclude]
Conclusive adj. Decisive, convincing. conclusively adv. [latin: related to *conclude]
Concoct v. 1 make by mixing ingredients. 2 invent (a story, lie, etc.). concoction n. [latin coquo coct-cook]
Concomitant —adj. (often foll. By with) accompanying; occurring together. —n. Accompanying thing. concomitance n. [latin comes comit-companion]
Concord n. Agreement, harmony. concordant adj. [latin cor cord-heart]
Concordance n. 1 agreement. 2 alphabetical index of words used in a book or by an author. [medieval latin: related to *concord]
Concordat n. Agreement, esp. Between the church and a state. [latin: related to *concord]
*concord]
Concourse n. 1 crowd, gathering. 2 large open area in a railway station etc. [latin: related to *concur]
Concrete —adj. 1 a existing in a material form; real. B specific, definite (concrete evidence; a concrete proposal). 2 gram. (of a noun) denoting a material object as opposed to a quality, state, etc. —n. (often attrib.) Mixture of gravel, sand, cement, and water, used for building. —v. (-ting) cover with or embed in concrete. [latin cresco cret-grow]
Concretion n. 1 hard solid mass. 2 forming of this by coalescence. [latin: related to *concrete]
Concubine n. 1 literary or joc. Mistress. 2 (among polygamous peoples) secondary wife. concubinage n. [latin cubo lie]
Concupiscence n. Formal lust. concupiscent adj. [latin cupio desire]
Concur v. (-rr-) 1 (often foll. By with) have the same opinion. 2 coincide. [latin curro run]
Concurrent adj. 1 (often foll. By with) existing or in operation at the same time or together. 2 (of three or more lines) meeting at or tending towards one point. 3 agreeing, harmonious. concurrence n. Concurrently adv.
Concuss v. Subject to concussion. [latin quatio shake]
Concussion n. 1 temporary unconsciousness or incapacity due to a blow to the head, a fall, etc. 2 violent shaking.
Condemn v. 1 express utter disapproval of. 2 a find guilty; convict. B (usu. Foll. By to) sentence to (a punishment). 3 pronounce (a building etc.) Unfit for use. 4 (usu. Foll. By to) doom or assign (to something unpleasant). condemnation n. Condemnatory adj. [latin: related to *damn]
Condensation n. 1 condensing or being condensed. 2 condensed liquid (esp. Water on a cold surface). 3 abridgement. [latin: related to *condense]
Condense v. (-sing) 1 make denser or more concentrated. 2 express in fewer words. 3 reduce or be reduced from a gas or vapour to a liquid. [latin: related to *dense]
Condensed milk n. Milk thickened by evaporation and sweetened.
Condenser n. 1 apparatus or vessel for condensing vapour. 2 electr. = *capacitor. 3 lens or system of lenses for concentrating light.
Condescend v. 1 be gracious enough (to do a thing) esp. While showing one’s sense of dignity or superiority (condescended to attend). 2 (foll. By to) pretend to be on equal terms with (an inferior). 3 (as condescending adj.) Patronizing. condescendingly adv. Condescension n. [latin: related to *descend]
Condign adj. (of a punishment etc.) Severe and well-deserved. [latin dignus
Condign adj. (of a punishment etc.) Severe and well-deserved. [latin dignus worthy]
Condiment n. Seasoning or relish for food. [latin condio pickle]
Condition —n. 1 stipulation; thing upon the fulfilment of which something else depends. 2 a state of being or fitness of a person or thing. B ailment, abnormality (heart condition). 3 (in pl.) Circumstances, esp. Those affecting the functioning or existence of something (good working conditions). —v. 1 a bring into a good or desired state. B make fit (esp. Dogs or horses). 2 teach or accustom. 3 a impose conditions on. B be essential to. in (or out of) condition in good (or bad) condition. On condition that with the stipulation that. [latin dico say]
Conditional adj. 1 (often foll. By on) dependent; not absolute; containing a condition. 2 gram. (of a clause, mood, etc.) Expressing a condition. conditionally adv. [latin: related to *condition]
Conditioned reflex n. Reflex response to a non-natural stimulus, established by training.
Conditioner n. Agent that conditions, esp. The hair.
Condole v. (-ling) (foll. By with) express sympathy with (a person) over a loss etc. [latin condoleo grieve with another]
Usage condole is often confused with console1.
Condolence n. (often in pl.) Expression of sympathy.
Condom n. Contraceptive sheath worn by men. [origin unknown]
Condominium n. 1 joint rule or sovereignty. 2 us building containing individually owned flats. [latin dominium lordship]
Condone v. (-ning) forgive or overlook (an offence or wrongdoing). [latin dono give]
Condor n. Large s. American vulture. [spanish from quechua]
Conduce v. (-cing) (foll. By to) contribute to (a result). [latin: related to *conduct]
Conducive adj. (often foll. By to) contributing or helping (towards something).
Conduct —n. 1 behaviour. 2 activity or manner of directing or managing (a business, war, etc.). —v. 1 lead or guide. 2 direct or manage (a business etc.). 3 (also absol.) Be the conductor of (an orchestra etc.). 4 transmit (heat, electricity, etc.) By conduction. 5 refl. Behave. [latin duco duct-lead]
Conductance n. Power of a specified material to conduct electricity.
Conduction n. Transmission of heat, electricity, etc. Through a substance. [latin: related to *conduct]
Conductive adj. Transmitting (esp. Heat, electricity, etc.). conductivity n.
Conductor n. 1 person who directs an orchestra etc. 2 (fem. Conductress) person who collects fares in a bus etc. 3 thing that conducts heat or electricity. [latin: related to *conduct]
Conduit n. 1 channel or pipe conveying liquids. 2 tube or trough protecting insulated electric wires. [medieval latin: related to *conduct]
Cone n. 1 solid figure with a circular (or other curved) plane base, tapering to a point. 2 thing of similar shape. 3 dry fruit of a conifer. 4 ice-cream cornet. [latin from greek]
Confabulate v. (-ting) converse, chat. confabulation n. [latin: related to *fable]
Confection n. Dish or delicacy made with sweet ingredients. [latin conficio prepare]
Confectioner n. Maker or retailer of confectionery.
Confectionery n. Confections, esp. Sweets.
Confederacy n. (pl. -ies) league or alliance, esp. Of confederate states. [french: related to *confederate]
Confederate —adj. Esp. Polit. Allied. —n. 1 ally, esp. (in a bad sense) accomplice. 2 (confederate) supporter of the confederate states. —v. (-ting) (often foll. By with) bring or come into alliance. [latin: related to *federal]
Confederate states n.pl. States which seceded from the us in 1860–1.
Confederation n. 1 union or alliance, esp. Of states. 2 confederating or being confederated.
Confer v. (-rr-) 1 (often foll. By on, upon) grant or bestow. 2 (often foll. By with) converse, consult. conferrable adj. [latin confero collat-bring together]
Conference n. 1 consultation. 2 meeting for discussion. [french or medieval latin: related to *confer]
Conferment n. Conferring of a degree, honour, etc.
Confess v. 1 a (also absol.) Acknowledge or admit (a fault, crime, etc.). B (foll. By to) admit to. 2 admit reluctantly. 3 a (also absol.) Declare (one’s sins) to a priest. B (of a priest) hear the confession of. [latin confiteor -fess-]
Confessedly adv. By one’s own or general admission.
Confession n. 1 a act of confessing. B thing confessed. 2 (in full confession of faith) declaration of one’s beliefs or principles.
Confessional —n. Enclosed stall in a church in which the priest hears confessions. —adj. Of confession.
Confessor n. Priest who hears confessions and gives spiritual counsel.
Confetti n. Small bits of coloured paper thrown by wedding guests at the bride and groom. [italian]
Confidant n. (fem. Confidante pronunc. Same) person trusted with knowledge of one’s private affairs. [related to *confide]
Confide v. (-ding) 1 (foll. By in) talk confidentially to. 2 (usu. Foll. By to) tell (a secret etc.) In confidence. 3 (foll. By to) entrust (an object of care, a task, etc.) To. [latin confido trust]
Confidence n. 1 firm trust. 2 a feeling of reliance or certainty. B sense of self-reliance; boldness. 3 something told as a secret. in confidence as a secret. In a person’s confidence trusted with a person’s secrets. Take into one’s confidence confide in. [latin: related to *confide]
Confidence trick n. Swindle in which the victim is persuaded to trust the swindler. confidence trickster n.
Confident adj. Feeling or showing confidence; bold. confidently adv. [italian: related to *confide]
Confidential adj. 1 spoken or written in confidence. 2 entrusted with secrets (confidential secretary). 3 confiding. confidentiality n. Confidentially adv.
Configuration n. 1 arrangement in a particular form. 2 form or figure resulting from this. 3 computing hardware and its arrangement of connections etc. configure v. (-ring). [latin: related to *figure]
Confine —v. (-ning) 1 keep or restrict (within certain limits). 2 imprison. —n. (usu. In pl.) Limit, boundary. [latin finis limit]
Confinement n. 1 confining or being confined. 2 time of childbirth.
Confirm v. 1 provide support for the truth or correctness of. 2 (foll. By in) encourage (a person) in (an opinion etc.). 3 establish more firmly (power, possession, etc.). 4 make formally valid. 5 administer the religious rite of confirmation to. [latin: related to *firm1]
confirmation to. [latin: related to *firm1]
Confirmation n. 1 confirming or being confirmed. 2 rite confirming a baptized person as a member of the christian church.
Confirmed adj. Firmly settled in some habit or condition (confirmed bachelor).
Confiscate v. (-ting) take or seize by authority. confiscation n. [latin: related to *fiscal]
Conflagration n. Great and destructive fire. [latin: related to *flagrant]
Conflate v. (-ting) blend or fuse together (esp. Two variant texts into one). conflation n. [latin flo flat-blow]
Conflict —n. 1 a state of opposition. B fight, struggle. 2 (often foll. By of) clashing of opposed interests etc. —v. Clash; be incompatible. [latin fligo flict-strike]
Confluence n. 1 place where two rivers meet. 2 a coming together. B crowd of people. [latin fluo flow]
Conform v. 1 comply with rules or general custom. 2 (foll. By to, with) comply with; be in accordance with. 3 (often foll. By to) be or make suitable. [latin: related to *form]
related to *form]
Conformable adj. 1 (often foll. By to) similar. 2 (often foll. By with) consistent. 3 (often foll. By to) adaptable.
Conformation n. Way a thing is formed; shape.
Conformist —n. Person who conforms to an established practice. —adj. Conforming, conventional. conformism n.
Conformity n. 1 accordance with established practice. 2 agreement, suitability.
Confront v. 1 a face in hostility or defiance. B face up to and deal with. 2 (of a difficulty etc.) Present itself to. 3 (foll. By with) bring (a person) face to face with (an accusation etc.). 4 meet or stand facing. confrontation n. Confrontational adj. [french from medieval latin]
Confucian adj. Of confucius or his philosophy. confucianism n. [confucius, name of a chinese philosopher]
Confuse v. (-sing) 1 perplex, bewilder. 2 mix up in the mind; mistake (one for another). 3 make indistinct (confuse the issue). 4 (often as confused adj.) Throw into disorder. confusedly adv. Confusing adj. [related to *confound]
Confusion n. Confusing or being confused.
Confute v. (-ting) prove (a person or argument) to be in error. confutation n. [latin]
Conga —n. 1 latin-american dance, with a line of dancers one behind the other. 2 tall narrow drum beaten with the hands. —v. (congas, congaed or conga’d, congaing) perform the conga. [spanish conga (feminine), = of the congo]
Congeal v. 1 make or become semisolid by cooling. 2 (of blood etc.) Coagulate. congelation n. [french from latin gelo freeze]
Congenial adj. 1 (often foll. By with, to) pleasant because like-minded. 2 (often foll. By to) suited or agreeable. congeniality n. Congenially adv. [from *com-, *genial]
Congenital adj. 1 (esp. Of disease) existing from birth. 2 as such from birth (congenital liar). congenitally adv. [latin: related to *com-]
Conger n. (in full conger eel) large marine eel. [greek goggros]
Congeries n. (pl. Same) disorderly collection; mass, heap. [latin congero heap together]
Usage the form congery, formed under the misapprehension that congeries is plural only, is incorrect.
Congest v. (esp. As congested adj.) Affect with congestion. [latin congero -gest-heap together]
Congestion n. Abnormal accumulation or obstruction, esp. Of traffic etc. Or of blood or mucus in part of the body.
Conglomerate —adj. Gathered into a rounded mass. —n. 1 heterogeneous mass. 2 group or corporation of merged firms. —v. (-ting) collect into a coherent mass. conglomeration n. [latin glomus -eris ball]
Congratulate v. (-ting) (often foll. By on) 1 express pleasure at the happiness, good fortune, or excellence of (a person). 2 refl. Think oneself fortunate or clever. congratulatory adj. [latin gratus pleasing]
Congratulation n. 1 congratulating. 2 (usu. In pl.) Expression of this.
Congregate v. (-ting) collect or gather into a crowd. [latin grex greg-flock]
Congregation n. 1 gathering of people, esp. For religious worship. 2 body of
persons regularly attending a particular church etc. [latin: related to *congregate]
Congregational adj. 1 of a congregation. 2 (congregational) of or adhering to congregationalism.
Congregationalism n. System whereby individual churches are largely self-governing. congregationalist n.
Congress n. 1 formal meeting of delegates for discussion. 2 (congress) national legislative body, esp. Of the us. congressional adj. [latin gradior gress-walk]
Congressman n. (fem. Congresswoman) member of the us congress.
Congruent adj. 1 (often foll. By with) suitable, agreeing. 2 geom. (of figures) coinciding exactly when superimposed. congruence n. Congruency n. [latin congruo agree]
Congruous adj. Suitable, agreeing; fitting. congruity n. [latin: related to *congruent]
Conic adj. Of a cone. [greek: related to *cone]
Conical adj. Cone-shaped.
Conifer n. Tree usu. Bearing cones. coniferous adj. [latin: related to *cone]
Conjectural adj. Based on conjecture.
Conjecture —n. 1 formation of an opinion on incomplete information; guessing. 2 guess. —v. (-ring) guess. [latin conjectura from jacio throw]
Conjoin v. Formal join, combine.
Conjoint adj. Formal associated, conjoined.
Conjugal adj. Of marriage or the relationship of husband and wife. [latin conjux consort]
Conjugate —v. (-ting) 1 gram. List the different forms of (a verb). 2 a unite. B become fused. —adj. 1 joined together, paired. 2 fused. [latin jugum yoke]
Conjugation n. Gram. System of verbal inflection.
Conjunct adj. Joined together; combined; associated. [latin from juntus joined]
Conjunction n. 1 joining; connection. 2 gram. Word used to connect clauses or sentences or words in the same clause (e.g. And, but, if). 3 combination (of events or circumstances). 4 apparent proximity to each other of two bodies in the
events or circumstances). 4 apparent proximity to each other of two bodies in the solar system.
Conjunctiva n. (pl. -s) mucous membrane covering the front of the eye and the lining inside the eyelids.
Conjunctive adj. 1 serving to join. 2 gram. Of the nature of a conjunction.
Conjunctivitis n. Inflammation of the conjunctiva.
Conjure v. (-ring) 1 perform tricks which are seemingly magical, esp. By movements of the hands. 2 summon (a spirit or demon) to appear. 3 formal appeal solemnly to. conjure up 1 produce as if by magic. 2 evoke. [latin juro swear]
Conjuror n. (also conjurer) performer of conjuring tricks.
Conk1 v. (usu. Foll. By out) colloq. 1 (of a machine etc.) Break down. 2 (of a person) become exhausted and give up; fall asleep; faint; die. [origin unknown]
Conk2 slang —n. 1 nose or head. 2 punch on the nose or head. —v. Hit on the nose or head. [perhaps = *conch]
Conker n. 1 fruit of the horse chestnut. 2 (in pl.) Children’s game played with conkers on strings. [dial. Conker snail-shell]
Con man n. Confidence trickster.
Conn v. (brit. Con) (-nn-) direct the steering of (a ship). [originally cond from french: related to *conduct]
Connect v. 1 (often foll. By to, with) join (two things, or one thing with another). 2 be joined or joinable. 3 (often foll. By with) associate mentally or practically. 4 (foll. By with) (of a train etc.) Be timed to arrive with another, so passengers can transfer. 5 put into communication by telephone. 6 a (usu. In passive; foll. By with) associate with others in relationships etc. B be meaningful or relevant. 7 colloq. Hit or strike effectively. [latin necto nex-bind]
Connecting-rod n. Rod between the piston and crankpin etc. In an internal combustion engine.
Connection n. (also connexion) 1 connecting or being connected. 2 point at which two things are connected. 3 link, esp. By telephone. 4 connecting train etc. 5 (often in pl.) Relative or associate, esp. One with influence. 6 relation of ideas.
Connective adj. Connecting, esp. Of body tissue connecting, separating, etc., organs etc.
Connector n. Thing that connects.
Conning tower n. 1 superstructure of a submarine containing the periscope. 2 armoured wheel-house of a warship. [from *con4]
Connive v. (-ving) 1 (foll. By at) disregard or tacitly consent to (a wrongdoing). 2 (usu. Foll. By with) conspire. connivance n. [latin conniveo shut the eyes]
Connoisseur n. (often foll. By of, in) expert judge in matters of taste. [french connaître know]
Connote v. (-ting) 1 (of a word etc.) Imply in addition to the literal or primary meaning. 2 mean, signify. connotation n. Connotative adj. [medieval latin: related to *note]
Connubial adj. Of marriage or the relationship of husband and wife. [latin nubo marry]
Conquer v. 1 a overcome and control militarily. B be victorious. 2 overcome by effort. conqueror n. [latin conquiro win]
Conquest n. 1 conquering or being conquered. 2 a conquered territory. B something won. 3 person whose affection has been won.
Consanguineous adj. Descended from the same ancestor; akin. consanguinity n. [latin sanguis blood]
Conscience n. Moral sense of right and wrong, esp. As affecting behaviour. in all conscience colloq. By any reasonable standard. On one’s conscience causing one feelings of guilt. Prisoner of conscience person imprisoned by the state for his or her political or religious views. [latin: related to *science]
her political or religious views. [latin: related to *science]
Conscience money n. Sum paid to relieve one’s conscience, esp. Regarding a payment previously evaded.
Conscience-stricken adj. (also conscience-struck) made uneasy by a bad conscience.
Conscientious adj. Diligent and scrupulous. conscientiously adv. Conscientiousness n. [medieval latin: related to *conscience]
Conscientious objector n. Person who for reasons of conscience objects to military service etc.
Conscious —adj. 1 awake and aware of one’s surroundings and identity. 2 (usu. Foll. By of or that) aware, knowing. 3 (of actions, emotions, etc.) Realized or recognized by the doer; intentional. 4 (in comb.) Aware of; concerned with (fashion-conscious). —n. (prec. By the) the conscious mind. consciously adv. Consciousness n. [latin scio know]
Conscript —v. Summon for compulsory state (esp. Military) service. —n. Conscripted person. conscription n. [latin scribo write]
Consecrate v. (-ting) 1 make or declare sacred; dedicate formally to religious or divine purpose. 2 (foll. By to) devote to (a purpose). consecration n. [latin: related to *sacred]
Consecutive adj. 1 a following continuously. B in an unbroken or logical order. 2 gram. Expressing a consequence. consecutively adv. [latin sequor secut-follow]
Consensus n. (often foll. By of; often attrib.) General agreement or opinion. [latin: related to *consent]
Consent —v. (often foll. By to) express willingness, give permission, agree. —n. Voluntary agreement, permission. [latin sentio feel]
Consequence n. 1 result or effect of what has gone before. 2 importance. in consequence as a result. Take the consequences accept the results of one’s choice or action. [latin: related to *consecutive]
Consequent adj. 1 (often foll. By on, upon) following as a result or consequence. 2 logically consistent.
Conservancy n. (pl. -ies) 1 body controlling a port, river, etc., or preserving the environment. 2 official environmental conservation. [latin: related to *conserve]
Conservation n. Preservation, esp. Of the natural environment. [latin: related to
Conservation n. Preservation, esp. Of the natural environment. [latin: related to *conserve]
Conservationist n. Supporter of environmental conservation.
Conservation of energy n. Principle that the total quantity of energy in any system that is not subject to external action remains constant.
Conservative —adj. 1 a averse to rapid change. B (of views, taste, etc.) Moderate, avoiding extremes. 2 (of an estimate etc.) Purposely low. 3 (usu. Conservative) of conservatives or the conservative party. 4 tending to conserve. —n. 1 conservative person. 2 (usu. Conservative) supporter or member of the conservative party. conservatism n. [latin: related to *conserve]
Conservative party n. Political party promoting free enterprise and private ownership.
Conservatoire n. (usu. European) school of music or other arts. [french from italian]
Conservatory n. (pl. -ies) 1 greenhouse for tender plants, esp. Attached to a house. 2 esp. Us = conservatoire. [latin and italian: related to conserve]
Conserve —v. (-ving) keep from harm or damage, esp. For later use. —n. Fresh fruit jam. [latin servo keep]
Consider v. 1 contemplate mentally, esp. In order to reach a conclusion. 2 examine the merits of. 3 look attentively at. 4 take into account; show
examine the merits of. 3 look attentively at. 4 take into account; show consideration or regard for. 5 (foll. By that) have the opinion. 6 regard as. 7 (as considered adj.) Formed after careful thought (a considered opinion). all things considered taking everything into account. [french from latin]
Considerable adj. 1 much; a lot of (considerable pain). 2 notable, important. considerably adv.
Considerate adj. Thoughtful towards others; careful not to cause hurt or inconvenience. considerately adv. [latin: related to *consider]
Consideration n. 1 careful thought. 2 thoughtfulness for others; being considerate. 3 fact or thing taken into account. 4 compensation; payment or reward. in consideration of in return for; on account of. Take into consideration make allowance for. Under consideration being considered.
Considering —prep. & conj. In view of; taking into consideration. —adv. Colloq. Taking everything into account (not so bad, considering).
Consign v. (often foll. By to) 1 hand over; deliver. 2 assign; commit. 3 transmit or send (goods). consignee n. Consignor n. [latin: related to *sign]
Consignment n. 1 consigning or being consigned. 2 goods consigned.
Consist v. 1 (foll. By of) be composed; have as ingredients. 2 (foll. By in, of) have its essential features as specified. [latin sisto stop]
Consistency n. (pl. -ies) 1 degree of density, firmness, or viscosity, esp. Of thick liquids. 2 being consistent. [latin: related to *consist]
Consistent adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By with) compatible or in harmony. 2 (of a person) constant to the same principles. consistently adv. [latin: related to *consist]
Consistory n. (pl. -ies) rc ch. Council of cardinals (with or without the pope). [latin: related to *consist]
Consolation n. 1 consoling or being consoled. 2 consoling thing or person. consolatory adj.
Consolation prize n. Prize given to a competitor who just fails to win a main prize.
Console1 v. (-ling) comfort, esp. In grief or disappointment. [latin: related to *solace]
Usage console is often confused with condole, which is different in that it is always followed by with.
Console2 n. 1 panel for switches, controls, etc. 2 cabinet for a television etc. 3 cabinet with the keyboards and stops of an organ. 4 bracket supporting a shelf etc. [french]
Consolidate v. (-ting) 1 make or become strong or secure. 2 combine (territories, companies, debts, etc.) Into one whole. consolidation n. Consolidator n. [latin: related to *solid]
Consommé n. Clear soup from meat stock. [french]
Consonance n. Agreement, harmony. [latin sono *sound1]
Consonant —n. 1 speech sound in which the breath is at least partly obstructed, and which forms a syllable by combining with a vowel. 2 letter(s) representing this. —adj. (foll. By with, to) consistent; in agreement or harmony. consonantal adj.
Consort1 —n. Wife or husband, esp. Of royalty. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By with, together) keep company. 2 harmonize. [latin: related to *sort]
Consort2 n. Mus. Small group of players, singers, or instruments. [var. Of *concert]
Consortium n. (pl. -tia or -s) association, esp. Of several business companies. [latin: related to *consort1]
Conspiracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 secret plan to commit a crime; plot. 2 conspiring. [latin:
Conspiracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 secret plan to commit a crime; plot. 2 conspiring. [latin: related to *conspire]
Conspiracy of silence n. Agreement to say nothing.
Conspirator n. Person who takes part in a conspiracy. conspiratorial adj.
Conspire v. (-ring) 1 combine secretly for an unlawful or harmful act. 2 (of events) seem to be working together. [latin spiro breathe]
Constable n. 1 (also police constable) police officer of the lowest rank. 2 governor of a royal castle. [latin comes stabuli count of the stable]
Constabulary n. (pl. -ies) police force. [medieval latin: related to *constable]
Constancy n. Being unchanging and dependable; faithfulness. [latin: related to *constant]
Constant —adj. 1 continuous (constant attention). 2 occurring frequently (constant complaints). 3 unchanging, faithful, dependable. —n. 1 anything that does not vary. 2 math. & physics quantity or number that remains the same. constantly adv. [latin sto stand]
Constellation n. 1 group of fixed stars. 2 group of associated persons etc. [latin stella star]
Consternation n. Anxiety, dismay. [latin sterno throw down]
Constipate v. (-ting) (esp. As constipated adj.) Affect with constipation. [latin stipo cram]
Constipation n. Difficulty in emptying the bowels.
Constituency n. (pl. -ies) 1 body of voters who elect a representative. 2 area so represented.
Constituent —adj. 1 composing or helping to make a whole. 2 able to make or change a constitution (constituent assembly). 3 electing. —n. 1 member of a constituency. 2 component part. [latin: related to *constitute]
Constitute v. (-ting) 1 be the components or essence of; compose. 2 a amount to (this constitutes a warning). B formally establish (constitutes a precedent). 3 give legal or constitutional form to. [latin constituo establish]
Constitution n. 1 act or method of constituting; composition. 2 body of fundamental principles by which a state or other body is governed. 3 person’s inherent state of health, strength, etc. [latin: related to *constitute]
Constitutional —adj. 1 of or in line with the constitution. 2 inherent (constitutional weakness). —n. Walk taken regularly as healthy exercise. constitutionality n. Constitutionally adv.
Constitutive adj. 1 able to form or appoint. 2 component. 3 essential.
Constrain v. 1 compel. 2 a confine forcibly; imprison. B restrict severely. 3 (as constrained adj.) Forced, embarrassed. [latin stringo strict-tie]
Constraint n. 1 constraining or being constrained. 2 restriction. 3 self-control.
Constrict v. Make narrow or tight; compress. constriction n. Constrictive adj. [latin: related to *constrain]
Constrictor n. 1 snake that kills by compressing. 2 muscle that contracts an organ or part of the body.
Construct —v. 1 make by fitting parts together; build, form. 2 geom. Delineate (a figure). —n. Thing constructed, esp. By the mind. constructor n. [latin struo struct-build]
Construction n. 1 constructing or being constructed. 2 thing constructed. 3 interpretation or explanation. 4 syntactical arrangement of words. constructional adj.
Constructive adj. 1 a tending to form a basis for ideas. B helpful, positive. 2 derived by inference. constructively adv.
Construe v. (-strues, -strued, -struing) 1 interpret. 2 (often foll. By with) combine (words) grammatically. 3 analyse the syntax of (a sentence). 4 translate literally.
(words) grammatically. 3 analyse the syntax of (a sentence). 4 translate literally. [latin: related to *construct]
Consubstantial adj. Theol. Of one substance. [church latin: related to *substance]
Consubstantiation n. Theol. Presence of christ’s body and blood together with the bread and wine in the eucharist.
Consul n. 1 official appointed by a state to protect its citizens and interests in a foreign city. 2 hist. Either of two chief magistrates in ancient rome. consular adj. Consulship n. [latin]
Consulate n. 1 official building of a consul. 2 position of consul.
Consult v. 1 seek information or advice from. 2 (often foll. By with) refer to a person for advice etc. 3 take into account (feelings, interests, etc.). consultative adj. [latin consulo consult-take counsel]
Consultancy n. (pl. -ies) practice or position of a consultant.
Consultant n. 1 person providing professional advice etc. 2 senior medical specialist in a hospital.
Consultation n. 1 meeting arranged to consult. 2 act or process of consulting.
Consume v. (-ming) 1 eat or drink. 2 destroy. 3 preoccupy, possess (consumed with rage). 4 use up. consumable adj. & n. [latin consumo -sumpt-]
Consumer n. 1 person who consumes, esp. One who uses a product. 2 purchaser of goods or services.
Consumer durable n. Durable household product (e.g. A radio or washing-machine).
Consumer goods n.pl. Goods for consumers, not for producing other goods.
Consumerism n. 1 protection of consumers’ interests. 2 (often derog.) Continual increase in the consumption of goods. consumerist adj.
Consummate —v. (-ting) 1 complete; make perfect. 2 complete (a marriage) by sexual intercourse. —adj. Complete, perfect; fully skilled. consummation n. [latin summus utmost]
Consumption n. 1 consuming or being consumed. 2 amount consumed. 3 use by a particular group (a film unsuitable for children’s consumption). 4 archaic tuberculosis of the lungs. 5 purchase and use of goods etc. [french: related to *consume]
Consumptive archaic —adj. Suffering or tending to suffer from consumption. — n. Consumptive person. [medieval latin: related to *consumption]
Cont. Abbr. 1 contents. 2 continued.
Contact —n. 1 state or condition of touching, meeting, or communicating. 2 person who is or may be communicated with for information, assistance, etc. 3 connection for the passage of an electric current. 4 person likely to carry a contagious disease through being near an infected person. —v. 1 get in touch with (a person). 2 begin correspondence or personal dealings with. [latin tango tact-touch]
Contact lens n. Small lens placed directly on the eyeball to correct vision.
Contact print photographic print made by placing a negative directly on to printing paper and exposing it to light.
Contagion n. 1 a spreading of disease by bodily contact. B contagious disease. 2 moral corruption. [related to *contact]
Contagious adj. 1 a (of a person) likely to transmit a disease by contact. B (of a disease) transmitted in this way. 2 (of emotions etc.) Likely to spread (contagious enthusiasm).
Contain v. 1 hold or be capable of holding within itself; include, comprise. 2 (of measures) be equal to (a gallon contains eight pints). 3 prevent from moving or extending. 4 control or restrain (feelings etc.). 5 (of a number) be divisible by (a factor) without a remainder. [latin teneo hold]
Container n. 1 box, jar, etc., for holding things. 2 large metal box for transporting goods.
Containerize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) pack in or transport by container. containerization n.
Containment n. Action or policy of preventing the expansion of a hostile country or influence.
Contaminate v. (-ting) 1 pollute, esp. With radioactivity. 2 infect. contaminant n. Contamination n. Contaminator n. [latin tamen-related to tango touch]
Contemplate v. (-ting) 1 survey visually or mentally. 2 regard (an event) as possible. 3 intend (he is not contemplating retiring). 4 meditate. contemplation n. [latin]
Contemplative —adj. Of or given to (esp. Religious) contemplation; thoughtful. —n. Person devoted to religious contemplation. [latin: related to *contemplate]
Contemporaneous adj. (usu. Foll. By with) existing or occurring at the same time. contemporaneity n. [latin: related to *com-, tempus time]
Contemporary —adj. 1 living or occurring at the same time. 2 of approximately the same age. 3 modern in style or design. —n. (pl. -ies) contemporary person or thing. [medieval latin: related to *contemporaneous]
Contempt n. 1 feeling that a person or thing deserves scorn or extreme reproach. 2 condition of being held in contempt. 3 (in full contempt of court) disobedience to or disrespect for a court of law. [latin temno tempt-despise]
Contemptuous adj. (often foll. By of) feeling or showing contempt. contemptuously adv.
Contend v. 1 (usu. Foll. By with) fight, argue. 2 compete. 3 assert, maintain. contender n. [latin: related to *tend1]
Content1 —predic. Adj. 1 satisfied; adequately happy. 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Willing. —v. Make content; satisfy. —n. Contented state; satisfaction. to one’s heart’s content as much as one wishes. [latin: related to *contain]
Content2 n. 1 (usu. In pl.) What is contained, esp. In a vessel, book, or house. 2 amount (of a constituent) contained (high fat content). 3 substance (of a speech etc.) As distinct from form. 4 capacity or volume. [medieval latin: related to *contain]
Contented adj. Showing or feeling content; happy, satisfied. contentedly adv. Contentedness n.
Contention n. 1 dispute or argument; rivalry. 2 point contended for in an argument. [latin: related to *contend]
Contentious adj. 1 quarrelsome. 2 likely to cause an argument.
Contentment n. Satisfied state; tranquil happiness.
Contest —n. 1 contending; strife. 2 a competition. —v. 1 dispute (a decision etc.). 2 contend or compete for; compete in (an election). [latin testis witness]
Contestant n. Person taking part in a contest.
Context n. 1 parts that surround a word or passage and clarify its meaning. 2 relevant circumstances. in (or out of) context with (or without) the surrounding words or circumstances. contextual adj. Contextualize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). [latin: related to *text]
Contiguous adj. (usu. Foll. By with, to) touching; in contact. contiguity n. [latin: related to *contact]
Continent1 n. 1 any of the main continuous expanses of land (europe, asia, africa, n. And s. America, australia, antarctica). 2 (the continent) mainland of europe as distinct from the british isles. [latin: related to *contain]
Continent2 adj. 1 able to control one’s bowels and bladder. 2 exercising self-restraint, esp. Sexually. continence n. [latin: related to *contain]
Continental adj. 1 of or characteristic of a continent. 2 (continental) of or characteristic of mainland europe.
Continental breakfast n. Light breakfast of coffee, rolls, etc.
Continental quilt n. Duvet.
Continental shelf n. Area of shallow seabed bordering a continent.
Contingency n. (pl. -ies) 1 event that may or may not occur. 2 something dependent on another uncertain event. [latin: related to *contingent]
Contingent —adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By on, upon) conditional, dependent (on an uncertain event or circumstance). 2 a that may or may not occur. B fortuitous. — n. 1 body (of troops, ships, etc.) Forming part of a larger group. 2 group of people sharing an interest, origin, etc. (the oxford contingent). [latin: related to *contact]
Continual adj. Constantly or frequently recurring; always happening. continually adv. [french: related to *continue]
Usage continual is often confused with continuous. Continual is used of something that happens very frequently (e.g. There were continual interruptions), while continuous is used of something that happens without a pause (e.g. Continuous rain all day).
Continuance n. 1 continuing in existence or operation. 2 duration.
Continuation n. 1 continuing or being continued. 2 part that continues something else.
Continue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) 1 maintain, not stop (an action etc.) (continued to read, reading). 2 (also absol.) Resume or prolong (a narrative, journey, etc.). 3 be a sequel to. 4 remain, stay (will continue as manager; weather continued fine). [latin: related to *contain]
Continuity n. (pl. -ies) 1 state of being continuous. 2 a logical sequence. 3 detailed scenario of a film or broadcast. 4 linking of broadcast items.
Continuo n. (pl. -s) mus. Accompaniment providing a bass line, played usu. On a keyboard instrument. [italian]
Continuous adj. Uninterrupted, connected throughout in space or time. continuously adv. [latin: related to *contain]
Usage see note at continual.
Continuous assessment n. Evaluation of a pupil’s progress throughout a course of study.
Continuum n. (pl. -nua) thing having a continuous structure. [latin: related to *continuous]
Contort v. Twist or force out of its normal shape. contortion n. [latin torqueo tort-twist]
Contortionist n. Entertainer who adopts contorted postures.
Contour —n. 1 outline. 2 (in full contour line) line on a map joining points of equal altitude. —v. Mark with contour lines. [italian contornare draw in outline]
Contra n. (pl. -s) member of a counter-revolutionary force in nicaragua. [abbreviation of spanish contrarevolucionario counter-revolutionary]
Contra-comb. Form against, opposite. [latin]
Contraband —n. 1 smuggled goods. 2 smuggling; illegal trade. —adj. Forbidden to be imported or exported. [spanish from italian]
Contraception n. Prevention of pregnancy; use of contraceptives. [from contra-, conception]
Contraceptive —adj. Preventing pregnancy. —n. Contraceptive device or drug.
Contract —n. 1 written or spoken agreement, esp. One enforceable by law. 2 document recording this. —v. 1 make or become smaller. 2 a (usu. Foll. By with) make a contract. B (often foll. By out) arrange (work) to be done by
with) make a contract. B (often foll. By out) arrange (work) to be done by contract. 3 become affected by (a disease). 4 enter into (marriage). 5 incur (a debt etc.). 6 draw together (the muscles, brow, etc.), or be drawn together. contract in (or out) choose to enter (or not to enter) a scheme or commitment. [latin contractus: related to *tract1]
Contractable adj. (of a disease) that can be contracted.
Contract bridge n. Bridge in which only tricks bid and won count towards the game.
Contractible adj. That can be shrunk or drawn together.
Contractile adj. Capable of or producing contraction. contractility n.
Contraction n. 1 contracting or being contracted. 2 med. Shortening of the uterine muscles during childbirth. 3 shrinking, diminution. 4 shortened form of a word or words (e.g. He’s).
Contractor n. Person who makes a contract, esp. To conduct building operations.
Contractual adj. Of or in the nature of a contract. contractually adv.
Contradict v. 1 deny (a statement). 2 deny a statement made by (a person). 3 be in opposition to or in conflict with. contradiction n. Contradictory adj. [latin dico dict-say]
Contradistinction n. Distinction made by contrasting.
Contraflow n. Transfer of traffic from its usual half of the road to the other half by borrowing one or more of the other half’s lanes.
Contralto n. (pl. -s) 1 lowest female singing-voice. 2 singer with this voice. [italian: related to contra-, alto]
Contraption n. Machine or device, esp. A strange or cumbersome one. [origin unknown]
Contrapuntal adj. Mus. Of or in counterpoint. contrapuntally adv. [italian]
Contrariwise adv. 1 on the other hand. 2 in the opposite way. 3 perversely.
Contrary —adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) opposed in nature or tendency. 2 perverse, self-willed. 3 (of a wind) unfavourable, impeding. 4 opposite in position or direction. —n. (prec. By the) the opposite. —adv. (foll. By to) in opposition or contrast (contrary to expectations). on the contrary expressing denial of what has just been implied or stated. To the contrary to the opposite effect. contrariness n. [latin: related to *contra-]
Contrast —n. 1 a juxtaposition or comparison showing differences. B difference so revealed. 2 (often foll. By to) thing or person having different qualities. 3 degree of difference between the tones in a television picture or photograph. —v. (often foll. By with) 1 set together so as to reveal a contrast. 2 have or show a
(often foll. By with) 1 set together so as to reveal a contrast. 2 have or show a contrast. [italian from latin sto stand]
Contravene v. (-ning) 1 infringe (a law etc.). 2 (of things) conflict with. contravention n. [latin venio come]
Contretemps n. (pl. Same) 1 unfortunate occurrence. 2 unexpected mishap. [french]
Contribute v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) 1 give (time, money, etc.) Towards a common purpose. 2 help to bring about a result etc. 3 (also absol.) Supply (an article etc.) For publication with others. contributor n. [latin: related to *tribute]
Usage the second pronunciation, stressed on the first syllable, is considered incorrect by some people.
Contribution n. 1 act of contributing. 2 thing contributed.
Contributory adj. 1 that contributes. 2 using contributions.
Contrite adj. Penitent, feeling great guilt. contritely adv. Contrition n. [latin: related to *trite]
Contrivance n. 1 something contrived, esp. A plan or mechanical device. 2 act of contriving.
Contrive v. (-ving) 1 devise; plan or make resourcefully or with skill. 2 (often foll. By to + infin.) Manage. [french from latin]
Contrived adj. Artificial, forced.
Control —n. 1 power of directing. 2 power of restraining, esp. Self-restraint. 3 means of restraint. 4 (usu. In pl.) Means of regulating. 5 (usu. In pl.) Switches and other devices by which a machine is controlled. 6 place where something is controlled or verified. 7 standard of comparison for checking the results of an experiment. —v. (-ll-) 1 have control of, regulate. 2 hold in check. 3 check, verify. in control (often foll. By of) directing an activity. Out of control no longer manageable. Under control being controlled; in order. controllable adj. [medieval latin, = keep copy of accounts: related to contra-, roll]
Controller n. 1 person or thing that controls. 2 person in charge of expenditure.
Control tower n. Tall building at an airport etc. From which air traffic is controlled.
Controversial adj. Causing or subject to controversy. [latin: related to *controvert]
Controversy n. (pl. -ies) prolonged argument or dispute. [latin: related to *controvert]
Usage the second pronunciation, stressed on the second syllable, is considered
Usage the second pronunciation, stressed on the second syllable, is considered incorrect by some people.
Controvert v. Dispute, deny. [latin verto vers-turn]
Contumacious adj. Stubbornly or wilfully disobedient. contumacy n. (pl. -ies). [latin tumeo swell]
Contumely n. 1 insolent language or treatment. 2 disgrace. [latin: related to *contumacious]
Contuse v. (-sing) bruise. contusion n. [latin tundo tus-thump]
Conundrum n. 1 riddle, esp. One with a pun in its answer. 2 hard question. [origin unknown]
Conurbation n. Extended urban area, esp. Consisting of several towns and merging suburbs. [latin urbs city]
Convalesce v. (-cing) recover health after illness. [latin valeo be well]
Convalescent —adj. Recovering from an illness. —n. Convalescent person. convalescence n.
Convection n. Heat transfer by upward movement of a heated and less dense medium. [latin veho vect-carry]
medium. [latin veho vect-carry]
Convector n. Heating appliance that circulates warm air by convection.
Convene v. (-ning) 1 summon or arrange (a meeting etc.). 2 assemble. [latin venio vent-come]
Convener n. (also convenor) 1 person who convenes a meeting. 2 senior trade union official at a workplace.
Convenience n. 1 state of being convenient; suitability. 2 useful thing. 3 advantage. 4 lavatory, esp. A public one. at one’s convenience at a time or place that suits one. [latin: related to *convene]
Convenience food n. Food requiring little preparation.
Convenient adj. 1 a serving one’s comfort or interests. B suitable. C free of trouble or difficulty. 2 available or occurring at a suitable time or place. 3 well situated (convenient for the shops). conveniently adv.
Convent n. 1 religious community, esp. Of nuns, under vows. 2 premises occupied by this. [latin: related to *convene]
Conventicle n. Esp. Hist. Secret or unlawful religious meeting, esp. Of dissenters. [latin: related to *convene]
Convention n. 1 a general agreement on social behaviour etc. By implicit majority consent. B a custom or customary practice. 2 conference of people with a common interest. 3 a formal agreement, esp. Between states. [latin: related to *convene]
Conventional adj. 1 depending on or according with convention. 2 (of a person) bound by social conventions. 3 usual; of agreed significance. 4 not spontaneous or sincere or original. 5 (of weapons etc.) Non-nuclear. conventionalism n. Conventionality n. (pl. -ies). Conventionally adv.
Converge v. (-ging) 1 come together or towards the same point. 2 (foll. By on, upon) approach from different directions. convergence n. Convergent adj. [latin vergo incline]
Conversant adj. (foll. By with) well acquainted with. [french: related to *converse1]
Conversation n. 1 informal spoken communication. 2 instance of this. [latin: related to *converse1]
Conversational adj. 1 of or in conversation. 2 colloquial. conversationally adv.
Conversationalist n. Person good at or fond of conversation.
Converse1 v. (-sing) (often foll. By with) talk. [latin: related to *convert]
Converse2 —adj. Opposite, contrary, reversed. —n. Something, esp. A statement or proposition, that is opposite or reversed. conversely adv. [latin: related to *convert]
Conversion n. 1 converting or being converted. 2 converted building or part of this. [latin: related to *convert]
Convert —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By into) change in form or function. 2 cause (a person) to change belief etc. 3 change (moneys etc.) Into others of a different kind. 4 make structural alterations in (a building) for a new purpose. 5 (also absol.) Rugby score extra points from (a try) by a successful kick at the goal. — n. (often foll. By to) person converted to a different belief etc. [latin verto vers-turn]
Convertible —adj. Able to be converted. —n. Car with a folding or detachable roof. convertibility n. [latin: related to *convert]
Convex adj. Curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere. convexity n. [latin]
Convey v. 1 transport or carry (goods, passengers, etc.). 2 communicate (an idea, meaning, etc.). 3 transfer the title to (a property). 4 transmit (sound etc.). conveyable adj. [latin via way]
Conveyance n. 1 conveying or being conveyed. 2 means of transport; vehicle. 3 law a transfer of property. B document effecting this. conveyancer n. (in sense 3). Conveyancing n. (in sense 3).
Conveyor n. (also conveyer) person or thing that conveys.
Conveyor belt n. Endless moving belt for conveying articles, esp. In a factory.
Convict —v. 1 (often foll. By of) prove to be guilty (of a crime etc.). 2 declare guilty by a legal process. —n. Chiefly hist. Person serving a prison sentence. [latin vinco vict-conquer]
Conviction n. 1 convicting or being convicted. 2 a being convinced. B firm belief. [latin: related to *convict]
Convince v. (-cing) firmly persuade. convincible adj. Convincing adj. Convincingly adv. [latin: related to *convict]
Convivial adj. Fond of good company; sociable and lively. conviviality n. [latin vivo live]
Convocation n. 1 convoking or being convoked. 2 large formal gathering. [latin: related to *convoke]
Convoke v. (-king) formal call together; summon to assemble. [latin voco call]
Convolution n. 1 coiling. 2 coil or twist. 3 complexity. 4 sinuous fold in the surface of the brain.
Convolvulus n. (pl. -luses) twining plant, esp. Bindweed. [latin]
Convoy —n. Group of ships, vehicles, etc., travelling together or under escort. —v. Escort, esp. With armed force. in convoy as a group. [french: related to *convey]
Convulse v. (-sing) 1 (usu. In passive) affect with convulsions. 2 cause to laugh uncontrollably. convulsive adj. Convulsively adv. [latin vello vuls-pull]
Convulsion n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Violent irregular motion of the limbs or body caused by involuntary contraction of muscles. 2 violent disturbance. 3 (in pl.) Uncontrollable laughter.
Cony n. (also coney) rabbit fur. [latin cuniculus]
Coo —n. Soft murmuring sound as of a dove. —v. (coos, cooed) 1 emit a coo. 2 talk or say in a soft or amorous voice. —int. Slang expressing surprise or disbelief. [imitative]
Cooee n. & int. Colloq. Call used to attract attention. [imitative]
Cook —v. 1 prepare (food) by heating it. 2 (of food) undergo cooking. 3 colloq. Falsify (accounts etc.). 4 (as be cooking) colloq. Be happening or about to
Falsify (accounts etc.). 4 (as be cooking) colloq. Be happening or about to happen. —n. Person who cooks, esp. Professionally or in a specified way (a good cook). cook up colloq. Concoct (a story, excuse, etc.). [latin coquus]
Cookbook n. Us cookery book.
Cook-chill attrib. Adj. (of food, meals, etc.) Sold in pre-cooked and refrigerated form.
Cooker n. 1 appliance or vessel for cooking food. 2 fruit (esp. An apple) suitable for cooking.
Cookery n. Art or practice of cooking.
Cookery book n. Book containing recipes.
Cookie n. Us 1 sweet biscuit. 2 colloq. Person (a tough cookie). [dutch koekje]
Cool —adj. 1 of or at a fairly low temperature, fairly cold. 2 suggesting or achieving coolness. 3 calm, unexcited. 4 lacking enthusiasm. 5 unfriendly (a cool reception). 6 calmly audacious. 7 (prec. By a) colloq. At least (cost a cool thousand). 8 slang esp. Us marvellous. —n. 1 coolness. 2 cool air or place. 3 slang calmness, composure. —v. (often foll. By down, off) make or become cool. cool it slang relax, calm down. coolly adv. Coolness n. [old english]
Coolant n. Cooling agent, esp. Fluid.
Coolant n. Cooling agent, esp. Fluid.
Cool-bag n. (also cool-box) insulated container for keeping food cool.
Cooler n. 1 vessel in which a thing is cooled. 2 us refrigerator. 3 slang prison cell.
Coolie n. Unskilled native labourer in eastern countries. [perhaps from kuli, tribe in india]
Cooling-off period n. Interval to allow for a change of mind.
Cooling tower n. Tall structure for cooling hot water before reuse, esp. In industry.
Coomb n. (also combe) 1 valley on the side of a hill. 2 short valley running up from the coast. [old english]
Coon n. 1 us racoon. 2 slang offens. Black. [abbreviation]
Coop —n. Cage for keeping poultry. —v. (often foll. By up, in) confine (a person). [latin cupa cask]
Co-op n. Colloq. Cooperative society or shop. [abbreviation]
Cooper n. Maker or repairer of casks, barrels, etc. [low german or dutch: related to *coop]
Cooperate v. (also cooperate) (-ting) 1 (often foll. By with) work or act together. 2 be helpful and do as one is asked. cooperation n. [related to *co-]
Cooperative (also cooperative) —adj. 1 willing to cooperate. 2 of or characterized by cooperation. 3 (of a business) owned and run jointly by its members, with profits shared. —n. Cooperative farm, society, or business.
Co-opt v. Appoint to membership of a body by invitation of the existing members. cooption n. Cooptive adj. [latin coopto from opto choose]
Coordinate (also coordinate) —v. (-ting) 1 cause (parts, movements, etc.) To function together efficiently. 2 work or act together effectively. —adj. Equal in rank or importance. —n. 1 math. Each of a system of values used to fix the position of a point, line, or plane. 2 (in pl.) Matching items of clothing. coordination n. Coordinator n. [latin ordino: related to *order]
Coot n. 1 black aquatic bird with a white horny plate on its forehead. 2 colloq. Stupid person. [probably low german]
Cop slang —n. 1 police officer. 2 capture or arrest (it’s a fair cop). —v. (-pp-) 1 catch or arrest (an offender). 2 receive, suffer. 3 take, seize. cop it get into trouble; be punished. Cop out 1 withdraw; give up. 2 go back on a promise. Not much cop of little value or use. [french caper seize]
Copal n. Resin of a tropical tree, used for varnish. [spanish from aztec]
Copartner n. Partner or associate. copartnership n.
Cope1 v. (-ping) (often foll. By with) deal effectively or contend; manage. [french: related to *coup]
Cope2 —n. Priest’s long cloaklike vestment. —v. (-ping) cover with a cope or coping. [latin cappa *cap]
Copeck n. (also kopek, kopeck) russian coin worth one-hundredth of a rouble. [russian kopeika]
Copernican system n. Theory that the planets (including the earth) move round the sun. [copernicus, name of an astronomer]
Copier n. Machine that copies (esp. Documents).
Copilot n. Second pilot in an aircraft.
Coping n. Top (usu. Sloping) course of masonry in a wall. [from *cope2]
Coping saw n. D-shaped saw for cutting curves in wood. [from *cope1]
Copper1 —n. 1 malleable red-brown metallic element. 2 bronze coin. 3 large metal vessel for boiling esp. Laundry. —adj. Made of or coloured like copper. —v. Cover with copper. [latin cuprum]
Copper2 n. Slang police officer. [from *cop]
Copper beech n. Variety of beech with copper-coloured leaves.
Copper-bottomed adj. 1 having a bottom sheathed with copper. 2 genuine or reliable.
Copperhead n. Venomous n. American or australian snake.
Copperplate n. 1 a polished copper plate for engraving or etching. B print made from this. 2 ornate style of handwriting.
Coppice n. Area of undergrowth and small trees. [medieval latin: related to *coup]
Copra n. Dried coconut-kernels. [portuguese from malayalam]
Copse n. = *coppice. [shortened form]
Copt n. 1 native egyptian in the hellenistic and roman periods. 2 native christian of the independent egyptian church. [french from arabic]
Coptic —n. Language of the copts. —adj. Of the copts.
Copula n. (pl. -s) connecting word, esp. Part of the verb be connecting subject and predicate. [latin]
Copulate v. (-ting) (often foll. By with) (esp. Of animals) have sexual intercourse. copulation n.
Copy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 thing made to imitate another. 2 single specimen of a publication or issue. 3 material to be printed, esp. Regarded as good etc. Reading matter (the crisis will make exciting copy). —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make a copy of. 2 imitate, do the same as. [latin copia transcript]
Copybook n. 1 book containing models of handwriting for learners to imitate. 2 (attrib.) A tritely conventional. B exemplary.
Copycat n. Colloq. Person who copies another, esp. Slavishly.
Copyist n. Person who makes (esp. Written) copies.
Copyright —n. Exclusive legal right to print, publish, perform, film, or record material. —adj. Protected by copyright. —v. Secure copyright for (material).
Copy-typist n. Typist who types from documents rather than dictation.
Copywriter n. Person who writes or prepares advertising copy for publication.
Coq au vin n. Casserole of chicken pieces in wine. [french]
Coquette n. Woman who flirts. coquetry n. (pl. -ies). Coquettish adj. [french diminutive: related to *cock1]
Cor int. Slang expressing surprise etc. [corruption of god]
Cor-see *com-.
Coracle n. Small boat of wickerwork covered with watertight material. [welsh]
Coral —n. Hard red, pink, or white calcareous substance secreted by marine polyps for support and habitation. —adj. 1 red or pink, like coral. 2 made of coral. [greek korallion]
Coral island n. (also coral reef) island (or reef) formed by the growth of coral.
Coralline —n. Seaweed with a hard jointed stem. —adj. Of or like coral. [french and italian: related to *coral]
Cor anglais n. (pl. Cors anglais) alto woodwind instrument of the oboe family. [french]
Corbel n. Projection of stone, timber, etc., jutting out from a wall to support a weight. corbelled adj. [latin corvus crow]
Cord —n. 1 a flexible material like thick string, made from twisted strands. B piece of this. 2 similar structure in the body. 3 a ribbed fabric, esp. Corduroy. B (in pl.) Corduroy trousers. 4 electric flex. —v. 1 fasten or bind with cord. 2 (as corded adj.) (of cloth) ribbed. [greek khorde string]
Cordite n. Smokeless explosive. [from *cord, because of its appearance]
Cordless adj. (of a hand-held electrical device) usable without a power cable because working from an internal source of energy or battery.
Cordon —n. 1 line or circle of police, soldiers, guards, etc., esp. Preventing access. 2 ornamental cord or braid. 3 fruit-tree trained to grow as a single stem. —v. (often foll. By off) enclose or separate with a cordon of police etc. [italian and french: related to *cord]
Cordon bleu cookery —adj. Of the highest class. —n. Cook of this class. [french]
Cordon sanitaire n. 1 guarded line between infected and uninfected districts. 2 measure designed to prevent the spread of undesirable influences.
Corduroy n. 1 thick cotton fabric with velvety ribs. 2 (in pl.) Corduroy trousers. [cord = ribbed fabric]
Core —n. 1 horny central part of certain fruits, containing the seeds. 2 central or most important part of anything (also attrib.: core curriculum). 3 inner central region of the earth. 4 part of a nuclear reactor containing fissile material. 5 hist. Structural unit in a computer, storing one bit of data (see *bit4). 6 inner strand of an electric cable. 7 piece of soft iron forming the centre of an electromagnet or induction coil. —v. (-ring) remove the core from. corer n. [origin unknown]
Co-respondent n. Person cited in a divorce case as having committed adultery with the respondent.
Corgi n. (pl. -s) dog of a short-legged breed with a foxlike head. [welsh]
Coriander n. 1 aromatic plant. 2 its seeds used for flavouring. [greek koriannon]
Corinthian adj. 1 of ancient corinth in southern greece. 2 archit. Of the order characterized by ornate decoration and acanthus leaves. [latin from greek]
Cork —n. 1 buoyant light-brown bark of a s. European oak. 2 bottle-stopper of cork etc. 3 float of cork. 4 (attrib.) Made of cork. —v. (often foll. By up) 1 stop or confine. 2 restrain (feelings etc.). [spanish alcorque]
Corkage n. Charge made by a restaurant etc. For serving a customer’s own wine etc.
Corked adj. 1 stopped with a cork. 2 (of wine) spoilt by a decayed cork.
Corker n. Slang excellent person or thing.
Corkscrew —n. 1 spiral device for extracting corks from bottles. 2 (often attrib.) Thing with a spiral shape. —v. Move spirally; twist.
Corm n. Underground swollen stem base of some plants. [greek kormos lopped tree-trunk]
Cormorant n. Diving sea bird with black plumage. [latin corvus marinus sea-raven]
Corn1 n. 1 a cereal before or after harvesting, esp. The chief crop of a region. B grain or seed of a cereal plant. 2 colloq. Something corny or trite. [old english]
Corn2 n. Small tender area of horny skin, esp. On the toe. [latin cornu horn]
Corn-cob n. Cylindrical centre of a maize ear on which the grains grow.
Corncrake n. Rail inhabiting grassland and nesting on the ground.
Corn dolly n. Figure of plaited straw.
Cornea n. Transparent circular part of the front of the eyeball. corneal adj. [medieval latin: related to *corn2]
Corned adj. (esp. Of beef) preserved in salt or brine. [from *corn1]
Cornelian n. (also carnelian) dull red variety of chalcedony. [french]
Corner —n. 1 place where converging sides or edges meet. 2 projecting angle, esp. Where two streets meet. 3 internal space or recess formed by the meeting of two sides, esp. Of a room. 4 difficult position, esp. One with no escape. 5
two sides, esp. Of a room. 4 difficult position, esp. One with no escape. 5 secluded place. 6 region or quarter, esp. A remote one. 7 action or result of buying or controlling the whole stock of a commodity. 8 boxing & wrestling corner of the ring where a contestant rests between rounds. 9 football & hockey free kick or hit from the corner of a pitch. —v. 1 force into a difficult or inescapable position. 2 establish a corner in (a commodity). 3 (esp. Of or in a vehicle) go round a corner. [latin: related to *corn2]
Cornerstone n. 1 a stone in the projecting angle of a wall. B foundation-stone. 2 indispensable part or basis.
Cornet n. 1 brass instrument resembling a trumpet but shorter and wider. 2 conical wafer for holding ice-cream. cornetist n. (also cornettist). [latin cornu: related to *corn2]
Cornflake n. 1 (in pl.) Breakfast cereal of toasted maize flakes. 2 flake of this cereal.
Cornflour n. Fine-ground flour, esp. Of maize or rice.
Cornflower n. Plant with deep-blue flowers originally growing among corn.
Cornice n. Ornamental moulding, esp. Round a room just below the ceiling or as the topmost part of an entablature. [french from italian]
Cornish —adj. Of cornwall. —n. Celtic language of cornwall.
Cornish pasty n. Pastry envelope containing meat and vegetables.
Corn on the cob n. Maize cooked and eaten from the corn-cob.
Cornucopia n. 1 horn overflowing with flowers, fruit, and corn, as a symbol of plenty. 2 abundant supply. [latin: related to corn2, copious]
Corolla n. Whorl of petals forming the inner envelope of a flower. [latin diminutive of *corona]
Corollary n. (pl. -ies) 1 proposition that follows from one already proved. 2 (often foll. By of) natural consequence. [latin, = gratuity: related to *corolla]
Corona n. (pl. -nae) 1 a halo round the sun or moon. B gaseous envelope of the sun, seen as an area of light around the moon during a total solar eclipse. 2 anat. Crownlike structure. 3 crownlike outgrowth from the inner side of a corolla. 4 glow around an electric conductor. coronal adj. [latin, = crown]
Coronary —adj. Anat. Resembling or encircling like a crown. —n. (pl. -ies) = *coronary thrombosis. [latin: related to *corona]
Coronary artery n. Artery supplying blood to the heart.
Coronary thrombosis n. Blockage caused by a blood clot in a coronary artery.
Coronation n. Ceremony of crowning a sovereign or consort. [medieval latin: related to *corona]
Coroner n. Official holding inquests on deaths thought to be violent or accidental. [anglo-french: related to *crown]
Coronet n. 1 small crown. 2 circlet of precious materials, esp. As a headdress. [french diminutive: related to *crown]
Corpora pl. Of *corpus.
Corporal1 n. Non-commissioned army or air-force officer ranking next below sergeant. [french from italian]
Corporal2 adj. Of the human body. corporality n. [latin corpus body]
Corporal punishment n. Physical punishment.
Corporate adj. 1 forming a corporation. 2 of, belonging to, or united in a group. [latin: related to *corporal2]
Corporation n. 1 group of people authorized to act as an individual, esp. In business. 2 municipal authorities of a borough, town, or city. 3 joc. Large stomach.
Corporative adj. 1 of a corporation. 2 governed by or organized in corporations.
Corporeal adj. Bodily, physical, material. corporeality n. Corporeally adv. [latin: related to *corporal2]
Corps n. (pl. Corps) 1 a body of troops with special duties (intelligence corps). B main subdivision of an army in the field. 2 body of people engaged in a special activity (diplomatic corps). [french: related to *corpse]
Corps de ballet n. Group of ensemble dancers in a ballet. [french]
Corpse n. Dead body. [latin: related to *corpus]
Corpulent adj. Physically bulky, fat. corpulence n. [latin: related to *corpus]
Corpus n. (pl. -pora) body or collection of writings, texts, etc. [latin, = body]
Corpuscle n. Minute body or cell in an organism, esp. (in pl.) The red or white cells in the blood of vertebrates. corpuscular adj. [latin diminutive of *corpus]
Corral —n. 1 us pen for cattle, horses, etc. 2 enclosure for capturing wild animals. —v. (-ll-) put or keep in a corral. [spanish and portuguese: related to *kraal]
Correct —adj. 1 true, accurate. 2 proper, in accordance with taste or a standard. —v. 1 set right; amend. 2 mark errors in. 3 substitute a right thing for (a wrong one). 4 a admonish (a person). B punish (a person or fault). 5 counteract (a harmful quality). 6 adjust (an instrument etc.). correctly adv. Correctness n. Corrector n. [latin rego rect-guide]
Correction n. 1 correcting or being corrected. 2 thing substituted for what is wrong. 3 archaic punishment. correctional adj. [latin: related to *correct]
Correctitude n. Consciously correct behaviour. [from *correct, *rectitude]
Corrective —adj. Serving to correct or counteract something harmful. —n. Corrective measure or thing. [latin: related to *correct]
Correlate —v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By with, to) have or bring into a mutual relation or dependence. —n. Each of two related or complementary things. correlation n. [medieval latin correlatio]
Correlative —adj. 1 (often foll. By with, to) having a mutual relation. 2 (of words) corresponding to each other and used together (as neither and nor). —n. Correlative word or thing.
Correspond v. 1 a (usu. Foll. By to) be similar or equivalent. B (usu. Foll. By
Correspond v. 1 a (usu. Foll. By to) be similar or equivalent. B (usu. Foll. By with, to) be in agreement, not contradict. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) exchange letters. correspondingly adv. [french from medieval latin]
Correspondence n. 1 agreement or similarity. 2 a exchange of letters. B letters.
Correspondence course n. Course of study conducted by post.
Correspondent n. 1 person who writes letters. 2 person employed to write or report for a newspaper or for broadcasting etc.
Corridor n. 1 passage giving access into rooms. 2 passage in a train giving access into compartments. 3 strip of territory of one state passing through that of another. 4 route which an aircraft must follow, esp. Over a foreign country. [french from italian]
Corridors of power n.pl. Places where covert influence is said to be exerted in government.
Corrigendum n. (pl. -da) error to be corrected. [latin corrigo: related to *correct]
Corrigible adj. 1 able to be corrected. 2 submissive. corrigibly adv. [medieval latin: related to *corrigendum]
Corroborate v. (-ting) confirm or give support to (a statement or belief etc.). corroboration n. Corroborative adj. Corroborator n. [latin robur strength]
Corrode v. (-ding) 1 a wear away, esp. By chemical action. B decay. 2 destroy gradually. [latin rodo ros-gnaw]
Corrosion n. 1 corroding or being corroded. 2 corroded area. corrosive adj. & n.
Corrugate v. (-ting) (esp. As corrugated adj.) Form into alternate ridges and grooves, esp. To strengthen (corrugated iron). corrugation n. [latin ruga wrinkle]
Corrupt —adj. 1 dishonest, esp. Using bribery. 2 immoral; wicked. 3 (of a text etc.) Made unreliable by errors or alterations. —v. Make or become corrupt. corruptible adj. Corruptibility n. Corruption n. Corruptive adj. Corruptly adv. Corruptness n. [latin rumpo rupt-break]
Corsage n. Small bouquet worn by women. [french: related to *corpse]
Corsair n. 1 pirate ship. 2 pirate. [french: related to *course]
Corselette n. Combined corset and bra. [french corslet armour covering trunk]
Corset n. Closely-fitting undergarment worn to shape the body or to support it after injury. corsetry n. [french diminutive: related to *corpse]
Cortège n. Procession, esp. For a funeral. [french]
Cortex n. (pl. -tices) outer part of an organ, esp. Of the brain or kidneys. cortical adj. [latin, = bark]
Cortisone n. Hormone used esp. In treating inflammation and allergy. [abbreviation of chemical name]
Corundum n. Extremely hard crystallized alumina, used esp. As an abrasive. [tamil from sanskrit]
Coruscate v. (-ting) sparkle. coruscation n. [latin]
Corvette n. 1 small naval escort-vessel. 2 hist. Warship with one tier of guns. [french from dutch]
Corymb n. Flat-topped cluster of flowers with the outer flower-stalks proportionally longer. [latin from greek]
Cos1 n. Lettuce with crisp narrow leaves. [kos, greek island]
Cos2 abbr. Cosine.
Cos3 conj. Colloq. Because. [abbreviation]
Cosec abbr. Cosecant.
Cosecant n. Math. Ratio of the hypotenuse (in a right-angled triangle) to the side opposite an acute angle.
Cosh1 colloq. —n. Heavy blunt weapon. —v. Hit with a cosh. [origin unknown]
Cosh2 abbr. Hyperbolic cosine.
Co-signatory n. (pl. -ies) person or state signing a treaty etc. Jointly with others.
Cosine n. Ratio of the side adjacent to an acute angle (in a right-angled triangle) to the hypotenuse.
Cosmetic —adj. 1 beautifying, enhancing. 2 superficially improving or beneficial. 3 (of surgery or a prosthesis) imitating, restoring, or enhancing normal appearance. —n. Cosmetic preparation, esp. For the face. cosmetically adv. [greek, = ornament]
Cosmic adj. 1 of the cosmos or its scale; universal (of cosmic significance). 2 of or for space travel.
Cosmic rays n.pl. High-energy radiations from space etc.
Cosmogony n. (pl. -ies) 1 origin of the universe. 2 theory about this. [greek -gonia -begetting]
Cosmology n. Science or theory of the universe. cosmological adj. Cosmologist n. [from *cosmos, *-logy]
Cosmonaut n. Soviet astronaut. [from *cosmos, greek nautes sailor]
Cosmopolitan —adj. 1 of, from, or knowing many parts of the world. 2 free from national limitations or prejudices. —n. Cosmopolitan person. cosmopolitanism n. [greek polites citizen]
Cosmos n. The universe as a well-ordered whole. [greek]
Cossack n. Member of a people of southern russia. [turki quzzaq]
Cosset v. (-t-) pamper. [dialect cosset = pet lamb, probably from old english, = cottager]
Cost —v. (past and past part. Cost) 1 be obtainable for (a sum of money); have as a price. 2 involve as a loss or sacrifice (it cost him his life). 3 (past and past part. Costed) fix or estimate the cost of. —n. 1 what a thing costs; price. 2 loss or sacrifice. 3 (in pl.) Legal expenses. at all costs (or at any cost) whatever the cost or risk may be. [latin consto stand at a price]
Costal adj. Of the ribs. [latin costa rib]
Costal adj. Of the ribs. [latin costa rib]
Cost-effective adj. Effective in relation to its cost.
Costermonger n. Person who sells produce from a barrow. [costard large apple: related to *costal]
Costing n. Estimation of cost(s).
Costive adj. Constipated. [latin: related to *constipate]
Costly adj. (-ier, -iest) costing much; expensive. costliness n.
Cost of living n. Level of prices esp. Of basic necessities.
Cost price n. Price paid for a thing by one who later sells it.
Costume —n. 1 style of dress, esp. Of a particular place or time. 2 set of clothes. 3 clothing for a particular activity (swimming-costume). 4 actor’s clothes for a part. —v. (-ming) provide with a costume. [latin: related to *custom]
Costume jewellery n. Artificial jewellery.
Costumier n. Person who makes or deals in costumes. [french: related to *costume]
Cosy (us cozy) —adj. (-ier, -iest) comfortable and warm; snug. —n. (pl. -ies) cover to keep a teapot etc. Hot. cosily adv. Cosiness n. [origin unknown]
Cot1 n. 1 small bed with high sides for a baby. 2 small light bed. [hindi]
Cot2 n. 1 small shelter; cote. 2 poet. Cottage. [old english]
Cot3 abbr. Cotangent.
Cotangent n. Ratio of the side adjacent to an acute angle (in a right-angled triangle) to the opposite side.
Cot-death n. Unexplained death of a sleeping baby.
Cote n. Shelter for animals or birds. [old english]
Coterie n. Exclusive group of people sharing interests. [french]
Cotoneaster n. Shrub bearing usu. Bright red berries. [latin cotoneum *quince]
Cotoneaster n. Shrub bearing usu. Bright red berries. [latin cotoneum *quince]
Cottage n. Small simple house, esp. In the country. [anglo-french: related to *cot2]
Cottage cheese n. Soft white lumpy cheese made from skimmed milk curds.
Cottage industry n. Business activity carried on at home.
Cottage pie n. Dish of minced meat topped with mashed potato.
Cottager n. Person who lives in a cottage.
Cotter n. 1 bolt or wedge for securing parts of machinery etc. 2 (in full cotter pin) split pin that can be opened after passing through a hole. [origin unknown]
Cotton n. 1 soft white fibrous substance covering the seeds of certain plants. 2 such a plant. 3 thread or cloth from this. cotton on (often foll. By to) colloq. Begin to understand. [french from arabic]
Cotton wool n. Fluffy wadding of a kind orig. Made from raw cotton.
Cotyledon n. Embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants. [greek kotule cup]
Couch1 —n. 1 upholstered piece of furniture for several people; sofa. 2 long
Couch1 —n. 1 upholstered piece of furniture for several people; sofa. 2 long padded seat with a headrest at one end. —v. 1 (foll. By in) express in (certain terms). 2 archaic (of an animal) lie, esp. In its lair. [latin colloco lay in place]
Couch2 n. (in full couch grass) a grass with long creeping roots. [var. Of *quitch]
Couchette n. 1 railway carriage with seats convertible into sleeping-berths. 2 berth in this. [french, = little bed]
Couch potato n. Us slang person who likes lazing at home.
Cougar n. Us puma. [french from guarani]
Cough —v. 1 expel air etc. From the lungs with a sudden sharp sound. 2 (of an engine etc.) Make a similar sound. 3 slang confess. —n. 1 act of coughing. 2 condition of respiratory organs causing coughing. cough up 1 eject with coughs. 2 slang bring out or give (money or information) reluctantly. [imitative, related to dutch kuchen]
Cough mixture n. Liquid medicine to relieve a cough.
Could past of *can1. —v. Colloq. Feel inclined to (i could murder him).
Couldn’t contr. Could not.
Coulomb n. Si unit of electric charge. [coulomb, name of a physicist]
Coulter n. (us colter) vertical blade in front of a ploughshare. [latin culter knife]
Council n. 1 a advisory, deliberative, or administrative body. B meeting of such a body. 2 a local administrative body of a parish, district, town, etc. B (attrib.) Provided by a local council (council flat). [latin concilium]
Councillor n. Member of a (esp. Local) council.
Council tax n. Proposed new local tax based on the value of a property and the number of people living in it, to replace the community charge.
Counsel —n. 1 advice, esp. Formally given. 2 consultation for advice. 3 (pl. Same) legal adviser, esp. A barrister; body of these. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 advise (a person). 2 give esp. Professional advice to (a person) on personal problems. 3 recommend (a course of action). keep one’s own counsel not confide in others. Take counsel (usu. Foll. By with) consult. counselling n. [latin consilium]
Counsellor n. (us counselor) 1 adviser. 2 person giving professional guidance on personal problems. 3 us barrister.
Counsel of perfection n. Ideal but impracticable advice.
Counselor n. (brit. Counsellor) 1 adviser. 2 person giving professional guidance on personal problems. 3 us barrister.
Count1 —v. 1 determine the total number of, esp. By assigning successive numbers. 2 repeat numbers in ascending order. 3 (often foll. By in) include or be included in one’s reckoning or plan. 4 consider or regard to be (lucky etc.). 5 (often foll. By for) have value; matter (my opinion counts for little). —n. 1 a counting or being counted. B total of reckoning. 2 law each charge in an indictment. count against be reckoned to the disadvantage of. Count one’s blessings be grateful for what one has. Count on (or upon) rely on; expect. Count out 1 count while taking from a stock. 2 complete a count of ten seconds over (a fallen boxer etc.). 3 colloq. Exclude, disregard. 4 polit. Procure the adjournment of (the house of commons) when fewer than 40 members are present. Count up find the sum of. Keep count take note of how many there have been etc. Lose count forget the number etc. Counted. Out for the count 1 defeated. 2 unconscious; asleep. [latin: related to *compute]
Count2 n. Foreign noble corresponding to an earl. [latin comes companion]
Countable adj. 1 that can be counted. 2 gram. (of a noun) that can form a plural or be used with the indefinite article.
Countdown n. 1 act of counting backwards to zero, esp. At the launching of a rocket etc. 2 period immediately before an event.
Countenance —n. 1 the face or facial expression. 2 composure. 3 moral support. —v. (-cing) support, approve. [french: related to *contain]
Composure. 3 moral support. —v. (-cing) support, approve. [french: related to *contain]
Counter1 n. 1 long flat-topped fitment in a shop etc., across which business is conducted. 2 a small disc for playing or scoring in board-games etc. B token representing a coin. 3 apparatus for counting. under the counter surreptitiously, esp. Illegally. [related to *count1]
Counter2 —v. 1 a oppose, contradict. B meet by countermove. 2 boxing give a return blow while parrying. —adv. In the opposite direction or manner. —adj. Opposite. —n. Parry; countermove. [related to *counter-]
Counter-comb. Form denoting: 1 retaliation, opposition, or rivalry (counter-threat). 2 opposite direction (counter-clockwise). 3 correspondence (counterpart; countersign). [latin contra against]
Counteract v. Hinder or neutralize by contrary action. counteraction n. Counteractive adj.
Counter-attack —n. Attack in reply to a preceding attack. —v. Attack in reply.
Counterbalance —n. Weight or influence balancing another. —v. (-cing) act as a counterbalance to.
Counter-clockwise adv. & adj. Us = *anticlockwise.
Counter-espionage n. Action taken against enemy spying.
Counterfeit —adj. Made in imitation; not genuine; forged. —n. A forgery or imitation. —v. Imitate fraudulently; forge. [french]
Counterfoil n. Part of a cheque, receipt, etc., retained by the payer as a record. [from *foil2]
Counter-intelligence n. = *counter-espionage.
Countermand —v. 1 revoke (a command). 2 recall by a contrary order. —n. Order revoking a previous one. [latin: related to *mandate]
Countermeasure n. Action taken to counteract a danger, threat, etc.
Countermove n. Move or action in opposition to another.
Counterpane n. Bedspread. [medieval latin culcita puncta quilted mattress]
Counterpart n. 1 person or thing like another or forming the complement or equivalent to another. 2 duplicate.
Counterpoint n. 1 a art or practice of combining melodies according to fixed rules. B melody combined with another. 2 contrasting argument, plot, literary theme, etc. [medieval latin contrapunctum marked opposite]
Counterpoise —n. 1 counterbalance. 2 state of equilibrium. —v. (-sing) counterbalance. [latin pensum weight]
Counter-productive adj. Having the opposite of the desired effect.
Counter-revolution n. Revolution opposing a former one or reversing its results.
Countersign —v. Add a signature to (a document already signed by another). — n. 1 password spoken to a person on guard. 2 mark used for identification etc. [italian: related to *sign]
Countersink v. (past and past part. -sunk) 1 shape (the rim of a hole) so that a screw or bolt can be inserted flush with the surface. 2 sink (a screw etc.) In such a hole.
Counter-tenor n. 1 male alto singing-voice. 2 singer with this voice. [italian: related to *contra-]
Countervail v. Literary 1 counterbalance. 2 (often foll. By against) oppose, usu. Successfully. [latin valeo have worth]
Counterweight n. Counterbalancing weight.
Countess n. 1 wife or widow of a count or earl. 2 woman holding the rank of
Countess n. 1 wife or widow of a count or earl. 2 woman holding the rank of count or earl. [latin comitissa: related to *count2]
Countless adj. Too many to be counted.
Countrified adj. Rustic in manner or appearance.
Country n. (pl. -ies) 1 territory of a nation; state. 2 (often attrib.) Rural districts as opposed to towns or the capital. 3 land of a person’s birth or citizenship. 4 region with regard to its aspect, associations, etc. (mountainous country; hardy country). 5 national population, esp. As voters. [medieval latin contrata (terra) (land) lying opposite]
Country-and-western n. Type of folk music originated by whites in the southern us.
Country club n. Sporting and social club in a rural setting.
Country dance n. Traditional dance, esp. English, usu. With couples facing each other in lines.
Countryman n. (fem. Countrywoman) 1 person living in a rural area. 2 (also fellow-countryman) person of one’s own country.
Country music n. = *country-and-western.
Countryside n. Rural areas.
Country-wide adj. & adv. Extending throughout a nation.
County —n. (pl. -ies) 1 territorial division in some countries, forming the chief unit of local administration. 2 us political and administrative division of a state. —adj. Of or like the gentry. [latin comitatus: related to *count2]
County council n. Elected governing body of an administrative county.
County court n. Judicial court for civil cases.
County town n. Administrative capital of a county.
Coup n. (pl. -s) 1 successful stroke or move. 2 = *coup d’état. [medieval latin colpus blow]
Coup de grâce n. Finishing stroke. [french]
Coup d’état n. (pl. Coups d’état pronunc. Same) violent or illegal seizure of power. [french]
Coupe n. (brit. Coupé) car with a hard roof, two doors, and usu. A sloping rear. [french couper cut]
[french couper cut]
Coupé n. (us coupe) car with a hard roof, two doors, and usu. A sloping rear. [french couper cut]
Couple —n. 1 a two (a couple of girls). B about two (a couple of hours). 2 a two people who are married to, or in a sexual relationship with, each other. B pair of partners in a dance etc. —v. (-ling) 1 link together. 2 associate in thought or speech. 3 copulate. [latin *copula]
Couplet n. Two successive lines of verse, usu. Rhyming and of the same length. [french diminutive: related to *couple]
Coupling n. 1 link connecting railway carriages etc. 2 device for connecting parts of machinery.
Coupon n. 1 form etc. As an application for a purchase etc. 2 entry form for a football pool or other competition. 3 discount voucher given with a purchase. [french couper cut]
Courage n. Ability to disregard fear; bravery. courage of one’s convictions courage to act on one’s beliefs. [latin cor heart]
Courageous adj. Brave. courageously adv.
Courgette n. Small vegetable marrow. [french]
Courgette n. Small vegetable marrow. [french]
Courier n. 1 person employed to guide and assist tourists. 2 special messenger. [latin curro curs-run]
Course —n. 1 onward movement or progression. 2 direction taken (changed course). 3 stretch of land or water for races; golf-course. 4 series of lessons etc. In a particular subject. 5 each successive part of a meal. 6 sequence of medical treatment etc. 7 line of conduct. 8 continuous horizontal layer of masonry, brick, etc. 9 channel in which water flows. —v. (-sing) 1 (esp. Of liquid) run, esp. Fast. 2 (also absol.) Use hounds to hunt (esp. Hares). in course of in the process of. In the course of during. Of course naturally; as is or was to be expected; admittedly. [latin cursus: related to *courier]
Courser n. Poet. Swift horse.
Court —n. 1 (in full court of law) a judicial body hearing legal cases. B = courtroom. 2 quadrangular area for games (tennis-court; squash-court). 3 a yard surrounded by houses with entry from the street. B = courtyard. 4 a the residence, retinue, and courtiers of a sovereign. B sovereign and councillors, constituting the ruling power. C assembly held by a sovereign; state reception. 5 attention paid to a person whose favour etc. Is sought (paid court to her). —v. 1 a try to win affection or favour of. B pay amorous attention to. 2 seek to win (applause, fame, etc.). 3 invite (misfortune) by one’s actions. go to court take legal action. Out of court 1 without reaching trial. 2 not worthy of consideration. [latin: related to *cohort]
Court-card n. Playing-card that is a king, queen, or jack.
Courteous adj. Polite, considerate. courteously adv. Courteousness n. [french:
Courteous adj. Polite, considerate. courteously adv. Courteousness n. [french: related to *court]
Courtesan n. Prostitute, esp. One with wealthy or upper-class clients. [italian: related to *court]
Courtesy n. (pl. -ies) courteous behaviour or act. by courtesy of with the formal permission of. [french: related to *courteous]
Courtesy light n. Light in a car switched on by opening a door.
Court-house n. 1 building in which a judicial court is held. 2 us building containing the administrative offices of a county.
Courtier n. Person who attends a sovereign’s court. [anglo-french: related to *court]
Courtly adj. (-ier, -iest) dignified, refined. courtliness n.
Court martial —n. (pl. Courts martial) judicial court trying members of the armed services. —v. (court-martial) (-ll-; us -l-) try by this.
Court order n. Direction issued by a court or judge.
Courtroom n. Room in which a court of law meets.
Courtship n. 1 courting, wooing. 2 courting behaviour of animals, birds, etc.
Court shoe n. Woman’s light, usu. High-heeled, shoe with a low-cut upper.
Courtyard n. Area enclosed by walls or buildings.
Couscous n. N. African dish of crushed wheat or coarse flour steamed over broth, often with meat or fruit added. [french from arabic]
Cousin n. 1 (also first cousin) child of one’s uncle or aunt. 2 person of a kindred race or nation. [latin consobrinus]
Usage there is often some confusion as to the difference between cousin, first cousin, second cousin, first cousin once removed, etc. For definitions see cousin, second cousin and remove v. 5.
Couture n. Design and manufacture of fashionable clothes. [french]
Couturier n. Fashion designer.
Cove1 —n. 1 small bay or creek. 2 sheltered recess. 3 moulding, esp. At the junction of a wall and a ceiling. —v. (-ving) 1 provide (a room etc.) With a cove. 2 slope (the sides of a fireplace) inwards. [old english]
Cove2 n. Slang fellow, chap. [cant: origin unknown]
Coven n. Assembly of witches. [related to *convent]
Covenant —n. 1 agreement; contract. 2 law sealed contract, esp. A deed of covenant. 3 (covenant) bibl. Agreement between god and the israelites. —v. Agree, esp. By legal covenant. [french: related to *convene]
Coventry n. send a person to coventry refuse to associate with or speak to a person. [coventry in england]
Cover —v. 1 (often foll. By with) protect or conceal with a cloth, lid, etc. 2 a extend over; occupy the whole surface of. B (often foll. By with) strew thickly or thoroughly. C lie over. 3 a protect; clothe. B (as covered adj.) Wearing a hat; having a roof. 4 include; comprise; deal with. 5 travel (a specified distance). 6 describe as a reporter. 7 be enough to defray (£20 should cover it). 8 a refl. Take measures to protect oneself. B (absol.; foll. By for) stand in for. 9 a aim a gun etc. At. B (of a fortress, guns, etc.) Command (territory). C protect (an exposed person etc.) By being able to return fire. 10 a esp. Cricket stand behind (another player) to stop any missed balls. B mark (an opposing player). 11 (of a stallion etc.) Copulate with. —n. 1 thing that covers, esp.: a lid. B book’s binding. C either board of this. D envelope or wrapping (under separate cover). 2 shelter. 3 a pretence; screen. B pretended identity. C mil. Supporting force protecting an advance party from attack. 4 a funds, esp. Obtainable from insurance to meet a liability or secure against loss. B insurance protection (third-party cover). 5 person acting as a substitute. 6 place-setting at table. 7 cricket = *cover-point. cover up completely cover or conceal. Take cover find shelter. [latin cooperio]
Coverage n. 1 area or amount covered. 2 amount of publicity received by an event etc.
Coverall n. Esp. Us 1 thing that covers entirely. 2 (usu. In pl.) Full-length protective garment.
Cover charge n. Service charge per head in a restaurant, nightclub, etc.
Cover girl n. Female model appearing on magazine covers etc.
Covering letter n. (also covering note) explanatory letter sent with an enclosure.
Coverlet n. Bedspread. [anglo-french: related to *cover, lit bed]
Cover note n. Temporary certificate of insurance.
Cover-point n. Cricket 1 fielding position covering point. 2 fielder at this position.
Cover story n. News story in a magazine that is advertised etc. On the front cover.
Covert —adj. Secret or disguised (covert glance). —n. 1 shelter, esp. A thicket hiding game. 2 feather covering the base of a bird’s flight-feather. covertly adv. [french: related to *cover]
Cover-up n. Concealment of facts.
Covet v. (-t-) desire greatly (esp. A thing belonging to another person). [french: related to *cupid]
Covetous adj. (usu. Foll. By of) coveting; grasping. covetously adv.
Covey n. (pl. -s) 1 brood of partridges. 2 small group of people. [latin cubo lie]
Cow1 n. 1 fully grown female of any esp. Domestic bovine animal, used as a source of milk and beef. 2 female of other large animals, esp. The elephant, whale, and seal. 3 derog. Slang woman. [old english]
Cow2 v. Intimidate or dispirit. [old norse]
Coward n. Person who is easily frightened. [latin cauda tail]
Cowardice n. Lack of bravery.
Cowardly adj. 1 of or like a coward; lacking courage. 2 (of an action) done against one who cannot retaliate.
Cowbell n. Bell worn round a cow’s neck.
Cowboy n. 1 (fem. Cowgirl) person who tends cattle, esp. In the western us. 2 colloq. Unscrupulous or incompetent person in business.
Cower v. Crouch or shrink back in fear or distress. [low german]
Cowherd n. Person who tends cattle.
Cowhide n. 1 cow’s hide. 2 leather or whip made from this.
Cowl n. 1 monk’s cloak. 2 hood-shaped covering of a chimney or ventilating shaft. [latin cucullus]
Cow-lick n. Projecting lock of hair.
Cowling n. Removable cover of a vehicle or aircraft engine.
Co-worker n. Person who works with another.
Cow-parsley n. Hedgerow plant with lacelike umbels of flowers.
Cow-pat n. Flat round piece of cow-dung.
Cowpox n. Disease of cows, whose virus was formerly used in smallpox vaccination.
Cowrie n. 1 tropical mollusc with a bright shell. 2 its shell as money in parts of africa and s. Asia. [urdu and hindi]
Co-write v. Write with another person. co-writer n.
Cowslip n. Primula with small yellow flowers. [obsolete slyppe dung]
Cox —n. Coxswain, esp. Of a racing-boat. —v. Act as cox (of). [abbreviation]
Coxcomb n. Ostentatiously conceited man. coxcombry n. (pl. -ies). [= cock’s comb]
Coxswain —n. 1 person who steers, esp. A rowing-boat. 2 senior petty officer in a small ship. —v. Act as coxswain (of). [cock ship’s boat, *swain]
Coy adj. 1 affectedly shy. 2 irritatingly reticent. coyly adv. Coyness n. [french: related to *quiet]
Coyote n. (pl. Same or -s) n. American wolflike wild dog. [mexican spanish]
Coyote n. (pl. Same or -s) n. American wolflike wild dog. [mexican spanish]
Coypu n. (pl. -s) aquatic beaver-like rodent native to s. America. [araucan]
Cozen v. Literary 1 cheat, defraud. 2 beguile. 3 act deceitfully. cozenage n. [cant]
Cozy (brit. Cosy) —adj. (-ier, -iest) comfortable and warm; snug. —n. (pl. -ies) cover to keep a teapot etc. Hot. cosily adv. Cosiness n. [origin unknown]
C.p. Abbr. Candlepower.
Cpl. Abbr. Corporal.
Cps abbr. (also c.p.s.) 1 computing characters per second. 2 sci. Cycles per second.
Cpu abbr. Computing central processing unit.
Cr symb. Chromium.
Crab1 n. 1 a ten-footed crustacean, with the first pair of legs as pincers. B crab as food. 2 (crab) sign or constellation cancer. 3 (in full crab-louse) (often in pl.) Parasitic louse transmitted sexually to esp. Pubic hair. 4 machine for hoisting
Parasitic louse transmitted sexually to esp. Pubic hair. 4 machine for hoisting heavy weights. catch a crab rowing jam an oar or miss the water. crablike adj. [old english]
Crab2 n. 1 (in full crab-apple) small sour apple. 2 (in full crab tree or crab-apple tree) tree (esp. Uncultivated) bearing this. 3 sour person. [origin unknown]
Crab3 v. (-bb-) colloq. 1 criticize; grumble. 2 spoil. [low german krabben]
Crabby adj. (-ier, -iest) irritable, morose. crabbily adv. Crabbiness n.
Crabwise adv. & attrib.adj. Sideways or backwards.
Crack —n. 1 a sharp explosive noise. B sudden harshness or change in vocal pitch. 2 sharp blow. 3 a narrow opening; break or split. B chink. 4 colloq. Joke or malicious remark. 5 colloq. Attempt. 6 slang crystalline form of cocaine broken into small pieces. —v. 1 break without separating the parts. 2 make or cause to make a sharp explosive sound. 3 break with a sharp sound. 4 give way or cause to give way (under torture etc.). 5 (of the voice) change pitch sharply; break. 6 colloq. Find the solution to. 7 tell (a joke etc.). 8 colloq. Hit sharply. 9 (as cracked adj.) Crazy. 10 break (wheat) into coarse pieces. —attrib. Adj. Colloq. Excellent; first-rate (crack shot). crack a bottle open a bottle, esp. Of wine, and drink it. Crack down on colloq. Take severe measures against. Crack of dawn daybreak. Crack up colloq. 1 collapse under strain. 2 praise. Get cracking colloq. Begin promptly and vigorously. [old english]
Crack-brained adj. Crazy.
Crack-down n. Colloq. Severe measures (esp. Against law-breakers).
Cracker n. 1 paper cylinder pulled apart, esp. At christmas, with a sharp noise and releasing a hat, joke, etc. 2 loud firework. 3 (usu. In pl.) Instrument for cracking. 4 thin dry savoury biscuit. 5 slang attractive or admirable person. 6 us biscuit.
Crackers predic. Adj. Slang crazy.
Cracking slang —adj. 1 excellent. 2 (attrib.) Fast and exciting. —adv. Outstandingly.
Crackle —v. (-ling) make repeated slight cracking sound (radio crackled; fire was crackling). —n. Such a sound. crackly adj. [from *crack]
Crackling n. Crisp skin of roast pork.
Cracknel n. Light crisp biscuit. [dutch: related to *crack]
-cracy comb. Form denoting a particular form of government etc. (bureaucracy). [latin -cratia]
Cradle —n. 1 a baby’s bed or cot, esp. On rockers. B place in which something begins, esp. Civilization (cradle of democracy). 2 supporting framework or structure. —v. (-ling) 1 contain or shelter as in a cradle. 2 place in a cradle. [old english]
Cradle-snatcher n. Slang admirer or lover of a much younger person.
Cradle-song n. Lullaby.
Craft —n. 1 special skill or technique. 2 occupation needing this. 3 (pl. Craft) a boat or vessel. B aircraft or spacecraft. 4 cunning or deceit. —v. Make in a skilful way. [old english]
Craftsman n. (fem. Craftswoman) 1 skilled worker. 2 person who practises a craft. craftsmanship n.
Crake n. Bird of the rail family, esp. The corncrake. [old norse, imitative of cry]
Cram v. (-mm-) 1 a fill to bursting; stuff. B (foll. By in, into; also absol.) Force (a thing) in or into. 2 prepare intensively for an examination. 3 (often foll. By with) feed to excess. [old english]
Crammer n. Person or institution that crams pupils for examinations.
Cramp —n. 1 painful involuntary muscular contraction. 2 (also cramp-iron) metal bar with bent ends for holding masonry etc. Together. —v. 1 affect with cramp. 2 (often foll. By up) confine narrowly. 3 restrict. 4 fasten with a cramp. cramp a person’s style prevent a person from acting freely or naturally. [low german or dutch]
Cramped adj. 1 (of a space) too small. 2 (of handwriting) small and with the letters close together.
Crampon n. (us crampoon) (usu. In pl.) Spiked iron plate fixed to a boot for climbing on ice. [french: related to *cramp]
Crampoon n. (brit. Crampon) (usu. In pl.) Spiked iron plate fixed to a boot for climbing on ice. [french: related to *cramp]
Cranberry n. (pl. -ies) 1 shrub with small red acid berries. 2 this berry used in cookery. [german kranbeere crane-berry]
cookery. [german kranbeere crane-berry]
Crane —n. 1 machine with a long projecting arm for moving heavy objects. 2 tall wading bird with long legs, neck, and bill. —v. (-ning) (also absol.) Stretch out (one’s neck) in order to see something. [old english]
Crane-fly n. Two-winged long-legged fly: also called *daddy-long-legs.
Cranesbill n. Wild geranium.
Cranium n. (pl. -s or -nia) 1 skull. 2 part of the skeleton enclosing the brain. cranial adj. Craniology n. [medieval latin from greek]
Crank —n. 1 part of an axle or shaft bent at right angles for converting reciprocal into circular motion or vice versa. 2 eccentric person. —v. Cause to move by means of a crank. crank up start (a car engine) with a crank. [old english]
Crankcase n. Case enclosing a crankshaft.
Crankpin n. Pin by which a connecting-rod is attached to a crank.
Crankshaft n. Shaft driven by a crank.
Cranky adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 colloq. Eccentric. 2 working badly; shaky. 3 esp. Us crotchety. crankily adv. Crankiness n.
Cranny n. (pl. -ies) chink, crevice. crannied adj. [french]
Crap coarse slang —n. 1 (often as int. Or attrib.) Nonsense, rubbish. 2 faeces. — v. (-pp-) defecate. crappy adj. (-ier, -iest). [dutch]
Crape n. Crêpe, usu. Of black silk, formerly used for mourning. [from *crêpe]
Crapulent adj. Suffering the effects of drunkenness. crapulence n. Crapulous adj. [latin crapula inebriation]
Crash1 —v. 1 (cause to) make a loud smashing noise. 2 throw, drive, move, or fall with a loud smash. 3 (often foll. By into) collide or fall, or cause (a vehicle etc.) To collide or fall, violently; overturn at high speed. 4 collapse financially. 5 colloq. Gatecrash. 6 computing (of a machine or system) fail suddenly. 7 colloq. Pass (a red traffic-light etc.). 8 (often foll. By out) slang sleep, esp. On a floor etc. —n. 1 loud and sudden smashing noise. 2 violent collision or fall, esp. Of a vehicle. 3 ruin, esp. Financial. 4 computing sudden failure of a machine or system. 5 (attrib.) Done rapidly or urgently (crash course in first aid). —adv. With a crash (go crash). [imitative]
Crash2 n. Coarse plain fabric of linen, cotton, etc. [russian]
Crash barrier n. Barrier at the side or centre of a road etc.
Crash-dive —v. 1 a (of a submarine or its pilot) dive hastily in an emergency. B (of an aircraft or airman) dive and crash. 2 cause to crash-dive. —n. Such a dive.
Crash-helmet n. Helmet worn esp. By motor cyclists.
-crat comb. Form member or supporter of a type of government etc.
Crate —n. 1 slatted wooden case etc. For conveying esp. Fragile goods. 2 slang old aircraft or other vehicle. —v. (-ting) pack in a crate. [perhaps from dutch]
Crater —n. 1 mouth of a volcano. 2 bowl-shaped cavity, esp. That made by a shell or bomb. 3 hollow on the surface of a planet or moon, caused by impact. — v. Form a crater in. [greek, = mixing-bowl]
-cratic comb. Form (also -cratical) denoting a type of government etc. (autocratic). -cratically comb. Form forming adverbs. [forming adverbs]
Cravat n. Man’s scarf worn inside an open-necked shirt. [serbo-croatian, = croat]
Crave v. (-ving) (often foll. By for) long or beg for. [old english]
Craven adj. Cowardly, abject. [probably french cravanté defeated]
Craving n. Strong desire or longing.
Craw n. Crop of a bird or insect. stick in one’s craw be unacceptable. [low german or dutch]
Crawfish n. (pl. Same) large marine spiny lobster. [var. Of *crayfish]
Crawl —v. 1 move slowly, esp. On hands and knees or with the body close to the ground etc. 2 walk or move slowly. 3 colloq. Behave obsequiously. 4 (often foll. By with) be or appear to be covered or filled with crawling or moving things or people. 5 (esp. Of the skin) creep. —n. 1 crawling. 2 slow rate of movement. 3 high-speed overarm swimming stroke. [origin unknown]
Crayfish n. (pl. Same) 1 small lobster-like freshwater crustacean. 2 crawfish. [french crevice]
Crayon —n. Stick or pencil of coloured chalk, wax, etc. —v. Draw with crayons. [french craie chalk]
Craze —v. (-zing) 1 (usu. As crazed adj.) Make insane (crazed with grief). 2 produce fine surface cracks on (pottery glaze etc.); develop such cracks. —n. 1 usu. Temporary enthusiasm (craze for skateboarding). 2 object of this. [perhaps from old norse]
Crazy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 colloq. Insane or mad; foolish. 2 (usu. Foll. By about) colloq. Extremely enthusiastic. 3 (attrib.) (of paving etc.) Made up of irregular pieces. crazily adv. Craziness n.
Creak —n. Harsh scraping or squeaking sound. —v. 1 make a creak. 2 a move stiffly or with a creaking noise. B be poorly constructed (plot creaks). [imitative]
Creaky adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 liable to creak. 2 a stiff or frail. B decrepit, outmoded. creakiness n.
Cream —n. 1 fatty part of milk. 2 its yellowish-white colour. 3 creamlike cosmetic etc. 4 food or drink like or containing cream. 5 (usu. Prec. By the) best part of something. —v. 1 take cream from (milk). 2 make creamy. 3 treat (the skin etc.) With cosmetic cream. 4 form a cream or scum. —adj. Pale yellowish white. cream off take (esp. The best part) from a whole. [latin cramum and church latin chrisma oil for anointing]
Cream cheese n. Soft rich cheese made from cream and unskimmed milk.
Creamer n. 1 cream-substitute for adding to coffee. 2 jug for cream.
Creamery n. (pl. -ies) 1 factory producing butter and cheese. 2 dairy.
Cream of tartar n. Purified tartar, used in medicine, baking powder, etc.
Cream soda n. Carbonated vanilla-flavoured soft drink.
Cream tea n. Afternoon tea with scones, jam, and cream.
Creamy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 like cream. 2 rich in cream. creamily adv. Creaminess n.
Crease —n. 1 line caused by folding or crushing. 2 cricket line marking the position of a bowler or batsman. —v. (-sing) 1 make creases in. 2 develop creases. 3 slang (often foll. By up) make or become incapable through laughter. [from *crest]
Create v. (-ting) 1 bring into existence; cause. 2 originate (actor creates a part). 3 invest with rank (created him a lord). 4 slang make a fuss. [latin creo]
Creation n. 1 creating or being created. 2 a (usu. The creation) god’s creating of the universe. B (usu. Creation) all created things, the universe. 3 product of the
imagination, art, fashion, etc.
Creative adj. 1 inventive, imaginative. 2 able to create. creatively adv. Creativeness n. Creativity n.
Creator n. 1 person who creates. 2 (as the creator) god.
Creature n. 1 any living being, esp. An animal. 2 person of a specified kind (poor creature). 3 subservient person. creaturely adj. [french from latin: related to *create]
Creature comforts n.pl. Good food, warmth, etc.
Crèche n. Day nursery. [french]
Credence n. Belief. give credence to believe. [medieval latin: related to *credo]
Credential n. (usu. In pl.) 1 certificates, references, etc., attesting to a person’s education, character, etc. 2 letter(s) of introduction. [medieval latin: related to *credence]
Credibility n. 1 being credible. 2 reputation, status.
Credibility gap n. Apparent difference between what is said and what is true.
Credible adj. Believable or worthy of belief. [latin: related to *credo]
Usage credible is sometimes confused with credulous.
Credit —n. 1 source of honour, pride, etc. (is a credit to the school). 2 acknowledgement of merit. 3 good reputation. 4 belief or trust. 5 a person’s financial standing, esp. As regards money in the bank etc. B power to obtain goods etc. Before payment. 6 (usu. In pl.) Acknowledgement of a contributor’s services to a film etc. 7 grade above pass in an examination. 8 reputation for solvency and honesty in business. 9 a entry in an account of a sum paid into it. B sum entered. C side of an account recording such entries. 10 educational course counting towards a degree. —v. (-t-) 1 believe (cannot credit it). 2 (usu. Foll. By to, with) enter on the credit side of an account. credit a person with ascribe (a good quality) to a person. Do credit to (or do a person credit) enhance the reputation of. On credit with an arrangement to pay later. To one’s credit in one’s favour. [italian or latin: related to *credo]
Creditable adj. Bringing credit or honour. creditably adv.
Credit card n. Plastic card from a bank etc. Authorizing the purchase of goods on credit.
Credit note n. Note with a specific monetary value given by a shop etc. For goods returned.
Creditor n. Person to whom a debt is owing. [latin: related to *credit]
Credit rating n. Estimate of a person’s suitability for commercial credit.
Creditworthy adj. Considered suitable to receive commercial credit. creditworthiness n.
Credo n. (pl. -s) creed. [latin, = i believe]
Credulous adj. Too ready to believe; gullible. credulity n. Credulously adv. [latin: related to *credo]
Usage credulous is sometimes confused with credible.
Creed n. 1 set of principles or beliefs. 2 system of religious belief. 3 (often the creed) formal summary of christian doctrine. [latin: related to *credo]
Creek n. 1 a inlet on a sea-coast. B short arm of a river. 2 esp. Us, austral., & nz tributary of a river; stream. up the creek slang 1 in difficulties. 2 crazy. [old norse and dutch]
Creel n. Fisherman’s large wicker basket. [origin unknown]
Creep —v. (past and past part. Crept) 1 move with the body prone and close to the ground. 2 move stealthily or timidly. 3 advance very gradually (a feeling
crept over her). 4 colloq. Act obsequiously in the hope of advancement. 5 (of a plant) grow along the ground or up a wall etc. 6 (as creeping adj.) Developing slowly and steadily. 7 (of flesh) shiver or shudder from fear, horror, etc. —n. 1 act or spell of creeping. 2 (in pl.; prec. By the) colloq. Feeling of revulsion or fear. 3 slang unpleasant person. 4 (of metals etc.) Gradual change of shape under stress. [old english]
Creeper n. 1 climbing or creeping plant. 2 bird that climbs, esp. The treecreeper. 3 slang soft-soled shoe.
Creepy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Feeling or causing horror or fear. creepily adv. Creepiness n.
Creepy-crawly n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Small crawling insect etc.
Cremate v. (-ting) burn (a corpse etc.) To ashes. cremation n. [latin cremo burn]
Crematorium n. (pl. -ria or -s) place where corpses are cremated.
Crème n. 1 = *cream n. 4. 2 liqueur (crème de cassis). [french, = cream]
Crème brûlée n. Baked cream or custard pudding coated with caramel.
Crème caramel n. Custard coated with caramel.
Crème de cassis n. Blackcurrant liqueur.
Crème de cassis n. Blackcurrant liqueur.
Crème de la crème n. Best part; élite.
Crème de menthe n. Peppermint liqueur.
Crenelate v. (brit. Crenellate) (-ting) provide (a tower etc.) With battlements. crenellation n. [french crenel embrasure]
Crenellate v. (us crenelate) (-ting) provide (a tower etc.) With battlements. crenellation n. [french crenel embrasure]
Creole —n. 1 a descendant of european settlers in the w. Indies or central or s. America. B white descendant of french settlers in the southern us. C person of mixed european and black descent. 2 language formed from a european language and another (esp. African) language. —adj. 1 of creoles. 2 (usu. Creole) of creole origin etc. (creole cooking). [french from spanish]
Creosote —n. 1 dark-brown oil distilled from coal tar, used as a wood-preservative. 2 oily fluid distilled from wood tar, used as an antiseptic. —v. (-ting) treat with creosote. [greek kreas flesh, soter preserver, because of its antiseptic properties]
Crêpe n. 1 fine gauzy wrinkled fabric. 2 thin pancake with a savoury or sweet filling. 3 hard-wearing wrinkled sheet rubber used for the soles of shoes etc. crêpey adj. Crêpy adj. [latin: related to *crisp]
Crêpe de chine n. Fine silk crêpe.
Crêpe paper n. Thin crinkled paper.
Crêpe suzette n. Small dessert pancake flamed in alcohol.
Crept past and past part. Of *creep.
Crepuscular adj. 1 a of twilight. B dim. 2 zool. Appearing or active in twilight. [latin crepusculum twilight]
Cres. Abbr. Crescent.
Cresc. Abbr. (also cres.) Mus. = *crescendo.
Crescendo —n. (pl. -s) 1 mus. Gradual increase in loudness. 2 progress towards a climax. —adv. & adj. Increasing in loudness. [italian: related to *crescent]
Usage crescendo is sometimes wrongly used to mean the climax itself rather than progress towards it.
Crescent —n. 1 curved sickle shape as of the waxing or waning moon. 2 thing of
Crescent —n. 1 curved sickle shape as of the waxing or waning moon. 2 thing of this shape, esp. A street forming an arc. —adj. Crescent-shaped. [latin cresco grow]
Cress n. Any of various plants with pungent edible leaves. [old english]
Crest —n. 1 a comb or tuft etc. On a bird’s or animal’s head. B plume etc. On a helmet etc. 2 top of a mountain, wave, roof, etc. 3 heraldry a device above a coat of arms. B such a device on writing-paper etc. —v. 1 reach the crest of. 2 provide with a crest or serve as a crest to. 3 (of a wave) form a crest. crested adj. [latin crista]
Crestfallen adj. Dejected, dispirited.
Cretaceous —adj. 1 of or like chalk. 2 (cretaceous) geol. Of the last period of the mesozoic era, with deposits of chalk. —n. (cretaceous) geol. This era or system. [latin creta chalk]
Cretin n. 1 deformed and mentally retarded person, esp. As the result of thyroid deficiency. 2 colloq. Stupid person. cretinism n. Cretinous adj. [french crétin: related to *christian]
Cretonne n. (often attrib.) Heavy cotton upholstery fabric, usu. With a floral pattern. [creton in normandy]
Crevasse n. Deep open crack, esp. In a glacier. [latin crepo crack]
Crevice n. Narrow opening or fissure, esp. In rock etc. [french: related to *crevasse]
Crew1 —n. (often treated as pl.) 1 a people manning a ship, aircraft, train, etc. B these as distinct from the captain or officers. C people working together; team. 2 colloq. Gang. —v. 1 supply or act as a crew or crew member for. 2 act as a crew. [latin cresco increase]
Crew2 past of *crow2.
Crew cut n. Close-cropped hairstyle.
Crewel n. Thin worsted yarn for tapestry and embroidery. [origin unknown]
Crewel-work n. Design in crewel.
Crew neck n. Round close-fitting neckline.
Crib —n. 1 a baby’s small bed or cot. B model of the nativity with a manger. 2 rack for animal fodder. 3 colloq. A translation of a text used by students. B plagiarized work etc. 4 colloq. A cribbage. B set of cards given to the dealer at cribbage. —v. (-bb-) (also absol.) 1 colloq. Copy unfairly. 2 confine in a small space. 3 colloq. Pilfer. [old english]
Cribbage n. Card-game for up to four players. [origin unknown]
Crick —n. Sudden painful stiffness, esp. In the neck. —v. Cause this in. [origin unknown]
Cricket1 n. Team game played on a grass pitch, with bowling at a wicket defended by a batting player of the other team. not cricket colloq. Unfair behaviour. cricketer n. [origin uncertain]
Cricket2 n. Grasshopper-like chirping insect. [french, imitative]
Cri de cœur n. (pl. Cris de cœur pronunc. Same) passionate appeal, protest, etc. [french, = cry from the heart]
Cried past and past part. Of *cry.
Crier n. (also cryer) 1 person who cries. 2 official making public announcements in a lawcourt or street. [related to *cry]
Crikey int. Slang expression of astonishment. [from *christ]
Crime n. 1 a offence punishable by law. B illegal acts (resorted to crime). 2 evil act (crime against humanity). 3 colloq. Shameful act. [latin crimen]
Criminal —n. Person guilty of a crime. —adj. 1 of, involving, or concerning crime. 2 guilty of crime. 3 law of or concerning criminal offences (criminal
crime. 2 guilty of crime. 3 law of or concerning criminal offences (criminal code; criminal lawyer). 4 colloq. Scandalous, deplorable. criminality n. Criminally adv. [latin: related to *crime]
Criminology n. The study of crime. criminologist n.
Crimp —v. 1 press into small folds; corrugate. 2 make waves in (hair). —n. Crimped thing or form. [low german or dutch]
Crimplene n. Propr. Synthetic crease-resistant fabric.
Crimson —adj. Of a rich deep red. —n. This colour. [ultimately from arabic: related to *kermes]
Cringe v. (-ging) 1 shrink in fear; cower. 2 (often foll. By to) behave obsequiously. [related to *crank]
Crinkle —n. Wrinkle or crease. —v. (-ling) form crinkles (in). crinkly adj. [related to *cringe]
Crinkle-cut adj. (of vegetables) with wavy edges.
Crinoline n. 1 hist. Stiffened or hooped petticoat. 2 stiff fabric of horsehair etc. Used for linings, hats, etc. [french from latin crinis hair, linum thread]
Cripple —n. Permanently lame person. —v. (-ling) 1 make a cripple of; lame. 2 disable, weaken, or damage seriously (crippled by strikes). [old english]
Crisis n. (pl. Crises) 1 time of danger or great difficulty. 2 decisive moment; turning-point. [greek, = decision]
Crisp —adj. 1 hard but brittle. 2 a (of air) bracing. B (of style or manner) lively, brisk and decisive. C (of features etc.) Neat, clear-cut. D (of paper) stiff and crackling. E (of hair) closely curling. —n. (in full potato crisp) potato sliced thinly, fried, and sold in packets. —v. Make or become crisp. crisply adv. Crispness n. [latin crispus curled]
Crispbread n. 1 thin crisp biscuit of crushed rye etc. 2 these collectively (packet of crispbread).
Crispy adj. (-ier, -iest) crisp. crispiness n.
Criss-cross —n. Pattern of crossing lines. —adj. Crossing; in cross lines. —adv. Crosswise; at cross purposes. —v. 1 a intersect repeatedly. B move crosswise. 2 mark or make with a criss-cross pattern. [christ’s cross]
Criterion n. (pl. -ria) principle or standard of judgement. [greek, = means of judging]
Usage the plural form of criterion, criteria, is often used incorrectly as the singular. In the singular criterion should always be used.
singular. In the singular criterion should always be used.
Critic n. 1 person who criticizes. 2 person who reviews literary, artistic, etc. Works. [latin criticus from greek krites judge]
Critical adj. 1 a fault-finding, censorious. B expressing or involving criticism. 2 skilful at or engaged in criticism. 3 providing textual criticism (critical edition of milton). 4 a of or at a crisis; dangerous, risky (in a critical condition). B decisive, crucial (at the critical moment). 5 a math. & physics marking a transition from one state etc. To another (critical angle). B (of a nuclear reactor) maintaining a self-sustaining chain reaction. critically adv. Criticalness n.
Critical path n. Sequence of stages determining the minimum time needed for an operation.
Criticism n. 1 a fault-finding; censure. B critical remark etc. 2 a work of a critic. B analytical article, essay, etc.
Criticize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (also absol.) 1 find fault with; censure. 2 discuss critically.
Critique n. Critical analysis. [french: related to *critic]
Croak —n. Deep hoarse sound, esp. Of a frog. —v. 1 utter or speak with a croak. 2 slang die. [imitative]
Croaky adj. (-ier, -iest) croaking; hoarse. croakily adv. Croakiness n.
Croat (also croatian) —n. 1 a native of croatia in se europe. B person of croatian descent. 2 slavonic dialect of the croats. —adj. Of the croats or their dialect. [serbo-croatian hrvat]
Crochet —n. Needlework in which yarn is hooked to make a lacy patterned fabric. —v. (crocheted; crocheting) (also absol.) Make using crochet. [french: related to *crotchet]
Crock1 n. Colloq. Old or worn-out person or vehicle. [originally scots]
Crock2 n. 1 earthenware pot or jar. 2 broken piece of this. [old english]
Crockery n. Earthenware or china dishes, plates, etc. [related to *crock2]
Crocodile n. 1 a large tropical amphibious reptile with thick scaly skin, a long tail, and long jaws. B (often attrib.) Its skin. 2 colloq. Line of schoolchildren etc. Walking in pairs. [greek krokodilos]
Crocodile tears n.pl. Insincere grief.
Crocus n. (pl. -cuses) small plant with white, yellow, or purple flowers, growing from a corm. [latin from greek]
Croesus n. Person of great wealth. [name of a king of ancient lydia]
Croesus n. Person of great wealth. [name of a king of ancient lydia]
Croft —n. 1 enclosed piece of (usu. Arable) land. 2 small rented farm in scotland or n. England. —v. Farm a croft; live as a crofter. [old english]
Crofter n. Person who farms a croft.
Crohn’s disease n. Chronic inflammatory disease of the alimentary tract. [e. Crohn, name of a us pathologist]
Croissant n. Crescent-shaped breakfast roll. [french: related to *crescent]
Cromlech n. 1 dolmen. 2 prehistoric stone circle. [welsh]
Crone n. Withered old woman. [dutch croonje carcass]
Crony n. (pl. -ies) friend, companion. [greek khronios long-lasting]
Crook —n. 1 hooked staff of a shepherd or bishop. 2 a bend, curve, or hook. B hooked or curved thing. 3 colloq. Rogue; swindler; criminal. —v. Bend, curve. [old norse]
Crooked adj. (-er, -est) 1 not straight or level; bent. 2 colloq. Not straightforward; dishonest, criminal. crookedly adv. Crookedness n.
straightforward; dishonest, criminal. crookedly adv. Crookedness n.
Croon —v. Sing, hum, or say in a low sentimental voice. —n. Such singing etc. crooner n. [low german or dutch]
Crop —n. 1 a produce of cultivated plants, esp. Cereals. B season’s yield. 2 group, yield, etc., of one time or place (a new crop of students). 3 handle of a whip. 4 a very short haircut. B cropping of hair. 5 pouch in a bird’s gullet where food is prepared for digestion. —v. (-pp-) 1 a cut off. B bite off. 2 cut (hair etc.) Short. 3 (foll. By with) sow or plant (land) with a crop. 4 (of land) bear a crop. crop up occur unexpectedly. [old english]
Crop circle n. Circle of crops that has been inexplicably flattened.
Crop-eared adj. With the ears (esp. Of animals) or hair cut short.
Cropper n. Crop-producing plant of a specified quality. come a cropper slang fall heavily; fail badly.
Croquet —n. 1 lawn game in which wooden balls are driven through hoops with mallets. 2 act of croqueting a ball. —v. (croqueted; croqueting) drive away (an opponent’s ball) by placing and then striking one’s own against it. [perhaps a dial. Form of french crochet hook]
Croquette n. Ball of breaded and fried mashed potato etc. [french croquer crunch]
Crosier n. (also crozier) bishop’s ceremonial hooked staff. [french croisier cross-bearer and crossier crook-bearer]
Cross —n. 1 upright post with a transverse bar, as used in antiquity for crucifixion. 2 a (the cross) cross on which christ was crucified. B representation of this as an emblem of christianity. C = *sign of the cross. 3 staff surmounted by a cross, carried in a religious procession. 4 thing or mark like a cross, esp. Two short intersecting lines (+ or x). 5 cross-shaped military etc. Decoration. 6 a hybrid. B crossing of breeds etc. 7 (foll. By between) mixture of two things. 8 crosswise movement, pass in football, etc. 9 trial or affliction. —v. 1 (often foll. By over) go across. 2 intersect; (cause to) be across (roads cross; cross one’s legs). 3 a draw line(s) across. B mark (a cheque) with two parallel lines to indicate that it cannot be cashed. 4 (foll. By off, out, through) cancel etc. By drawing lines across. 5 (often refl.) Make the sign of the cross on or over. 6 a pass in opposite or different directions. B (of letters etc.) Be sent at the same time. C (of telephone lines) be connected to an unwanted conversation. 7 a cause to interbreed. B cross-fertilize (plants). 8 oppose or thwart (crossed in love). — adj. 1 (often foll. By with) peevish, angry. 2 (usu. Attrib.) Transverse; reaching from side to side. 3 (usu. Attrib.) Intersecting. 4 (usu. Attrib.) Contrary, opposed, reciprocal. at cross purposes misunderstanding; conflicting. Cross one’s fingers (or keep one’s fingers crossed) 1 put one finger across another to ward off bad luck. 2 trust in good luck. Cross one’s heart make a solemn pledge, esp. By crossing one’s front. Cross one’s mind occur to one, esp. Transiently. Cross swords (often foll. By with) argue or dispute. Cross wires (or get one’s wires crossed) 1 become wrongly connected by telephone. 2 have a misunderstanding. On the cross diagonally. crossly adv. Crossness n. [latin crux]
Crossbar n. Horizontal bar, esp. That on a man’s bicycle.
Cross-bench n. Seat in the house of lords for non-party members. cross-bencher n.
Crossbill n. Finch with a bill with crossed mandibles for opening pine cones.
Crossbones see *skull and crossbones.
Crossbow n. Bow fixed on a wooden stock, with a groove for an arrow.
Crossbreed —n. 1 hybrid breed of animals or plants. 2 individual hybrid. —v. Produce by crossing.
Cross-check —v. Check by alternative method(s). —n. Such a check.
Cross-country —adj. & adv. 1 across open country. 2 not keeping to main roads. —n. (pl. -ies) cross-country race.
Cross-cut —adj. Cut across the main grain. —n. Diagonal cut, path, etc.
Cross-cut saw n. Saw for cross-cutting.
Cross-dressing n. Practice of dressing in the clothes of the opposite sex. cross-dress v.
Crosse n. Lacrosse stick. [french]
Cross-examine v. Question (esp. An opposing witness in a lawcourt). cross-
Cross-examine v. Question (esp. An opposing witness in a lawcourt). cross-examination n.
Cross-eyed adj. Having one or both eyes turned inwards.
Cross-fertilize v. (also -ise) 1 fertilize (an animal or plant) from one of a different species. 2 interchange ideas etc. cross-fertilization n.
Crossfire n. 1 firing in two crossing directions simultaneously. 2 a attack or criticism from all sides. B combative exchange of views etc.
Cross-grain n. Grain in timber, running across the regular grain.
Cross-grained adj. 1 having a cross-grain. 2 perverse, intractable.
Cross-hatch v. Shade with crossing parallel lines.
Crossing n. 1 place where things (esp. Roads) cross. 2 place for crossing a street etc. 3 journey across water.
Cross-legged adj. (sitting) with legs folded one across the other.
Crossover —n. 1 point or place of crossing. 2 process of crossing over, esp. From one style or genre to another. —attrib. Adj. That crosses over, esp. From one style or genre to another.
Crosspatch n. Colloq. Bad-tempered person.
Crosspiece n. Transverse beam etc.
Crossply adj. (of a tyre) having fabric layers with crosswise cords.
Cross-question v. = *cross-examine.
Cross-refer v. (-rr-) refer from one part of a book etc. To another.
Cross-reference —n. Reference from one part of a book etc. To another. —v. Provide with cross-references.
Crossroad n. (usu. In pl.) Intersection of two or more roads. at the crossroads at the critical point.
Cross-section n. 1 a a cutting across a solid. B plane surface so produced. C drawing etc. Of this. 2 representative sample. cross-sectional adj.
Cross-stitch n. Cross-shaped stitch.
Crosstalk n. 1 unwanted signals between communication channels. 2 witty
Crosstalk n. 1 unwanted signals between communication channels. 2 witty repartee.
Crossways adv. = *crosswise.
Crosswind n. Wind blowing across one’s path etc.
Crosswise adj. & adv. 1 in the form of a cross; intersecting. 2 diagonal or diagonally.
Crossword n. (also crossword puzzle) printed grid of squares and blanks for vertical and horizontal words to be filled in from clues.
Crotch n. Fork, esp. Between legs (of a person, trousers, etc.). [related to *crook]
Crotchet n. Mus. Note equal to a quarter of a semibreve and usu. One beat. [french diminutive of croc: related to *crook]
Crotchety adj. Peevish, irritable.
Crouch —v. Lower the body with limbs close to the chest; be in this position. — n. Crouching; crouching position. [old norse: related to *crook]
Croup1 n. Childhood inflammation of the larynx etc., with a hard cough. [imitative]
[imitative]
Croup2 n. Rump, esp. Of a horse. [french: related to *crop]
Croupier n. Person running a gaming-table, raking in and paying out money etc. [french: related to *croup2]
Croûton n. Small cube of fried or toasted bread served with soup etc. [french: related to *crust]
Crow1 n. 1 large black bird with a powerful black beak. 2 similar bird, e.g. The raven, rook, and jackdaw. as the crow flies in a straight line. [old english]
Crow2 —v. 1 (past crowed or crew) (of a cock) utter a loud cry. 2 (of a baby) utter happy cries. 3 (usu. Foll. By over) gloat; show glee. —n. Cry of a cock or baby. [old english]
Crowbar n. Iron bar with a flattened end, used as a lever.
Crowd —n. 1 large gathering of people. 2 spectators; audience. 3 colloq. Particular set of people. 4 (prec. By the) majority. —v. 1 a (cause to) come together in a crowd. B force one’s way (crowded into the cinema). 2 a (foll. By into) force or compress into a confined space. B (often foll. By with; usu. In passive) fill or make full of. 3 colloq. Come aggressively close to. crowd out exclude by crowding. crowdedness n. [old english]
Crown —n. 1 monarch’s jewelled headdress. 2 (the crown) a monarch as head of state. B power or authority of the monarchy. 3 a wreath for the head as an emblem of victory. B award or distinction, esp. In sport. 4 crown-shaped ornament etc. 5 top part of the head, a hat, etc. 6 a highest or central part (crown of the road). B thing that completes or forms a summit. 7 a part of a tooth visible outside the gum. B artificial replacement for this. 8 former british coin worth five shillings. —v. 1 put a crown on (a person or head). 2 invest with a royal crown or authority. 3 be a crown to; rest on top of. 4 a (often as crowning adj.) (cause to) be the reward, summit, or finishing touch to (crowning glory). B bring to a happy outcome. 5 fit a crown to (a tooth). 6 slang hit on the head. 7 promote (a piece in draughts) to king. [latin corona]
Crown colony n. British colony controlled by the crown.
Crown court n. Court of criminal jurisdiction in england and wales.
Crown derby n. Porcelain made at derby and often marked with a crown.
Crown glass n. Glass without lead or iron used formerly in windows, now as optical glass of low refractive index.
Crown jewels n.pl. Sovereign’s state regalia etc.
Crown prince n. Male heir to a throne.
Crown princess n. 1 wife of a crown prince. 2 female heir to a throne.
Crown wheel n. Wheel with teeth at right angles to its plane.
Crown wheel n. Wheel with teeth at right angles to its plane.
Crow’s-foot n. Wrinkle near the eye.
Crow’s-nest n. Shelter at a sailing-ship’s masthead for a lookout man.
Crozier var. Of *crosier.
Crt abbr. Cathode-ray tube.
Cru n. 1 french vineyard or wine region. 2 grade of wine. [french crû grown]
Crucify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 put to death by fastening to a cross. 2 persecute, torment. 3 slang defeat thoroughly; humiliate. [french: related to *crucifix]
Crud n. Slang 1 deposit of grease etc. 2 unpleasant person. cruddy adj. (-ier, -iest). [var. Of *curd]
Crude —adj. 1 a in the natural state; not refined. B unpolished; lacking finish. 2 a rude, blunt. B offensive, indecent. 3 inexact. —n. Natural mineral oil. crudely adv. Crudeness n. Crudity n. [latin crudus raw]
Crudités n.pl. Hors d’œuvre of mixed raw vegetables. [french]
Cruel adj. (crueller, cruellest or crueler, cruelest) 1 causing pain or suffering, esp. Deliberately. 2 harsh, severe (a cruel blow). cruelly adv. Cruelness n. Cruelty n. (pl. -ies). [latin: related to *crude]
Cruelty n. (pl. -ies). [latin: related to *crude]
Cruet n. 1 set of small salt, pepper, etc. Containers for use at table. 2 such a container. [anglo-french diminutive: related to *crock2]
Cruise —v. (-sing) 1 a travel by sea for pleasure, calling at ports. B sail about. 2 travel at a relaxed or economical speed. 3 achieve an objective, esp. Win a race etc. With ease. 4 slang search for a sexual (esp. Homosexual) partner in bars, streets, etc. —n. Cruising voyage. [dutch: related to *cross]
Cruise missile n. One able to fly low and guide itself.
Cruiser n. 1 high-speed warship. 2 = *cabin cruiser.
Cruiserweight n. = *light heavyweight.
Crumb —n. 1 a small fragment, esp. Of bread. B small particle (crumb of comfort). 2 bread without crusts. 3 slang objectionable person. —v. Cover with or break into breadcrumbs. [old english]
Crumble —v. (-ling) 1 break or fall into small fragments. 2 (of power etc.) Gradually disintegrate. —n. Dish of stewed fruit with a crumbly topping.
Crumbly adj. (-ier, -iest) consisting of, or apt to fall into, crumbs or fragments. crumbliness n.
Crumbs int. Slang expressing dismay or surprise. [euphemism for *christ]
Crumby adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 like or covered in crumbs. 2 = *crummy.
Crumhorn var. Of *krummhorn.
Crummy adj. (-ier, -iest) slang dirty, squalid; inferior, worthless. crumminess n. [var. Of *crumby]
Crumpet n. 1 soft flat yeasty cake toasted and buttered. 2 joc. Or offens. Sexually attractive woman or women. [origin uncertain]
Crumple —v. (-ling) (often foll. By up) 1 crush or become crushed into creases or wrinkles. 2 collapse, give way. —n. Crease or wrinkle. [obsolete crump curl up]
Crunch —v. 1 a crush noisily with the teeth. B grind under foot, wheels, etc. 2 (often foll. By up, through) make a crunching sound. —n. 1 crunching; crunching sound. 2 colloq. Decisive event or moment. [imitative]
Crunchy adj. (-ier, -iest) hard and crisp. crunchiness n.
Crupper n. 1 strap looped under a horse’s tail to hold the harness back. 2 hindquarters of a horse. [french: related to *croup2]
Crusade —n. 1 hist. Any of several medieval military expeditions made by europeans to recover the holy land from the muslims. 2 vigorous campaign for a cause. —v. (-ding) engage in a crusade. crusader n. [french: related to *cross]
Cruse n. Archaic earthenware pot. [old english]
Crush —v. 1 compress with force or violence, so as to break, bruise, etc. 2 reduce to powder by pressure. 3 crease or crumple. 4 defeat or subdue completely. —n. 1 act of crushing. 2 crowded mass of people. 3 drink from the juice of crushed fruit. 4 (usu. Foll. By on) colloq. Infatuation. [french]
Crust —n. 1 a hard outer part of bread. B hard dry scrap of bread. C slang livelihood. 2 pastry covering of a pie. 3 hard casing over a soft thing. 4 outer portion of the earth. 5 deposit, esp. From wine on a bottle. —v. Cover or become covered with or form into a crust. [latin crusta rind, shell]
Crustacean —n. Esp. Aquatic arthropod with a hard shell, e.g. The crab, lobster, and shrimp. —adj. Of crustaceans.
Crusty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having a crisp crust. 2 irritable, curt. crustily adv. Crustiness n.
Crutch n. 1 usu. T-shaped support for a lame person fitting under the armpit. 2 support, prop. 3 crotch. [old english]
Crux n. (pl. Cruxes or cruces) decisive point at issue. [latin, = cross]
Crux n. (pl. Cruxes or cruces) decisive point at issue. [latin, = cross]
Cruzado n. (pl. -s) chief monetary unit of brazil. [portuguese]
Cruzeiro n. (pl. -s) one-thousandth of a cruzado. [portuguese]
Cry —v. (cries, cried) 1 (often foll. By out) make a loud or shrill sound, esp. To express pain, grief, etc., or to appeal for help. 2 shed tears; weep. 3 (often foll. By out) say or exclaim loudly or excitedly. 4 (foll. By for) appeal, demand, or show a need for. 5 (of an animal, esp. A bird) make a loud call. —n. (pl. Cries) 1 loud shout or scream of grief, pain, etc. 2 spell of weeping. 3 loud excited utterance. 4 urgent appeal. 5 a public demand or opinion. B rallying call. 6 call of an animal. cry down disparage. Cry off withdraw from an undertaking. Cry out for need as an obvious requirement or solution. Cry wolf see *wolf. [latin quirito]
Cryogenics n. Branch of physics dealing with very low temperatures. cryogenic adj. [greek kruos frost, -genes born]
Crypt n. Vault, esp. Beneath a church, used usu. As a burial-place. [latin crypta
Crypt n. Vault, esp. Beneath a church, used usu. As a burial-place. [latin crypta from greek kruptos hidden]
Cryptic adj. Obscure in meaning; secret, mysterious. cryptically adv.
Cryptogam n. Plant with no true flowers or seeds, e.g. Ferns, mosses, and fungi. cryptogamous adj. [as *crypt, greek gamos marriage]
Cryptogram n. Text written in cipher. [related to *crypt]
Cryptography n. Art of writing or solving ciphers. cryptographer n. Cryptographic adj.
Crystal —n. 1 a transparent colourless mineral, esp. Rock crystal. B piece of this. 2 a highly transparent glass; flint glass. B articles of this. 3 crystalline piece of semiconductor. 4 aggregation of molecules with a definite internal structure and the external form of a solid enclosed by symmetrically arranged plane faces. —adj. (usu. Attrib.) Made of, like, or clear as crystal. [greek krustallos]
Crystal ball n. Glass globe used in crystal-gazing.
Crystal-gazing n. Supposed foretelling of the future by gazing into a crystal ball.
Crystalline adj. 1 of, like, or clear as crystal. 2 having the structure and form of a crystal. crystallinity n.
Crystallize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 form into crystals. 2 (often foll. By out) (of ideas or plans) make or become definite. 3 make or become coated or impregnated with sugar (crystallized fruit). crystallization n.
Crystallography n. Science of crystal formation and structure. crystallographer n.
Crystalloid n. Substance that in solution is able to pass through a semipermeable membrane.
Cs symb. Caesium.
C/s abbr. Cycles per second.
Cse abbr. Hist. Certificate of secondary education.
Usage the cse examination was replaced in 1988 by gcse.
Cs gas n. Tear-gas used to control riots etc. [corson and stoughton, names of chemists]
Ctc abbr. City technology college.
Cu symb. Copper. [latin cuprum]
Cu. Abbr. Cubic.
Cub —n. 1 young of a fox, bear, lion, etc. 2 (cub) (in full cub scout) junior scout. 3 colloq. Young newspaper reporter. —v. (-bb-) (also absol.) Give birth to (cubs). [origin unknown]
Cubby-hole n. 1 very small room. 2 snug space. [low german]
Cube —n. 1 solid contained by six equal squares. 2 cube-shaped block. 3 product of a number multiplied by its square. —v. (-bing) 1 find the cube of (a number). 2 cut (food etc.) Into small cubes. [latin from greek]
Cube root n. Number which produces a given number when cubed.
Cubic adj. 1 cube-shaped. 2 of three dimensions. 3 involving the cube (and no higher power) of a number (cubic equation).
Cubical adj. Cube-shaped.
Cubicle n. 1 small screened space. 2 small separate sleeping-compartment. [latin cubo lie]
Cubic metre etc. N. Volume of a cube whose edge is one metre etc.
Cubism n. Style in art, esp. Painting, in which objects are represented geometrically. cubist n. & adj.
Cubit n. Ancient measure of length, approximating to the length of a forearm. [latin cubitum elbow]
Cuboid —adj. Cube-shaped; like a cube. —n. Geom. Rectangular parallelepiped.
Cuckold —n. Husband of an adulteress. —v. Make a cuckold of. cuckoldry n. [french]
Cuckoo —n. Bird having a characteristic cry, and laying its eggs in the nests of small birds. —predic. Adj. Slang crazy. [french, imitative]
Cuckoo clock n. Clock with the figure of a cuckoo emerging to make a call on the hour.
Cuckoo-pint n. Wild arum.
Cuckoo-spit n. Froth exuded by insect larvae on leaves, stems, etc.
Cucumber n. 1 long green fleshy fruit, used in salads. 2 climbing plant yielding this. [french from latin]
Cud n. Half-digested food returned to the mouth of ruminants for further chewing. [old english]
Cuddle —v. (-ling) 1 hug, fondle. 2 nestle together, lie close and snug. —n. Prolonged and fond hug. cuddlesome adj. [origin uncertain]
Cuddly adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a person, toy, etc.) Soft and yielding. 2 given to cuddling.
Cudgel —n. Short thick stick used as a weapon. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) beat with a cudgel. [old english]
Cue1 —n. 1 a last words of an actor’s speech as a signal to another to enter or speak. B similar signal to a musician etc. 2 a stimulus to perception etc. B signal for action. C hint on appropriate behaviour. 3 cueing audio equipment (see sense 2 of v.). —v. (cues, cued, cueing or cuing) 1 give a cue to. 2 put (audio equipment) in readiness to play a particular section. cue in 1 insert a cue for. 2 give information to. On cue at the correct moment. [origin unknown]
Cue2 billiards etc. —n. Long rod for striking a ball. —v. (cues, cued, cueing or cuing) strike (a ball) with or use a cue. [var. Of *queue]
Cue-ball n. Ball to be struck with a cue.
Cuff1 n. 1 end part of a sleeve. 2 us trouser turn-up. 3 (in pl.) Colloq. Handcuffs. off the cuff colloq. Without preparation, extempore. [origin unknown]
Cuff2 —v. Strike with an open hand. —n. Such a blow. [perhaps imitative]
Cuff-link n. Two joined studs etc. For fastening a cuff.
Cufic var. Of *kufic.
Cuirass n. Armour breastplate and back-plate fastened together. [latin corium leather]
Cuisine n. Style or method of cooking. [french]
Cul-de-sac n. (pl. Culs-de-sac pronunc. Same, or cul-de-sacs) 1 road etc. With a dead end. 2 futile course. [french, = sack-bottom]
Culinary adj. Of or for cooking. [latin culina kitchen]
Cull —v. 1 select or gather (knowledge culled from books). 2 gather (flowers etc.). 3 a select (animals), esp. For killing. B reduce the population of (an animal) by selective slaughter. —n. 1 culling or being culled. 2 animal(s) culled. [french: related to *collect1]
Culminate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By in) reach its highest or final point (culminate in war). culmination n. [latin culmen top]
Culottes n.pl. Women’s trousers cut like a skirt. [french, = knee-breeches]
Culpable adj. Deserving blame. culpability n. [latin culpo blame]
Culprit n. Guilty person. [perhaps from anglo-french culpable: see *culpable]
Cult n. 1 religious system, sect, etc., esp. Ritualistic. 2 a devotion to a person or thing (cult of aestheticism). B fashion. C (attrib.) Fashionable (cult film). [latin: related to *cultivate]
Cultivar n. Plant variety produced by cultivation. [from *cultivate, *variety]
Cultivate v. (-ting) 1 prepare and use (soil etc.) For crops or gardening. 2 a raise (crops). B culture (bacteria etc.). 3 a (often as cultivated adj.) Improve (the mind, manners, etc.). B nurture (a person, friendship, etc.). cultivable adj. Cultivation n. [latin colo cult-till, worship]
Cultivator n. 1 mechanical implement for breaking up the ground etc. 2 person or thing that cultivates.
Cultural adj. Of or relating to intellectual or artistic matters, or to a specific
Cultural adj. Of or relating to intellectual or artistic matters, or to a specific culture. culturally adv.
Culture —n. 1 a intellectual and artistic achievement or expression (city lacking in culture). B refined appreciation of the arts etc. (person of culture). 2 customs, achievements, etc. Of a particular civilization or group (chinese culture). 3 improvement by mental or physical training. 4 cultivation of plants; rearing of bees etc. 5 quantity of micro-organisms and nutrient material supporting their growth. —v. (-ring) maintain (bacteria etc.) In suitable growth conditions. [latin: related to *cultivate]
Cultured adj. Having refined taste etc.
Cultured pearl n. Pearl formed by an oyster after the insertion of a foreign body into its shell.
Culture shock n. Disorientation felt by a person subjected to an unfamiliar way of life.
Culture vulture n. Colloq. Person eager for cultural pursuits.
Culvert n. Underground channel carrying water under a road etc. [origin unknown]
Cum prep. (usu. In comb.) With, combined with, also used as (bedroom-cum-study). [latin]
Cumin n. (also cummin) 1 plant with aromatic seeds. 2 these as flavouring. [greek kuminon]
Cummerbund n. Waist sash. [hindustani and persian]
Cumquat var. Of *kumquat.
Cumulative adj. 1 increasing or increased progressively in amount, force, etc. (cumulative evidence). 2 formed by successive additions (learning is a cumulative process). cumulatively adv.
Cumulus n. (pl. -li) cloud formation of rounded masses heaped up on a flat base. [latin, = heap]
Cuneiform —adj. 1 wedge-shaped. 2 of or using wedge-shaped writing. —n. Cuneiform writing. [latin cuneus wedge]
Cunnilingus n. Oral stimulation of the female genitals. [latin cunnus vulva, lingo lick]
Cunning —adj. (-er, -est) 1 deceitful, clever, or crafty. 2 ingenious (cunning device). 3 us attractive, quaint. —n. 1 craftiness; deception. 2 skill, ingenuity. cunningly adv. [old norse: related to *can1]
cunningly adv. [old norse: related to *can1]
Cunt n. Coarse slang 1 female genitals. 2 offens. Unpleasant person. [origin uncertain]
Cup —n. 1 small bowl-shaped container for drinking from. 2 a its contents. B = *cupful. 3 cup-shaped thing. 4 flavoured wine, cider, etc., usu. Chilled. 5 cup-shaped trophy as a prize. 6 one’s fate or fortune (a bitter cup). —v. (-pp-) 1 form (esp. The hands) into the shape of a cup. 2 take or hold as in a cup. one’s cup of tea colloq. What interests or suits one. [medieval latin cuppa]
Cupboard n. Recess or piece of furniture with a door and (usu.) Shelves.
Cupboard love n. False affection for gain.
Cup final n. Final match in a (esp. Football) competition.
Cupful n. (pl. -s) 1 amount held by a cup, esp. Us a half-pint or 8-ounce measure. 2 full cup.
Usage a cupful is a measure, and so three cupfuls is a quantity regarded in terms of a cup; three cups full denotes the actual cups as in brought us three cups full of water.
Cupid n. 1 roman god of love, represented as a naked winged boy archer. 2 (also cupid) representation of cupid. [latin cupio desire]
cupid) representation of cupid. [latin cupio desire]
Cupidity n. Greed; avarice. [latin: related to *cupid]
Cupid’s bow n. Upper lip etc. Shaped like an archery bow.
Cupola n. 1 dome forming or adorning a roof. 2 revolving dome protecting mounted guns. 3 furnace for melting metals. cupolaed adj. [italian from latin cupa cask]
Cuppa n. Colloq. 1 cup of. 2 cup of tea. [corruption]
Cupreous adj. Of or like copper. [latin: related to *copper1]
Cupric adj. Of copper.
Cupro-nickel n. Alloy of copper and nickel.
Cup-tie n. Match in a competition for a cup.
Cur n. 1 mangy ill-tempered dog. 2 contemptible person. [perhaps from old norse kurr grumbling]
Curable adj. Able to be cured. curability n.
Curaçao n. (pl. -s) orange-flavoured liqueur. [curaçao, caribbean island]
Curacy n. (pl. -ies) curate’s office or tenure of it.
Curare n. Extract of various plants, used by american indians to poison arrows. [carib]
Curate n. Assistant to a parish priest. [medieval latin curatus: related to *cure]
Curate’s egg n. Thing that is good in parts.
Curative —adj. Tending or able to cure. —n. Curative agent. [medieval latin: related to *curate]
Curator n. Keeper or custodian of a museum etc. curatorship n. [anglo-latin: related to *cure]
Curb —n. 1 check, restraint. 2 strap etc. Passing under a horse’s lower jaw, used as a check. 3 enclosing border, e.g. The frame round a well or a fender round a hearth. 4 = kerb. —v. 1 restrain. 2 put a curb on (a horse). [french: related to curve]
Curd n. (often in pl.) Coagulated acidic milk product made into cheese or eaten as food. [origin unknown]
Curd cheese n. Soft smooth cheese made from skimmed milk curds.
Curdle v. (-ling) form into curds; congeal. make one’s blood curdle horrify one. [from *curd]
Cure —v. (-ring) 1 (often foll. By of) restore to health; relieve (cured of pleurisy). 2 eliminate (disease, evil, etc.). 3 preserve (meat, fruit, etc.) By salting, drying, etc. 4 vulcanize (rubber); harden (plastic etc.). —n. 1 restoration to health. 2 thing effecting a cure. 3 course of treatment. 4 curacy. [latin cura care]
Curé n. Parish priest in france etc. [french]
Cure-all n. Panacea.
Curette —n. Surgeon’s small scraping-instrument. —v. (-tting) clean or scrape with this. curettage n. [french: related to *cure]
Curfew n. 1 signal or time after which people must remain indoors. 2 hist. Signal for extinction of fires at a fixed hour. [french: related to cover, latin focus]
Curia n. (also curia) papal court; government departments of the vatican. [latin]
Curie n. Unit of radioactivity. [p. Curie, name of a scientist]
Curie n. Unit of radioactivity. [p. Curie, name of a scientist]
Curio n. (pl. -s) rare or unusual object. [abbreviation of *curiosity]
Curiosity n. (pl. -ies) 1 eager desire to know; inquisitiveness. 2 strange, rare, etc. Object. [latin: related to *curious]
Curious adj. 1 eager to learn; inquisitive. 2 strange, surprising, odd. curiously adv. [latin: related to *cure]
Curium n. Artificial radioactive metallic element. [m. And p. Curie, name of scientists]
Curl —v. 1 (often foll. By up) bend or coil into a spiral. 2 move in a spiral form. 3 a (of the upper lip) be raised contemptuously. B cause (the lip) to do this. 4 play curling. —n. 1 lock of curled hair. 2 anything spiral or curved inwards. 3 a curling movement. B being curled. curl one’s lip express scorn. Curl up 1 lie or sit with the knees drawn up. 2 colloq. Writhe in embarrassment etc. [dutch]
Curler n. Pin or roller etc. For curling the hair.
Curlew n. Wading bird, usu. With a long slender bill. [french]
Curlicue n. Decorative curl or twist. [from *curly, cue2 or q1]
Curling n. Game resembling bowls, played on ice with round flat stones.
Curly adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having or arranged in curls. 2 moving in curves. curliness n.
Curly kale n. = *kale.
Curmudgeon n. Bad-tempered person. curmudgeonly adj. [origin unknown]
Currant n. 1 small seedless dried grape. 2 a any of various shrubs producing red, white, or black berries. B such a berry. [anglo-french from corinth in greece]
Currency n. (pl. -ies) 1 a money in use in a country. B other commodity used as money. 2 being current; prevalence (e.g. Of words or ideas).
Current —adj. 1 belonging to the present; happening now (current events). 2 (of money, opinion, rumour, etc.) In general circulation or use. —n. 1 body of moving water, air, etc., esp. Passing through still water etc. 2 a ordered movement of electrically charged particles. B quantity representing the intensity of this. 3 (usu. Foll. By of) general tendency or course (of events, opinions, etc.). currentness n. [latin curro curs-run]
Current account n. Instantly accessible bank account.
Currently adv. At the present time; now.
Curriculum n. (pl. -la) subjects included in a course of study. [latin, = course]
Curriculum vitae n. Brief account of one’s education, career, etc.
Curry1 —n. (pl. -ies) meat, vegetables, etc., cooked in a spicy sauce, usu. Served with rice. —v. (-ies, -ied) prepare or flavour with a curry sauce. [tamil]
Curry2 v. (-ies, -ied) 1 groom (a horse) with a curry-comb. 2 treat (tanned leather) to improve it. curry favour ingratiate oneself. [germanic: related to *ready]
Curry-comb n. Metal serrated device for grooming horses.
Curry-powder n. Mixture of turmeric, cumin, etc. For making curry.
Curse —n. 1 solemn invocation of divine wrath on a person or thing. 2 supposed resulting evil. 3 violent or profane exclamation or oath. 4 thing causing evil or harm. 5 (prec. By the) colloq.
Cursed attrib. Adj. Damned.
Cursive —adj. (of writing) with joined characters. —n. Cursive writing. [medieval latin, = running: related to *current]
Cursor n. 1 math. Etc. Transparent slide with a hairline, forming part of a slide-rule. 2 computing indicator on a vdu screen identifying esp. The position that the program will operate on with the next keystroke. [latin, = runner: related to *cursive]
Cursory adj. Hasty, hurried. cursorily adv. Cursoriness n. [latin: related to *cursor]
Curt adj. Noticeably or rudely brief. curtly adv. Curtness n. [latin curtus short]
Curtail v. Cut short; reduce. curtailment n. [corruption of obsolete adj. Curtal: related to *curt]
Curtain —n. 1 piece of cloth etc. Hung as a screen, esp. At a window. 2 a rise or fall of a stage curtain between acts or scenes. B = *curtain-call. 3 partition or cover. 4 (in pl.) Slang the end. —v. 1 provide or cover with curtain(s). 2 (foll. By off) shut off with curtain(s). [latin cortina]
Curtain-call n. Audience’s applause summoning actors to take a bow.
Curtain-raiser n. 1 short play before the main performance. 2 preliminary event.
Curtilage n. Esp. Law area attached to a house and forming one enclosure with it. [french: related to *court]
Curtsy (also curtsey) —n. (pl. -ies or -eys) bending of the knees and lowering of the body made by a girl or woman in acknowledgement of applause or as a respectful greeting etc. —v. (-ies, -ied or -eys, -eyed) make a curtsy. [var. Of *courtesy]
Curvaceous adj. Colloq. (esp. Of a woman) having a shapely figure.
Curvature n. 1 curving. 2 curved form. 3 deviation of a curve or curved surface from a plane. [french from latin: related to *curve]
Curve —n. 1 line or surface of which no part is straight or flat. 2 curved form or thing. 3 curved line on a graph. —v. (-ving) bend or shape to form a curve. curved adj. [latin curvus curved]
Curvet —n. Horse’s frisky leap. —v. (-tt-or -t-) perform a curvet. [italian diminutive: related to *curve]
Curvilinear adj. Contained by or consisting of curved lines. curvilinearly adv. [from *curve after rectilinear]
Curvy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having many curves. 2 (of a woman’s figure) shapely. curviness n.
Cushion —n. 1 bag stuffed with soft material, for sitting or leaning on etc. 2 protection against shock; measure to soften a blow. 3 padded rim of a billiard-
table etc. 4 air supporting a hovercraft etc. —v. 1 provide or protect with cushion(s). 2 mitigate the adverse effects of. [latin culcita mattress]
Cushy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. (of a job etc.) Easy and pleasant. [hindi khush pleasant]
Cusp n. Point at which two curves meet, e.g. The horn of a crescent moon etc. [latin cuspis -id-point, apex]
Custard n. Pudding or sweet sauce of eggs or flavoured cornflour and milk. [obsolete crustade: related to *crust]
Custodian n. Guardian or keeper. custodianship n.
Custody n. 1 guardianship; protective care. 2 imprisonment. take into custody arrest. custodial adj. [latin custos -od-guard]
Custom n. 1 a usual behaviour. B particular established way of behaving. 2 law established usage having the force of law. 3 regular business dealings or customers. 4 (in pl.; also treated as sing.) A duty on imports and exports. B
official department administering this. C area at a port, frontier, etc., dealing with customs etc. [latin consuetudo]
Customary adj. In accordance with custom, usual. customarily adv. Customariness n. [medieval latin: related to *custom]
Custom-built adj. (also custom-made) made to order.
Customer n. 1 person who buys goods or services from a shop or business. 2 colloq. Person of a specified kind (awkward customer). [anglo-french: related to *custom]
Custom-house n. Customs office at a port or frontier etc.
Customize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make or modify to order; personalize.
Cut —v. (-tt-; past and past part. Cut) 1 (also absol.) Penetrate or wound with a sharp-edged instrument. 2 (often foll. By into) divide or be divided with a knife etc. 3 trim or detach by cutting. 4 (foll. By loose, open, etc.) Loosen etc. By cutting. 5 (esp. As cutting adj.) Wound (cutting remark). 6 (often foll. By down) reduce (wages, time, etc.) Or cease (services etc.). 7 a make (a coat, gem, key, record, etc.) By cutting. B make (a path, tunnel, etc.) By removing material. 8 perform, make (cut a caper; cut a sorry figure). 9 (also absol.) Cross, intersect. 10 (foll. By across, through, etc.) Traverse, esp. As a shorter way (cut across the grass). 11 a deliberately ignore (a person one knows). B renounce (a connection). 12 esp. Us deliberately miss (a class etc.). 13 cards a divide (a pack) into two parts. B do this to select a dealer etc. 14 a edit (film or tape). B (often in imper.) Stop filming or recording. C (foll. By to) go quickly to (another shot). 15 switch off (an engine etc.). 16 chop (a ball). —n. 1 cutting. 2 division or wound made by cutting. 3 stroke with a knife, sword, whip, etc. 4 a reduction (in wages
etc.). B cessation (of power supply etc.). 5 removal of lines etc. From a play, film, etc. 6 wounding remark or act. 7 style of hair, garment, etc. Achieved by cutting. 8 particular piece of butchered meat. 9 colloq. Commission; share of profits. 10 stroke made by cutting. 11 deliberate ignoring of a person. 12 = *woodcut. a cut above colloq. Noticeably superior to. Be cut out (foll. By for, or to + infin.) Be suited. Cut across 1 transcend (normal limitations etc.). 2 see sense 10 of v. Cut and run slang run away. Cut back 1 reduce (expenditure etc.). 2 prune (a tree etc.). Cut both ways 1 serve both sides of an argument etc. 2 (of an action) have both good and bad effects. Cut a corner go across it. Cut corners do perfunctorily or incompletely, esp. To save time. Cut a dash make a brilliant show. Cut a person dead deliberately ignore (a person one knows). Cut down 1 a bring or throw down by cutting. B kill by sword or disease. 2 see sense 6 of v. 3 reduce the length of (cut down trousers to make shorts). 4 (often foll. By on) reduce consumption (cut down on beer). Cut a person down to size colloq. Deflate a person’s pretensions. Cut in 1 interrupt. 2 pull in too closely in front of another vehicle. Cut it fine allow very little margin of time etc. Cut it out (usu. In imper.) Slang stop doing that. Cut one’s losses abandon an unprofitable scheme. Cut no ice slang have no influence. Cut off 1 remove by cutting. 2 a (often in passive) bring to an abrupt end or (esp. Early) death. B intercept, interrupt. C disconnect (a person on the telephone). 3 a prevent from travelling. B (as cut off adj.) Isolated or remote. 4 disinherit. Cut out 1 remove from inside by cutting. 2 make by cutting from a larger whole. 3 omit. 4 colloq. Stop doing or using (something) (cut out chocolate). 5 (cause to) cease functioning (engine cut out). 6 outdo or supplant (a rival). Cut short interrupt; terminate. Cut one’s teeth on acquire experience from.
Cutaneous adj. Of the skin. [latin: related to *cuticle]
Cutaway attrib. Adj. (of a diagram etc.) With parts of the exterior left out to reveal the interior.
reveal the interior.
Cut-back n. Cutting back, esp. A reduction in expenditure.
Cute adj. Colloq. 1 esp. Us attractive, quaint. 2 clever, ingenious. cutely adv. Cuteness n. [shortening of *acute]
Cut glass n. (often hyphenated when attrib.) Glass with patterns cut on it.
Cuticle n. Dead skin at the base of a fingernail or toenail. [latin diminutive of cutis skin]
Cutis n. True skin, beneath the epidermis. [latin]
Cutlass n. Hist. Short sword with a slightly curved blade. [latin cultellus: related to *cutler]
Cutler n. Person who makes or deals in knives etc. [latin cultellus diminutive: related to *coulter]
Cutlery n. Knives, forks, and spoons for use at table. [anglo-french: related to *cutler]
Cutlet n. 1 neck-chop of mutton or lamb. 2 small piece of veal etc. For frying. 3 flat cake of minced meat or nuts and breadcrumbs etc. [french diminutive from latin costa rib]
Cut-off n. 1 (often attrib.) Point at which something is cut off. 2 device for stopping a flow.
Cut-out n. 1 figure cut out of paper etc. 2 device for automatic disconnection, the release of exhaust gases, etc.
Cut-price adj. (also cut-rate) at a reduced price.
Cutter n. 1 a person or thing that cuts. B (in pl.) Cutting tool. 2 a small fast sailing-ship. B small boat carried by a large ship.
Cutthroat —n. 1 murderer. 2 (in full cutthroat razor) razor with a long unguarded blade set in a handle. —adj. 1 (of competition) ruthless and intense. 2 (of a card-game) three-handed.
Cutting —n. 1 piece cut from a newspaper etc. 2 piece cut from a plant for propagation. 3 excavated channel in a hillside etc. For a railway or road. —adj. See *cut v. 5. cuttingly adv.
Cuttlefish n. (pl. Same or -es) mollusc with ten arms and ejecting a black fluid when threatened. [old english]
Cutwater n. 1 forward edge of a ship’s prow. 2 wedge-shaped projection from a pier or bridge.
Cuvée n. Blend or batch of wine. [french, = vatful]
C.v. Abbr. (also cv) curriculum vitae.
Cwm n. (in wales) = *coomb. [welsh]
Cwt abbr. Hundredweight.
-cy suffix denoting state, condition, or status (idiocy; captaincy). [latin -cia, greek -kia]
Cyanic acid n. Unstable colourless pungent acid gas. [greek kuanos a blue mineral]
Cyanide n. Highly poisonous substance used in the extraction of gold and silver.
Cyanogen n. Highly poisonous gas used in fertilizers.
Cyanosis n. Bluish skin due to oxygen-deficient blood.
Cybernetics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Science of communications and control systems in machines and living things. cybernetic adj. [greek kubernetes steersman]
Cyberpunk n. Science fiction writing combining high-tech plots with unconventional or nihilistic social values. [from cybernetics, punk]
Cycad n. Palmlike plant often growing to a great height. [greek koix egyptian palm]
Cyclamate n. Former artificial sweetener. [chemical name]
Cyclamen n. 1 plant with pink, red, or white flowers with backward-turned petals. 2 cyclamen red or pink. [latin from greek]
Cycle —n. 1 a recurrent round or period (of events, phenomena, etc.). B time needed for this. 2 a physics etc. Recurrent series of operations or states. B electr. = *hertz. 3 series of related songs, poems, etc. 4 bicycle, tricycle, etc. —v. (-ling) 1 ride a bicycle etc. 2 move in cycles. [greek kuklos circle]
Cycle-track n. (also cycle-way) path or road for bicycles.
Cyclic adj. (also cyclical) 1 a recurring in cycles. B belonging to a chronological cycle. 2 with constituent atoms forming a ring. cyclically adv.
Cyclist n. Rider of a bicycle.
Cyclo-comb. Form circle, cycle, or cyclic.
Cyclist n. Rider of a bicycle.
Cyclo-comb. Form circle, cycle, or cyclic.
Cyclone n. 1 winds rotating inwards to an area of low barometric pressure; depression. 2 violent hurricane of limited diameter. cyclonic adj. [greek kukloma wheel]
Cyclotron n. Apparatus for the acceleration of charged atomic and subatomic particles revolving in a magnetic field.
Cygnet n. Young swan. [latin cygnus swan from greek]
Cylinder n. 1 uniform solid or hollow body with straight sides and a circular section. 2 thing of this shape, e.g. A container for liquefied gas, a piston-chamber in an engine. cylindrical adj. [latin cylindrus from greek]
Cymbal n. Concave disc, struck usu. With another to make a ringing sound. cymbalist n. [latin from greek]
Cyme n. Flower cluster with a single terminal flower that develops first. cymose adj. [greek kuma wave]
Cymric adj. Welsh. [welsh cymru wales]
Cynic n. 1 person with a pessimistic view of human nature. 2 (cynic) one of a school of ancient greek philosophers showing contempt for ease and pleasure. cynical adj. Cynically adv. Cynicism n. [greek kuon dog]
Cynosure n. Centre of attraction or admiration. [greek, = dog’s tail (name for ursa minor)]
Cypher var. Of *cipher.
Cypress n. Conifer with hard wood and dark foliage. [greek kuparissos]
Cypriot (also cypriote) —n. Native or national of cyprus. —adj. Of cyprus. [cyprus in e. Mediterranean]
Cyrillic —adj. Of the alphabet used by the slavonic peoples of the orthodox church, now used esp. For russian and bulgarian. —n. This alphabet. [st cyril, d. 869]
Cyst n. Sac formed in the body, containing liquid matter. [greek kustis bladder]
Cystic adj. 1 of the bladder. 2 like a cyst.
Cystic fibrosis n. Hereditary disease usu. With respiratory infections.
Cystitis n. Inflammation of the bladder usu. Causing frequent painful urination.
-cyte comb. Form mature cell (leucocyte). [greek kutos vessel]
Cytology n. The study of cells. cytological adj. Cytologist n. [greek kutos vessel]
Cytoplasm n. Protoplasmic content of a cell apart from its nucleus. cytoplasmic adj.
Czar var. Of *tsar
Czech —n. 1 native or national of czechoslovakia. 2 one of the two official languages of czechoslovakia. —adj. Of czechoslovakia, its people, or language. [bohemian cech]
Czechoslovak (also czechoslovakian) —n. Native or national of czechoslovakia. —adj. Of czechoslovakia. [from *czech, *slovak]
D
D1 n. (also d) (pl. Ds or d’s) 1 fourth letter of the alphabet. 2 mus. Second note of the diatonic scale of c major. 3 (as a roman numeral) 500. 4 = *dee. 5 fourth highest class or category (of academic marks etc.).
D2 symb. Deuterium.
D. Abbr. 1 died. 2 departs. 3 daughter. 4 hist. (pre-decimal) penny. [sense 4 from latin *denarius]
‘D v. Colloq. (usu. After pronouns) had, would (i’d; he’d). [abbreviation]
Dab1 —v. (-bb-) 1 (often foll. By at) repeatedly press briefly and lightly with a cloth etc. (dabbed at her eyes). 2 press (a cloth etc.) Thus. 3 (foll. By on) apply by dabbing. 4 (often foll. By at) aim a feeble blow; strike lightly. —n. 1 dabbing. 2 small amount thus applied (dab of paint). 3 light blow. 4 (in pl.) Slang fingerprints. [imitative]
Dab2 n. (pl. Same) a kind of marine flat-fish. [origin unknown]
Dabble v. (-ling) 1 (usu. Foll. By in, at) engage (in an activity etc.) Superficially. 2 move the feet, hands, etc. In esp. Shallow liquid. 3 wet partly; stain, splash. dabbler n. [from *dab1]
Dabchick n. = *little grebe. [old english]
Dab hand n. (usu. Foll. By at) colloq. Expert. [dab adept, origin unknown]
Da capo adv. Mus. Repeat from the beginning. [italian]
Dace n. (pl. Same) small freshwater fish related to the carp. [french dars: related to *dart]
Dacha n. Russian country cottage. [russian]
Dachshund n. Dog of a short-legged long-bodied breed. [german, = badger-dog]
Dactyl n. Metrical foot consisting of one long syllable followed by two short syllables (&dactyl.). dactylic adj. [greek, = finger]
Dad n. Colloq. Father. [imitative of a child’s da da]
Dada n. Early 20th-c. Artistic and literary movement repudiating conventions. dadaism n. Dadaist n. & adj. Dadaistic adj. [french dada hobby-horse]
Daddy n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Father. [from *dad]
Daddy-long-legs n. (pl. Same) crane-fly.
Daddy-long-legs n. (pl. Same) crane-fly.
Dado n. (pl. -s) 1 lower, differently decorated, part of an interior wall. 2 plinth of a column. 3 cube of a pedestal between the base and the cornice. [italian: related to *die2]
Daemon var. Of *demon 4.
Daff n. Colloq. = *daffodil. [abbreviation]
Daffodil n. Spring bulb with a yellow trumpet-shaped flower. [related to *asphodel]
Dagger n. 1 short pointed knife used as a weapon. 2 printing = *obelus. at daggers drawn in bitter enmity. Look daggers at glare angrily at. [origin uncertain]
Dago n. (pl. -s) slang offens. Foreigner, esp. A spaniard, portuguese, or italian. [spanish diego = james]
Daguerreotype n. Early photograph using a silvered plate and mercury vapour. [daguerre, name of its inventor]
Dahlia n. Large-flowered showy garden plant. [dahl, name of a botanist]
Dáil n. (in full dáil éireann) lower house of parliament in the republic of ireland. [irish, = assembly (of ireland)]
Daily —adj. Done, produced, or occurring every day or every weekday. —adv. 1 every day. 2 constantly. —n. (pl. -ies) colloq. 1 daily newspaper. 2 cleaning woman.
Daily bread n. Necessary food; livelihood.
Dainty —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 delicately pretty. 2 delicate or small. 3 (of food) choice. 4 fastidious; discriminating. —n. (pl. -ies) choice delicacy. daintily adv. Daintiness n. [latin dignitas *dignity]
Daiquiri n. (pl. -s) cocktail of rum, lime juice, etc. [daiquiri in cuba]
Dairy n. (pl. -ies) 1 place for processing, distributing, or selling milk and its products. 2 (attrib.) Of, containing, or used for, dairy products (and sometimes eggs) (dairy cow). [old english]
Dairying n. Dairy farming and distribution.
Dairymaid n. Woman employed in a dairy.
Dairymaid n. Woman employed in a dairy.
Dairyman n. Dealer in dairy products.
Dais n. Low platform, usu. At the upper end of a hall. [latin *discus disc, (later) table]
Daisy n. (pl. -ies) 1 small wild plant with white-petalled flowers. 2 plant with similar flowers. [old english, = day’s eye]
Daisy wheel n. Spoked disc bearing printing characters, used in word processors and typewriters.
Dal var. Of *dhal.
Dalai lama n. Spiritual head of tibetan buddhism. [mongolian dalai ocean]
Dale n. Valley. [old english]
Dally v. (-ies, -ied) 1 delay; waste time. 2 (often foll. By with) flirt, trifle. dalliance n. [french]
Dalmatian n. Large white spotted short-haired dog. [dalmatia in croatia]
Dal segno adv. Mus. Repeat from the point marked by a sign. [italian, = from the sign]
Dam1 —n. 1 barrier across river etc., forming a reservoir or preventing flooding. 2 barrier made by beaver. —v. (-mm-) 1 provide or confine with a dam. 2 (often foll. By up) block up; obstruct. [low german or dutch]
Dam2 n. Mother, esp. Of a four-footed animal. [var. Of *dame]
Damage —n. 1 harm or injury. 2 (in pl.) Law financial compensation for loss or injury. 3 (prec. By the) slang cost. —v. (-ging) inflict damage on. [latin damnum]
Damascene —v. (-ning) decorate (metal) by etching or inlaying esp. With gold or silver. —n. Design or article produced in this way. —adj. Of this process. [damascus in syria]
Damask —n. Reversible figured woven fabric, esp. White table linen. —adj. 1 made of damask. 2 velvety pink. —v. Weave with figured designs. [as *damascene]
Damask rose n. Old sweet-scented rose used to make attar.
Dame n. 1 (dame) a title given to a woman holding any of several orders of chivalry. B woman holding this title. 2 comic middle-aged female pantomime character, usu. Played by a man. 3 us slang woman. [latin domina lady]
Dame-school n. Hist. Primary school kept by an elderly woman.
Dammit int. Colloq. Damn it.
Damn —v. 1 (often absol. Or as int. Of anger or annoyance, = may god damn) curse (a person or thing). 2 doom to hell; cause the damnation of. 3 condemn, censure (review damning the book). 4 a (often as damning adj.) (of circumstance, evidence, etc.) Show or prove to be guilty. B be the ruin of. —n. 1 uttered curse. 2 slang negligible amount. —adj. & adv. Colloq. = *damned. damn all slang nothing at all. Damn well colloq. (for emphasis) simply (damn well do as i say). Damn with faint praise commend feebly, and so imply disapproval. I’m (or i’ll be) damned if colloq. I certainly do not, will not, etc. Not give a damn see *give. Well i’m (or i’ll be) damned colloq. Exclamation of surprise etc. [latin damnum loss]
Damnable adj. Hateful, annoying. damnably adv.
Damnation —n. Eternal punishment in hell. —int. Expressing anger.
Damned colloq. —attrib. Adj. Damnable. —adv. Extremely (damned hot). damned well = damn well. Do one’s damnedest do one’s utmost.
Damp —adj. Slightly wet. —n. Slight diffused or condensed moisture, esp. When unwelcome. —v. 1 make damp; moisten. 2 (often foll. By down) a temper; mute (damps my enthusiasm). B make (a fire) burn less strongly by reducing the flow of air to it. 3 reduce or stop the vibration of (esp. Strings of a musical instrument). damply adv. Dampness n. [low german]
musical instrument). damply adv. Dampness n. [low german]
Damp course n. (also damp-proof course) layer of waterproof material in a wall near the ground, to prevent rising damp.
Dampen v. 1 make or become damp. 2 (often foll. By down) = *damp v. 2a.
Damper n. 1 discouraging person or thing. 2 device that reduces shock or noise. 3 metal plate in a flue to control the draught. 4 mus. Pad silencing a piano string. put a damper on take the vigour or enjoyment out of.
Damp squib n. Unsuccessful attempt to impress etc.
Damsel n. Archaic or literary young unmarried woman. [french diminutive: related to *dame]
Damselfly n. Insect like a dragonfly but with wings folded when resting.
Damson n. 1 (in full damson plum) small dark-purple plum. 2 dark-purple colour. [latin: related to *damascene]
Dan n. 1 grade of proficiency in judo. 2 holder of such a grade. [japanese]
Dance —v. (-cing) 1 move rhythmically, usu. To music. 2 skip or jump about. 3 perform (a specified dance, role, etc.). 4 bob up and down. 5 dandle (a child). —
perform (a specified dance, role, etc.). 4 bob up and down. 5 dandle (a child). — n. 1 a dancing as an art form. B style or form of this. 2 social gathering for dancing. 3 single round or turn of a dance. 4 music for dancing to. 5 lively motion. dance attendance on serve obsequiously. Lead a person a dance (or merry dance) cause a person much trouble. danceable adj. Dancer n. [french]
Dancehall n. Public hall for dancing.
D. And c. N. Dilatation (of the cervix) and curettage (of the uterus).
Dandelion n. Wild plant with jagged leaves, a yellow flower, and a fluffy seed-head. [french dent-de-lion, = lion’s tooth]
Dander n. Colloq. Temper, indignation. get one’s dander up become angry. [origin uncertain]
Dandify v. (-ies, -ied) make a dandy.
Dandle v. (-ling) bounce (a child) on one’s knees etc. [origin unknown]
Dandruff n. 1 flakes of dead skin in the hair. 2 this as a condition. [origin uncertain]
Dandy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 man greatly devoted to style and fashion. 2 colloq. Excellent thing. —adj. (-ier, -iest) esp. Us colloq. Splendid. [perhaps from the name andrew]
name andrew]
Dandy-brush n. Brush for grooming a horse.
Dane n. 1 native or national of denmark. 2 hist. Viking invader of england in the 9th–11th c. [old norse]
Danger list n. List of those dangerously ill.
Danger money n. Extra payment for dangerous work.
Dangerous adj. Involving or causing danger. dangerously adv.
Dangle v. (-ling) 1 be loosely suspended and able to sway. 2 hold or carry thus. 3 hold out (hope, temptation, etc.) Enticingly. [imitative]
Danish —adj. Of denmark or the danes. —n. 1 danish language. 2 (prec. By the; treated as pl.) The danish people. [latin: related to *dane]
Danish blue n. White blue-veined cheese.
Danish pastry n. Yeast cake topped with icing, fruit, nuts, etc.
Dank adj. Disagreeably damp and cold. dankly adv. Dankness n. [probably scandinavian]
scandinavian]
Daphne n. Any of various flowering shrubs. [greek]
Dapper adj. 1 neat and precise, esp. In dress. 2 sprightly. [low german or dutch dapper strong]
Dapple —v. (-ling) mark or become marked with spots of colour or shade. —n. Dappled effect. [origin unknown]
Dapple-grey adj. (of an animal’s coat) grey or white with darker spots.
Dapple grey n. Dapple-grey horse.
Darby and joan n. Devoted old married couple. [names of a couple in an 18th-c. Poem]
Darby and joan club n. Club for pensioners.
Dare —v. (-ring; 3rd sing. Present usu. Dare before an expressed or implied infinitive without to) 1 (foll. By infin. With or without to) have the courage or impudence (to) (dare he do it?; if they dare to come; how dare you?). 2 (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Defy or challenge (i dare you to own up). —n. 1 act of daring. 2 challenge, esp. To prove courage. i dare say 1 (often foll. By that) it is probable. 2 probably; i grant that much. [old english]
Daredevil —n. Recklessly daring person. —adj. Recklessly daring. daredevilry n.
Daring —n. Adventurous courage. —adj. Adventurous, bold; prepared to take risks. daringly adv.
Dariole n. Dish cooked and served in a small mould. [french]
Dark —adj. 1 with little or no light. 2 of deep or sombre colour. 3 (of a person) with dark colouring. 4 gloomy, dismal. 5 evil, sinister. 6 sullen, angry. 7 secret, mysterious. 8 ignorant, unenlightened. —n. 1 absence of light. 2 lack of knowledge. 3 dark area or colour, esp. In painting. after dark after nightfall. The dark ages (or age) 1 period of european history from the 5th–10th c. 2 period of supposed unenlightenment. In the dark 1 lacking information. 2 with no light. darkish adj. Darkly adv. Darkness n. [old english]
Darken v. Make or become dark or darker. never darken a person’s door keep away permanently. darkener n.
Dark glasses n.pl. Spectacles with dark-tinted lenses.
Dark horse n. Little-known person who is unexpectedly successful.
Darkie var. Of *darky.
Darkroom n. Darkened room for photographic work.
Darky n. (also darkie) (pl. -ies) slang offens. Black person.
Darling —n. 1 beloved, lovable, or endearing person or thing. 2 favourite. —adj. 1 beloved, lovable. 2 colloq. Charming or pretty. [old english: related to *dear]
Darn1 —v. Mend (cloth etc.) By filling a hole with stitching. —n. Darned area. [origin uncertain]
Darnel n. Grass growing in cereal crops. [origin unknown]
Darner n. Needle for darning.
Darning n. 1 act of darning. 2 things to be darned.
Dart —n. 1 small pointed missile. 2 (in pl.; usu. Treated as sing.) Indoor game of
throwing darts at a dartboard to score points. 3 sudden rapid movement. 4 dartlike structure, e.g. An insect’s sting. 5 tapering tuck in a garment. —v. (often foll. By out, in, past, etc.) Move, send, or go suddenly or rapidly. [french from germanic]
Dartboard n. Circular target in darts.
Darwinian —adj. Of darwin’s theory of evolution. —n. Adherent of this. darwinism n. Darwinist n. [darwin, name of a naturalist]
Dash —v. 1 rush. 2 strike or fling forcefully, esp. So as to shatter (dashed it to the ground). 3 frustrate, dispirit (dashed their hopes). 4 colloq. (esp. Dash it or dash it all) = *damn v. 1. —n. 1 rush or onset; sudden advance. 2 horizontal stroke (–) in writing or printing to mark a pause etc. 3 impetuous vigour; capacity for or appearance of this. 4 us sprinting-race. 5 longer signal of two in morse code (cf. dot n. 2). 6 slight admixture, esp. Of a liquid. 7 = dashboard. dash off write or draw hurriedly. [imitative]
Dashboard n. Instrument panel of a vehicle or aircraft.
Dastardly adj. Cowardly, despicable. dastardliness n. [origin uncertain]
Dat abbr. Digital audio tape.
Data n.pl. (also treated as sing., although the singular form is strictly datum) 1
known facts used for inference or in reckoning. 2 quantities or characters operated on by a computer etc. [latin data from do give]
Usage (1) in scientific, philosophical, and general use, this word is usually considered to denote a number of items and is thus treated as plural with datum as the singular. (2) in computing and allied subjects (and sometimes in general use), it is treated as a mass (or collective) noun and used with words like this, that, and much, with singular verbs, e.g. Useful data has been collected. Some people consider use (2) to be incorrect but it is more common than use (1). However, data is not a singular countable noun and cannot be preceded by a, every, each, either, or neither, or be given a plural form datas.
Data bank n. Store or source of data.
Database n. Structured set of data held in a computer.
Datable adj. (often foll. By to) capable of being dated.
Data capture n. Entering of data into a computer.
Data processing n. Series of operations on data, esp. By a computer. data processor n.
Date1 —n. 1 day of the month, esp. As a number. 2 particular, esp. Historical, day or year. 3 day, month, and year of writing etc., at the head of a document etc. 4 period to which a work of art etc. Belongs. 5 time when an event takes
place. 6 colloq. A appointment, esp. Social with a person of the opposite sex. B us person to be met at this. —v. (-ting) 1 mark with a date. 2 a assign a date to (an object, event, etc.). B (foll. By to) assign to a particular time, period, etc. 3 (often foll. By from, back to, etc.) Have its origins at a particular time. 4 appear or expose as old-fashioned (design that does not date; that hat dates you). 5 us colloq. A make a date with. B go out together as sexual partners. out of date (attrib. Out-of-date) old-fashioned, obsolete. To date until now. Up to date (attrib. Up-to-date) modern; fashionable; current. [french: related to *data]
Date2 n. 1 dark oval single-stoned fruit. 2 (in full date-palm) tree bearing it. [greek: related to *dactyl, from the shape of the leaf]
Date-line n. 1 north–south line partly along the meridian 180° from greenwich, to the east of which the date is a day earlier than to the west. 2 date and place of writing at the head of a newspaper article etc.
Date-stamp —n. Adjustable rubber stamp etc. Used to record a date. —v. Mark with a date-stamp.
Dative gram. —n. Case expressing the indirect object or recipient. —adj. Of or in this case. [latin: related to *data]
Datum see *data.
Daub —v. 1 spread (paint etc.) Crudely or roughly. 2 coat or smear (a surface) with paint etc. 3 paint crudely or unskilfully. —n. 1 paint etc. Daubed on a surface. 2 plaster, clay, etc., esp. Coating laths or wattles to form a wall. 3 crude painting. [latin: related to de-, alb]
Daughter n. 1 girl or woman in relation to her parent(s). 2 female descendant. 3 (foll. By of) female member of a family etc. 4 (foll. By of) female descendant or inheritor of a quality etc. daughterly adj. [old english]
Daughter-in-law n. (pl. Daughters-in-law) son’s wife.
Daunt v. Discourage, intimidate. daunting adj. [latin domito from domo tame]
Dauntless adj. Intrepid, persevering.
Dauphin n. Hist. Eldest son of the king of france. [french from latin delphinus *dolphin, as a family name]
Davenport n. 1 small writing-desk with a sloping top. 2 us large sofa. [name of the maker]
Davit n. Small crane on board ship, esp. For moving or holding a lifeboat. [french diminutive of david]
Davy n. (pl. -ies) (in full davy lamp) miner’s safety lamp. [name of its inventor]
Davy jones n. Slang (in full davy jones’s locker) bottom of the sea, esp. As the sailors’ graveyard. [origin unknown]
Daw n. = *jackdaw. [old english]
Dawdle v. (-ling) 1 walk slowly and idly. 2 waste time; procrastinate. [origin unknown]
Dawn —n. 1 daybreak. 2 beginning or birth of something. —v. 1 (of a day) begin; grow light. 2 (often foll. By on, upon) begin to become obvious (to). [old english]
Dawn chorus n. Birdsong at daybreak.
Day n. 1 time between sunrise and sunset. 2 a 24 hours as a unit of time. B corresponding period on other planets (martian day). 3 daylight (clear as day). 4 time during which work is normally done (eight-hour day). 5 a (also pl.) Historical period (in those days). B (prec. By the) present time (issues of the day). 6 prime of a person’s life (have had my day; in my day). 7 a future time (will do it one day). 8 date of a specific festival or event etc. (graduation day; christmas day). 9 battle or contest (win the day). all in a day’s work part of the normal routine. At the end of the day when all is said and done. Call it a day end a period of activity. Day after day without respite. Day and night all the time. Day by day gradually. Day in, day out routinely, constantly. Not one’s day day when things go badly (for a person). One of these days soon. One of those days day when things go badly. That will be the day colloq. That will never happen. [old english]
Day-bed n. Bed for daytime rest.
Day-boy n. (also day-girl) non-boarding pupil, esp. At a boarding school.
Daybreak n. First light in the morning.
Day care n. Care of young children, the elderly, the handicapped, etc. During the working day.
Day centre n. Place for care of the elderly or handicapped during the day.
Day-dream —n. Pleasant fantasy or reverie. —v. Indulge in this. day-dreamer n.
Daylight n. 1 light of day. 2 dawn. 3 visible gap, e.g. Between boats in a race. 4 (usu. In pl.) Slang life or consciousness (scared the daylights out of me; beat the living daylights out of them).
Daylight robbery n. Colloq. Blatantly excessive charge.
Daylight saving n. Longer summer evening daylight, achieved by putting clocks forward.
Day nursery n. Nursery for children of working parents.
Day off n. Day’s holiday.
Day of reckoning n. Time when something must be atoned for or avenged.
Day release n. Part-time education for employees.
Day return n. Reduced fare or ticket for a return journey in one day.
Day-room n. Room, esp. In an institution, used during the day.
Day-school n. School for pupils living at home.
Daytime n. Part of the day when there is natural light.
Day-to-day adj. Mundane, routine.
Day-trip n. Trip completed in one day. day-tripper n.
Daze —v. (-zing) stupefy, bewilder. —n. State of bewilderment. [old norse]
Dazzle —v. (-ling) 1 blind or confuse temporarily with a sudden bright light. 2 impress or overpower with knowledge, ability, etc. —n. Bright confusing light. dazzling adj. Dazzlingly adv. [from *daze]
Db abbr. Decibel(s).
Dbs abbr. 1 direct-broadcast satellite. 2 direct broadcasting by satellite.
Dc abbr. 1 (also dc) direct current. 2 district of columbia. 3 da capo.
Dd abbr. Doctor of divinity.
D-day n. 1 day (6 june 1944) on which allied forces invaded n. France. 2 important or decisive day. [d for day]
Ddt abbr. Colourless chlorinated hydrocarbon used as insecticide. [from the chemical name]
De-prefix 1 forming verbs and their derivatives: a down, away (descend; deduct). B completely (denude). 2 added to verbs and their derivatives to form verbs and nouns implying removal or reversal (de-ice; decentralization). [latin]
Deacon n. (fem. (in senses 2 and 3) deaconess) 1 (in episcopal churches) minister below bishop and priest. 2 (in nonconformist churches) lay officer. 3 (in the early church) minister of charity. [greek diakonos servant]
Deactivate v. (-ting) make inactive or less reactive.
Dead —adj. 1 no longer alive. 2 colloq. Extremely tired or unwell. 3 numb (fingers are dead). 4 (foll. By to) insensitive to. 5 no longer effective or in use;
(fingers are dead). 4 (foll. By to) insensitive to. 5 no longer effective or in use; extinct. 6 (of a match, coal, etc.) Extinguished. 7 inanimate. 8 a lacking force or vigour. B (of sound) not resonant. 9 quiet; lacking activity (dead season). 10 (of a microphone, telephone, etc.) Not transmitting sounds. 11 (of a ball in a game) out of play. 12 abrupt, complete (come to a dead stop; a dead calm; dead certainty). —adv. 1 absolutely, completely (dead on target; dead tired). 2 colloq. Very, extremely (dead easy). —n. Time of silence or inactivity (dead of night). as dead as the (or a) dodo entirely obsolete. Dead to the world colloq. Fast asleep; unconscious. [old english]
Dead beat adj. Colloq. Exhausted.
Dead-beat n. Colloq. Derelict, tramp.
Dead duck n. Slang unsuccessful or useless person or thing.
Deaden v. 1 deprive of or lose vitality, force, brightness, sound, feeling, etc. 2 (foll. By to) make insensitive.
Dead end n. 1 closed end of road, passage, etc. 2 (often, with hyphen, attrib.) Hopeless situation, job, etc.
Deadhead —n. 1 faded flower-head. 2 non-paying passenger or spectator. 3 useless person. —v. Remove deadheads from (a plant).
Dead heat n. 1 race in which competitors tie. 2 result of such a race.
Dead language n. Language no longer spoken, e.g. Latin.
Dead letter n. Law or practice no longer observed or recognized.
Deadline n. Time-limit.
Deadlock —n. 1 state of unresolved conflict. 2 lock requiring a key to open or close it. —v. Bring or come to a standstill.
Dead loss n. Colloq. Useless person or thing.
Deadly —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 causing or able to cause fatal injury or serious damage. 2 intense, extreme (deadly dullness). 3 (of aim etc.) True; effective. 4 deathlike (deadly pale). 5 colloq. Dreary, dull. —adv. 1 like death; as if dead (deadly faint). 2 extremely (deadly serious).
Deadly nightshade n. Poisonous plant with purple-black berries.
Dead man’s handle n. (also dead man’s pedal) device on an electric train disconnecting the power supply if released.
Dead march n. Funeral march.
Dead on adj. Exactly right.
Deadpan adj. & adv. Lacking expression or emotion.
Dead reckoning n. Calculation of a ship’s position from the log, compass, etc., when visibility is bad.
Dead set n. Determined attack. be dead set against strongly oppose. Be dead set on be determined to do or get.
Dead shot n. Person who shoots extremely accurately.
Dead weight n. (also dead-weight) 1 a inert mass. B heavy burden. 2 debt not covered by assets. 3 total weight carried on a ship.
Dead wood n. Colloq. Useless person(s) or thing(s).
Deaf-and-dumb alphabet n. (also deaf-and-dumb language) = *sign language.
Usage sign language is the preferred term in official use.
Deafen v. (often as deafening adj.) Overpower with noise or make deaf by noise, esp. Temporarily. deafeningly adv.
Deaf mute n. Deaf and dumb person.
Deal1 —v. (past and past part. Dealt) 1 (foll. By with) a take measures to resolve, placate, etc. B do business with; associate with. C discuss or treat (a subject). 2 (often foll. By by, with) behave in specified way (dealt honourably by them). 3 (foll. By in) sell (deals in insurance). 4 (often foll. By out, round) distribute to several people etc. 5 (also absol.) Distribute (cards) to players. 6 administer (was dealt a blow). 7 assign, esp. Providentially (were dealt much happiness). —n. 1 (usu. A good or great deal) colloq. A large amount (good deal of trouble). B considerably (great deal better). 2 colloq. Business arrangement; transaction. 3 specified treatment (a rough deal). 4 a dealing of cards. B player’s turn to do this. [old english]
Deal2 n. 1 fir or pine timber, esp. As boards of a standard size. 2 board of this. [low german]
Dealer n. 1 trader in (esp. Retail) goods (car-dealer; dealer in tobacco). 2 player dealing at cards. 3 jobber on the stock exchange.
Usage in sense 3, this name has been merged with broker since oct. 1986 (see broker 2, jobber 2).
Dealings n.pl. Contacts, conduct, or transactions.
Dealt past and past part. Of *deal1.
Dean1 n. 1 a head of the chapter of a cathedral or collegiate church. B (usu. Rural dean) clergyman supervising parochial clergy. 2 a college or university official with disciplinary and advisory functions. B head of a university faculty or department or of a medical school. [latin decanus]
Dean2 var. Of *dene.
Deanery n. (pl. -ies) 1 dean’s house or position. 2 parishes presided over by a rural dean.
Dear —adj. 1 a beloved or much esteemed. B as a merely polite or ironic form (my dear man). 2 as a formula of address, esp. Beginning a letter (dear sir). 3 (often foll. By to) precious; cherished. 4 (usu. In superl.) Earnest (my dearest wish). 5 a expensive. B having high prices. —n. (esp. As a form of address) dear person. —adv. At great cost (will pay dear). —int. Expressing surprise, dismay, pity, etc. (dear me!; oh dear!). for dear life desperately. dearly adv. [old english]
Dearie n. My dear. dearie me! Int. Expressing surprise, dismay, etc.
Dearth n. Scarcity, lack.
Death n. 1 irreversible ending of life; dying or being killed. 2 instance of this. 3 destruction; ending (death of our hopes). 4 being dead (eyes closed in death). 5 (usu. Death) personification of death, esp. As a skeleton. 6 lack of spiritual life. at death’s door close to death. Be the death of 1 cause the death of. 2 be annoying or harmful to. Catch one’s death colloq. Catch a serious chill etc. Do to
death 1 kill. 2 overdo. Fate worse than death colloq. Very unpleasant experience. Put to death kill or cause to be killed. To death to the utmost, extremely (bored to death). deathlike adj. [old english]
Deathbed n. Bed where a person dies.
Deathblow n. 1 blow etc. Causing death. 2 event etc. That destroys or ends something.
Death certificate n. Official statement of a person’s death.
Death duty n. Hist. Property tax levied after death.
Usage this term was replaced in 1975 by capital transfer tax and in 1986 by inheritance tax.
Deathly —adj. (-ier, -iest) suggestive of death (deathly silence). —adv. In a deathly way (deathly pale).
Death-mask n. Cast taken of a dead person’s face.
Death penalty n. Punishment by death.
Death rate n. Number of deaths per thousand of population per year.
Death rate n. Number of deaths per thousand of population per year.
Death-rattle n. Gurgling in the throat sometimes heard at death.
Death row n. Us part of a prison for those sentenced to death.
Death squad n. Armed paramilitary group.
Death-trap n. Colloq. Dangerous building, vehicle, etc.
Death-warrant n. 1 order of execution. 2 anything that causes the end of an established practice etc.
Death-watch n. (in full death-watch beetle) small beetle which makes a ticking sound, said to portend death.
Death-wish n. Psychol. Alleged usu. Unconscious desire for death.
Deb n. Colloq. Débutante. [abbreviation]
Debacle n. (brit. Débâcle) 1 a utter defeat or failure. B sudden collapse. 2 confused rush or rout. [french]
Débâcle n. (us debacle) 1 a utter defeat or failure. B sudden collapse. 2 confused rush or rout. [french]
rush or rout. [french]
Debag v. (-gg-) slang remove the trousers of (a person), esp. As a joke.
Debar v. (-rr-) (foll. By from) exclude; prohibit (debarred from the club). debarment n. [french: related to *bar1]
Debark v. Land from a ship. debarkation n. [french débarquer]
Debase v. (-sing) 1 lower in quality, value, or character. 2 depreciate (a coin) by alloying etc. debasement n. [from de-, abase]
Debatable adj. Questionable; disputable. [related to *debate]
Debate —v. (-ting) 1 (also absol.) Discuss or dispute, esp. Formally. 2 consider aspects of (a question); ponder. —n. 1 formal discussion on a particular matter. 2 discussion (open to debate). [french: related to *battle]
Debenture n. Acknowledgement of indebtedness, esp. A company bond providing for payment of interest at fixed intervals. [latin debentur are owed]
Debilitate v. (-ting) enfeeble, enervate. debilitation n. [latin debilis weak]
Debility n. Feebleness, esp. Of health.
Debit —n. 1 entry in an account recording a sum owed. 2 sum recorded. 3 total of such sums. 4 debit side of an account. —v. (-t-) 1 (foll. By against, to) enter on the debit side of an account (debit £50 to my account). 2 (foll. By with) charge (a person) with a debt (debited me with £500). [latin debitum *debt]
Debouch v. 1 (of troops or a stream) come out into open ground. 2 (often foll. By into) (of a river, road, etc.) Merge into a larger body or area. debouchment n. [french bouche mouth]
Debrief v. Colloq. Question (a diplomat, pilot, etc.) About a completed mission or undertaking. debriefing n.
Debris n. 1 scattered fragments, esp. Of wreckage. 2 accumulation of loose rock etc. [french briser break]
Debt n. 1 money etc. Owed (debt of gratitude). 2 state of owing (in debt; get into debt). in a person’s debt under obligation to a person. [latin debeo debit-owe]
Debt of honour n. Debt not legally recoverable, esp. A sum lost in gambling.
Debtor n. Person owing money etc.
Debug v. (-gg-) colloq. 1 remove concealed microphones from (a room etc.). 2 remove defects from (a computer program etc.). 3 = *delouse.
Debunk v. Colloq. Expose (a person, claim, etc.) As spurious or false. debunker n.
Debut n. (brit. Début) first public appearance (as a performer etc.). [french]
Début n. (us debut) first public appearance (as a performer etc.). [french]
Debutante n. (brit. Débutante) (usu. Wealthy) young woman making her social début.
Débutante n. (us debutante) (usu. Wealthy) young woman making her social début.
Dec. Abbr. December.
Deca-comb. Form ten. [greek deka ten]
Decade n. 1 period of ten years. 2 series or group of ten. [greek: related to *deca-]
Usage the second pronunciation given, with the stress on the second syllable, is considered incorrect by some people, even though it is much used in broadcasting.
Decadence n. 1 moral or cultural decline. 2 immoral behaviour. decadent adj. & n. Decadently adv. [latin: related to *decay]
Decaffeinated adj. With caffeine removed or reduced.
Decagon n. Plane figure with ten sides and angles. decagonal adj. [greek: related to *deca-, -gonos -angled]
Decahedron n. Solid figure with ten faces. decahedral adj. [after *polyhedron]
Decaliter n. (brit. -litre) metric unit of capacity, equal to 10 litres.
Decalitre n. (us -liter) metric unit of capacity, equal to 10 litres.
Decalitre n. (us -liter) metric unit of capacity, equal to 10 litres.
Decalogue n. Ten commandments. [greek: related to *deca-, logos word, reason]
Decameter n. (brit. -metre) metric unit of length, equal to 10 metres.
Decametre n. (us -meter) metric unit of length, equal to 10 metres.
Decamp v. 1 depart suddenly; abscond. 2 break up or leave camp. decampment n. [french: related to *camp1]
Decanal adj. 1 of a dean. 2 of the south side of a choir (where the dean sits). [latin: related to *dean1]
Decant v. 1 gradually pour off (esp. Wine), esp. Leaving the sediment behind. 2 transfer as if by pouring. [greek kanthos lip of jug]
Decanter n. Stoppered glass container for decanted wine or spirit.
Decapitate v. (-ting) behead. decapitation n. [latin: related to *capital]
Decapod n. 1 crustacean with ten limbs for walking, e.g. The shrimp. 2 ten-tentacled mollusc, e.g. The squid. [greek: related to *deca-, pous pod-foot]
Decarbonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) remove the carbon etc. From (an internal-combustion engine etc.). decarbonization n.
Decathlon n. Athletic contest of ten events for all competitors. decathlete n. [from *deca-, greek athlon contest]
Decay —v. 1 (cause to) rot or decompose. 2 decline or cause to decline in quality, power, etc. 3 (usu. Foll. By to) (of a substance) undergo change by radioactivity. —n. 1 rotten state; wasting away. 2 decline in health, quality, etc. 3 radioactive change. [latin cado fall]
Deceased formal —adj. Dead. —n. (usu. Prec. By the) person who has died, esp. Recently.
Deceit n. 1 deception, esp. By concealing the truth. 2 dishonest trick. [latin capio take]
Deceitful adj. Using deceit. deceitfully adv. Deceitfulness n.
Deceive v. (-ving) 1 make (a person) believe what is false; purposely mislead. 2 be unfaithful to, esp. Sexually. 3 use deceit. deceive oneself persist in a mistaken belief. deceiver n.
Decelerate v. (-ting) (cause to) reduce speed. deceleration n. [from de-, accelerate]
December n. Twelfth month of the year. [latin decem ten, originally 10th month of roman year]
Decency n. (pl. -ies) 1 correct, honourable, or modest behaviour. 2 (in pl.) Proprieties; manners. [latin: related to *decent]
Decennial adj. Lasting, recurring every, ten years. [latin decem ten, annus year]
Decent adj. 1 a conforming with standards of decency. B avoiding obscenity. 2 respectable. 3 acceptable, good enough. 4 kind, obliging. decently adv. [latin decet is fitting]
Decentralize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 transfer (power etc.) From central to local authority. 2 reorganize to give greater local autonomy. decentralization n.
Deception n. 1 deceiving or being deceived. 2 thing that deceives. [latin: related to *deceive]
Deceptive adj. Likely to deceive; misleading. deceptively adv. Deceptiveness n.
Deci-comb. Form one-tenth. [latin decimus tenth]
Deci-comb. Form one-tenth. [latin decimus tenth]
Decibel n. Unit used in the comparison of sound levels or power levels of electrical signals.
Decide v. (-ding) 1 (usu. Foll. By to, that, or on, about) resolve after consideration (decided to stay; decided quickly; weather decided me; decided on a blue hat). 2 resolve or settle (an issue etc.). 3 (usu. Foll. By between, for, against, in favour of, or that) give a judgement. decidable adj. [latin caedo cut]
Decigram n. (also decigramme) metric unit of mass, equal to 0.1 gram.
Deciliter n. (brit. -litre) metric unit of capacity, equal to 0.1 litre.
Decilitre n. (us -liter) metric unit of capacity, equal to 0.1 litre.
Decimal —adj. 1 (of a system of numbers, weights, measures, etc.) Based on the number ten. 2 of tenths or ten; reckoning or proceeding by tens. —n. Decimal fraction. [latin decem ten]
Decimal fraction n. Fraction expressed in tenths, hundredths, etc., esp. By units to the right of the decimal point (e.g. 0.61).
Decimalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 express as a decimal. 2 convert to a decimal system (esp. Of coinage). decimalization n.
Decimal point n. Dot placed before the fraction in a decimal fraction.
Decimate v. (-ting) 1 destroy a large proportion of. 2 orig. Rom. Hist. Kill or remove one in every ten of. decimation n.
Usage sense 1 is now the usual sense, but it is considered inappropriate by some people. This word should not be used to mean ‘defeat utterly’.
Decimeter n. (brit. -metre) metric unit of length, equal to 0.1 metre.
Decimetre n. (us -meter) metric unit of length, equal to 0.1 metre.
Decipher v. 1 convert (coded information) into intelligible language. 2 determine the meaning of (unclear handwriting etc.). decipherable adj.
the meaning of (unclear handwriting etc.). decipherable adj.
Decision n. 1 act or process of deciding. 2 resolution made after consideration (made my decision). 3 (often foll. By of) a settlement of a question. B formal judgement. 4 resoluteness. [latin: related to *decide]
Decisive adj. 1 conclusive, settling an issue. 2 quick to decide. decisively adv. Decisiveness n. [medieval latin: related to *decide]
Deck —n. 1 a platform in a ship serving as a floor. B the accommodation on a particular deck of a ship. 2 floor or compartment of a bus etc. 3 section for playing discs or tapes etc. In a sound system. 4 esp. Us pack of cards. 5 slang ground. —v. 1 (often foll. By out) decorate. 2 provide with or cover as a deck. below deck(s) in or into the space below the main deck. [dutch, = cover]
Deck-chair n. Folding garden chair of wood and canvas.
-decker comb. Form having a specified number of decks or layers (double-decker).
Deck-hand n. Cleaner on a ship’s deck.
Declaim v. 1 speak or say as if addressing an audience. 2 (foll. By against) protest forcefully. declamation n. Declamatory adj. [latin: related to *claim]
Declaration n. 1 declaring. 2 formal, emphatic, or deliberate statement. [latin:
Declaration n. 1 declaring. 2 formal, emphatic, or deliberate statement. [latin: related to *declare]
Declare v. (-ring) 1 announce openly or formally (declare war). 2 pronounce (declared it invalid). 3 (usu. Foll. By that) assert emphatically. 4 acknowledge possession of (dutiable goods, income, etc.). 5 (as declared adj.) Admitting to be such (declared atheist). 6 (also absol.) Cricket close (an innings) voluntarily before the team is out. 7 (also absol.) Cards name (the trump suit). declare oneself reveal one’s intentions or identity. declarative adj. Declaratory adj. Declarer n. [latin clarus clear]
Declassify v. (-ies, -ied) declare (information etc.) To be no longer secret. declassification n.
Declension n. 1 gram. A variation of the form of a noun, pronoun, or adjective to show its grammatical case etc. B class of nouns with the same inflexions. 2 deterioration, declining. [latin: related to *decline]
Declination n. 1 downward bend or turn. 2 angular distance of a star etc. North or south of the celestial equator. 3 deviation of a compass needle from true north. declinational adj. [latin: related to *decline]
Decline —v. (-ning) 1 deteriorate; lose strength or vigour; decrease. 2 (also absol.) Politely refuse (an invitation, challenge, etc.). 3 slope or bend downwards, droop. 4 gram. State the forms of (a noun, pronoun, or adjective). —n. 1 gradual loss of vigour or excellence. 2 deterioration. [latin clino bend]
Declining years n.pl. Old age.
Declivity n. (pl. -ies) downward slope. [latin clivus slope]
Declivity n. (pl. -ies) downward slope. [latin clivus slope]
Declutch v. Disengage the clutch of a motor vehicle.
Decoction n. 1 boiling down to extract an essence. 2 the resulting liquid. [latin coquo boil]
Decode v. (-ding) decipher. decoder n.
Decoke colloq. —v. (-king) decarbonize. —n. Process of this.
Décolletage n. Low neckline of a woman’s dress etc. [french collet collar]
Décolleté adj. (also décolletée) (of a dress, woman, etc.) Having or wearing a low neckline.
Decompose v. (-sing) 1 rot. 2 separate (a substance, light, etc.) Into its elements. decomposition n.
Decompress v. Subject to decompression.
Decompression n. 1 release from compression. 2 gradual reduction of high pressure on a deep-sea diver etc.
Decompression chamber n. Enclosed space for decompression.
Decompression sickness n. Condition caused by the sudden lowering of air pressure.
Decongestant n. Medicine etc. That relieves nasal congestion.
Decontaminate v. (-ting) remove contamination from. decontamination n.
Décor n. Furnishing and decoration of a room, stage set, etc. [french: related to *decorate]
Decorate v. (-ting) 1 beautify, adorn. 2 paint, wallpaper, etc. (a room or building). 3 give a medal or award to. [latin decus -oris beauty]
Decorated style n. Archit. Highly ornamented late english gothic style (14th c.).
Decoration n. 1 decorating. 2 thing that decorates. 3 medal etc. Worn as an honour. 4 (in pl.) Flags, tinsel, etc., put up on a festive occasion.
Decorative adj. Pleasing in appearance. decoratively adv.
Decorator n. Person who decorates for a living.
Decorous adj. Having or showing decorum. decorously adv. Decorousness n. [latin decorus seemly]
Decorum n. Polite dignified behaviour. [as *decorous]
Decoy —n. Person or thing used as a lure; bait, enticement. —v. Lure, esp. Using a decoy. [dutch]
Decrease —v. (-sing) make or become smaller or fewer. —n. 1 decreasing. 2 amount of this. decreasingly adv. [latin: related to *de-, cresco grow]
Decree —n. 1 official legal order. 2 legal judgement or decision, esp. In divorce cases. —v. (-ees, -eed, -eeing) ordain by decree. [latin decretum from cerno sift]
Decree absolute n. Final order for completion of a divorce.
Decree nisi n. Provisional order for divorce, made absolute after a fixed period. [latin nisi unless]
Decrepit adj. 1 weakened by age or infirmity. 2 dilapidated. decrepitude n. [latin crepo creak]
Decrescendo adv., adj., & n. (pl. -s) = diminuendo. [italian: related to decrease]
Decretal n. Papal decree. [latin: related to *decree]
Decriminalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) cease to treat as criminal. decriminalization n.
Decry v. (-ies, -ied) disparage, belittle.
Dedicate v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) 1 devote (esp. Oneself) to a special task or purpose. 2 address (a book etc.) To a friend, patron, etc. 3 devote (a building etc.) To a deity, saint, etc. 4 (as dedicated adj.) A (of a person) single-mindedly loyal to an aim, vocation, etc. B (of equipment, esp.
Dedication n. 1 dedicating or being dedicated. 2 words with which a book etc. Is dedicated. [latin: related to *dedicate]
Deduce v. (-cing) (often foll. By from) infer logically. deducible adj. [latin duco duct-lead]
Deduct v. (often foll. By from) subtract, take away, or withhold (an amount, portion, etc.). [related to *deduce]
Deductible adj. That may be deducted, esp. From tax or taxable income.
Deduction n. 1 a deducting. B amount deducted. 2 a inferring of particular
Deduction n. 1 a deducting. B amount deducted. 2 a inferring of particular instances from a general law or principle. B conclusion deduced. [latin: related to *deduce]
Deductive adj. Of or reasoning by deduction. deductively adv. [medieval latin: related to *deduce]
Dee n. 1 letter d. 2 thing shaped like this. [name of the letter d]
Deed n. 1 thing done intentionally or consciously. 2 brave, skilful, or conspicuous act. 3 action (kind in word and deed). 4 legal document used esp. For transferring ownership of property. [old english: related to *do1]
Deed-box n. Strong box for deeds etc.
Deed of covenant n. Agreement to pay a regular sum, esp. To charity.
Deed poll n. Deed made by one party only, esp. To change one’s name.
Deem v. Formal consider, judge (deem it my duty). [old english]
Deemster n. Judge in the isle of man. [from *deem]
Deep —adj. 1 extending far down or in (deep water; deep wound; deep shelf). 2
Deep —adj. 1 extending far down or in (deep water; deep wound; deep shelf). 2 (predic.) A to or at a specified depth (water 6 feet deep). B in a specified number of ranks (soldiers drawn up six deep). 3 situated or coming from far down, back, or in (deep in his pockets; deep sigh). 4 low-pitched, full-toned (deep voice). 5 intense, extreme (deep sleep; deep colour; deep interest). 6 (predic.) Fully absorbed or overwhelmed (deep in a book; deep in debt). 7 profound; difficult to understand (too deep for me). —n. 1 (prec. By the) poet. Sea, esp. When deep. 2 abyss, pit, cavity. 3 (prec. By the) cricket position of a fielder distant from the batsman. 4 deep state (deep of the night). —adv. Deeply; far down or in (dig deep). go off the deep end colloq. Give way to anger or emotion. In deep water in trouble or difficulty. deeply adv. [old english]
Deep breathing n. Breathing with long breaths, esp. As exercise.
Deepen v. Make or become deep or deeper.
Deep-freeze —n. Cabinet for freezing and keeping food for long periods. —v. Freeze or store in a deep-freeze.
Deep-fry v. Immerse in boiling fat to cook.
Deep-laid adj. (of a scheme) secret and elaborate.
Deer n. (pl. Same) four-hoofed grazing animal, the male of which usu. Has antlers. [old english]
Deerskin n. (often attrib.) Leather from a deer’s skin.
Deerstalker n. Soft cloth peaked cap with ear-flaps.
De-escalate v. Make or become less intense. de-escalation n.
Def adj. Slang excellent. [perhaps from *definite or *definitive]
Deface v. (-cing) disfigure. defacement n. [french: related to *face]
De facto —adv. In fact (whether by right or not). —adj. Existing or so in fact (a de facto ruler). [latin]
Defalcate v. (-ting) formal misappropriate, esp. Money. defalcator n. [latin defalcare lop, from falx sickle]
Defalcation n. Formal 1 a misappropriation of money. B amount misappropriated. 2 shortcoming.
Defame v. (-ming) libel; slander; speak ill of. defamation n. Defamatory adj. [latin fama report]
Default —n. 1 failure to appear, pay, or act as one should. 2 preselected option adopted by a computer program when no alternative is specified. —v. Fail to
adopted by a computer program when no alternative is specified. —v. Fail to fulfil (esp. A legal) obligation. by default because of lack of an alternative or opposition. In default of because of the absence of. defaulter n. [french: related to *fail]
Defeat —v. 1 overcome in battle, a contest, etc. 2 frustrate, baffle. 3 reject (a motion etc.) By voting. —n. Defeating or being defeated. [latin: related to dis-, fact]
Defeatism n. Excessive readiness to accept defeat. defeatist n. & adj.
Defecate v. (-ting) evacuate the bowels. defecation n. [latin faex faecis dregs]
Defect —n. Fault, imperfection, shortcoming. —v. Leave one’s country or cause for another. defection n. Defector n. [latin deficio -fect-fail]
Defective adj. Having defect(s); imperfect. defectiveness n. [latin: related to *defect]
Defence n. (us defense) 1 defending, protection. 2 means of this. 3 (in pl.) Fortifications. 4 justification, vindication. 5 defendant’s case or counsel in a lawsuit. 6 defending play or players. defenceless adj. Defencelessly adv. Defencelessness n. [related to *defend]
Defence mechanism n. 1 body’s resistance to disease. 2 usu. Unconscious mental process to avoid anxiety.
Defend v. (also absol.) 1 (often foll. By against, from) resist an attack made on; protect. 2 uphold by argument. 3 conduct a defence in a lawsuit. 4 compete to retain (a title etc.) In a contest. defender n. [latin defendo -fens-]
Defendant n. Person etc. Sued or accused in a lawcourt. [french: related to *defend]
Defense n. (brit. Defence) 1 defending, protection. 2 means of this. 3 (in pl.) Fortifications. 4 justification, vindication. 5 defendant’s case or counsel in a lawsuit. 6 defending play or players. defenceless adj. Defencelessly adv. Defencelessness n. [related to *defend]
Defensible adj. 1 justifiable; supportable by argument. 2 able to be defended militarily. defensibility n. Defensibly adv. [latin: related to *defend]
Defensive adj. 1 done or intended for defence. 2 overreacting to criticism. on the defensive 1 expecting criticism. 2 mil ready to defend. defensively adv. Defensiveness n. [medieval latin: related to *defend]
Defer1 v. (-rr-) postpone. deferment n. Deferral n. [originally the same as *differ]
Defer2 v. (-rr-) (foll. By to) yield or make concessions to. [latin defero carry away]
Deference n. 1 courteous regard, respect. 2 compliance with another’s wishes. in
Deference n. 1 courteous regard, respect. 2 compliance with another’s wishes. in deference to out of respect for.
Deferential adj. Respectful. deferentially adv.
Deferred payment n. Payment by instalments.
Defiance n. Open disobedience; bold resistance. [french: related to *defy]
Deficiency n. (pl. -ies) 1 being deficient. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) lack or shortage. 3 thing lacking. 4 deficit, esp. Financial.
Deficiency disease n. Disease caused by the lack of an essential element of diet.
Deficient adj. (often foll. By in) incomplete or insufficient in quantity, quality, etc. [latin: related to *defect]
Deficit n. 1 amount by which a thing (esp. Money) is too small. 2 excess of liabilities over assets. [french from latin: related to *defect]
Defile1 v. (-ling) 1 make dirty; pollute. 2 desecrate, profane. defilement n. [earlier defoul, from french defouler trample down]
[earlier defoul, from french defouler trample down]
Defile2 —n. Narrow gorge or pass. —v. (-ling) march in file. [french: related to *file1]
Define v. (-ning) 1 give the meaning of (a word etc.). 2 describe or explain the scope of (define one’s position). 3 outline clearly (well-defined image). 4 mark out the boundary of. definable adj. [latin finis end]
Definite adj. 1 certain, sure. 2 clearly defined; not vague; precise. definitely adv. [latin: related to *define]
Definition n. 1 a defining. B statement of the meaning of a word etc. 2 distinctness in outline, esp. Of a photographic image. [latin: related to *define]
Definitive adj. 1 (of an answer, verdict, etc.) Decisive, unconditional, final. 2 (of a book etc.) Most authoritative.
Usage in sense 1, this word is often confused with definite, which does not imply authority and conclusiveness. A definite no is a firm refusal, while a definitive no is an authoritative judgement or decision that something is not the case.
Deflate v. (-ting) 1 empty (a tyre, balloon, etc.) Of air, gas, etc.; be so emptied. 2 (cause to) lose confidence or conceit. 3 a subject (a currency or economy) to deflation. B pursue this as a policy. [from de-, inflate]
Deflation n. 1 deflating or being deflated. 2 reduction of money in circulation, intended to combat inflation. deflationary adj.
intended to combat inflation. deflationary adj.
Deflect v. 1 bend or turn aside from a course or purpose. 2 (often foll. By from) (cause to) deviate. deflection n. (also deflexion). Deflector n. [latin flecto bend]
Deflower v. Literary 1 deprive of virginity. 2 ravage, spoil. [latin: related to *flower]
Defoliate v. (-ting) destroy the leaves of (trees or plants). defoliant n. Defoliation n. [latin: related to *foil2]
Deforest v. Clear of forests or trees. deforestation n.
Deform v. Make ugly or misshapen, disfigure. deformation n. [latin: related to *form]
Deformed adj. (of a person or limb) misshapen.
Deformity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being deformed. 2 malformation, esp. Of a body or limb.
Defraud v. (often foll. By of) cheat by fraud. [latin: related to *fraud]
Defray v. Provide money for (a cost or expense). defrayal n. Defrayment n. [medieval latin fredum fine]
[medieval latin fredum fine]
Defrock v. Deprive (esp. A priest) of office. [french: related to de-, frock]
Defrost v. 1 remove frost or ice from (a refrigerator, windscreen, etc.). 2 unfreeze (frozen food). 3 become unfrozen.
Deft adj. Neat; dexterous; adroit. deftly adv. Deftness n. [var. Of *daft = ‘meek’]
Defunct adj. 1 no longer existing or used. 2 dead or extinct. defunctness n. [latin fungor perform]
Defuse v. (-sing) 1 remove the fuse from (a bomb etc.). 2 reduce tension etc. In (a crisis, difficulty, etc.).
Defy v. (-ies, -ied) 1 resist openly; refuse to obey. 2 (of a thing) present insuperable obstacles to (defies solution). 3 (foll. By to + infin.) Challenge (a person) to do or prove something. [latin fides faith]
Degenerate —adj. 1 having lost its usual or good qualities; immoral, degraded. 2 biol. Having changed to a lower type. —n. Degenerate person or animal. —v. (-ting) become degenerate. degeneracy n. [latin genus race]
Degeneration n. 1 becoming degenerate. 2 med. Morbid deterioration of body tissue etc. [latin: related to *degenerate]
Degrade v. (-ding) 1 humiliate, dishonour. 2 reduce to a lower rank. 3 chem. Reduce to a simpler molecular structure. degradation n. Degrading adj. [latin: related to *grade]
Degree n. 1 stage in a scale, series, or process. 2 stage in intensity or amount (in some degree). 3 unit of measurement of an angle or arc. 4 unit in a scale of temperature, hardness, etc. 5 extent of burns. 6 academic rank conferred by a polytechnic, university, etc. 7 grade of crime (first-degree murder). 8 step in direct genealogical descent. 9 social rank. by degrees gradually. [latin gradus step]
Degrees of comparison see *comparison 4.
Dehisce v. (-cing) (esp. Of a pod, cut, etc.) Gape or burst open. dehiscence n. Dehiscent adj. [latin hio gape]
Dehumanize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 take human qualities away from. 2 make impersonal. dehumanization n.
Dehydrate v. (-ting) 1 remove water from (esp. Foods). 2 make or become dry, esp. Too dry. dehydration n. [greek hudor water]
De-ice v. 1 remove ice from. 2 prevent the formation of ice on. de-icer n.
Deify v. (-ies, -ied) make a god or idol of. deification n. [latin deus god]
Deign v. (foll. By to + infin.) Think fit, condescend. [latin dignus worthy]
Deinstitutionalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (usu. As deinstitutionalized adj.) Remove from an institution or help recover from the effects of institutional life. deinstitutionalization n.
Deism n. Reasoned belief in the existence of a god. deist n. Deistic adj. [latin deus god]
Deity n. (pl. -ies) 1 god or goddess. 2 divine status or nature. 3 (the deity) god. [french from church latin]
Déjà vu n. 1 feeling of having already experienced the present situation. 2 something tediously familiar. [french, = already seen]
Deject v. (usu. As dejected adj.) Make sad; depress. dejectedly adv. Dejection n. [latin jacio throw]
De jure —adj. Rightful. —adv. Rightfully; by right. [latin]
Dekko n. (pl. -s) slang look, glance. [hindi]
Delay —v. 1 postpone; defer. 2 make or be late; loiter. —n. 1 delaying or being delayed. 2 time lost by this. 3 hindrance. [french]
Delayed-action attrib. Adj. (esp. Of a bomb, camera, etc.) Operating after a set interval.
Delectable adj. Esp. Literary delightful, delicious. delectably adv. [latin: related to *delight]
Delectation n. Literary pleasure, enjoyment.
Delegate —n. 1 elected representative sent to a conference. 2 member of a committee or delegation. —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By to) a commit (power etc.) To an agent or deputy. B entrust (a task) to another. 2 send or authorize (a person) as a representative. [latin: related to *legate]
Delegation n. 1 group representing others. 2 delegating or being delegated.
Delete v. (-ting) remove (a letter, word, etc.), esp. By striking out. deletion n. [latin deleo]
Deleterious adj. Harmful. [latin from greek]
Delft n. (also delftware) glazed, usu. Blue and white, earthenware. [delft in holland]
Deli n. (pl. -s) colloq. Delicatessen shop. [abbreviation]
Deli n. (pl. -s) colloq. Delicatessen shop. [abbreviation]
Deliberation n. 1 careful consideration; discussion. 2 careful slowness.
Deliberative adj. (esp. Of an assembly etc.) Of or for deliberation or debate.
Delicacy n. (pl. -ies) 1 being delicate (in all senses). 2 a choice food. [from *delicate]
Delicate adj. 1 a fine in texture, quality, etc.; slender, slight. B (of a colour, flavour, etc.) Subtle, hard to discern. 2 susceptible; weak, tender. 3 a requiring tact; tricky (delicate situation). B (of an instrument) highly sensitive. 4 deft (delicate touch). 5 modest. 6 (esp. Of actions) considerate. delicately adv. [latin]
Delicatessen n. 1 shop selling esp. Exotic cooked meats, cheeses, etc. 2 (often attrib.) Such foods. [french: related to *delicate]
Delicious adj. Highly enjoyable, esp. To taste or smell. deliciously adv. [latin deliciae delights]
Delight —v. 1 (often as delighted adj.) Please greatly (her singing delighted us; delighted to help). 2 (foll. By in) take great pleasure in (delights in surprising
delighted to help). 2 (foll. By in) take great pleasure in (delights in surprising everyone). —n. 1 great pleasure. 2 thing that delights. delighted adj. Delightful adj. Delightfully adv. [latin delecto]
Delimit v. (-t-) fix the limits or boundary of. delimitation n. [latin: related to *limit]
Delineate v. (-ting) portray by drawing etc. Or in words. delineation n. [latin: related to *line1]
Delinquent —n. Offender (juvenile delinquent). —adj. 1 guilty of a minor crime or misdeed. 2 failing in one’s duty. delinquency n. [latin delinquo offend]
Deliquesce v. (-cing) 1 become liquid, melt. 2 dissolve in water absorbed from the air. deliquescence n. Deliquescent adj. [latin: related to *liquid]
Delirium n. 1 disorder involving incoherent speech, hallucinations, etc., caused by intoxication, fever, etc. 2 great excitement, ecstasy. [latin lira ridge between furrows]
Delirium tremens n. Psychosis of chronic alcoholism involving tremors and hallucinations.
Deliver v. 1 a distribute (letters, goods, etc.) To their destination(s). B (often foll. By to) hand over. 2 (often foll. By from) save, rescue, or set free. 3 a give birth to (delivered a girl). B assist at the birth of or in giving birth (delivered six
to (delivered a girl). B assist at the birth of or in giving birth (delivered six babies). 4 utter (an opinion, speech, etc.). 5 (often foll. By up, over) abandon; resign (delivered his soul up). 6 launch or aim (a blow etc.). be delivered of give birth to. Deliver the goods colloq. Carry out an undertaking. [latin liber free]
Deliverance n. Rescuing or being rescued.
Delivery n. (pl. -ies) 1 delivering or being delivered. 2 regular distribution of letters etc. (two deliveries a day). 3 thing delivered. 4 childbirth. 5 deliverance. 6 style of throwing a ball, delivering a speech, etc. [anglo-french: related to *deliver]
Dell n. Small usu. Wooded valley. [old english]
Delouse v. (-sing) rid of lice.
Delphic adj. (also delphian) 1 obscure, ambiguous, or enigmatic. 2 of the ancient greek oracle at delphi.
Delphinium n. (pl. -s) garden plant with tall spikes of usu. Blue flowers. [greek: related to *dolphin]
Delta n. 1 triangular area of earth, alluvium etc. At the mouth of a river, formed by its diverging outlets. 2 a fourth letter of the greek alphabet (d, d). B fourth-class mark for work etc. [greek]
Delta wing n. Triangular swept-back wing of an aircraft.
Delude v. (-ding) deceive, mislead. [latin ludo mock]
Deluge —n. 1 great flood. 2 (the deluge) biblical flood (gen. 6-8). 3 overwhelming rush. 4 heavy fall of rain. —v. (-ging) flood or inundate (deluged with complaints). [latin diluvium]
Delusion n. 1 false belief, hope, etc. 2 hallucination. delusive adj. Delusory adj. [related to *delude]
De luxe adj. Luxurious; superior; sumptuous. [french, = of luxury]
Delve v. (-ving) 1 (often foll. By in, into) search or research energetically or deeply (delved into his pocket, his family history). 2 poet. Dig. [old english]
Demagnetize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) remove the magnetic properties of. demagnetization n.
Demagog n. (brit. -gogue) political agitator appealing to mob instincts. demagogic adj. Demagogy n. [greek, = leader of the people]
Demagogue n. (us -gog) political agitator appealing to mob instincts. demagogic adj. Demagogy n. [greek, = leader of the people]
Demand —n. 1 insistent and peremptory request. 2 desire for a commodity (no demand for fur coats). 3 urgent claim (makes demands on her). —v. 1 (often foll. By of, from, or to + infin., or that + clause) ask for insistently (demanded to know). 2 require (task demanding skill). 3 insist on being told (demanded her age). 4 (as demanding adj.) Requiring skill, effort, attention, etc. (demanding job; demanding child). in demand sought after. On demand as soon as requested (payable on demand). [french from latin: related to *mandate]
Demand feeding n. Feeding a baby when it cries.
Demarcation n. 1 marking of a boundary or limits. 2 trade-union practice of restricting a specific job to one union. demarcate v. (-ting). [spanish marcar *mark1]
Dematerialize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make or become non-material; vanish. dematerialization n.
Demean v. (usu. Refl.) Lower the dignity of (would not demean myself). [from *mean2]
Demeanor n. (brit. Demeanour) outward behaviour or bearing. [latin minor threaten]
Demeanour n. (us demeanor) outward behaviour or bearing. [latin minor threaten]
Demented adj. Mad. dementedly adv. [latin mens mind]
Demented adj. Mad. dementedly adv. [latin mens mind]
Dementia n. Chronic insanity. [latin: related to *demented]
Dementia praecox n. Formal schizophrenia.
Demerara n. Light-brown cane sugar. [demerara in guyana]
Demerger n. Dissolution of a commercial merger. demerge v. (-ging).
Demerit n. Fault; blemish.
Demesne n. 1 a territory; domain. B land attached to a mansion etc. C landed property. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) region or sphere. 3 law hist. Possession (of real property) as one’s own. [latin dominicus from dominus lord]
Demi-prefix half; partly. [latin dimidius half]
Demigod n. 1 a partly divine being. B child of a god or goddess and a mortal. 2 colloq. Godlike person.
Demijohn n. Large bottle usu. In a wicker cover. [french]
Demilitarize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) remove an army etc. From (a frontier, zone, etc.). demilitarization n.
Demi-monde n. 1 class of women considered to be of doubtful morality. 2 any semi-respectable group. [french, = half-world]
Demise —n. 1 death; termination. 2 law transfer of an estate, title, etc. By demising. —v. (-sing) law transfer (an estate, title, etc.) By will, lease, or death. [anglo-french: related to *dismiss]
Demisemiquaver n. Mus. Note equal to half a semiquaver.
Demist v. Clear mist from (a windscreen etc.). demister n.
Demo n. (pl. -s) colloq. = *demonstration 2, 3. [abbreviation]
Demobilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) disband (troops, ships, etc.). demobilization n.
Democracy n. (pl. -ies) 1 a government by the whole population, usu. Through elected representatives. B state so governed. 2 classless and tolerant society. [greek demokratia rule of the people]
Democrat n. 1 advocate of democracy. 2 (democrat) (in the us) member of the democratic party.
Democratic adj. 1 of, like, practising, or being a democracy. 2 favouring social equality. democratically adv.
Democratic party n. More liberal of the two main us political parties.
Democratize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make democratic. democratization n.
Demodulate v. (-ting) extract (a modulating signal) from its carrier. demodulation n.
Demography n. The study of the statistics of births, deaths, disease, etc. demographic adj. Demographically adv. [greek demos the people, *-graphy]
Demolish v. 1 a pull down (a building). B destroy. 2 overthrow (an institution). 3 refute (an argument, theory, etc.). 4 joc. Eat up voraciously. demolition n. [latin moles mass]
Demon n. 1 a evil spirit or devil. B personification of evil passion. 2 (often attrib.) Forceful or skilful performer (demon player). 3 cruel person. 4 (also daemon) supernatural being in ancient greece. demonic adj. [greek daimon deity]
Demonetize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) withdraw (a coin etc.) From use. demonetization n. [french: related to de-, money]
Demoniac —adj. 1 fiercely energetic or frenzied. 2 supposedly possessed by an evil spirit. 3 of or like demons. —n. Demoniac person. demoniacal adj. Demoniacally adv. [church latin: related to *demon]
Demonism n. Belief in demons.
Demonolatry n. Worship of demons. [from *demon, greek latreuo worship]
Demonology n. The study of demons etc.
Demonstrable adj. Able to be shown or proved. demonstrably adv.
Demonstrate v. (-ting) 1 show (feelings etc.). 2 describe and explain by experiment, practical use, etc. 3 logically prove or be proof of the truth or existence of. 4 take part in a public demonstration. 5 act as a demonstrator. [latin monstro show]
Demonstration n. 1 (foll. By of) show of feeling etc. 2 (esp. Political) public meeting, march, etc. 3 the exhibiting etc. Of specimens or experiments in esp. Scientific teaching. 4 proof by logic, argument, etc. 5 mil. Display of military force.
Demonstrative adj. 1 showing feelings readily; affectionate. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) logically conclusive; giving proof (demonstrative of their skill). 3 gram. (of an adjective or pronoun) indicating the person or thing referred to (e.g. This, that,
adjective or pronoun) indicating the person or thing referred to (e.g. This, that, those). demonstratively adv. Demonstrativeness n.
Demonstrator n. 1 person who demonstrates politically. 2 person who demonstrates machines etc. To prospective customers. 3 person who teaches by esp. Scientific demonstration.
Demoralize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) destroy the morale of; dishearten. demoralization n. [french]
Demote v. (-ting) reduce to a lower rank or class. demotion n. [from de-, promote]
Demotic —n. 1 colloquial form of a language. 2 simplified form of ancient egyptian writing (cf. *hieratic). —adj. 1 (esp. Of language) colloquial or vulgar. 2 of ancient egyptian or modern greek demotic. [greek demos the people]
Demotivate v. (-ting) (also absol.) Cause to lose motivation or incentive. demotivation n.
Demur —v. (-rr-) 1 (often foll. By to, at) raise objections. 2 law put in a demurrer. —n. (usu. In neg.) Objection; objecting (agreed without demur). [latin moror delay]
Demure adj. (demurer, demurest) 1 quiet, reserved; modest. 2 coy. demurely adv. Demureness n. [french: related to *demur]
Demurrer n. Law objection raised or exception taken.
Demystify v. (-ies, -ied) remove the mystery from; clarify. demystification n.
Den n. 1 wild animal’s lair. 2 place of crime or vice (opium den). 3 small private room. [old english]
Denarius n. (pl. Denarii) ancient roman silver coin. [latin deni by tens]
Denary adj. Of ten; decimal.
Denationalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) transfer (an industry etc.) From public to private ownership. denationalization n.
Denature v. (-ring) 1 change the properties of (a protein etc.) By heat, acidity, etc. 2 make (alcohol) undrinkable. [french]
Dendrochronology n. 1 dating of trees by their annual growth rings. 2 the study of these. [greek dendron tree]
Dendrology n. The study of trees. dendrological adj. Dendrologist n. [greek dendron tree]
Dene n. (also dean) narrow wooded valley. [old english]
Dengue n. Infectious tropical viral fever. [w. Indian spanish from swahili]
Deniable adj. That may be denied.
Denial n. 1 denying the truth or existence of a thing. 2 refusal of a request or wish. 3 disavowal of a leader etc.
Denier n. Unit of weight measuring the fineness of silk, nylon, etc. [originally the name of a small coin, from latin *denarius]
Denigrate v. (-ting) blacken the reputation of. denigration n. Denigrator n. Denigratory adj. [latin niger black]
Denim n. 1 (often attrib.) Hard-wearing usu. Blue cotton twill used for jeans, overalls, etc. 2 (in pl.) Colloq. Jeans etc. Made of this. [french de of, nîmes in france]
Denizen n. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) inhabitant or occupant. 2 foreigner having certain rights in an adopted country. 3 naturalized foreign word, animal, or plant. [latin de intus from within]
Denominate v. (-ting) give a name to, call, describe as. [latin: related to
Denominate v. (-ting) give a name to, call, describe as. [latin: related to *nominate]
Denomination n. 1 church or religious sect. 2 class of measurement or money. 3 name, esp. A characteristic or class name. denominational adj. [latin: related to *denominate]
Denominator n. Number below the line in a vulgar fraction; divisor. [latin nomen name]
Denote v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By that) be a sign of; indicate; mean. 2 stand as a name for; signify. denotation n. [latin: related to *note]
Denouement n. (also dénouement) 1 final unravelling of a plot or complicated situation. 2 final scene in a play, novel, etc. [french, from latin nodus knot]
Denounce v. (-cing) 1 accuse publicly; condemn. 2 inform against. 3 announce withdrawal from (an armistice, treaty, etc.). denouncement n. [latin nuntius messenger]
Density n. (pl. -ies) 1 denseness of thing(s) or a substance. 2 physics degree of consistency measured by the quantity of mass per unit volume. 3 opacity of a photographic image.
photographic image.
Dent —n. 1 slight hollow as made by a blow or pressure. 2 noticeable adverse effect (dent in our funds). —v. 1 mark with a dent. 2 adversely affect. [from *indent]
Dental adj. 1 of the teeth or dentistry. 2 (of a consonant) produced with the tongue-tip against the upper front teeth (as th) or the ridge of the teeth (as n, s, t). [latin dens dent-tooth]
Dental floss n. Thread used to clean between the teeth.
Dental surgeon n. Dentist.
Dentate adj. Bot. & zool. Toothed; with toothlike notches.
Dentifrice n. Toothpaste or tooth powder. [latin: related to *dental, frico rub]
Dentin n. (brit. Dentine) hard dense tissue forming the bulk of a tooth.
Dentine n. (us dentin) hard dense tissue forming the bulk of a tooth.
Dentist n. Person qualified to treat, extract, etc., teeth. dentistry n.
Dentition n. 1 type, number, and arrangement of teeth in a species etc. 2 teething.
Denture n. Removable artificial tooth or teeth.
Denuclearize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) remove nuclear weapons from (a country etc.). denuclearization n.
Denude v. (-ding) 1 make naked or bare. 2 (foll. By of) strip of (covering, property, etc.). denudation n. [latin nudus naked]
Denunciation n. Denouncing; public condemnation. [latin: related to *denounce]
Deny v. (-ies, -ied) 1 declare untrue or non-existent. 2 repudiate or disclaim. 3 (often foll. By to) withhold (a thing) from (denied him the satisfaction; denied it to me). deny oneself be abstinent. [latin: related to *negate]
Deodar n. Himalayan cedar. [sanskrit, = divine tree]
Deodorant n. (often attrib.) Substance applied to the body or sprayed into the air to conceal smells. [related to *odour]
Deodorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) remove or destroy the smell of. deodorization n.
deodorization n.
Deoxyribonucleic acid see *dna. [from de-, oxygen, *ribonucleic acid]
Dep. Abbr. 1 departs. 2 deputy.
Depart v. 1 a (often foll. By from) go away; leave. B (usu. Foll. By for) start; set out. 2 (usu. Foll. By from) deviate (departs from good taste). 3 esp. Formal or literary leave by death; die (departed this life). [latin dispertio divide]
Departed —adj. Bygone. —n. (prec. By the) euphem. Dead person or people.
Department n. 1 separate part of a complex whole, esp.: a a branch of administration (housing department). B a division of a school, college, etc., by subject (physics department). C a section of a large store (hardware department). 2 colloq. Area of special expertise. 3 administrative district, esp. In france. [french: related to *depart]
Departmental adj. Of a department. departmentally adv.
Department store n. Large shop with many departments.
Departure n. 1 departing. 2 (often foll. By from) deviation (from the truth, a standard, etc.). 3 (often attrib.) Departing of a train, aircraft, etc. (departure lounge). 4 new course of action or thought (driving is rather a departure for him).
Depend v. 1 (often foll. By on, upon) be controlled or determined by (it depends on luck). 2 (foll. By on, upon) a need (depends on his car). B rely on (i’m depending on good weather). [latin pendeo hang]
Dependable adj. Reliable. dependability n. Dependableness n. Dependably adv.
Dependant n. (us dependent) person supported, esp. Financially, by another. [french: related to *depend]
Dependence n. 1 depending or being dependent, esp. Financially. 2 reliance; trust.
Dependency n. (pl. -ies) country or province controlled by another.
Dependent —adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By on, upon) depending, conditional. 2 unable to do without (esp. A drug). 3 maintained at another’s cost. 4 (of a clause etc.) Subordinate to a sentence or word. —n. Us var. Of *dependant.
Depict v. 1 represent in drawing or painting etc. 2 portray in words; describe. depicter n. (also -tor). Depiction n. [latin: related to *picture]
Depilate v. (-ting) remove hair from. depilation n. [latin pilus hair]
Depilatory —adj. Removing unwanted hair. —n. (pl. -ies) depilatory substance.
Deplete v. (-ting) (esp. In passive) reduce in numbers, force, or quantity; exhaust. depletion n. [latin pleo fill]
Deploy v. 1 spread out (troops) into a line ready for action. 2 use (arguments, forces, etc.) Effectively. deployment n. [latin plico fold]
Depoliticize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make non-political. depoliticization n.
Deponent —adj. (of esp. A latin or greek verb) passive in form but active in meaning. —n. 1 deponent verb. 2 person making deposition under oath. [latin depono put down, lay aside]
Depopulate v. (-ting) reduce the population of. depopulation n.
Deport v. 1 remove forcibly or exile to another country; banish. 2 refl. Behave (in a specified manner) (deported himself well). deportation n. (in sense 1). [latin porto carry]
Deportee n. Deported person.
Deportment n. Bearing, demeanour. [french: related to *deport]
Depose v. (-sing) 1 remove from office, esp. Dethrone. 2 law (usu. Foll. By to, or that + clause) testify, esp. On oath. [french from latin: related to *deposit]
Deposit —n. 1 a money in a bank account. B anything stored for safe keeping. 2 a payment made as a pledge for a contract or as an initial part payment for a thing bought. B returnable sum paid on the hire of an item. 3 a natural layer of sand, rock, coal, etc. B layer of accumulated matter on a surface. —v. (-t-) 1 a put or lay down (deposited the book on the shelf). B (of water etc.) Leave (matter etc.) Lying. 2 a store or entrust for keeping. B pay (a sum of money) into a bank account. 3 pay (a sum) as part of a larger sum or as a pledge for a contract. [latin pono posit-put]
Deposit account n. Bank account that pays interest but is not usu. Immediately accessible.
Depositary n. (pl. -ies) person to whom a thing is entrusted. [latin: related to *deposit]
Deposition n. 1 deposing, esp. Dethronement. 2 sworn evidence; giving of this. 3 (the deposition) taking down of christ from the cross. 4 depositing or being deposited. [latin: related to *deposit]
Depositor n. Person who deposits money, property, etc.
Depository n. (pl. -ies) 1 a storehouse. B store (of wisdom, knowledge, etc.). 2 = depositary. [latin: related to deposit]
Depot n. 1 a storehouse, esp. For military supplies. B headquarters of a regiment. 2 a place where vehicles, e.g. Buses, are kept. B us railway or bus station. [french: related to *deposit]
Deprave v. (-ving) corrupt, esp. Morally. [latin pravus crooked]
Depravity n. (pl. -ies) moral corruption; wickedness.
Deprecate v. (-ting) express disapproval of; deplore. deprecation n. Deprecatory adj. [latin: related to *pray]
Usage deprecate is often confused with depreciate.
Depreciate v. (-ting) 1 diminish in value. 2 belittle. depreciatory adj. [latin: related to *price]
Usage depreciate is often confused with deprecate.
Depreciation n. 1 a decline in value, esp. Due to wear and tear. B allowance made for this. 2 belittlement.
Depredation n. (usu. In pl.) Despoiling, ravaging. [latin: related to *prey]
Depress v. 1 make dispirited or sad. 2 push down; lower. 3 reduce the activity of (esp. Trade). 4 (as depressed adj.) A miserable. B suffering from depression. depressing adj. Depressingly adv. [latin: related to *press1]
Depressant —adj. Reducing activity, esp. Of a body function. —n. Depressant substance.
Depressed area n. Area of economic depression.
Depression n. 1 extreme melancholy, often with a reduction in vitality and physical symptoms. 2 econ. Long period of slump. 3 lowering of atmospheric pressure; winds etc. Caused by this. 4 hollow on a surface. 5 pressing down.
Depressive —adj. 1 tending to depress (depressive drug, influence). 2 of or tending towards depression (depressive illness; depressive father). —n. Person suffering from depression.
Deprivation n. Depriving or being deprived (suffered many deprivations).
Deprive v. (-ving) 1 (usu. Foll. By of) prevent from having or enjoying. 2 (as deprived adj.) Lacking what is needed for well-being; underprivileged. deprival n. [latin: related to *privation]
Dept. Abbr. Department.
Dept. Abbr. Department.
Depth n. 1 a deepness. B measurement from the top down, from the surface inwards, or from front to back. 2 difficulty; abstruseness. 3 a wisdom. B intensity of emotion etc. 4 intensity of colour, darkness, etc. 5 (usu. In pl.) A deep water or place; abyss. B low, depressed state. C lowest, central, or inmost part (depths of the country; depth of winter). in depth thoroughly. Out of one’s depth 1 in water over one’s head. 2 engaged in a task etc. Too difficult for one. [related to *deep]
Depth-charge n. Bomb exploding under water.
Deputation n. Delegation. [latin: related to *depute]
Depute v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) 1 delegate (a task, authority, etc.). 2 authorize as representative. [latin puto think]
Deputize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (usu. Foll. By for) act as deputy.
Deputy n. (pl. -ies) 1 person appointed to act for another (also attrib.: deputy manager). 2 parliamentary representative in some countries. [var. Of *depute]
Derail v. (usu. In passive) cause (a train etc.) To leave the rails. derailment n. [french: related to *rail1]
Derange v. (-ging) 1 make insane. 2 disorder, disturb. derangement n. [french:
Derange v. (-ging) 1 make insane. 2 disorder, disturb. derangement n. [french: related to *rank1]
Derby n. (pl. -ies) 1 a annual flat horse-race at epsom. B similar race elsewhere. 2 important sporting contest. 3 (derby) us bowler hat. [earl of derby]
Derecognize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) cease to recognize the status of (esp. A trade union). derecognition n.
Deregulate v. (-ting) remove regulations from. deregulation n.
Derelict —adj. 1 (esp. Of a property) dilapidated. 2 abandoned, ownerless. —n. 1 vagrant. 2 abandoned property. [latin: related to *relinquish]
Dereliction n. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) neglect; failure to carry out obligations. 2 abandoning or being abandoned.
Derestrict v. Remove restrictions (esp. Speed limits) from. derestriction n.
Deride v. (-ding) mock. derision n. [latin rideo laugh]
De rigueur predic. Adj. Required by fashion or etiquette (drugs were de rigueur). [french]
Derivation n. 1 deriving or being derived. 2 a formation of a word from another or from a root. B tracing of the origin of a word. C statement of this.
Derivative —adj. Derived; not original (his music is derivative). —n. 1 derived word or thing. 2 math. Quantity measuring the rate of change of another.
Derive v. (-ving) 1 (usu. Foll. By from) get or trace from a source (derived satisfaction from work). 2 (foll. By from) arise from, originate in (happiness derives from many things). 3 (usu. Foll. By from) show or state the origin or formation of (a word etc.). [latin rivus stream]
Dermatitis n. Inflammation of the skin. [greek derma skin, *-itis]
Dermatology n. The study of skin diseases. dermatological adj. Dermatologist n. [from *dermatitis, *-logy]
Dermis n. 1 (in general use) the skin. 2 layer of living tissue below the epidermis. [from *epidermis]
Derogate v. (-ting) (foll. By from) formal detract from (merit, right, etc.). derogation n. [latin rogo ask]
Derrick n. 1 crane for heavy weights, with a movable pivoted arm. 2 framework over an oil well etc., holding the drilling machinery. [derrick, name of a hangman]
Derring-do n. Literary joc. Heroic courage or actions. [daring to do]
Derris n. 1 tropical climbing plant. 2 insecticide made from its root. [latin from greek]
Derv n. Diesel oil for road vehicles. [diesel-engined road-vehicle]
Dervish n. Member of a muslim fraternity vowed to poverty and austerity. [turkish from persian, = poor]
Des abbr. Department of education and science.
Desalinate v. (-ting) remove the salt from (esp. Sea water). desalination n. [from *saline]
Descale v. (-ling) remove scale from.
Descant —n. 1 harmonizing treble melody above the basic melody, esp. Of a hymn tune. 2 poet. Melody; song. —v. (foll. By on, upon) talk prosily, esp. In praise of. [latin cantus song: related to *chant]
Descend v. 1 go or come down. 2 sink, fall. 3 slope downwards. 4 (usu. Foll. By on) make a sudden attack or visit. 5 (of property etc.) Be passed on by inheritance. 6 a sink in rank, quality, etc. B (foll. By to) stoop to (an unworthy act). be descended from have as an ancestor. descendent adj. [latin scando climb]
Descendant n. Person or thing descended from another. [french: related to *descend]
Descent n. 1 act or way of descending. 2 downward slope. 3 lineage, family origin. 4 decline; fall. 5 sudden attack.
Describe v. (-bing) 1 a state the characteristics, appearance, etc. Of. B (foll. By as) assert to be; call (described him as a liar). 2 a draw (esp. A geometrical figure). B move in (a specified way, esp. A curve) (described a parabola through the air). [latin scribo write]
Description n. 1 a describing or being described. B representation, esp. In words. 2 sort, kind (no food of any description). [latin: related to *describe]
Descriptive adj. Describing, esp. Vividly. [latin: related to *describe]
Descry v. (-ies, -ied) literary catch sight of; discern. [french: related to *cry]
Descry v. (-ies, -ied) literary catch sight of; discern. [french: related to *cry]
Desecrate v. (-ting) violate (a sacred place etc.) With violence, profanity, etc. desecration n. Desecrator n. [from de-, consecrate]
Desegregate v. (-ting) abolish racial segregation in. desegregation n.
Deselect v. Reject (a selected candidate, esp. A sitting mp) in favour of another. deselection n.
Desensitize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) reduce or destroy the sensitivity of. desensitization n.
Desert1 v. 1 leave without intending to return. 2 (esp. As deserted adj.) Forsake, abandon. 3 run away (esp. From military service). deserter n. (in sense 3). Desertion n. [latin desero -sert-leave]
Desert2 —n. Dry barren, esp. Sandy, tract. —adj. Uninhabited, desolate, barren. [latin desertus: related to *desert1]
Desert2 —n. Dry barren, esp. Sandy, tract. —adj. Uninhabited, desolate, barren. [latin desertus: related to *desert1]
Desert3 n. 1 (in pl.) Deserved reward or punishment (got his deserts). 2 being worthy of reward or punishment. [french: related to *deserve]
Desert boot n. Suede etc. Ankle-high boot.
Desertification n. Making or becoming a desert.
Desert island n. (usu. Tropical) uninhabited island.
Deserve v. (-ving) (often foll. By to + infin.) Be worthy of (a reward, punishment, etc.) (deserves a prize). deservedly adv. [latin servio serve]
Deserving adj. (often foll. By of) worthy (esp. Of help, praise, etc.).
Déshabillé n. (also déshabille, dishabille) state of partial undress. [french, = undressed]
Desiccate v. (-ting) remove moisture from (esp. Food) (desiccated coconut). desiccation n. [latin siccus dry]
Desideratum n. (pl. -ta) something lacking but desirable. [latin: related to *desire]
Design —n. 1 a preliminary plan or sketch for making something. B art of producing these. 2 lines or shapes forming a pattern or decoration. 3 plan, purpose, or intention. 4 a arrangement or layout of a product. B established version of a product. —v. 1 produce a design for (a building, machine, etc.). 2 intend or plan (designed for beginners). 3 be a designer. by design on purpose.
Have designs on plan to appropriate, seduce, etc. [latin signum mark]
Designate —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By as) appoint to an office or function. 2 specify (designated times). 3 (often foll. By as) describe as; style. 4 serve as the name or symbol of. —adj. (after the noun) appointed to office but not yet installed. [latin: related to *design]
Designation n. 1 name, description, or title. 2 designating.
Designedly adv. On purpose.
Designer n. 1 person who designs e.g. Clothing, machines, theatre sets; draughtsman. 2 (attrib.) Bearing the label of a famous designer; prestigious.
Designer drug n. Synthetic analogue of an illegal drug.
Designing adj. Crafty, scheming.
Desirable adj. 1 worth having or doing. 2 sexually attractive. desirability n. Desirableness n. Desirably adv.
Desire —n. 1 a unsatisfied longing or wish. B expression of this; request. 2 sexual appetite. 3 something desired (achieved his heart’s desire). —v. (-ring) 1 (often foll. By to + infin., or that + clause) long for; wish. 2 request (desires a rest). [latin desidero long for]
Desirous predic. Adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) desiring, wanting (desirous of stardom). 2 wanting; hoping (desirous to do the right thing).
Desist v. (often foll. By from) abstain; cease. [latin desisto]
Desk n. 1 piece of furniture with a surface for writing on, and often drawers. 2 counter in a hotel, bank, etc. 3 specialized section of a newspaper office (sports desk). 4 unit of two orchestral players sharing a stand. [latin: related to *discus]
Desktop n. 1 working surface of a desk. 2 (attrib.) (esp. Of a microcomputer) for use on an ordinary desk.
Desktop publishing n. Printing with a desktop computer and high-quality printer.
Desolate —adj. 1 left alone; solitary. 2 uninhabited, ruined, dreary (desolate moor). 3 forlorn; wretched. —v. (-ting) 1 depopulate, devastate; lay waste. 2 (esp. As desolated adj.) Make wretched. desolately adv. Desolateness n. [latin solus alone]
Desolation n. 1 desolating or being desolated. 2 loneliness, grief, etc., esp. Caused by desertion. 3 neglected, ruined, or empty state.
Despair —n. 1 complete loss or absence of hope. 2 cause of this. —v. (often foll. By of) lose or be without hope (despaired of ever winning). [latin spero hope]
Despatch var. Of *dispatch.
Desperado n. (pl. -es or us -s) desperate or reckless criminal etc. [as *desperate]
Desperate adj. 1 reckless from despair; violent and lawless. 2 a extremely dangerous, serious, or bad (desperate situation). B staking all on a small chance (desperate remedy). 3 (usu. Foll. By for) needing or desiring very much (desperate for recognition). desperately adv. Desperateness n. Desperation n. [latin: related to *despair]
Despotism n. 1 rule by a despot; tyranny. 2 country ruled by a despot.
Des res n. Slang desirable residence. [abbreviation]
Dessert n. 1 sweet course of a meal. 2 fruit, nuts, etc., served at the end of a meal. [french: related to dis-, serve]
Dessertspoon n. 1 medium-sized spoon for dessert. 2 amount held by this. dessertspoonful n. (pl. -s).
Destabilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make unstable. 2 subvert (esp. A foreign government). destabilization n.
Destination n. Place a person or thing is bound for. [latin: related to *destine]
Destine v. (-ning) (often foll. By to, for, or to + infin.) Appoint; preordain; intend (destined him for the navy). be destined to be fated or preordained to. [french from latin]
Destiny n. (pl. -ies) 1 a fate. B this regarded as a power. 2 particular person’s fate etc. [french from latin]
Destitute adj. 1 without food, shelter, etc. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) lacking (destitute of friends). destitution n. [latin]
Destroy v. 1 pull or break down; demolish. 2 kill (esp. An animal). 3 make useless; spoil. 4 ruin, esp. Financially. 5 defeat. [latin struo struct-build]
Destroyer n. 1 person or thing that destroys. 2 fast armed warship escorting other ships.
Destruct us esp. Astronaut. —v. Destroy (one’s own rocket etc.) Or be destroyed deliberately, esp. For safety. —n. Destructing.
Destructible adj. Able to be destroyed. [latin: related to *destroy]
Destruction n. 1 destroying or being destroyed. 2 cause of this. [latin: related to *destroy]
Destructive adj. 1 (often foll. By to, of) destroying or tending to destroy. 2 negatively critical. destructively adv. Destructiveness n.
Desuetude n. Formal state of disuse (fell into desuetude). [latin suesco be accustomed]
Desultory adj. 1 constantly turning from one subject to another. 2 disconnected; unmethodical. desultorily adv. [latin desultorius superficial]
Detach v. 1 (often foll. By from) unfasten or disengage and remove. 2 send (troops etc.) On a separate mission. 3 (as detached adj.) A impartial; unemotional. B (esp. Of a house) standing separate. detachable adj. [french: related to *attach]
Detachment n. 1 a aloofness; indifference. B impartiality. 2 detaching or being detached. 3 troops etc. Detached for a specific purpose. [french: related to *detach]
Detail —n. 1 small particular; item. 2 a these collectively (eye for detail). B treatment of them (detail was unconvincing). 3 a minor decoration on a building etc. B small part of a picture etc. Shown alone. 4 small military detachment. —v. 1 give particulars of. 2 relate circumstantially. 3 assign for special duty. 4 (as detailed adj.) A (of a picture, story, etc.) Containing many details. B itemized (detailed list). in detail item by item, minutely. [french: related to *tail2]
Detain v. 1 keep waiting; delay. 2 keep in custody, lock up. detainment n. [latin teneo hold]
Detainee n. Person kept in custody, esp. For political reasons.
Detect v. 1 discover or perceive (detected a note of sarcasm). 2 (often foll. By in) discover (a criminal); solve (a crime). detectable adj. Detector n. [latin tego tect-cover]
Detection n. 1 detecting or being detected. 2 work of a detective.
Detective n. Person, esp. A police officer, investigating crimes.
Détente n. Easing of strained, esp. International, relations. [french, = relaxation]
Detention n. 1 detaining or being detained. 2 being kept late in school as a punishment. [latin: related to *detain]
Detention centre n. Short-term prison for young offenders.
Deter v. (-rr-) (often foll. By from) discourage or prevent, esp. Through fear. determent n. [latin terreo frighten]
Detergent —n. Synthetic cleansing agent used with water. —adj. Cleansing. [latin tergeo wipe]
Deteriorate v. (-ting) become worse. deterioration n. [latin deterior worse]
Determinant —adj. Determining. —n. 1 determining factor etc. 2 quantity obtained by the addition of products of the elements of a square matrix according to a given rule. [latin: related to *determine]
Determinate adj. Limited, of definite scope or nature.
Determination n. 1 firmness of purpose; resoluteness. 2 process of deciding or
Determination n. 1 firmness of purpose; resoluteness. 2 process of deciding or determining.
Determine v. (-ning) 1 find out or establish precisely. 2 decide or settle; resolve. 3 be the decisive factor in regard to (demand determines supply). be determined be resolved. [latin terminus boundary]
Determinism n. Doctrine that human actions, events, etc. Are determined by causes external to the will. determinist n. & adj. Deterministic adj. Deterministically adv.
Deterrent —adj. Deterring. —n. Deterrent thing or factor (esp. Nuclear weapons). deterrence n.
Detest v. Hate violently, loathe. detestation n. [latin detestor from testis witness]
Detestable adj. Intensely disliked; hateful.
Dethrone v. (-ning) remove from a throne, depose. dethronement n.
Detonate v. (-ting) set off (an explosive charge); be set off. detonation n. [latin tono thunder]
Detonator n. Device for detonating explosives.
Detour n. Divergence from a usual route; roundabout course. [french: related to *turn]
Detoxify v. (-ies, -ied) remove poison or harmful substances from. detoxification n. [latin toxicum poison]
Detract v. (foll. By from) take away (a part); diminish; make seem less valuable or important. [latin traho tract-draw]
Detractor n. Person who criticizes unfairly. detraction n.
Detriment n. 1 harm, damage. 2 cause of this. detrimental adj. [latin: related to *trite]
Detritus n. Gravel, sand, etc. Produced by erosion; debris. [latin: related to *detriment]
De trop predic. Adj. Not wanted, in the way. [french, = excessive]
Deuce1 n. 1 two on dice or playing-cards. 2 tennis score of 40 all. [latin duo duos two]
Deuce2 n. The devil, esp. As an exclamation of surprise or annoyance (who the deuce are you?). [low german duus two (being the worst throw at dice)]
Deus ex machina n. Unlikely agent resolving a seemingly hopeless situation, esp. In a play or novel. [latin, = god from the machinery, i.e. In a theatre]
Deuterium n. Stable isotope of hydrogen with a mass about double that of the usual isotope. [greek deuteros second]
Deutschmark n. (also deutsche mark) chief monetary unit of germany. [german: related to *mark2]
Devalue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) 1 reduce the value of. 2 reduce the value of (a currency) in relation to others or to gold. devaluation n.
Devastate v. (-ting) 1 lay waste; cause great destruction to. 2 (often in passive) overwhelm with shock or grief. devastation n. [latin vasto lay waste]
Develop v. (-p-) 1 a make or become bigger, fuller, more elaborate, etc. B bring or come to an active, visible, or mature state. 2 begin to exhibit or suffer from (developed a rattle). 3 a build on (land). B convert (land) to new use. 4 treat (photographic film etc.) To make the image visible. developer n. [french]
Developing country n. Poor or primitive country.
Developing country n. Poor or primitive country.
Development n. 1 developing or being developed. 2 a stage of growth or advancement. B thing that has developed; new event or circumstance etc. (latest developments). 3 full-grown state. 4 developed land; group of buildings. developmental adj.
Development area n. Area where new industries are encouraged by the state.
Deviant —adj. Deviating from what is normal, esp. Sexually. —n. Deviant person or thing. deviance n. Deviancy n.
Deviate v. (-ting) (often foll. By from) turn aside or diverge (from a course of action, rule, etc.). deviation n. [latin via way]
Device n. 1 thing made or adapted for a special purpose. 2 plan, scheme, or trick. 3 design, esp. Heraldic. leave a person to his or her own devices leave a person to do as he or she wishes. [french: related to *devise]
Devil —n. 1 (usu. The devil) (in christian and jewish belief) supreme spirit of evil; satan. 2 a evil spirit; demon. B personified evil. 3 a wicked person. B mischievously clever person. 4 colloq. Person of a specified kind (lucky devil). 5 fighting spirit, mischievousness (devil is in him tonight). 6 colloq. Awkward thing. 7 (the devil or the devil) colloq. Used as an exclamation of surprise or annoyance (who the devil are you?). 8 literary hack. 9 junior legal counsel. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 cook (food) with hot seasoning. 2 act as devil for an author or barrister. 3 us harass, worry. between the devil and the deep blue sea in a dilemma. A devil of colloq. Considerable, difficult, or remarkable. Devil’s own colloq. Very difficult or unusual (the devil’s own job). The devil to pay trouble
colloq. Very difficult or unusual (the devil’s own job). The devil to pay trouble to be expected. Speak (or talk) of the devil said when person appears just after being mentioned. [greek diabolos accuser, slanderer]
Devilish —adj. 1 of or like a devil; wicked. 2 mischievous. —adv. Colloq. Very. devilishly adv.
Devil-may-care adj. Cheerful and reckless.
Devilment n. Mischief, wild spirits.
Devilry n. (pl. -ies) 1 wickedness; reckless mischief. 2 black magic.
Devil’s advocate n. Person who argues against a proposition to test it.
Devils-on-horseback n.pl. Savoury of prunes or plums wrapped in bacon.
Devious adj. 1 not straightforward, underhand. 2 winding, circuitous. deviously adv. Deviousness n. [latin via way]
Devise v. (-sing) 1 carefully plan or invent. 2 law leave (real estate) by will. [latin: related to *divide]
Devoid predic. Adj. (foll. By of) lacking or free from. [french: related to *void]
Devolution n. Delegation of power, esp. To local or regional administration. devolutionist n. & adj. [latin: related to *devolve]
Devolve v. (-ving) 1 (foll. By on, upon, etc.) Pass (work or duties) or be passed to (a deputy etc.). 2 (foll. By on, to, upon) (of property etc.) Descend to. devolvement n. [latin volvo volut-roll]
Devonian —adj. Of the fourth period of the palaeozoic era. —n. This period. [devon in england]
Devote v. (-ting) (often refl.; foll. By to) apply or give over to (a particular activity etc.). [latin voveo vot-vow]
Devoted adj. Loving; loyal. devotedly adv.
Devotee n. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) zealous enthusiast or supporter. 2 pious person.
Devotion n. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) great love or loyalty. 2 a religious worship. B (in pl.) Prayers. devotional adj. [latin: related to *devote]
Devour v. 1 eat voraciously. 2 (of fire etc.) Engulf, destroy. 3 take in eagerly (devoured the play). 4 preoccupy (devoured by fear). [latin voro swallow]
Devout adj. Earnestly religious or sincere. devoutly adv. Devoutness n. [latin: related to *devote]
Dew n. 1 condensed water vapour forming on cool surfaces at night. 2 similar glistening moisture. dewy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Dewberry n. (pl. -ies) bluish fruit like the blackberry.
Dew-claw n. Rudimentary inner toe on some dogs.
Dewdrop n. Drop of dew.
Dewey system n. Decimal system of library classification. [dewey, name of a librarian]
Dewlap n. Loose fold of skin hanging from the throat of cattle, dogs, etc. [from *dew, *lap1]
Dew point n. Temperature at which dew forms.
Dexter adj. Esp. Heraldry on or of the right-hand side (observer’s left) of a shield etc. [latin, = on the right]
Dexterity n. 1 skill in using one’s hands. 2 mental adroitness. [latin: related to *dexter]
Dexterous adj. (also dextrous) having or showing dexterity. dexterously adv. Dexterousness n.
Dextrin n. Soluble gummy substance used as a thickening agent, adhesive, etc. [latin dextra on or to the right]
Dextrose n. Form of glucose. [latin dextra on or to the right]
Dfc abbr. Distinguished flying cross.
Dfm abbr. Distinguished flying medal.
Dhal n. (also dal) 1 a kind of split pulse common in india. 2 dish made with this. [hindi]
Dharma n. Ind. 1 social custom; correct behaviour. 2 the buddhist truth. 3 the hindu moral law. [sanskrit, = decree, custom]
Dhoti n. (pl. -s) loincloth worn by male hindus. [hindi]
Di-1 comb. Form two-, double. [greek dis twice]
Di-2 prefix = *dis-.
Di-3 prefix form of *dia-before a vowel.
Dia. Abbr. Diameter.
Dia-prefix (also di-before a vowel) 1 through (diaphanous). 2 apart (diacritical). 3 across (diameter). [greek dia through]
Diabetes n. Disease in which sugar and starch are not properly absorbed by the body. [latin from greek]
Diabetic —adj. 1 of or having diabetes. 2 for diabetics. —n. Person suffering from diabetes.
Diabolical adj. (also diabolic) 1 of the devil. 2 devilish; inhumanly cruel or wicked. 3 extremely bad, clever, or annoying. diabolically adv. [latin: related to *devil]
Diabolism n. 1 worship of the devil. 2 sorcery. [greek: related to *devil]
Diachronic adj. Of a thing’s historical development. diachronically adv. [greek khronos time]
Diaconal adj. Of a deacon. [church latin: related to *deacon]
Diaconate n. 1 position of deacon. 2 body of deacons.
Diacritic n. Sign (e.g. An accent or cedilla) indicating different sounds or values of a letter. [greek: related to *critic]
Diacritical —adj. Distinguishing, distinctive. —n. (in full diacritical mark or sign) = *diacritic.
Diadem n. 1 crown or headband as a sign of sovereignty. 2 sovereignty. 3 crowning distinction. [greek deo bind]
Diaeresis n. (pl. Diaereses) (us dieresis) mark (as in naïve) over a vowel to indicate that it is sounded separately. [greek, = separation]
Diagnose v. (-sing) make a diagnosis of (a disease, fault, etc.).
Diagnosis n. (pl. Diagnoses) 1 a identification of a disease from its symptoms. B formal statement of this. 2 identification of the cause of a mechanical fault etc. [greek gignosko recognize]
Diagnostic —adj. Of or assisting diagnosis. —n. Symptom. diagnostically adv. Diagnostician n. [greek: related to *diagnosis]
Diagnostics n. 1 (treated as pl.) Computing programs etc. Used to identify faults in hardware or software. 2 (treated as sing.) Science of diagnosing disease.
Diagonal —adj. 1 crossing a straight-sided figure from corner to corner. 2 slanting, oblique. —n. Straight line joining two opposite corners. diagonally adv. [greek gonia angle]
Diagram n. Outline drawing, plan, or graphic representation of a machine, structure, process, etc. diagrammatic adj. Diagrammatically adv. [greek: related to *-gram]
Dial —n. 1 plate with a scale for measuring weight, volume, etc., indicated by a pointer. 2 movable numbered disc on a telephone for making connection. 3 face of a clock or watch, marking the hours etc. 4 a plate or disc etc. On a radio or television for selecting a wavelength or channel. B similar device on other equipment. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 (also absol.) Select (a telephone number) with a dial. 2 measure, indicate, or regulate with a dial. [medieval latin diale from dies day]
Dialect n. 1 regional form of speech. 2 variety of language with non-standard vocabulary, pronunciation, or grammar. dialectal adj. [greek lego speak]
Dialectic n. 1 art of investigating the truth by discussion and logical argument. 2 process whereby contradictions merge to form a higher truth. 3 any situation or discussion involving the juxtaposition or conflict of opposites. [greek: related to *dialect]
Dialectical adj. Of dialectic. dialectically adv.
Dialectical materialism n. Marxist theory that political and historical events are due to the conflict of social forces arising from economic conditions.
Dialectics n. (treated as sing. Or pl.) = *dialectic n. 1.
Dialling tone n. Sound indicating that a telephone caller may dial.
Dialog n. (brit. Dialogue) 1 a conversation. B this in written form. 2 discussion between people with different opinions. [greek lego speak]
Dialogue n. (us dialog) 1 a conversation. B this in written form. 2 discussion between people with different opinions. [greek lego speak]
Dialysis n. (pl. Dialyses) 1 separation of particles in a liquid by differences in their ability to pass through a membrane into another liquid. 2 purification of the blood by this technique. [greek luo set free]
Diamanté adj. Decorated with synthetic diamonds or another sparkling substance. [french diamant diamond]
Diameter n. 1 straight line passing through the centre of a circle or sphere to its edges; length of this. 2 transverse measurement; width, thickness. 3 unit of linear magnifying power. [greek: related to *-meter]
Diametrical adj. (also diametric) 1 of or along a diameter. 2 (of opposites etc.) Absolute. diametrically adv. [greek: related to *diameter]
Diamond n. 1 very hard transparent precious stone of pure crystallized carbon. 2 rhombus. 3 a playing-card of the suit denoted by a red rhombus. B (in pl.) This suit. [greek: related to *adamant]
Diamond wedding n. 60th (or 75th) wedding anniversary.
Dianthus n. Flowering plant of the genus including the carnation. [greek, = flower of zeus]
Diapason n. 1 compass of a voice or musical instrument. 2 fixed standard of musical pitch. 3 either of two main organ-stops. [greek, = through all (notes)]
Diaper n. Us baby’s nappy. [greek aspros white]
Diaphanous adj. (of fabric etc.) Light, delicate, and almost transparent. [greek phaino show]
Diaphragm n. 1 muscular partition between the thorax and abdomen in mammals. 2 = *dutch cap. 3 a photog. Plate or disc pierced with a circular hole to cut off marginal beams of light. B vibrating disc in a microphone, telephone, loudspeaker, etc. 4 device for varying the lens aperture in a camera etc. 5 thin sheet as a partition etc. [greek phragma fence]
Diapositive n. Positive photographic slide or transparency.
Diarist n. Person who keeps a diary.
Diarrhea n. (esp. Brit. Diarrhoea) condition of excessively frequent and loose bowel movements. [greek rheo flow]
Diarrhoea n. (esp. Us diarrhea) condition of excessively frequent and loose bowel movements. [greek rheo flow]
Diary n. (pl. -ies) 1 daily record of events or thoughts. 2 book for this or for noting future engagements. [latin dies day]
Diaspora n. 1 the dispersion of the jews after their exile in 538 bc. 2 the dispersed jews. [greek]
Diastase n. Enzyme converting starch to sugar. [greek diastasis separation]
Diatom n. One-cell alga found as plankton and forming fossil deposits. [greek, = cut in half]
Diatomic adj. Consisting of two atoms.
Diatonic adj. Mus. (of a scale, interval, etc.) Involving only notes belonging to the prevailing key. [greek: related to *tonic]
Diatribe n. Forceful verbal attack or criticism; invective. [greek tribo rub]
Diazepam n. A tranquillizing drug. [benzodiazepine + am]
Dibble —n. (also dibber) hand tool for making holes for planting. —v. (-ling) sow, plant, or prepare (soil) with a dibble. [origin uncertain]
Dice —n.pl. 1 a small cubes with faces bearing 1–6 spots, used in games or gambling. B (treated as sing.) One of these cubes (see die2). 2 game played with dice. —v. (-cing) 1 take great risks, gamble (dicing with death). 2 cut into small cubes. [pl. Of die2]
Dichotomy n. (pl. -ies) division into two, esp. A sharply defined one. [greek dikho-apart: related to *tome]
Usage the use of dichotomy to mean dilemma or ambivalence is considered incorrect in standard english.
Dichromatic adj. 1 two-coloured. 2 having vision sensitive to only two of the three primary colours.
three primary colours.
Dick1 n. 1 colloq. (in certain set phrases) person (clever dick). 2 coarse slang penis. [dick, pet form of richard]
Dick2 n. Slang detective. [perhaps an abbreviation]
Dickens n. (usu. Prec. By how, what, why, etc., the) colloq. (esp. In exclamations) deuce; the devil (what the dickens is it). [probably the name dickens]
Dickensian adj. 1 of the 19th-c. Novelist dickens or his work. 2 resembling situations in dickens’s work, esp. Poverty.
Dickhead n. Coarse slang idiot. [from *dick1]
Dicky —n. (pl. -ies) colloq. False shirt-front. —adj. (-ier, -iest) slang unsound; unhealthy. [dicky, pet form of richard]
Dicky-bird n. 1 child’s word for a little bird. 2 word (didn’t say a dicky-bird).
Dicky bow n. Colloq. Bow-tie.
Dicotyledon n. Flowering plant having two cotyledons. dicotyledonous adj.
Dicotyledon n. Flowering plant having two cotyledons. dicotyledonous adj.
Dicta pl. Of *dictum.
Dictaphone n. Propr. Machine for recording and playing back dictated words. [from dictate, phone]
Dictate —v. (-ting) 1 say or read aloud (material to be written down or recorded). 2 state or order authoritatively or peremptorily. —n. (usu. In pl.) Authoritative instruction or requirement (dictates of conscience, fashion). dictation n. [latin dicto from dico say]
Dictator n. 1 usu. Unelected omnipotent ruler. 2 omnipotent person in any sphere. 3 domineering person. dictatorship n. [latin: related to *dictate]
Dictatorial adj. 1 of or like a dictator. 2 overbearing. dictatorially adv. [latin: related to *dictator]
Diction n. Manner of enunciation in speaking or singing. [latin dictio from dico dict-say]
Dictionary n. (pl. -ies) 1 book listing (usu. Alphabetically) and explaining the words of a language or giving corresponding words in another language. 2 reference book explaining the terms of a particular subject. [medieval latin: related to *diction]
Dictum n. (pl. Dicta or -s) 1 formal expression of opinion. 2 a saying. [latin,
Dictum n. (pl. Dicta or -s) 1 formal expression of opinion. 2 a saying. [latin, neuter past part. Of dico say]
Did past of *do1.
Didactic adj. 1 meant to instruct. 2 (of a person) tediously pedantic. didactically adv. Didacticism n. [greek didasko teach]
Diddle v. (-ling) colloq. Swindle. [probably from diddler, name of a character in a 19th-c. Play]
Diddums int. Often iron. Expressing commiseration. [= did ‘em, i.e. Did they (tease you etc.)?]
Diddums int. Often iron. Expressing commiseration. [= did ‘em, i.e. Did they (tease you etc.)?]
Didgeridoo n. Long tubular australian aboriginal musical instrument. [imitative]
Didn’t contr. Did not.
Die1 v. (dies, died, dying) 1 cease to live; expire, lose vital force. 2 a come to an end, fade away (his interest died). B cease to function. C (of a flame) go out. 3 (foll. By on) die or cease to function while in the presence or charge of (a person). 4 (usu. Foll. By of, from, with) be exhausted or tormented (nearly died of boredom). be dying (foll. By for, or to + infin.) Wish for longingly or intently (was dying for a drink). Die away fade to the point of extinction. Die back (of a plant) decay from the tip towards the root. Die down become fainter or weaker.
plant) decay from the tip towards the root. Die down become fainter or weaker. Die hard die reluctantly (old habits die hard). Die off die one after another. Die out become extinct, cease to exist. [old norse]
Die2 n. 1 = *dice 1b. 2 (pl. Dies) a engraved device for stamping coins, medals, etc. B device for stamping, cutting, or moulding material. the die is cast an irrevocable step has been taken. [latin datum from do give]
Usage dice, rather than die, is now the standard singular as well as plural form in the games sense (one dice, two dice).
Die-casting n. Process or product of casting from metal moulds.
Die-hard n. Conservative or stubborn person.
Dielectric —adj. Not conducting electricity. —n. Dielectric substance.
Dieresis n. (pl. Diereses) (brit. Diaeresis) mark (as in naïve) over a vowel to indicate that it is sounded separately. [greek, = separation]
Diesel n. 1 (in full diesel engine) internal-combustion engine in which heat produced by the compression of air in the cylinder ignites the fuel. 2 vehicle driven by a diesel engine. 3 fuel for a diesel engine. [diesel, name of an engineer]
Diesel-electric adj. (of a locomotive etc.) Driven by an electric current from a
Diesel-electric adj. (of a locomotive etc.) Driven by an electric current from a diesel-engined generator.
Diesel oil n. Heavy petroleum fraction used in diesel engines.
Die-sinker n. Engraver of dies.
Die-stamping n. Embossing paper etc. With die.
Diet1 —n. 1 range of foods habitually eaten by a person or animal. 2 limited range of food to which a person is restricted. 3 thing regularly offered (diet of half-truths). —v. (-t-) restrict oneself to a special diet, esp. To slim. dietary adj. Dieter n. [greek diaita way of life]
Diet2 n. 1 legislative assembly in certain countries. 2 hist. Congress. [latin dieta]
Dietetic adj. Of diet and nutrition. [greek: related to *diet1]
Dietetics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) The study of diet and nutrition.
Dietitian n. (also dietician) expert in dietetics.
Dif-prefix = *dis-.
Differ v. 1 (often foll. By from) be unlike or distinguishable. 2 (often foll. By with) disagree. [latin differo, dilat-bring apart]
Difference n. 1 being different or unlike. 2 degree of this. 3 way in which things differ. 4 a quantity by which amounts differ. B remainder left after subtraction. 5 disagreement, dispute. make a (or all the, no, etc.) Difference have a significant (or a very significant, or no etc.) Effect. With a difference having a new or unusual feature.
Different adj. 1 (often foll. By from or to) unlike, of another nature. 2 distinct, separate. 3 unusual. differently adv.
Usage in sense 1, different from is more widely acceptable than different to, which is common in less formal use.
Differential —adj. 1 of, exhibiting, or depending on a difference. 2 math. Relating to infinitesimal differences. 3 constituting or relating to a specific difference. —n. 1 difference between things of the same kind. 2 difference in wages between industries or categories of employees in the same industry. 3 difference between rates of interest etc.
Differential calculus n. Method of calculating rates of change, maximum or minimum values, etc.
Differential gear n. Gear enabling a vehicle’s rear wheels to revolve at different speeds on corners.
Differentiate v. (-ting) 1 constitute a difference between or in. 2 recognize as different; distinguish. 3 become different during development. 4 math. Calculate the derivative of. differentiation n.
Difficult adj. 1 a needing much effort or skill. B troublesome, perplexing. 2 (of a person) demanding. 3 problematic.
Difficulty n. (pl. -ies) 1 being difficult. 2 a difficult thing; problem, hindrance. B (often in pl.) Distress, esp. Financial (in difficulties). [latin difficultas: related to *faculty]
Diffract v. Break up (a beam of light) into a series of dark and light bands or coloured spectra, or (a beam of radiation or particles) into a series of high and low intensities. diffraction n. Diffractive adj. [latin diffringo: related to *fraction]
Diffuse —adj. 1 spread out, not concentrated. 2 not concise, wordy. —v. (-sing) 1 disperse or spread widely. 2 intermingle by diffusion. diffusible adj. Diffusive adj. [latin: related to *found3]
Diffusion n. 1 diffusing or being diffused. 2 interpenetration of substances by natural movement of their particles. [latin: related to *diffuse]
Dig —v. (-gg-; past and past part. Dug) 1 (also absol.) Break up and remove or turn over (ground etc.). 2 (foll. By up) break up the soil of (fallow land). 3 make
turn over (ground etc.). 2 (foll. By up) break up the soil of (fallow land). 3 make (a hole, tunnel, etc.) By digging. 4 (often foll. By up, out) a obtain by digging. B (foll. By up, out) find or discover. C (foll. By into) search for information in (a book etc.). 5 (also absol.) Excavate (an archaeological site). 6 slang like; understand. 7 (foll. By in, into) thrust (a sharp object); prod or nudge. 8 (foll. By into, through, under) make one’s way by digging. —n. 1 piece of digging. 2 thrust or poke. 3 colloq. Pointed remark. 4 archaeological excavation. 5 (in pl.) Colloq. Lodgings. dig one’s heels in be obstinate. Dig in colloq. Begin eating. Dig oneself in 1 prepare a defensive trench or pit. 2 establish one’s position. [old english]
Digest —v. 1 assimilate (food) in the stomach and bowels. 2 understand and assimilate mentally. 3 summarize. —n. 1 periodical synopsis of current literature or news. 2 methodical summary, esp. Of laws. digestible adj. [latin digero -gest-]
Digestion n. 1 process of digesting. 2 capacity to digest food.
Digestive —adj. Of or aiding digestion. —n. 1 substance aiding digestion. 2 (in full digestive biscuit) wholemeal biscuit.
Digger n. 1 person or machine that digs, esp. A mechanical excavator. 2 colloq. Australian or new zealander.
Digit n. 1 any numeral from 0 to 9. 2 finger or toe. [latin, = finger, toe]
Digital adj. 1 of digits. 2 (of a clock, watch, etc.) Giving a reading by displayed digits. 3 (of a computer) operating on data represented by a series of digits. 4 (of a recording) with sound-information represented by digits for more reliable transmission. digitally adv. [latin: related to *digit]
Digital audio tape n. Magnetic tape on which sound is recorded digitally.
Digitalis n. Drug prepared from foxgloves, used to stimulate the heart. [related to *digit, from the form of the flowers]
Digitize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) convert (data etc.) Into digital form, esp. For a computer. digitization n.
Dignified adj. Having or showing dignity.
Dignify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 confer dignity on; ennoble. 2 give a fine name to. [latin dignus worthy]
Dignitary n. (pl. -ies) person of high rank or office. [from *dignity]
Dignity n. (pl. -ies) 1 composed and serious manner. 2 worthiness, nobleness (dignity of work). 3 high rank or position. beneath one’s dignity not worthy enough for one. Stand on one’s dignity insist on being treated with respect. [latin dignus worthy]
Digraph n. Two letters representing one sound, e.g. Ph, ey as in phone, key. [from di-1, -graph]
Usage digraph is sometimes confused with ligature, which means two or more letters joined together.
Digress v. Depart from the main subject in speech or writing. digression n. [latin digredior -gress-]
Digs see *dig n. 5.
Dike1 var. Of *dyke1.
Dike2 var. Of *dyke2.
Diktat n. Categorical statement or decree. [german, = *dictate]
Dilapidated adj. In disrepair or ruin. dilapidation n. [latin: related to *di-2, lapis stone]
Dilatation n. 1 dilating of the cervix, e.g. For surgical curettage. 2 dilation. [from *dilate]
Dilate v. (-ting) 1 make or become wider or larger. 2 speak or write at length. dilation n. [latin latus wide]
Dilatory adj. Given to or causing delay. [latin dilatorius: related to *differ]
Dildo n. (pl. -s) artificial erect penis for sexual stimulation. [origin unknown]
Dilemma n. 1 situation in which a difficult choice has to be made. 2 difficult situation, predicament. [greek lemma premiss]
Usage the use of dilemma in sense 2 is considered incorrect by some people.
Dilettante n. (pl. Dilettanti or -s) dabbler in a subject. dilettantism n. [italian dilettare *delight]
Diligent adj. 1 hard-working. 2 showing care and effort. diligence n. Diligently adv. [french from latin diligo love]
Dill n. Herb with aromatic leaves and seeds. [old english]
Dilly-dally v. (-ies, -ied) colloq. 1 dawdle. 2 vacillate. [reduplication of *dally]
Dilute —v. (-ting) 1 reduce the strength of (a fluid) by adding water etc. 2 weaken or reduce in effect. —adj. Diluted. dilution n. [latin diluo -lut-wash away]
Diluvial adj. Of a flood, esp. Of the flood in genesis. [latin: related to *deluge]
Dim —adj. (dimmer, dimmest) 1 a faintly luminous or visible; not bright. B
Dim —adj. (dimmer, dimmest) 1 a faintly luminous or visible; not bright. B indistinct. 2 not clearly perceived or remembered. 3 colloq. Stupid. 4 (of the eyes) not seeing clearly. —v. (-mm-) make or become dim. take a dim view of colloq. Disapprove of. dimly adv. Dimness n. [old english]
Dime n. Us tencent coin. [latin decima tenth (part)]
Dimension —n. 1 measurable extent, as length, breadth, depth, etc. 2 (in pl.) Size (of huge dimensions). 3 aspect, facet (gained a new dimension). —v. (usu. As dimensioned adj.) Mark dimensions on (a diagram etc.). dimensional adj. [latin metior mens-measure]
Diminish v. 1 make or become smaller or less. 2 (often as diminished adj.) Lessen the reputation of (a person); humiliate. law of diminishing returns fact that expenditure etc. Beyond a certain point ceases to produce a proportionate yield. [latin: related to *minute1]
Diminuendo mus. —n. (pl -s) gradual decrease in loudness. —adv. & adj. Decreasing in loudness. [italian: related to *diminish]
Diminution n. 1 diminishing or being diminished. 2 decrease. [latin: related to *diminish]
Diminutive —adj. 1 tiny. 2 (of a word or suffix) implying smallness or affection. —n. Diminutive word or suffix.
Dimmer n. 1 (in full dimmer switch) device for varying the brightness of an electric light. 2 us a (in pl.) Small parking lights on a vehicle. B headlight on low
electric light. 2 us a (in pl.) Small parking lights on a vehicle. B headlight on low beam.
Dimple —n. Small hollow, esp. In the cheek or chin. —v. (-ling) form dimples (in). dimply adj. [probably old english]
Dim-wit n. Colloq. Stupid person. dim-witted adj.
Din n. Any of a series of german technical standards designating electrical connections, film speeds, and paper sizes. [german, from deutsche industrie-norm]
Din —n. Prolonged loud confused noise. —v. (-nn-) (foll. By into) force (information) into a person by constant repetition; make a din. [old english]
Dinar n. Chief monetary unit of yugoslavia and several countries of the middle east and n. Africa. [arabic and persian from latin *denarius]
Dine v. (-ning) 1 a eat dinner. B (foll. By on, upon) eat for dinner. 2 (esp. In phr. Wine and dine) entertain with food. dine out dine away from home. [french diner as *dis-, latin jejunus fasting]
Diner n. 1 person who dines. 2 dining-car. 3 us small restaurant. 4 small dining-room.
Dinette n. Small room or alcove for eating meals.
Ding —v. Make a ringing sound. —n. Ringing sound. [imitative]
Dingbat n. Slang us & austral. Stupid or eccentric person. [perhaps from ding to beat + *bat1]
Ding-dong n. 1 sound of two chimes, esp. As a doorbell. 2 colloq. Heated argument or fight. [imitative]
Dinghy n. (pl. -ies) 1 small boat carried by a ship. 2 small pleasure-boat. 3 small inflatable rubber boat. [hindi]
Dingle n. Deep wooded valley or dell. [origin unknown]
Dingo n. (pl. -es) wild australian dog. [aboriginal]
Dinner n. 1 main meal of the day, either at midday or in the evening. 2 (in full dinner-party) formal evening meal, esp. With guests. [french: related to *dine]
Dinner-dance n. Formal dinner followed by dancing.
Dinner-jacket n. Man’s short usu. Black formal jacket for evening wear.
Dinner lady n. Woman who supervises school dinners.
Dinner service n. Set of matching crockery for dinner.
Dinosaur n. 1 extinct, often enormous, reptile of the mesozoic era. 2 unwieldy or unchanging system or organization. [greek deinos terrible, *saurian]
Dint —n. Dent. —v. Mark with dints. by dint of by force or means of. [old english and old norse]
Diocese n. District under the pastoral care of a bishop. diocesan adj. [greek
Diocese n. District under the pastoral care of a bishop. diocesan adj. [greek dioikesis administration]
Diode n. 1 semiconductor allowing the flow of current in one direction only and having two terminals. 2 thermionic valve having two electrodes. [from di-1, electrode]
Dionysian adj. Wildly sensual; unrestrained. [greek dionusos god of wine]
Diopter n. (brit. Dioptre) unit of refractive power of a lens. [greek: related to *dia-, opsis sight]
Dioptre n. (us diopter) unit of refractive power of a lens. [greek: related to *dia-, opsis sight]
Diorama n. 1 scenic painting lit to simulate sunrise etc. 2 small scene with three-dimensional figures, viewed through a window etc. 3 small-scale model or film-set. [from *dia-, greek horao see]
Dioxide n. Oxide containing two atoms of oxygen in the molecule.
Dip —v. (-pp-) 1 put or lower briefly into liquid etc.; immerse. 2 a go below a surface or level. B (of income, activity, etc.) Decline slightly, esp. Briefly. 3 slope or extend downwards (road dips). 4 go under water and emerge quickly. 5 (foll. By into) look cursorily into (a book, subject, etc.). 6 a (foll. By into) put a hand, ladle, etc., into (a container) to take something out. B use part of (one’s resources) (dipped into our savings). 7 lower or be lowered, esp. In salute. 8 lower the beam of (headlights) to reduce dazzle. 9 colour (a fabric) by
lower the beam of (headlights) to reduce dazzle. 9 colour (a fabric) by immersing it in dye. 10 wash (sheep) in disinfectant. —n. 1 dipping or being dipped. 2 liquid for dipping.
Dip. Ed. Abbr. Diploma in education.
Diphtheria n. Acute infectious bacterial disease with inflammation of a mucous membrane esp. Of the throat. [greek diphthera skin, hide]
Usage the second pronunciation is considered incorrect by some people.
Diphthong n. Two written or spoken vowels pronounced in one syllable (as in coin, loud, toy). [greek phthoggos voice]
Diplodocus n. (pl. -cuses) giant plant-eating dinosaur with a long neck and tail. [greek diplous double, dokos wooden beam]
Diploma n. 1 certificate of qualification awarded by a college etc. 2 document conferring an honour or privilege. [greek, = folded paper, from diplous double]
Diplomacy n. 1 a management of international relations. B skill in this. 2 tact. [french: related to *diplomatic]
Diplomat n. 1 member of a diplomatic service. 2 tactful person.
Diplomatic adj. 1 of or involved in diplomacy. 2 tactful. diplomatically adv.
Diplomatic adj. 1 of or involved in diplomacy. 2 tactful. diplomatically adv. [french: related to *diploma]
Diplomatic bag n. Container for dispatching official mail etc. To or from an embassy, usu. Exempt from customs inspection.
Diplomatic immunity n. Exemption of diplomatic staff abroad from arrest, taxation, etc.
Diplomatic service n. Branch of the civil service concerned with the representation of a country abroad.
Diplomatist n. Diplomat.
Dipole n. 1 two equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a distance. 2 molecule in which a concentration of positive charges is separated from a concentration of negative charges. 3 aerial consisting of a horizontal metal rod with a connecting wire at its core.
Dipper n. 1 diving bird, esp. The water ouzel. 2 ladle.
Dipso n. (pl. -s) colloq. Alcoholic. [abbreviation]
Dipsomania n. Alcoholism. dipsomaniac n. [greek dipsa thirst]
Dipstick n. Rod for measuring the depth of esp. Oil in a vehicle’s engine.
Dip-switch n. Switch for dipping a vehicle’s headlights.
Dipterous adj. (of an insect) having two wings. [greek pteron wing]
Diptych n. Painting, esp. An altarpiece, on two hinged panels closing like a book. [greek, = pair of writing-tablets, from ptukhe fold]
Dire adj. 1 a calamitous, dreadful. B ominous. C (predic) colloq. Very bad. 2 urgent (in dire need). [latin]
Direct —adj. 1 extending or moving in a straight line or by the shortest route; not crooked or circuitous. 2 straightforward; frank. 3 with nothing or no-one in between; personal (direct line). 4 (of descent) lineal, not collateral. 5 complete, greatest possible (the direct opposite). —adv. 1 in a direct way or manner (dealt with them direct). 2 by the direct route (sent direct to london). —v. 1 control; govern or guide (duty directs me). 2 (foll. By to + infin., or that + clause) order (a person) to. 3 (foll. By to) a address (a letter etc.). B tell or show (a person) the way to (a place). 4 (foll. By at, to, towards) point, aim, or turn (a blow, attention, or remark). 5 (also absol.) Supervise the performing, staging, etc., of (a film, play, etc.). directness n. [latin dirigo from rego rect-guide]
Direct current n. Electric current flowing in one direction only.
Direct debit n. Regular debiting of a bank account at the request of the payee.
Direct debit n. Regular debiting of a bank account at the request of the payee.
Direct-grant school n. School funded by the government and not a local authority.
Direction n. 1 directing; supervision. 2 (usu. In pl.) Order or instruction. 3 line along which, or point to or from which, a person or thing moves or looks. 4 tendency or scope of a theme, subject, etc.
Directional adj. 1 of or indicating direction. 2 sending or receiving radio or sound waves in one particular direction.
Directive —n. Order from an authority. —adj. Serving to direct.
Directly —adv. 1 a at once; without delay, immediately (directly after lunch). B presently, shortly. 2 exactly (directly opposite). 3 in a direct manner. —conj. Colloq. As soon as (will tell you directly they come).
Direct object n. Primary object of the action of a transitive verb.
Director n. 1 person who directs or controls, esp. A member of the board of a company. 2 person who directs a film, play, etc. directorial adj. Directorship n.
Directorate n. 1 board of directors. 2 office of director.
Director-general n. Chief executive of a large organization.
Directory n. (pl. -ies) book with a list of telephone subscribers, inhabitants of a district, or members of a profession etc. [latin: related to *direct]
Directory enquiries n.pl. Telephone service providing a subscriber’s number on request.
Directress n. Woman director.
Direct speech n. Words actually spoken, not reported.
Direct tax n. Tax that one pays directly to the government, esp. On income.
Dirge n. 1 lament for the dead. 2 any dreary piece of music. [latin imperative dirige = direct, used in the office for the dead]
Dirham n. Principal monetary unit of morocco and the united arab emirates. [arabic]
Dirigible —adj. Capable of being guided. —n. Dirigible balloon or airship. [related to *direct]
Dirk n. Short dagger. [origin unknown]
Dirndl n. 1 dress with a close-fitting bodice and full skirt. 2 full skirt of this kind. [german]
Dirt n. 1 unclean matter that soils. 2 a earth, soil. B earth, cinders, etc., used to make the surface for a road etc. (usu. Attrib.: dirt track). 3 foul or malicious words or talk. 4 excrement. treat like dirt treat with contempt. [old norse drit excrement]
Dirt cheap adj. & adv. Colloq. Extremely cheap.
Dirty —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 soiled, unclean. 2 causing dirtiness (dirty job). 3 sordid, lewd, obscene. 4 unpleasant, dishonourable, unfair (dirty trick). 5 (of weather) rough, squally. 6 (of colour) muddied, dingy. —adv. Slang 1 very (a dirty great diamond). 2 in a dirty manner (talk dirty; act dirty) (esp. In senses 3 and 4 of adj.). —v. (-ies, -ied) make or become dirty. do the dirty on colloq. Play a mean trick on. dirtily adv. Dirtiness n.
Dirty look n. Colloq. Look of disapproval or disgust.
Dirty old man n. Colloq. Lecherous man.
Dirty weekend n. Colloq. Weekend spent with a lover.
Dirty word n. 1 offensive or indecent word. 2 word for something disapproved of (profit is a dirty word).
Dirty work n. Dishonourable or illegal activity; unpleasant task.
Dis-prefix forming nouns, adjectives, and verbs implying: 1 negation or direct opposite (dishonest; discourteous). 2 reversal (disengage; disorientate). 3 removal of a thing or quality (dismember; disable). 4 separation (distinguish). 5 completeness or intensification (disgruntled). 6 expulsion from (disbar). [french des-or latin dis-]
Disability n. (pl. -ies) 1 permanent physical or mental incapacity. 2 lack of some capacity etc., preventing action.
Disable v. (-ling) 1 deprive of an ability or function. 2 (often as disabled adj.) Physically incapacitate. disablement n.
Disabuse v. (-sing) (usu. Foll. By of) free from a mistaken idea; disillusion.
Disadvantage —n. 1 unfavourable circumstance or condition. 2 damage; loss. — v. (-ging) cause disadvantage to. at a disadvantage in an unfavourable position or aspect. disadvantageous adj.
Disadvantaged adj. Lacking normal opportunities through poverty, disability, etc.
Disaffected adj. Discontented (esp. Politically); no longer loyal. disaffection n.
Disagree v. (-ees, -eed, -eeing) (often foll. By with) 1 hold a different opinion. 2 (of factors) not correspond. 3 upset (onions disagree with me). disagreement n.
Disappear v. 1 cease to be visible. 2 cease to exist or be in circulation or use. 3 (of a person) go missing. disappearance n.
Disappoint v. 1 fail to fulfil the desire or expectation of. 2 frustrate (a hope etc.). disappointed adj. Disappointing adj.
Disappointment n. 1 person or thing that disappoints. 2 being disappointed.
Disapprobation n. Formal disapproval.
Disapprove v. (-ving) (usu. Foll. By of) have or express an unfavourable opinion. disapproval n.
Disarm v. 1 take weapons etc. Away from. 2 reduce or give up one’s own
weapons. 3 defuse (a bomb etc.). 4 make less angry, hostile, etc; charm, win over. disarming adj. (esp. In sense 4). Disarmingly adv.
Disarmament n. Reduction by a state of its armaments.
Disarrange v. (-ging) bring into disorder. disarrangement n.
Disarray —n. Disorder. —v. Throw into disorder.
Disassociate v. (-ting) = *dissociate. disassociation n.
Disaster n. 1 great or sudden misfortune; catastrophe. 2 colloq. Complete failure. disastrous adj. Disastrously adv. [latin astrum star]
Disavow v. Disclaim knowledge of or responsibility for. disavowal n.
Disband v. Break up; disperse. disbandment n.
Disbar v. (-rr-) deprive (a barrister) of the right to practise. disbarment n.
Disbelieve v. (-ving) be unable or unwilling to believe; be sceptical. disbelief n. Disbelievingly adv.
Disburse v. (-sing) pay out (money). disbursal n. Disbursement n. [french: related to dis-, bourse]
Disc n. (also disk esp. Us and in sense 4a) 1 a flat thin circular object. B round flat or apparently flat surface or mark. 2 layer of cartilage between vertebrae. 3 gramophone record. 4 a (usu. Disk; in full magnetic disk) flat circular computer storage device. B (in full optical disc) disc for data recorded and read by laser. [latin *discus]
Discard v. 1 reject as unwanted. 2 remove or put aside. [from dis-, card1]
Disc brake n. Brake employing the friction of pads against a disc.
Discern v. 1 perceive clearly with the mind or senses. 2 make out with effort. discernible adj. [latin cerno cret-separate]
Discerning adj. Having good judgement. discerningly adv. Discernment n.
Discharge —v. (-ging) 1 release (a prisoner); allow (a patient, jury) to leave. 2 dismiss from office or employment. 3 fire (a gun etc.). 4 throw; eject. 5 emit, pour out (pus etc.). 6 (foll. By into) (of a river etc.) Flow into (esp. The sea). 7 a carry out (a duty or obligation). B relieve oneself of (a debt etc.). C relieve (a bankrupt) of residual liability. 8 law cancel (an order of court). 9 release an electrical charge from. 10 a relieve (a ship etc.) Of cargo. B unload (cargo). —n. 1 discharging or being discharged. 2 certificate of release, dismissal, etc. 3 matter discharged; pus etc. 4 release of an electric charge, esp. With a spark.
Disciple n. Follower of a leader, teacher, etc., esp. Of christ. [latin disco learn]
Disciplinarian n. Enforcer of or believer in firm discipline.
Disciplinary adj. Of or enforcing discipline.
Discipline —n. 1 a control or order exercised over people or animals, e.g. Over members of an organization. B system of rules for this. 2 training or way of life aimed at self-control and conformity. 3 branch of learning. 4 punishment. —v. (-ning) 1 punish. 2 control by training in obedience. [latin disciplina from disco learn]
Disc jockey n. Presenter of recorded pop music.
Disclaim v. 1 deny or disown. 2 renounce legal claim to.
Disclaimer n. Renunciation; statement disclaiming something.
Disclose v. (-sing) make known; expose. disclosure n.
Disco colloq. —n. (pl. -s) = *discothèque. —v. (-es, -ed) dance to disco music. [abbreviation]
Discolor v. (brit. Discolour) cause to change from its normal colour; stain;
Discolor v. (brit. Discolour) cause to change from its normal colour; stain; tarnish. discoloration n.
Discolour v. (us discolor) cause to change from its normal colour; stain; tarnish. discoloration n.
Discomfit v. (-t-) disconcert, baffle, frustrate. discomfiture n. [french: related to dis-, confection]
Usage discomfit is sometimes confused with discomfort.
Discomfort —n. 1 lack of comfort; slight pain or unease. 2 cause of this. —v. Make uncomfortable.
Usage as a verb, discomfort is sometimes confused with discomfit.
Discompose v. (-sing) disturb the composure of. discomposure n.
Disco music n. Popular dance music with a heavy bass rhythm.
Disconcert v. Disturb the composure of; fluster.
Disconnect v. 1 break the connection of. 2 put out of action by disconnecting the parts. disconnection n.
parts. disconnection n.
Disconnected adj. Incoherent and illogical.
Disconsolate adj. Forlorn, unhappy, disappointed. disconsolately adv. [latin: related to dis-, solace]
Discontent —n. Lack of contentment; dissatisfaction, grievance. —v. (esp. As discontented adj.) Make dissatisfied. discontentment n.
Discontinue v. (-ues, -ued, -uing) 1 come or bring to an end (a discontinued line). 2 give up, cease from (doing something). discontinuance n.
Discontinuous adj. Lacking continuity; intermittent. discontinuity n.
Discord n. 1 disagreement; strife. 2 harsh noise; clashing sounds. 3 lack of harmony in a chord. [latin: related to *dis-, cor cord-heart]
Discordant adj. 1 disagreeing. 2 not in harmony; dissonant. discordance n. Discordantly adv.
Discothèque n. 1 nightclub etc. For dancing to pop records. 2 professional lighting and sound equipment used for this. 3 party with such equipment. [french, = record-library]
Discount —n. Amount deducted from a full or normal price, esp. For prompt or advance payment. —v. 1 disregard as unreliable or unimportant. 2 deduct an amount from (a price etc.). 3 give or get the present worth of (an investment certificate which has yet to mature). at a discount below the usual price or true value.
Discountenance v. (-cing) 1 disconcert. 2 refuse to approve of.
Discourage v. (-ging) 1 deprive of courage or confidence. 2 dissuade, deter. 3 show disapproval of. discouragement n.
Discourse —n. 1 conversation. 2 lengthy treatment of a subject. 3 lecture, speech. —v. (-sing) 1 converse. 2 speak or write at length on a subject. [latin curro curs-run]
Discourteous adj. Lacking courtesy. discourteously adv. Discourtesy n. (pl. -ies).
Discover v. 1 a find out or become aware of, by intention or chance. B be first to find or find out (who discovered america?). 2 find and promote as a new performer. discoverer n. [latin discooperio: related to dis-, cover]
Discovery n. (pl. -ies) 1 discovering or being discovered. 2 person or thing discovered.
Discredit —n. 1 harm to reputation. 2 person or thing causing this. 3 lack of credibility. —v. (-t-) 1 harm the good reputation of. 2 cause to be disbelieved. 3 refuse to believe.
Discreet adj. (-er, -est) 1 a circumspect. B tactful; judicious, prudent. 2 unobtrusive. discreetly adv. Discreetness n. [latin: related to *discern]
Discrepancy n. (pl. -ies) difference; inconsistency. discrepant adj. [latin discrepo be discordant]
Discrete adj. Individually distinct; separate, discontinuous. discreteness n. [latin: related to *discern]
Discretion n. 1 being discreet. 2 prudence; good judgement. 3 freedom or authority to act according to one’s judgement. use one’s discretion act according to one’s own judgement. discretionary adj. [latin: related to *discern]
Discriminate v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By between) make or see a distinction. 2 (usu. Foll. By against or in favour of) treat unfavourably or favourably, esp. On the basis of race, gender, etc. discriminatory adj. [latin discrimino: related to *discern]
Discriminating adj. Showing good judgement or taste.
Discrimination n. 1 unfavourable treatment based on racial, sexual, etc. Prejudice. 2 good taste or judgement.
Discursive adj. Tending to digress, rambling. [latin curro curs-run]
Discus n. (pl. -cuses) heavy thick-centred disc thrown in athletic events. [latin from greek]
Discuss v. 1 talk about (discussed their holidays). 2 talk or write about (a subject) in detail. discussion n. [latin discutio -cuss-disperse]
Disdain —n. Scorn, contempt. —v. 1 regard with disdain. 2 refrain or refuse out of disdain. disdainful adj. Disdainfully adv. [latin: related to de-, deign]
Disease n. 1 unhealthy condition of the body or mind, plants, society, etc. 2 particular kind of disease. diseased adj. [french: related to dis-, ease]
Disembark v. Put or go ashore; get off an aircraft, bus, etc. disembarkation n.
Disembarrass v. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) relieve (of a load etc.). 2 free from embarrassment. disembarrassment n.
Disembodied adj. 1 (of the soul etc.) Freed from the body or concrete form. 2 lacking a body. disembodiment n.
Disembowel v. (-ll-; us -l-) remove the bowels or entrails of. disembowelment n.
Disenchant v. Disillusion. disenchantment n.
Disencumber v. Free from encumbrance.
Disenfranchise v. (also disfranchise) (-sing) 1 deprive of the right to vote or to be represented. 2 deprive of rights as a citizen or of a franchise held. disenfranchisement n.
Disengage —v. (-ging) 1 detach, loosen, release. 2 remove (troops) from battle etc. 3 become detached. 4 (as disengaged adj.) A at leisure. B uncommitted. disengagement n.
Disentangle v. (-ling) free or become free of tangles or complications. disentanglement n.
Disestablish v. 1 deprive (a church) of state support. 2 terminate the establishment of. disestablishment n.
Disfavor (brit. Disfavour) —n. 1 disapproval or dislike. 2 being disliked. —v. Regard or treat with disfavour.
Disfavour (us disfavor) —n. 1 disapproval or dislike. 2 being disliked. —v. Regard or treat with disfavour.
Disfigure v. (-ring) spoil the appearance of. disfigurement n.
Disfranchise var. Of *disenfranchise.
Disgorge v. (-ging) 1 eject from the throat. 2 pour forth. disgorgement n.
Disgrace —n. 1 shame; ignominy. 2 shameful or very bad person or thing (bus service is a disgrace). —v. (-cing) 1 bring shame or discredit on. 2 dismiss from a position of honour or favour. in disgrace out of favour. [latin: related to dis-, grace]
Disgruntled adj. Discontented; sulky. disgruntlement n. [from dis-, grunt]
Disguise —v. (-sing) 1 conceal the identity of; make unrecognizable. 2 conceal (disguised my anger). —n. 1 a costume, make-up, etc., used to disguise. B action, manner, etc., used to deceive. 2 disguised state. 3 practice of disguising. [french: related to *dis-]
Disgust —n. Strong aversion; repugnance. —v. Cause disgust in. disgusting adj. Disgustingly adv. [french or italian: related to dis-, gusto]
Dish —n. 1 a shallow flat-bottomed container for food. B its contents. C particular kind of food or food prepared to a particular recipe (meat dish). 2 (in pl.) Crockery, pans, etc. After a meal (wash the dishes). 3 a dish-shaped object or cavity. B = *satellite dish. 4 colloq. Sexually attractive person. —v. 1 colloq. Outmanoeuvre, frustrate. 2 make dish-shaped. dish out colloq. Distribute. Dish
up 1 put (food) in dishes for serving. 2 colloq. Present as a fact or argument. [old english from latin *discus]
Dishabille var. Of *déshabillé.
Disharmony n. Lack of harmony; discord. disharmonious adj.
Dishcloth n. Cloth for washing dishes.
Dishearten v. Cause to lose courage, hope, or confidence. disheartenment n.
Disheveled adj. (brit. Dishevelled) untidy; ruffled. dishevelment n. [from *dis-, chevel ‘hair’, from latin capillus]
Dishevelled adj. (us disheveled) untidy; ruffled. dishevelment n. [from *dis-, chevel ‘hair’, from latin capillus]
Dishonest adj. Fraudulent or insincere. dishonestly adv. Dishonesty n.
Dishonor (brit. Dishonour) —n. 1 loss of honour or respect; disgrace. 2 thing causing this. —v. 1 disgrace (dishonoured his name). 2 refuse to accept or pay (a cheque etc.).
Dishonour (us dishonor) —n. 1 loss of honour or respect; disgrace. 2 thing causing this. —v. 1 disgrace (dishonoured his name). 2 refuse to accept or pay (a cheque etc.).
Disillusion —v. Free from an illusion or mistaken belief. —n. Disillusioned state. disillusionment n.
Disincentive n. Thing discouraging action, effort, etc.
Disincline v. (-ning) make unwilling or reluctant. disinclination n.
Disinfect v. Cleanse of infection, esp. With disinfectant. disinfection n.
Disinfectant —n. Substance that destroys germs etc. —adj. Disinfecting.
Disinformation n. False information, propaganda.
Disingenuous adj. Insincere, not candid. disingenuously adv.
Disinherit v. (-t-) reject as one’s heir; deprive of the right of inheritance. disinheritance n.
Disintegrate v. (-ting) 1 separate into component parts or fragments, break up. 2 colloq. Break down, esp. Mentally. 3 (of an atomic nucleus) emit particles or divide into smaller nuclei. disintegration n.
Disinter v. (-rr-) dig up (esp. A corpse). disinterment n.
Disinterested adj. 1 impartial. 2 uninterested. disinterest n. Disinterestedly adv.
Usage use of disinterested in sense 2 is common in informal use, but is widely regarded as incorrect. The use of the noun disinterest to mean ‘lack of interest’ is also objected to but it is rarely used in any other sense and the alternative uninterest is rare.
Disinvest v. Reduce or dispose of one’s investment. disinvestment n.
Disjoint v. 1 take apart at the joints. 2 (as disjointed adj.) Incoherent; disconnected. 3 disturb the working of; disrupt.
Disjunction n. Separation.
Disjunctive adj. 1 involving separation. 2 (of a conjunction) expressing an alternative, e.g. Or in is it wet or dry?
Disk var. Of *disc (esp. Us & computing).
Disk drive n. Computing mechanism for rotating a disk and reading or writing data from or to it.
Diskette n. Computing = *floppy n.
Dislike —v. (-king) have an aversion to; not like. —n. 1 feeling of repugnance or not liking. 2 object of this.
Dislocate v. (-ting) 1 disturb the normal connection of (esp. A joint in the body). 2 disrupt. dislocation n.
Dislodge v. (-ging) disturb or move. dislodgement n.
Disloyal adj. Not loyal; unfaithful. disloyally adv. Disloyalty n.
Dismal adj. 1 gloomy; miserable. 2 dreary; sombre. 3 colloq. Feeble, inept (dismal attempt). dismally adv. [medieval latin dies mali unlucky days]
Dismantle v. (-ling) 1 take to pieces; pull down. 2 deprive of defences or equipment.
Dismay —n. Intense disappointment or despair. —v. Fill with dismay. [french from germanic: related to dis-, may]
Dismember v. 1 remove the limbs from. 2 partition or divide up. dismemberment n.
Dismiss v. 1 send away, esp. From one’s presence; disperse. 2 terminate the employment of, esp. Dishonourably; sack. 3 put from one’s mind or emotions. 4 consider not worth talking or thinking about; treat summarily. 5 law refuse further hearing to (a case). 6 cricket put (a batsman or side) out (usu. For a stated score). dismissal n. [latin mitto miss-send]
Dismissive adj. Dismissing rudely or casually; disdainful. dismissively adv. Dismissiveness n.
Dismount v. 1 a alight from a horse, bicycle, etc. B unseat. 2 remove (a thing) from its mounting.
Disobedient adj. Disobeying; rebellious. disobedience n. Disobediently adv.
Disobey v. Refuse or fail to obey.
Disoblige v. (-ging) refuse to help or cooperate with (a person).
Disorder n. 1 lack of order; confusion. 2 public disturbance; riot. 3 ailment or disease. disordered adj.
Disorderly adj. 1 untidy; confused. 2 riotous, unruly. disorderliness n.
Disorganize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 throw into confusion or disorder. 2 (as disorganized adj.) Badly organized; untidy. disorganization n.
Disorient v. = *disorientate.
Disorientate v. (also disorient) (-ting) confuse (a person), esp. As to his or her bearings. disorientation n.
Disown v. Deny or give up any connection with; repudiate.
Disparage v. (-ging) 1 criticize; belittle. 2 bring discredit on. disparagement n. [french: related to *dis-, parage rank]
Disparate adj. Essentially different; not comparable. disparateness n. [latin disparo separate]
Disparity n. (pl. -ies) inequality; difference; incongruity.
Dispassionate adj. Free from emotion; impartial. dispassionately adv.
Dispatch (also despatch) —v. 1 send off to a destination or for a purpose. 2 perform (a task etc.) Promptly; finish off. 3 kill, execute. 4 colloq. Eat quickly. —n. 1 dispatching or being dispatched. 2 a official written message, esp. Military. B news report to a newspaper etc. 3 promptness, efficiency. [italian dispacciare or spanish despachar]
Dispatch-box n. Case for esp. Parliamentary documents.
Dispensary n. (pl. -ies) place where medicines are dispensed.
Dispensation n. 1 dispensing or distributing. 2 exemption from penalty, rule, etc. 3 ordering or management of the world by providence.
Dispense v. (-sing) 1 distribute; deal out. 2 administer. 3 make up and give out (medicine etc.). 4 (foll. By with) do without; make unnecessary. [french from latin pendo pens-weigh]
Dispenser n. 1 person or thing that dispenses e.g. Medicine, good advice. 2 automatic machine dispensing a specific amount.
Disperse v. (-sing) 1 go, send, drive, or scatter widely or in different directions. 2 send to or station at different points. 3 disseminate. 4 chem. Distribute (small particles) in a medium. 5 divide (white light) into its coloured constituents. dispersal n. Dispersive adj. [latin: related to dis-, sparse]
Dispersion n. 1 dispersing or being dispersed. 2 (the dispersion) = *diaspora.
Dispirit v. (esp. As dispiriting, dispirited adjs.) Make despondent, deject.
Displace v. (-cing) 1 move from its place. 2 remove from office. 3 take the place of; oust.
Displaced person n. Refugee in war etc., or from persecution.
Displacement n. 1 displacing or being displaced. 2 amount of fluid displaced by an object floating or immersed in it.
Display —v. 1 exhibit; show. 2 reveal; betray. —n. 1 displaying. 2 a exhibition or show. B thing(s) displayed. 3 ostentation. 4 mating rituals of some birds etc. 5 what is shown on a visual display unit etc. [latin plico fold]
Displease v. (-sing) make upset or angry; annoy. displeasure n.
Disport v. (often refl.) Play, frolic, enjoy oneself. [anglo-french porter carry, from latin]
Disposable —adj. 1 intended to be used once and discarded. 2 able to be disposed of. —n. Disposable article.
Disposable income n. Income after tax and other fixed payments.
Disposal n. Disposing of, e.g. Waste. at one’s disposal available.
Usage disposal is the noun corresponding to the verb dispose of (get rid of, deal with, etc.). Disposition is the noun from dispose (arrange, incline).
Dispose v. (-sing) 1 (usu. Foll. By to, or to + infin.) A make willing; incline (was disposed to agree). B tend (wheel was disposed to buckle). 2 arrange suitably. 3 (as disposed adj.) Have a specified inclination (ill-disposed; well-disposed). 4 determine events (man proposes, god disposes). dispose of 1 a deal with. B get rid of. C finish. D kill. 2 sell. 3 prove (an argument etc.) Incorrect. [french: related to *pose]
Disposition n. 1 natural tendency; temperament. 2 a ordering; arrangement (of parts etc.). B arrangement. 3 (usu. In pl.) Preparations; plans.
Usage see note at disposal.
Dispossess v. 1 (usu. Foll. By of) (esp. As dispossessed adj.) Deprive (a person) of. 2 dislodge; oust. dispossession n.
Disproof n. Refutation.
Disproportion n. Lack of proportion; being out of proportion. disproportional adj. Disproportionally adv.
Disproportionate adj. 1 out of proportion. 2 relatively too large or small etc. disproportionately adv.
Disprove v. (-ving) prove false.
Disputable adj. Open to question; uncertain. disputably adv.
Disputant n. Person in a dispute.
Disputation n. 1 debate, esp. Formal. 2 argument; controversy.
Disputatious adj. Argumentative.
Dispute —v. (-ting) 1 debate, argue. 2 discuss, esp. Heatedly; quarrel. 3 question the truth or validity of (a statement etc.). 4 contend for (disputed territory). 5 resist, oppose. —n. 1 controversy; debate. 2 quarrel. 3 disagreement leading to industrial action. in dispute 1 being argued about. 2 (of a workforce) involved in industrial action. [latin puto reckon]
Disqualify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 debar from a competition or pronounce ineligible as a winner. 2 make or pronounce ineligible, unsuitable, or unqualified (disqualified from driving). disqualification n.
Disquiet —v. Make anxious. —n. Anxiety; uneasiness.
Disquietude n. Disquiet.
Disquisition n. Discursive treatise or discourse. [latin quaero quaesit-seek]
Disrepair n. Poor condition due to lack of repairs.
Disreputable adj. 1 of bad reputation. 2 not respectable in character or appearance. disreputably adv.
Disrepute n. Lack of good reputation; discredit.
Disrespect n. Lack of respect; discourtesy. disrespectful adj. Disrespectfully adv.
Disrobe v. (-bing) literary undress.
Disrupt v. 1 interrupt the continuity of; bring disorder to. 2 break apart. disruption n. Disruptive adj. Disruptively adv. [latin: related to *rupture]
Dissatisfy v. (-ies, -ied) make discontented; fail to satisfy. dissatisfaction n.
Dissect v. 1 cut into pieces, esp. For examination or post mortem. 2 analyse or criticize in detail. dissection n. [latin: related to *section]
Dissemble v. (-ling) 1 be hypocritical or insincere. 2 disguise or conceal (a feeling, intention, etc.). [latin simulo *simulate]
Disseminate v. (-ting) scatter about, spread (esp. Ideas) widely. dissemination n. [latin: related to dis-, semen]
Dissension n. Angry disagreement. [latin: related to *dissent]
Dissent —v. (often foll. By from) 1 disagree, esp. Openly. 2 differ, esp. From the established or official opinion. —n. 1 such difference. 2 expression of this. [latin: related to *dis-, sentio feel]
Dissenter n. 1 person who dissents. 2 (dissenter) protestant dissenting from the church of england.
Dissentient —adj. Disagreeing with the established or official view. —n. Person who dissents.
Dissertation n. Detailed discourse, esp. One submitted towards an academic degree. [latin disserto discuss]
Disservice n. Harmful action, harm.
Dissident —adj. Disagreeing, esp. With the established government, system, etc. —n. Dissident person. dissidence n. [latin: related to *dis-, sedeo sit]
Dissimilar adj. Unlike, not similar. dissimilarity n. (pl. -ies).
Dissimulate v. (-ting) dissemble. dissimulation n. [latin: related to *dissemble]
Dissipation n. 1 dissolute way of life. 2 dissipating or being dissipated.
Dissociate v. (-ting) 1 disconnect or separate. 2 become disconnected. dissociate oneself from declare oneself unconnected with. dissociation n. Dissociative adj. [latin: related to dis-, associate]
Dissoluble adj. That can be disintegrated, loosened, or disconnected.
Dissolute adj. Lax in morals; licentious. [latin: related to *dissolve]
Dissolution n. 1 dissolving or being dissolved, esp. Of a partnership or of parliament for a new election. 2 breaking up, abolition (of an institution). 3 death.
Dissolve v. (-ving) 1 make or become liquid, esp. By immersion or dispersion in a liquid. 2 (cause to) disappear gradually. 3 dismiss (an assembly, esp. Parliament). 4 annul or put an end to (a partnership, marriage, etc.). 5 (often foll. By into) be overcome (by tears, laughter, etc.). [latin: related to *dis-, solvo solut-loosen]
Dissonant adj. 1 harsh-toned; unharmonious. 2 incongruous. dissonance n. [latin: related to *dis-, sono *sound1]
Dissuade v. (-ding) (often foll. By from) discourage (a person); persuade against.
Dissuade v. (-ding) (often foll. By from) discourage (a person); persuade against. dissuasion n. Dissuasive adj. [latin: related to *dis-, suadeo advise]
Dissyllable var. Of *disyllable.
Distaff n. Cleft stick holding wool or flax for spinning by hand. [old english]
Distaff side n. Female branch of a family.
Distance —n. 1 being far off; remoteness. 2 space between two points. 3 distant point or place. 4 aloofness; reserve. 5 remoter field of vision (in the distance). 6 interval of time. —v. (-cing) (often refl.) 1 place or cause to seem far off; be aloof. 2 leave far behind in a race etc. at a distance far off. Keep one’s distance remain aloof. [latin: related to *dis-, sto stand]
Distant adj. 1 far away; at a specified distance (three miles distant). 2 remote in time, relationship, etc. (distant prospect; distant relation). 3 aloof. 4 abstracted (distant stare). 5 faint (distant memory). distantly adv.
Distaste n. (usu. Foll. By for) dislike; aversion. distasteful adj. Distastefully adv. Distastefulness n.
Distemper1 hist —n. Paint using glue or size as a base, for use on walls. —v. Paint with this. [latin, = soak: see *distemper2]
Distemper2 n. Disease of esp. Dogs, with coughing and weakness. [latin: related to *dis-, tempero mingle]
Distend v. Swell out by pressure from within (distended stomach). distensible adj. Distension n. [latin: related to *tend1]
Distich n. Verse couplet. [greek stikhos line]
Distil v. (us distill) (-ll-) 1 purify or extract the essence from (a substance) by vaporizing and condensing it and collecting the resulting liquid. 2 extract the essential meaning of (an idea etc.). 3 make (whisky, essence, etc.) By distilling raw materials. 4 fall or cause to fall in drops. distillation n. [latin: related to *de-, stillo drip]
Distill v. (brit. Distil) (-ll-) 1 purify or extract the essence from (a substance) by vaporizing and condensing it and collecting the resulting liquid. 2 extract the essential meaning of (an idea etc.). 3 make (whisky, essence, etc.) By distilling raw materials. 4 fall or cause to fall in drops. distillation n. [latin: related to *de-, stillo drip]
Distiller n. Person who distils, esp. Alcoholic liquor.
Distillery n. (pl. -ies) place where alcoholic liquor is distilled.
Distinct adj. 1 (often foll. By from) not identical; separate; different. 2 clearly perceptible. 3 unmistakable, decided (distinct advantage). distinctly adv. [latin: related to *distinguish]
Distinction n. 1 discriminating or distinguishing. 2 difference between two
Distinction n. 1 discriminating or distinguishing. 2 difference between two things. 3 thing that differentiates or distinguishes. 4 special consideration or honour (treat with distinction). 5 excellence (person of distinction). 6 title or mark of honour. [latin: related to *distinguish]
Distinctive adj. Distinguishing, characteristic. distinctively adv. Distinctiveness n.
Distingué adj. Distinguished in appearance, manner, etc. [french]
Distinguish v. 1 (often foll. By from, between) differentiate; see or draw distinctions. 2 be a mark or property of; characterize. 3 discover by listening, looking, etc. 4 (usu. Refl.; often foll. By by) make prominent (distinguished himself by winning). distinguishable adj. [latin: related to *dis-, stinguo stinct-extinguish]
Distort v. 1 pull or twist out of shape. 2 misrepresent (facts etc.). 3 transmit (sound etc.) Inaccurately. distortion n. [latin torqueo tort-twist]
Distract v. 1 (often foll. By from) draw away the attention of. 2 bewilder, perplex. 3 (as distracted adj.) Confused, mad, or angry. 4 amuse, esp. To divert from pain etc. [latin: related to *dis-, traho tract-draw]
Distraction n. 1 a distracting or being distracted. B thing that distracts. 2 relaxation; amusement. 3 confusion; frenzy, madness.
Distrain v. (usu. Foll. By upon) impose distraint (on a person, goods, etc.). [latin:
related to *dis-, stringo strict-draw tight]
Distraint n. Seizure of goods to enforce payment.
Distrait adj. (fem. Distraite) inattentive; distraught. [french: related to *distract]
Distraught adj. Distracted with worry, fear, etc.; extremely agitated. [related to *distrait]
Distress —n. 1 anguish or suffering caused by pain, sorrow, worry, etc. 2 poverty. 3 law = distraint. —v. Cause distress to, make unhappy. in distress suffering or in danger. distressful adj. [romanic: related to distrain]
Distressed adj. 1 suffering from distress. 2 impoverished. 3 (of furniture, clothing, etc.) Aged, torn, etc. Artificially.
Distressed area n. Region of high unemployment and poverty.
Distribute v. (-ting) 1 give shares of; deal out. 2 scatter; put at different points. 3 arrange; classify. [latin tribuo -but-assign]
Usage the second pronunciation given, with the stress on the first syllable, is considered incorrect by some people.
considered incorrect by some people.
Usage the second pronunciation given, with the stress on the first syllable, is considered incorrect by some people.
Distribution n. 1 distributing or being distributed. 2 a commercial dispersal of goods etc. B extent to which different classes etc. Share in a nation’s total wealth etc.
Distributive —adj. 1 of or produced by distribution. 2 logic & gram. Referring to each individual of a class, not to the class collectively (e.g. Each, either). —n. Gram. Distributive word.
Distributor n. 1 person or thing that distributes, esp. Goods. 2 device in an internal-combustion engine for passing current to each spark-plug in turn.
District n. 1 (often attrib.) Area regarded as a geographical or administrative unit (the peak district; postal district; wine-growing district). 2 administrative division of a county etc. [latin: related to *distrain]
District attorney n. (in the us) prosecuting officer of a district.
District nurse n. Nurse who makes home visits in an area.
Distrust —n. Lack of trust; suspicion. —v. Have no trust in. distrustful adj.
Distrustfully adv.
Disturb v. 1 break the rest, calm, or quiet of. 2 agitate; worry. 3 move from a settled position (disturbed my papers). 4 (as disturbed adj.) Emotionally or mentally unstable. [latin: related to *dis-, turba tumult]
Disturbance n. 1 disturbing or being disturbed. 2 tumult; uproar; agitation.
Disunion n. Lack of union; separation; dissension.
Disunite v. (-ting) 1 remove the unity from. 2 separate. disunity n.
Disuse —n. Disused state. —v. (-sing) cease to use.
Disyllable n. (also dissyllable) prosody word or metrical foot of two syllables.
disyllabic adj.
Ditch —n. Long narrow excavation esp. For drainage or as a boundary. —v. 1 make or repair ditches (hedging and ditching). 2 slang abandon; discard. dull as ditch-water extremely dull. [old english]
Dither —v. 1 hesitate; be indecisive. 2 tremble; quiver. —n. Colloq. State of agitation or hesitation. ditherer n. Dithery adj. [var. Of didder *dodder1]
Dithyramb n. 1 wild choral hymn in ancient greece. 2 passionate or inflated
poem etc. dithyrambic adj. [latin from greek]
Ditto n. (pl. -s) 1 (in accounts, inventories, etc.) The aforesaid, the same. 2 colloq. (used to avoid repetition) the same (came late today and ditto yesterday). [latin *dictum]
Usage in sense 1, the word ditto is often replaced by ” under the word or sum to be repeated.
Ditto marks n.pl. Inverted commas etc. Representing ‘ditto’.
Ditty n. (pl. -ies) short simple song. [latin: related to *dictate]
Diurnal adj. 1 of the day or daytime. 2 daily. 3 occupying one day. diurnally adv. [latin diurnalis from dies day]
Diva n. (pl. -s) great woman opera singer; prima donna. [italian from latin, = goddess]
Divalent adj. Chem. Having a valency of two.
Divan n. Low couch or bed without a back or ends. [ultimately from persian divan bench]
Dive —v. (-ving) 1 plunge head first into water. 2 a (of an aircraft, person, etc.) Plunge steeply downwards. B (of a submarine) submerge; go deeper. 3 (foll. By into) colloq. A put one’s hand into (a pocket, handbag, etc.). B become enthusiastic about (a subject, meal, etc.). 4 move suddenly (dived into a shop). —n. 1 act of diving; plunge. 2 steep descent or fall. 3 colloq. Disreputable nightclub, bar, etc. [old english]
Dive-bomb v. Bomb (a target) from a diving aircraft. dive-bomber n.
Diver n. 1 person who dives, esp. Working under water. 2 diving bird.
Diverge v. (-ging) 1 a spread out from a central point, become dispersed. B take different courses (their interests diverged). 2 a (often foll. By from) depart from a set course.
Divers adj. Archaic various; several. [latin: related to *diverse]
Diverse adj. Varied. [latin: related to *di-2, verto vers-turn]
Diversify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make diverse; vary. 2 spread (investment) over several enterprises. 3 (often foll. By into) expand one’s range of products. diversification n.
Diversion n. 1 diverting or being diverted. 2 a diverting of attention. B stratagem
for this. 3 recreation, pastime. 4 alternative route when a road is temporarily closed. diversionary adj.
Diversity n. Variety.
Divert v. 1 a turn aside; deflect. B distract (attention). 2 (often as diverting adj.) Entertain; amuse. [latin: related to *diverse]
Divest v. (usu. Foll. By of) 1 unclothe; strip. 2 deprive, rid. [latin: related to *vest]
Divide —v. (-ding) 1 (often foll. By in, into) separate into parts; break up; split. 2 (often foll. By out) distribute; deal; share. 3 a separate (one thing) from another. B classify into parts or groups. 4 cause to disagree. 5 a find how many times (a number) contains or is contained in another (divide 20 by 4; divide 4 into 20). B (of a number) be contained in (a number) without remainder (4 divides into 20). 6 parl. Vote (by members entering either of two lobbies) (the house divided). —n. 1 dividing line. 2 watershed. [latin divido -vis-]
Dividend n. 1 share of profits paid to shareholders or to winners in a football pool etc. 2 number to be divided. 3 benefit from an action. [anglo-french: related to *divide]
Divider n. 1 screen etc. Dividing a room. 2 (in pl.) Measuring-compasses.
Divination n. Supposed supernatural insight into the future etc. [latin: related to *divine]
Divine —adj. (diviner, divinest) 1 a of, from, or like god or a god. B sacred. 2 colloq. Excellent; delightful. —v. (-ning) 1 discover by intuition or guessing. 2 foresee. 3 practise divination. —n. Theologian or clergyman. divinely adv. [latin divinus]
Diviner n. Person who practises divination.
Diving-bell n. Open-bottomed enclosure, supplied with air, for descent into deep water.
Diving-board n. Elevated board for diving from.
Diving-suit n. Watertight suit, usu. With helmet and air-supply, for work under water.
Divining-rod n. = *dowsing-rod.
Divinity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being divine. 2 god; godhead. 3 theology.
Divisible adj. Capable of being divided. divisibility n.
Division n. 1 dividing or being divided. 2 dividing one number by another. 3 disagreement (division of opinion). 4 parl. Separation of members for counting votes. 5 one of two or more parts into which a thing is divided. 6 unit of
votes. 5 one of two or more parts into which a thing is divided. 6 unit of administration, esp. A group of army brigades, regiments, or teams in a sporting league. divisional adj.
Division sign n. Sign (÷) indicating that one quantity is to be divided by another.
Divisive adj. Causing disagreement. divisively adv. Divisiveness n. [latin:
related to *divide]
Divisor n. Number by which another is divided.
Divorce —n. 1 legal dissolution of a marriage. 2 separation (divorce between thought and feeling). —v. (-cing) 1 a (usu. As divorced adj.) (often foll. By from) legally dissolve the marriage of. B separate by divorce. C end one’s marriage with. 2 separate (divorced from reality). [latin: related to *diverse]
Divorcee n. Divorced person.
Divot n. Piece of turf cut out by a blow, esp. By the head of a golf club. [origin unknown]
Divulge v. (-ging) disclose, reveal (a secret etc.). divulgence n. [latin divulgo publish]
Divvy colloq. —n. (pl. -ies) dividend. —v. (-ies, -ied) (often foll. By up) share out. [abbreviation]
out. [abbreviation]
Divvy colloq. —n. (pl. -ies) dividend. —v. (-ies, -ied) (often foll. By up) share out. [abbreviation]
Diwali n. Hindu and jainist festival with illuminations, held between september and november. [sanskrit dipa lamp]
Dixie n. Southern states of the us. [origin uncertain]
Dixie n. Large iron cooking-pot used by campers etc. [hindustani from persian]
Dixieland n. 1 = *dixie. 2 traditional kind of jazz.
Diy abbr. Do-it-yourself.
Dizzy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 a giddy. B feeling confused. 2 causing giddiness. —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make dizzy. 2 bewilder. dizzily adv. Dizziness n. [old english]
Dj abbr. 1 dinner-jacket. 2 disc jockey.
Djellaba n. (also jellaba) loose hooded cloak (as) worn by arab men. [arabic]
Dl abbr. Decilitre(s).
D-layer n. Lowest layer of the ionosphere. [d arbitrary]
D.litt. Abbr. Doctor of letters. [latin doctor litterarum]
Dm abbr. Deutschmark.
Dm abbr. Decimetre(s).
D.mus. Abbr. Doctor of music.
Dna abbr. Deoxyribonucleic acid, esp. Carrying genetic information in chromosomes.
D-notice n. Government notice to news editors not to publish certain items for security reasons. [defence, *notice]
Do1 —v. (3 sing. Pres. Does; past did; past part. Done; pres. Part. Doing) 1 perform, carry out, achieve, complete (work etc.) (did his homework; a lot to do). 2 produce, make, provide (doing a painting; we do lunches). 3 grant; impart (does you good; do me a favour). 4 act, behave, proceed (do as i do; would do well to wait). 5 work at (do carpentry; do chemistry). 6 be suitable or acceptable; satisfy (will never do; will do me nicely). 7 deal with; attend to (do one’s hair). 8 fare; get on (did badly in the test). 9 solve; work out (did the sum). 10 a traverse (a certain distance) (did 50 miles today). B travel at a specified speed (was doing eighty). 11 colloq. Act or behave like; play the part of. 12 produce (a play, opera,
etc.) (will do shakespeare). 13 a colloq. Finish (i’ve done in the garden). B (as done adj.) Be finished (day is done). 14 cook, esp. Completely (do it in the oven; potatoes aren’t done). 15 be in progress (what’s doing?). 16 colloq. Visit (did the museums). 17 colloq. A (often as done adj.) Exhaust; tire out. B defeat, kill, ruin. 18 (foll. By into) translate or transform. 19 colloq. Cater for (they do one very well here). 20 slang a rob (did a big bank). B swindle. 21 slang prosecute, convict (done for shoplifting). 22 slang undergo (a term of imprisonment). 23 slang take (an illegal drug). —v.aux. 1 in questions and negative statements or commands (do you understand?; i don’t smoke; don’t be silly). 2 ellipt. Or in place of a verb (you know her better than i do; i wanted to go and i did; tell me, do!). 3 for emphasis (i do want to; do tell me; they did go). 4 in inversion (rarely does it happen). —n. (pl. Dos or do’s) colloq. Elaborate party, operation, etc. be done with see *done. Be nothing to do with 1 be no business of. 2 be unconnected with. Be to do with be concerned or connected with. Do away with colloq. 1 get rid of; abolish. 2 kill. Do down colloq. 1 cheat, swindle. 2 overcome. Do for 1 be satisfactory or sufficient for. 2 colloq. (esp. As done for adj.) Destroy, ruin, kill. 3 colloq. Act as cleaner etc. For. Do in 1 slang a kill. B ruin. 2 colloq. Exhaust, tire out. Do justice to see justice. Do nothing for (or to) colloq. Not flatter or enhance. Do or die persist recklessly. Do out colloq. Clean or redecorate (a room). Do a person out of colloq. Cheat of. Do over 1 slang attack; beat up. 2 colloq. Redecorate, refurbish. Do proud see proud. Dos anddon’ts rules of behaviour. Do something for (or to) colloq. Enhance the appearance or quality of. Do up 1 fasten. 2 colloq. A refurbish, renovate. B adorn, dress up. Do with (prec. By could) would be glad of; would profit by (could do with a rest). Do without manage without; forgo.
Doe abbr. Department of the environment.
Doe n. (pl. Same or -s) female fallow deer, reindeer, hare, or rabbit. [old english]
Doer n. 1 person who does something. 2 person who acts rather than theorizing.
Does see *do1.
Doesn’t contr. Does not.
Doff v. Remove (a hat or clothes). [from do off]
Dog —n. 1 four-legged flesh-eating animal akin to the fox and wolf, and of many breeds. 2 male of this, or of the fox or wolf. 3 colloq. A despicable person. B person of a specified kind (lucky dog). 4 mechanical device for gripping. 5 (in pl.; prec. By the) colloq. Greyhound-racing. —v. (-gg-) follow closely; pursue, track. go to the dogs slang deteriorate, be ruined. Like a dog’s dinner colloq. Smartly or flashily (dressed etc.). Not a dog’s chance no chance at all. [old english]
Dogcart n. Two-wheeled driving-cart with cross seats back to back.
Dog-collar n. 1 collar for a dog. 2 colloq. Clerical collar.
Dog days n.pl. Hottest period of the year.
Doge n. Hist. Chief magistrate of venice or genoa. [italian from latin dux leader]
Dog-eared adj. (of a book etc.) With bent or worn corners.
Dog-eat-dog adj. Colloq. Ruthlessly competitive.
Dog-end n. Slang cigarette-end.
Dogfight n. 1 close combat between fighter aircraft. 2 rough fight.
Dogfish n. (pl. Same or -es) a kind of small shark.
Dogged adj. Tenacious; grimly persistent. doggedly adv. Doggedness n.
Doggerel n. Poor or trivial verse. [apparently from *dog]
Doggo adv. lie doggo slang lie motionless or hidden.
Doggy —adj. 1 of or like a dog. 2 devoted to dogs. —n. (also doggie) (pl. -ies) pet name for a dog.
Doggy bag n. Bag for leftovers given to a customer in a restaurant etc.
Doggy-paddle n. (also dog-paddle) elementary swimming stroke like that of a dog.
Doghouse n. Us & austral. Dog’s kennel. in the doghouse slang in disgrace.
Dog in the manger n. Person who stops others using a thing for which he or she has no use.
Dogma n. 1 principle, tenet, or system of these, esp. Of a church or political party. 2 arrogant declaration of opinion. [greek, = opinion]
Dogmatic adj. Asserting or imposing personal opinions; intolerantly authoritative; arrogant. dogmatically adv.
Dogmatism n. Tendency to be dogmatic. dogmatist n.
Dogmatize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 speak dogmatically. 2 express (a principle etc.) As dogma.
Do-gooder n. Well-meaning but unrealistic or patronizing philanthropist or reformer.
Dog-paddle var. Of *doggy-paddle.
Dog-rose n. Wild hedge-rose.
Dogsbody n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Drudge.
Dog’s breakfast n. (also dog’s dinner) colloq. Mess.
Dog’s life n. Life of misery etc.
Dog-star n. Chief star of the constellation canis major or minor, esp. Sirius.
Dog-tired adj. Tired out.
Dog-tooth n. V-shaped pattern or moulding; chevron.
Dogtrot n. Gentle easy trot.
Dogwatch n. Either of two short watches on a ship (4–6 or 6–8 p.m.).
Dogwood n. Shrub with dark-red branches, greenish-white flowers, and purple berries.
Doh abbr. Department of health.
Doh n. (also do) mus. First note of a major scale. [italian do]
Doily n. (also doyley) (pl. -ies or -eys) small lacey usu. Paper mat used on a plate for cakes etc. [doiley, name of a draper]
Doing pres. Part. Of *do1. —n. 1 a action (famous for his doings). B effort (takes a lot of doing). 2 (in pl.) Slang unspecified things (have we got all the doings?).
Doing-over n. Slang attack, beating-up.
Do-it-yourself —adj. (of work) done or to be done by a householder etc. —n.
Such work.
Dolby n. Propr. Electronic noise-reduction system used esp. In tape-recording to reduce hiss. [name of its inventor]
Doldrums n.pl. (usu. Prec. By the) 1 low spirits. 2 period of inactivity. 3 equatorial ocean region with little or no wind. [perhaps after dull, tantrum]
Dole —n. 1 (usu. Prec. By the) colloq. Unemployment benefit. 2 a charitable distribution. B thing given sparingly or reluctantly. —v. (-ling) (usu. Foll. By out) distribute sparingly. on the dole colloq. Receiving unemployment benefit. [old english]
Doleful adj. 1 mournful, sad. 2 dreary, dismal. dolefully adv. Dolefulness n. [latin doleo grieve]
Doll —n. 1 small model of esp. A baby or child as a child’s toy. 2 colloq. A pretty but silly young woman. B attractive woman. 3 ventriloquist’s dummy. — v. (foll. By up) colloq. Dress smartly. [pet form of dorothy]
Dollar n. Chief monetary unit in the us, australia, etc. [low german daler from german taler]
Dollop —n. Shapeless lump of food etc. —v. (-p-) (usu. Foll. By out) serve in dollops. [perhaps from scandinavian]
Dolly n. (pl. -ies) 1 child’s name for a doll. 2 movable platform for a cine-camera etc. 3 easy catch in cricket.
Dolly-bird n. Colloq. Attractive and stylish young woman.
Dolma n. (pl. -s or dolmades) e. European delicacy of spiced rice or meat etc. Wrapped in vine or cabbage leaves. [modern greek]
Dolman sleeve n. Loose sleeve cut in one piece with a bodice. [turkish]
Dolmen n. Megalithic tomb with a large flat stone laid on upright ones. [french]
Dolomite n. Mineral or rock of calcium magnesium carbonate. [de dolomieu, name of a french geologist]
Dolphin n. Large porpoise-like sea mammal with a slender pointed snout. [greek delphis -in-]
Dolphinarium n. (pl. -s) public aquarium for dolphins.
Dolt n. Stupid person. doltish adj. [apparently related to obsolete dol = *dull]
Dom n. Title of some roman catholic dignitaries, and benedictine and carthusian monks. [latin dominus master]
-dom suffix forming nouns denoting: 1 condition (freedom). 2 rank, domain (earldom; kingdom). 3 class of people (or associated attitudes etc.) Regarded collectively (officialdom). [old english]
Domain n. 1 area under one rule; realm. 2 estate etc. Under one control. 3 sphere of control or influence. [french: related to *demesne]
Dome —n. 1 rounded (usu. Hemispherical) vault forming a roof. 2 dome-shaped thing. —v. (-ming) (usu. As domed adj.) Cover with or shape as a dome. [latin domus house]
domus house]
Domestic —adj. 1 of the home, household, or family affairs. 2 of one’s own country. 3 (of an animal) tamed, not wild. 4 fond of home life. —n. Household servant. domestically adv. [latin domus home]
Domesticate v. (-ting) 1 tame (an animal) to live with humans. 2 accustom to housework etc. domestication n. [medieval latin: related to *domestic]
Domesticity n. 1 being domestic. 2 domestic or home life.
Domestic science n. = *home economics.
Domicile —n. 1 dwelling-place. 2 law a place of permanent residence. B residing. —v. (-ling) (usu. As domiciled adj.) (usu. Foll. By at, in) settle in a place. [latin domus home]
Domiciliary adj. Formal (esp. Of a doctor’s etc. Visit) to, at, or of a person’s home. [medieval latin: related to *domicile]
Dominant —adj. 1 dominating, prevailing. 2 (of an inherited characteristic) appearing in offspring even when the opposite characteristic is also inherited. — n. Mus. Fifth note of the diatonic scale of any key. dominance n. Dominantly adv.
Dominate v. (-ting) 1 command, control. 2 be the most influential or obvious. 3
Dominate v. (-ting) 1 command, control. 2 be the most influential or obvious. 3 (of a high place) overlook. domination n. [latin dominor from dominus lord]
Domineer v. (often as domineering adj.) Behave arrogantly or tyrannically. [french: related to *dominate]
Dominican —adj. Of st dominic or his order. —n. Dominican friar or nun. [latin dominicus dominic]
Dominion n. 1 sovereignty, control. 2 realm; domain. 3 hist. Self-governing territory of the british commonwealth. [latin dominus lord]
Domino n. (pl. -es) 1 any of 28 small oblong pieces marked with 0–6 pips in each half. 2 (in pl.) Game played with these. 3 loose cloak with a mask. [french, probably as *dominion]
Domino effect n. (also domino theory) effect whereby (or theory that) one event precipitates others in causal sequence.
Don1 n. 1 university teacher, esp. A senior member of a college at oxford or cambridge. 2 (don) spanish title prefixed to a forename. [spanish from latin dominus lord]
Don2 v. (-nn-) put on (clothing). [= do on]
Donate v. (-ting) give (money etc.), esp. To charity. [from *donation]
Donation n. 1 donating or being donated. 2 thing, esp. Money, donated. [latin donum gift]
Done adj. 1 completed. 2 cooked. 3 colloq. Socially acceptable (the done thing). 4 (often with in) colloq. Tired out. 5 (esp. As int. In reply to an offer etc.) Accepted. be done with have or be finished with. Done for colloq. In serious trouble. Have done with be rid of; finish dealing with. [past part. Of *do1]
Doner kebab n. Spiced lamb cooked on a spit and served in slices, often with pitta bread. [turkish: related to *kebab]
Donjon n. Great tower or innermost keep of a castle. [archaic spelling of *dungeon]
Don juan n. Seducer of women.
Donkey n. (pl. -s) 1 domestic ass. 2 colloq. Stupid person. [perhaps from duncan:
cf. *neddy]
Donkey jacket n. Thick weatherproof workman’s jacket or fashion garment.
Donkey’s years n.pl. Colloq. Very long time.
Donkey-work n. Laborious part of a job.
Donkey-work n. Laborious part of a job.
Donna n. Title of an italian, spanish, or portuguese lady. [latin domina mistress]
Donnish adj. Like a college don; pedantic.
Donor n. 1 person who donates (e.g. To charity). 2 person who provides blood, semen, or an organ or tissue for medical use.
Donor card n. Official card authorizing the use of organs, carried by a donor.
Don’t —contr. Do not. —n. Prohibition (dos and don’ts).
Donut n. (brit. Doughnut) small fried cake of sweetened dough.
Doodle —v. (-ling) scribble or draw, esp. Absent-mindedly. —n. Such a scribble or drawing. [originally = foolish person]
Doom —n. 1 a grim fate or destiny. B death or ruin. 2 condemnation. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By to) condemn or destine. 2 (esp. As doomed adj.) Consign to misfortune or destruction. [old english, = *statute]
Doomsday n. Day of the last judgement. till doomsday for ever.
Door n. 1 a esp. Hinged barrier for closing and opening the entrance to a building, room, cupboard, etc. B this as representing a house etc. (lives two doors away). 2 a entrance or exit; doorway. B means of access. close (or open) the door to exclude (or create) an opportunity for. [old english]
Doorbell n. Bell on a door rung by visitors to signal arrival.
Doorkeeper n. = *doorman.
Doorknob n. Knob turned to open a door.
Doorman n. Person on duty at the door to a large building.
Doormat n. 1 mat at an entrance, for wiping shoes. 2 colloq. Submissive person.
Doorpost n. Upright of a door-frame, on which the door is hung.
Doorstep —n. 1 step or area in front of the outer door of a house etc. 2 slang thick slice of bread. —v. Colloq. 1 go from door to door canvassing, selling, etc. 2 call upon or wait on the doorstep for (a person) in order to interview etc. on one’s doorstep very near.
Doorstop n. Device for keeping a door open or to prevent it from striking the wall.
wall.
Door-to-door adj. (of selling etc.) Done at each house in turn.
Doorway n. Opening filled by a door.
Dope —n. 1 a slang narcotic. B drug etc. Given to a horse, athlete, etc., to improve performance. 2 thick liquid used as a lubricant etc. 3 varnish. 4 slang stupid person. 5 slang information. —v.
Dopey adj. (also dopy) (dopier, dopiest) colloq. 1 half asleep or stupefied as if by a drug. 2 stupid. dopily adv. Dopiness n.
Doppelgänger n. Apparition of a living person. [german, = double-goer]
Doppler effect n. Increase (or decrease) in the frequency of sound, light, etc. Waves caused by moving nearer to (or further from) the source. [doppler, name of a physicist]
Dorado n. (pl. Same or -s) sea-fish showing brilliant colours when dying out of water. [spanish, = gilded]
Doric —adj. 1 archit. Of the oldest and simplest of the greek orders. 2 (of a dialect) broad, rustic. —n. Rustic english or esp. Scots. [from doris in greece]
alive but not growing. dormancy n. [latin dormio sleep]
Dormer n. (in full dormer window) projecting upright window in a sloping roof. [french: related to *dormant]
Dormitory n. (pl. -ies) 1 sleeping-room with several beds, esp. In a school or institution. 2 (in full dormitory town etc.) Small commuter town or suburb. [latin: related to *dormer]
Dormobile n. Propr. Motor caravan. [from dormitory, automobile]
Dormouse n. (pl. -mice) small mouselike hibernating rodent. [origin unknown]
Dorsal adj. Of or on the back (dorsal fin). [latin dorsum back]
Dory n. (pl. Same or -ies) any of various edible marine fish, esp. The john dory. [french dorée = gilded]
Dosage n. 1 size of a dose. 2 giving of a dose.
Dose —n. 1 single portion of medicine. 2 experience of something (dose of flu, laughter). 3 amount of radiation received. 4 slang venereal infection. —v. (-sing) treat with or give doses of medicine to. [greek dosis gift]
Do-se-do n. (also do-si-do) (pl. -s) figure in which two dancers pass round each other back to back. [french dos-à-dos, = back to back]
Dosh n. Slang money. [origin unknown]
Doss v. 1 (often foll. By down) slang sleep roughly or in a doss-house. 2 (often foll. By about, around) spend time idly. [probably originally = ‘seat-back cover’: from latin dorsum back]
Dosser n. Slang 1 person who dosses. 2 = *doss-house.
Doss-house n. Cheap lodging-house for vagrants.
Dossier n. File containing information about a person, event, etc. [french]
Dot abbr. Department of transport.
Dot —n. 1 a small spot or mark. B this as part of i or j, or as a decimal point etc. 2 shorter signal of the two in morse code. —v. (-tt-) 1 a mark with dot(s). B place a dot over (a letter). 2 (often foll. By about) scatter like dots. 3 partly cover as with dots (sea dotted with ships). 4 slang hit. dot the i’s and cross the t’s colloq. 1 be minutely accurate. 2 add the final touches to a task etc. On the dot exactly on time. The year dot colloq. Far in the past. [old english]
Dotage n. Feeble-minded senility (in his dotage).
Dotard n. Senile person.
Dote v. (-ting) (foll. By on) be excessively fond of. dotingly adv. [origin uncertain]
Dotted line n. Line of dots on a document etc., esp. For writing a signature on.
Dotterel n. Small migrant plover. [from *dote]
Dottle n. Remnant of unburnt tobacco in a pipe. [from *dot]
Dotty adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. 1 crazy; eccentric. 2 (foll. By about) infatuated with. dottiness n.
Double —adj. 1 consisting of two parts or things; twofold. 2 twice as much or many (double thickness). 3 having twice the usual size, quantity, strength, etc. (double bed). 4 a being double in part. B (of a flower) with two or more circles of petals. 5 ambiguous, deceitful (double meaning; a double life). —adv. 1 at or to twice the amount etc. (counts double). 2 two together (sleep double). —n.
Double act n. Comedy act by a duo.
Double agent n. Spy working for rival countries.
Double-barrelled adj. 1 (of a gun) having two barrels. 2 (of a surname) hyphenated.
Double-bass n. Largest instrument of the violin family.
Double bluff n. Genuine action or statement disguised as a bluff.
Double-book v. Reserve (the same seat, room, etc.) For two people at once.
Double-breasted adj. (of a coat etc.) Overlapping across the body.
Double-check v. Verify twice.
Double chin n. Chin with a fold of loose flesh below it.
Double cream n. Thick cream with a high fat-content.
Double-cross —v. Deceive or betray (a supposed ally). —n. Act of doing this.
double-crosser n.
Double-dealing —n. Deceit, esp. In business. —adj. Practising deceit.
Double-decker n. 1 bus having an upper and lower deck. 2 colloq. Sandwich with two layers of filling.
Double dutch n. Colloq. Gibberish.
Double eagle n. Figure of a two-headed eagle.
Double-edged adj. 1 presenting both a danger and an advantage. 2 (of a knife etc.) Having two cutting-edges.
Double entendre n. Ambiguous phrase open to usu. Indecent interpretation. [obsolete french]
Double entry n. System of bookkeeping with entries debited in one account and credited in another.
Double feature n. Cinema programme with two full-length films.
Double figures n.pl. Numbers from 10 to 99.
Double glazing n. Two layers of glass in a window. Double helix n. Pair of parallel helices with a common axis, esp. In the structure of a dna molecule.
of a dna molecule.
Double-jointed adj. Having joints that allow unusual bending.
Double negative n. Gram. Negative statement containing two negative elements (e.g. He didn’t say nothing).
Usage the double negative is considered incorrect in standard english.
Double-park v. (also absol.) Park (a vehicle) alongside one already parked at the roadside.
Double pneumonia n. Pneumonia affecting both lungs.
Double-quick adj. & adv. Colloq. Very quick or quickly.
Double standard n. Rule or principle not impartially applied.
Doublet n. 1 hist. Man’s short close-fitting jacket. 2 one of a pair of similar things. [french: related to *double]
Double take n. Delayed reaction to a situation etc.
Double-talk n. (usu. Deliberately) ambiguous or misleading speech.
Double-think n. Capacity to accept contrary opinions at the same time.
Double time n. Wages paid at twice the normal rate.
Doubloon n. Hist. Spanish gold coin. [french or spanish: related to *double]
Doubt —n. 1 uncertainty; undecided state of mind. 2 cynicism. 3 uncertain state. 4 lack of full proof or clear indication. —v. 1 feel uncertain or undecided about. 2 hesitate to believe. 3 call in question. in doubt open to question. No doubt certainly; probably; admittedly. Without doubt (or a doubt) certainly. [latin dubito hesitate]
Douche —n. 1 jet of liquid applied to part of the body for cleansing or medicinal purposes. 2 device for producing such a jet. —v. (-ching) 1 treat with a douche.
2 use a douche. [latin: related to *duct]
Dough n. 1 thick mixture of flour etc. And liquid for baking. 2 slang money. doughy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Doughnut n. (us donut) small fried cake of sweetened dough.
Doughnutting n. The clustering of politicians round a speaker during a televised debate to make him or her appear well supported.
Dowel —n. Cylindrical peg for holding structural components together. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) fasten with a dowel. [low german]
Dowelling n. Rods for cutting into dowels.
Dower n. 1 widow’s share for life of a husband’s estate. 2 archaic dowry. [latin dos dowry]
Dower house n. Smaller house near a big one, as part of a widow’s dower.
Dow-jones index n. (also dow-jones average) a figure indicating the relative price of shares on the new york stock exchange. [dow and jones, names of american economists]
Down1 —adv. 1 into or towards a lower place, esp. To the ground (fall down). 2 in a lower place or position (blinds were down). 3 to or in a place regarded as lower, esp.: a southwards. B away from a major city or a university. 4 a in or into a low or weaker position or condition (hit a man when he’s down; down with a cold). B losing by (three goals down; £5 down). C (of a computer system) out of action. 5 from an earlier to a later time (down to 1600). 6 to a finer or thinner consistency or smaller amount or size (grind down; water down; boil down). 7 cheaper (bread is down; shares are down). 8 into a more settled state (calm down). 9 in writing or recorded form (copy it down; down on tape; down to speak next). 10 paid or dealt with as a deposit or part (£5 down, £20 to pay; three down, six to go). 11 with the current or wind. 12 (of a crossword clue or answer) read vertically (five down). —prep. 1 downwards along, through, or
into. 2 from the top to the bottom of. 3 along (walk down the road). 4 at or in a lower part of (lives down the road). —attrib. Adj. 1 directed downwards (a down draught). 2 from a capital or centre (down train; down platform). —v. Colloq. 1 knock or bring down. 2 swallow. —n. 1 act of putting down. 2 reverse of fortune (ups and downs). 3 colloq.
Down3 n. 1 open rolling land. 2 (in pl.) Chalk uplands, esp. In s. England. [old english]
Down-and-out n. Destitute person. down and out predic. Adj.
Downbeat —n. Mus. Accented beat, usu. The first of the bar. —adj. 1 pessimistic, gloomy. 2 relaxed.
Down’s syndrome n. Congenital disorder with mental retardation and physical abnormalities. [down, name of a physician]
Downstage adj. & adv. Nearer the front of a theatre stage.
Downstairs —adv. 1 down the stairs. 2 to or on a lower floor. —attrib. Adj.
Situated downstairs. —n. Lower floor.
Downstream adv. & adj. In the direction in which a stream etc. Flows.
Down-to-earth adj. Practical, realistic.
Downtown esp. Us —attrib. Adj. Of the lower or more central part of a town or city. —n. Downtown area. —adv. In or into the downtown area.
Downtrodden adj. Oppressed; badly treated.
Downturn n. Decline, esp. In economic activity.
Down under adv. Colloq. In the antipodes, esp. Australia.
Downward —adv. (also downwards) towards what is lower, inferior, less important, or later. —adj. Moving or extending downwards.
Downwind adj. & adv. In the direction in which the wind is blowing.
Downy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of, like, or covered with down. 2 soft and fluffy.
Dowry n. (pl. -ies) property or money brought by a bride to her husband. [anglo-french, = french douaire *dower]
Dowse1 v. (-sing) search for underground water or minerals by holding a stick or rod which dips abruptly when over the right spot. dowser n. [origin unknown]
Dowse2 var. Of *douse.
Dowsing-rod n. Rod for dowsing.
Doxology n. (pl. -ies) liturgical hymn etc. Of praise to god. doxological adj. [greek doxa glory]
Doyen n. (fem. Doyenne) senior member of a group. [french: related to *dean1]
Doyley var. Of *doily.
Doz. Abbr. Dozen.
Doze —v. (-zing) sleep lightly; be half asleep. —n. Short light sleep. doze off fall lightly asleep. [origin unknown]
Dozen n. 1 (prec. By a or a number) (pl. Dozen) twelve (a dozen eggs; two dozen eggs). 2 set of twelve (sold in dozens). 3 (in pl.; usu. Foll. By of) colloq. Very many (dozens of errors). talk nineteen to the dozen talk incessantly. [latin duodecim twelve]
Drab adj. (drabber, drabbest) 1 dull, uninteresting. 2 of a dull brownish colour. drably adv. Drabness n. [obsolete drap cloth]
Drachm n. Weight formerly used by apothecaries, = 1/8 ounce. [latin from greek]
Drachma n. (pl. -s) 1 chief monetary unit of greece. 2 silver coin of ancient greece. [greek drakhme]
Draconian adj. (of laws) very harsh, cruel. [drakon, name of an athenian lawgiver]
Draft —n. 1 preliminary written version of a speech, document, etc., or outline of a scheme. 2 a written order for payment of money by a bank. B drawing of money by this. 3 a detachment from a larger group. B selection of this. 4 us conscription. 5 us = *draught. —v. 1 prepare a draft of (a document, scheme, etc.). 2 select for a special duty or purpose. 3 us conscript. [phonetic spelling of *draught]
Draftsman n. 1 person who drafts documents. 2 = *draughtsman 1. [phonetic spelling of *draughtsman]
Drafty adj. (brit. Draughty) (-ier, -iest) (of a room etc.) Letting in sharp currents of air. draughtiness n.
Drag —v. (-gg-) 1 pull along with effort. 2 a trail or allow to trail along the ground. B (often foll. By on) (of time, a meeting, etc.) Go or pass slowly or tediously. 3 a use a grapnel. B search the bottom of (a river etc.) With grapnels, nets, etc. 4 (often foll. By to) colloq. Take (an esp. Unwilling person) with one. 5 (foll. By on, at) draw on (a cigarette etc.). —n. 1 a obstruction to progress. B retarding force or motion. 2 colloq. Boring or tiresome person, duty, etc. 3 a lure before hounds as a substitute for a fox. B hunt using this. 4 apparatus for dredging. 5 = *drag-net. 6 slang inhalation. 7 slang women’s clothes worn by men. drag one’s feet be deliberately slow or reluctant to act. Drag in introduce (an irrelevant subject). Drag out protract. Drag up colloq. Introduce or revive (an unwelcome subject). [old english or old norse]
Draggle v. (-ling) 1 make dirty, wet, or limp by trailing. 2 hang trailing. [from *drag]
Drag-net n. 1 net drawn through a river or across the ground to trap fish or game.
2 systematic hunt for criminals etc.
Dragon n. 1 mythical usu. Winged monster like a reptile, able to breathe fire. 2 fierce woman. [greek, = serpent]
Dragonfly n. Large insect with a long body and two pairs of transparent wings.
Dragoon —n. 1 cavalryman. 2 fierce fellow. —v. (foll. By into) coerce or bully into. [french dragon: related to *dragon]
Drag queen n. Slang derog. Male homosexual transvestite.
Drain —v. 1 draw off liquid from. 2 draw off (liquid). 3 flow or trickle away. 4 dry or become dry as liquid flows away. 5 exhaust of strength or resources. 6 a drink to the dregs. B empty (a glass etc.) By drinking the contents. —n. 1 a channel, conduit, or pipe carrying off liquid, sewage, etc. B tube for drawing off discharge etc. 2 constant outflow or expenditure. down the drain colloq. Lost, wasted. [old english: related to *dry]
Drainage n. 1 draining. 2 system of drains. 3 what is drained off.
Draining-board n. Sloping grooved surface beside a sink for draining washed dishes.
Drainpipe n. 1 pipe for carrying off water etc. 2 (attrib.) (of trousers) very narrow. 3 (in pl.) Very narrow trousers.
Drake n. Male duck. [origin uncertain]
Dralon n. Propr. 1 synthetic acrylic fibre. 2 fabric made from this. [invented word, after *nylon]
Dram n. 1 small drink of spirits, esp. Whisky. 2 = drachm. [latin drama: related to drachm]
Drama n. 1 play for stage or broadcasting. 2 art of writing, acting, or presenting plays. 3 dramatic event or quality (the drama of the situation). [latin from greek drao do]
Dramatic adj. 1 of drama. 2 sudden and exciting or unexpected. 3 vividly striking. 4 (of a gesture etc.) Theatrical. dramatically adv. [greek: related to *drama]
Dramatics n.pl. (often treated as sing.) 1 performance of plays. 2 exaggerated behaviour.
Dramatis personae n.pl. 1 characters in a play. 2 list of these. [latin, = persons of the drama]
Dramatist n. Writer of dramas.
Dramatize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 turn (a novel etc.) Into a play. 2 make a dramatic scene of. 3 behave dramatically. dramatization n.
Drank past of *drink.
Drape —v. (-ping) 1 hang or cover loosely, adorn with cloth etc. 2 arrange (hangings etc.) Esp. In folds. —n. (in pl.) Us curtains. [latin drappus cloth]
Draper n. Dealer in textile fabrics.
Drapery n. (pl. -ies) 1 clothing or hangings arranged in folds. 2 draper’s trade or fabrics.
Drastic adj. Far-reaching in effect; severe. drastically adv. [greek drastikos:
related to *drama]
Drat colloq. —v. (-tt-) (usu. As int.) Curse (drat the thing!). —int. Expressing anger or annoyance. dratted adj. [(go)d rot]
Draught n. (us draft) 1 current of air in a room or chimney etc. 2 pulling, traction. 3 depth of water needed to float a ship. 4 drawing of liquor from a cask etc. 5 a single act of drinking or inhaling. B amount drunk thus. 6 (in pl.) Gamefor two with 12 pieces each on a draughtboard. 7 a drawing in of a fishing-net. B fish so caught. feel the draught colloq. Suffer from esp. Financial hardship. [related to *draw]
Draught beer n. Beer from the cask, not bottled or canned.
Draughtboard n. = *chessboard.
Draught-horse n. Horse for heavy work.
Draughtsman n. 1 person who makes drawings, plans, or sketches. 2 piece in draughts. draughtsmanship n.
Draughty adj. (us drafty) (-ier, -iest) (of a room etc.) Letting in sharp currents of air. draughtiness n.
Draw —v. (past drew; past part. Drawn) 1 pull or cause to move towards or after one. 2 pull (a thing) up, over, or across. 3 pull (curtains etc.) Open or shut. 4 take (a person) aside. 5 attract; bring; take in (drew a deep breath; felt drawn to her; drew my attention; drew a crowd). 6 (foll. By at, on) inhale from (a cigarette, pipe, etc.). 7 (also absol.) Take out; remove (a tooth, gun, cork, card, etc.). 8 obtain or take from a source (draw a salary; draw inspiration; drew £100 out). 9 a (also absol.) Make (a line or mark). B produce (a picture) thus. C represent (something) thus. 10 (also absol.) Finish (a contest or game) with equal scores. 11 proceed (drew near the bridge; draw to a close; drew level). 12 infer (a conclusion).
Drawback n. Disadvantage.
Drawbridge n. Hinged retractable bridge, esp. Over a moat.
Drawer n. 1 person or thing that draws, esp. A cheque etc. 2 also lidless boxlike storage compartment, sliding in and out of a table etc. (chest of drawers). 3 (in pl.) Knickers, underpants.
Drawing n. 1 art of representing by line with a pencil etc. 2 picture etc. Made thus.
Drawing-board n. Board on which paper is fixed for drawing on.
Drawing-pin n. Flat-headed pin for fastening paper etc. To a surface.
Drawing-room n. 1 room in a private house for sitting or entertaining in. 2 (attrib.) Restrained, polite (drawing-room manners). [earlier withdrawing-room]
Drawl —v. Speak with drawn-out vowel sounds. —n. Drawling utterance or way of speaking. [low german or dutch]
Drawn adj. Looking strained and tense.
Drawstring n. String or cord threaded through a waistband, bag opening, etc.
Dray n. Low cart without sides for heavy loads, esp. Beer-barrels. [related to *draw]
Dread —v. Fear greatly, esp. In advance. —n. Great fear or apprehension. —adj. 1 dreaded. 2 archaic awe-inspiring, dreadful. [old english]
Dreadful adj. 1 terrible. 2 colloq. Very annoying, very bad. dreadfully adv.
Dreadlocks n.pl. Rastafarian hairstyle with hair hanging in tight braids on all sides.
Dream —n. 1 series of scenes or feelings in the mind of a sleeping person. 2 day-dream or fantasy. 3 ideal, aspiration. 4 beautiful or ideal person or thing. — v. (past and past part. Dreamt or dreamed) 1 experience a dream. 2 imagine as in a dream. 3 (with neg.) Consider possible (never dreamt that he would come; would not dream of it). 4 (foll. By away) waste (time). 5 be inactive or unpractical. dream up imagine, invent. Like a dream colloq. Easily, effortlessly. dreamer n. [old english]
Dreamboat n. Colloq. Sexually attractive or ideal person.
Dreamland n. Ideal or imaginary land.
Dreamy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 given to day-dreaming or fantasy. 2 dreamlike; vague.
Dredge1 —n. Apparatus used to scoop up oysters etc., or to clear mud etc., from a river or sea bed. —v. (-ging) 1 (often foll. By up) a bring up or clear (mud etc.) With a dredge. B bring up (something forgotten) (dredged it all up). 2 clean with or use a dredge. [origin uncertain]
Dredge2 v. (-ging) sprinkle with flour, sugar, etc. [earlier = sweetmeat, from french]
Dredger1 n. 1 boat with a dredge. 2 dredge.
Dredger2 n. Container with a perforated lid, for sprinkling flour, sugar, etc.
Dregs n.pl. 1 sediment; grounds, lees. 2 = *scum n. 2 (dregs of humanity). [old norse]
Drench —v. 1 wet thoroughly. 2 force (an animal) to take medicine. —n. Dose of medicine for an animal. [old english]
Dress —v. 1 a (also absol.) Put clothes on. B have and wear clothes (dresses well). 2 put on evening dress. 3 arrange or adorn (hair, a shop window, etc.). 4 treat (a wound) esp. With a dressing. 5 a prepare (poultry, crab, etc.) For cooking or eating. B add dressing to (a salad etc.). 6 apply manure to. 7 finish the surface of (fabric, leather, stone, etc.). 8 correct the alignment of (troops). 9 make (an artificial fly) for fishing. —n. 1 woman’s garment of a bodice and skirt. 2 clothing, esp. A whole outfit. 3 formal or ceremonial costume. 4 external covering; outward form. dress down colloq. 1 reprimand or scold. 2 dress informally. Dress up 1 put on special clothes. 2 make (a thing) more attractive or interesting. [french dresser, ultimately related to *direct]
Dressage n. Training of a horse in obedience and deportment; display of this. [french]
Dress circle n. First gallery in a theatre.
Dress coat n. Man’s swallow-tailed evening coat.
Dresser1 n. Kitchen sideboard with shelves for plates etc. [french dresser prepare]
Dresser2 n. 1 person who helps to dress actors or actresses. 2 surgeon’s assistant in operations. 3 person who dresses in a specified way (snappy dresser).
Dressing n. 1 putting one’s clothes on. 2 a sauce, esp. Of oil and vinegar etc., for salads (french dressing). B sauce or stuffing etc. For food. 3 bandage, ointment, etc., for a wound. 4 size or stiffening used to coat fabrics. 5 compost etc. Spread over land.
Dressing-down n. Colloq. Scolding.
Dressing-gown n. Loose robe worn when one is not fully dressed.
Dressing-room n. Room for changing one’s clothes, esp. In a theatre, or attached to a bedroom.
Dressing-table n. Table with a flat top, mirror, and drawers, used while applying make-up etc.
Dressmaker n. Person who makes women’s clothes, esp. For a living.
dressmaking n.
Dress rehearsal n. Final rehearsal in full costume.
Dress-shield n. Waterproof material in the armpit of a dress to protect it from sweat.
Dress-shirt n. Man’s shirt worn with evening dress, usu. White with concealed buttons or studs.
Dressy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. (of clothes or a person) smart, elaborate, elegant.
dressiness n.
Drew past of *draw.
Drey n. Squirrel’s nest. [origin unknown]
Dribble —v. (-ling) 1 allow saliva to flow from the mouth. 2 flow or allow to flow in drops. 3 (also absol.) Esp. Football & hockey move (the ball) forward with slight touches of the feet or stick. —n. 1 act of dribbling. 2 dribbling flow.
with slight touches of the feet or stick. —n. 1 act of dribbling. 2 dribbling flow. [obsolete drib = *drip]
Driblet n. Small quantity.
Dribs and drabs n.pl. Colloq. Small scattered amounts.
Dried past and past part. Of *dry.
Drier1 compar. Of *dry.
Drier2 n. (also dryer) device for drying hair, laundry, etc.
Driest superl. Of *dry.
Drift —n. 1 a slow movement or variation. B this caused by a current. 2 intention, meaning, etc. Of what is said etc. 3 mass of snow etc. Heaped up by the wind. 4 esp. Derog. State of inaction. 5 slow deviation of a ship, aircraft, etc., from its course. 6 fragments of rock heaped up (glacial drift). 7 s.afr. Ford. —v.
1 be carried by or as if by a current of air or water. 2 progress casually or aimlessly (drifted into teaching). 3 pile or be piled into drifts. 4 (of a current) carry, cause to drift. [old norse and germanic trift movement of cattle] Drifter n. 1 aimless person. 2 boat used for drift-net fishing.
Drift-net n. Net for sea fishing, allowed to drift.
Driftwood n. Wood floating on moving water or washed ashore.
Drill1 —n. 1 tool or machine for boring holes, sinking wells, etc. 2 instruction in military exercises. 3 routine procedure in an emergency (fire-drill). 4 thorough training, esp. By repetition. 5 colloq. Recognized procedure (what’s the drill?). —v. 1 a make a hole in or through with a drill. B make (a hole) with a drill. 2 train or be trained by drill. [dutch]
Drill2 —n. 1 machine for making furrows, sowing, and covering seed. 2 small furrow. 3 row of seeds sown by a drill. —v. Plant in drills. [origin unknown]
Drill3 n. Coarse twilled cotton or linen fabric. [latin trilix having three threads]
Drill4 n. W. African baboon related to the mandrill. [probably native]
Drily adv. (also dryly) in a dry manner.
Drink —v. (past drank; past part. Drunk) 1 a (also absol.) Swallow (liquid). B swallow the contents of (a vessel). 2 take alcohol, esp. To excess. 3 (of a plant, sponge, etc.) Absorb (moisture). 4 bring (oneself etc.) To a specified condition by drinking. 5 wish (a person good health etc.) By drinking (drank his health).
—n. 1 a liquid for drinking. B draught or specified amount of this. 2 a alcoholic liquor. B portion, glass, etc. Of this. C excessive use of alcohol (took to drink). 3
(the drink) colloq. The sea. drink in listen eagerly to. Drink to toast; wish success to. Drink up (also absol.) Drink all or the remainder of. drinkable adj. Drinker n.
Drink-driver n. Person who drives with excess alcohol in the blood. drink-driving n.
Drip —v. (-pp-) 1 fall or let fall in drops. 2 (often foll. By with) be so wet as to shed drops. —n. 1 a liquid falling in drops (steady drip of rain). B drop of liquid. C sound of dripping. 2 colloq. Dull or ineffectual person. 3 = *drip-feed. be dripping with be full of or covered with. [danish: cf. *drop]
Drip-dry —v. Dry or leave to dry crease-free when hung up. —adj. Able to be drip-dried.
Drip-feed —v. Feed intravenously in drops. —n. 1 feeding thus. 2 apparatus for doing this.
Drive —v. (-ving; past drove; past part. Driven) 1 urge forward, esp. Forcibly. 2 a compel (was driven to complain). B force into a specified state (drove him mad). C (often refl.) Urge to overwork. 3 a operate and direct (a vehicle, locomotive, etc.). B convey or be conveyed in a vehicle. C be competent to drive (a vehicle) (does he drive?). D travel in a private vehicle. 4 (of wind etc.) Carry along, propel, esp. Rapidly (driven snow; driving rain). 5 a (often foll. By into)
force (a stake, nail, etc.) Into place by blows. B bore (a tunnel etc.). 6 effect or conclude forcibly (drove a hard bargain; drove his point home). 7 (of power) operate (machinery). 8 (usu. Foll. By at) work hard; dash, rush. 9 hit (a ball) forcibly. —n. 1 journey or excursion in a vehicle. 2 a (esp. Scenic) street or road. B private road through a garden to a house. 3 a motivation and energy. B inner urge (sex-drive). 4 forcible stroke of a bat etc. 5 organized effort (membership drive). 6 a transmission of power to machinery, wheels, etc. B position of the steering-wheel in a vehicle (left-hand drive). C computing = *disk drive. 7 organized whist, bingo, etc. Competition. drive at seek, intend, or mean (what is he driving at?). [old english]
Drive-in —attrib. Adj. (of a bank, cinema, etc.) Used while sitting in one’s car.
—n. Such a bank, cinema, etc.
Drivel —n. Silly talk; nonsense. —v. (-ll-; us -l-, -ling) 1 talk drivel. 2 run at the mouth or nose. [old english]
Driven past part. Of *drive.
Drive-on adj. (of a ship) on to which vehicles may be driven.
Driver n. 1 person who drives a vehicle. 2 golf-club for driving from a tee.
Driveway n. = *drive n. 2b.
Driving-licence n. Licence permitting one to drive a vehicle.
Driving test n. Official test of competence to drive.
Driving-wheel n. Wheel communicating motive power in machinery.
Drizzle —n. Very fine rain. —v. (-ling) (of rain) fall in very fine drops. drizzly adj. [old english]
Droll adj. Quaintly amusing; strange, odd. drollery n. (pl. -ies). Drolly adv. [french]
Dromedary n. (pl. -ies) one-humped (esp. Arabian) camel bred for riding. [greek dromas -ados runner]
Drone —n. 1 non-working male of the honey-bee. 2 idler. 3 deep humming sound. 4 monotonous speaking tone. 5 bass-pipe of bagpipes or its continuous note. —v. (-ning) 1 make a deep humming sound. 2 speak or utter monotonously. [old english]
Drool v. 1 slobber, dribble. 2 (often foll. By over) admire extravagantly. [from *drivel]
Droop —v. 1 bend or hang down, esp. From weariness; flag. 2 (of the eyes) look downwards. —n. 1 drooping attitude. 2 loss of spirit. droopy adj. [old norse: related to *drop]
Drop —n. 1 a globule of liquid that hangs, falls, or adheres to a surface. B very small amount of liquid (just a drop left). C glass etc. Of alcohol. 2 a abrupt fall or slope. B amount of this (drop of fifteen feet). C act of dropping. D fall in prices, temperature, etc. E deterioration (drop in status). 3 drop-shaped thing, esp. A pendant or sweet. 4 curtain or scenery let down on to a stage. 5 (in pl.) Liquid medicine used in drops (eye drops). 6 minute quantity. 7 slang hiding-place for stolen goods etc. 8 slang bribe. —v. (-pp-) 1 fall or let fall in drops, shed (tears, blood). 2 fall or allow to fall; let go. 3 a sink down from exhaustion or injury. B die. C fall naturally (drop asleep; drop into the habit). 4 a (cause to) cease or lapse; abandon. B colloq. Cease to associate with or discuss. 5 set down (a passenger etc.) (drop me here). 6 utter or be uttered casually (dropped a hint). 7 send casually (drop a line). 8 a fall or allow to fall in direction, amount, condition, degree, pitch, etc. (voice dropped; wind dropped; we dropped the price). B (of a person) jump down lightly; let oneself fall. C allow (trousers etc.) To fall to the ground. 9 omit (a letter) in speech (drop one’s h’s). 10 (as dropped adj.) In a lower position than usual (dropped handlebars; dropped waist). 11 give birth to (esp. A lamb). 12 lose (a game, point, etc.). 13 deliver by parachute etc. 14 football send (a ball), or score (a goal), by a drop-kick. 15 colloq. Dismiss or omit (dropped from the team). at the drop of a hat promptly, instantly. Drop back (or behind) fall back; get left behind. Drop a brick colloq. Make an indiscreet or embarrassing remark. Drop a curtsy curtsy. Drop in (or by) colloq. Visit casually. Drop off 1 fall asleep. 2 drop (a passenger). Drop out colloq. Cease to participate. droplet n. [old english]
Drop-curtain n. Painted curtain lowered on to a stage.
Drop-kick n. Football kick as the ball touches the ground having been dropped.
Drop-out n. Colloq. Person who has dropped out of conventional society, a course of study, etc.
Dropper n. Device for releasing liquid in drops.
Droppings n.pl. 1 dung of animals or birds. 2 thing that falls or has fallen in drops.
Drop scone n. Scone made by dropping a spoonful of mixture into the pan etc.
Drop-shot n. (in tennis) shot dropping abruptly over the net.
Dropsy n. = oedema. dropsical adj. [earlier hydropsy from greek hudrops:
related to hydro-]
Drosophila n. Fruit fly used in genetic research. [greek, = dew-loving]
Dross n. 1 rubbish. 2 a scum from melted metals. B impurities. [old english]
Drought n. Prolonged absence of rain. [old english]
Drove1 past of *drive.
Drove2 n. 1 a moving crowd. B (in pl.) Colloq. Great number (people arrived in droves). 2 herd or flock driven or moving together. [old english: related to *drive]
Drover n. Herder of cattle.
Drown v. 1 kill or die by submersion in liquid. 2 submerge; flood; drench. 3 deaden (grief etc.) By drinking. 4 (often foll. By out) overpower (sound) with louder sound. [probably old english]
Drowse v. (-sing) be lightly asleep. [from *drowsy]
Drowsy adj. (-ier, -iest) very sleepy, almost asleep. drowsily adv. Drowsiness n. [probably old english]
Drub v. (-bb-) 1 beat, thrash. 2 defeat thoroughly. drubbing n. [arabic daraba beat]
Drudge —n. Person who does dull, laborious, or menial work. —v. (-ging) work laboriously, toil. drudgery n. [origin uncertain]
Drug —n. 1 medicinal substance. 2 (esp. Addictive) narcotic, hallucinogen, or stimulant. —v. (-gg-) 1 add a drug to (food or drink). 2 a give a drug to. B stupefy. [french]
Drugget n. Coarse woven fabric used for floor coverings etc. [french]
Druggist n. Pharmacist. [related to *drug]
Drugstore n. Us combined chemist’s shop and café.
Drugstore n. Us combined chemist’s shop and café.
Druid n. 1 priest of an ancient celtic religion. 2 member of a modern druidic order, esp. The gorsedd. druidic adj. Druidism n. [latin from celtic]
Drum —n. 1 hollow esp. Cylindrical percussion instrument covered at the end(s) with plastic etc. 2 (often in pl.) Percussion section of an orchestra etc. 3 sound made by a drum. 4 thing resembling a drum, esp. A container, etc. 5 segment of a pillar. 6 eardrum. —v. (-mm-) 1 play a drum. 2 beat or tap continuously with the fingers etc. 3 (of a bird or insect) make a loud noise with the wings. drum into drive (a lesson or facts) into (a person) by persistence. Drum out dismiss with ignominy. Drum up summon or get by vigorous effort (drum up support). [low german]
Drumbeat n. Stroke or sound of a stroke on a drum.
Drum brake n. Brake in which brake shoes on a vehicle press against the brake drum on a wheel.
Drumhead n. Part of a drum that is hit.
Drum kit n. Set of drums in a band etc.
Drum machine n. Electronic device that simulates percussion.
Drum major n. Leader of a marching band.
Drum major n. Leader of a marching band.
Drum majorette n. Female baton-twirling member of a parading group.
Drummer n. Player of drums.
Drumstick n. 1 stick for beating drums. 2 lower leg of a dressed fowl.
Drunk —adj. 1 lacking control from drinking alcohol. 2 (often foll. By with) overcome with joy, success, power, etc. —n. Person who is drunk, esp. Habitually. [past part. Of *drink]
Drunkard n. Person who is habitually drunk.
Drunken adj. (usu. Attrib.) 1 = *drunk 1. 2 caused by or involving drunkenness (drunken brawl). 3 often drunk. drunkenly adv. Drunkenness n.
Drupe n. Fleshy stone-fruit, e.g. The olive and plum. [latin from greek]
Dry —adj. (drier; driest) 1 free from moisture, esp.: a with moisture having evaporated, drained away, etc. (clothes are not dry yet). B (of eyes) free from tears. C (of a climate etc.) With insufficient rain; not rainy (dry spell). D (of a river, well, etc.) Dried up. E using or producing no moisture (dry shampoo; dry cough). F (of a shave) with an electric razor. 2 (of wine) not sweet (dry sherry). 3 a plain, unelaborated (dry facts). B uninteresting (dry book). 4 (of a sense of
humour) subtle, ironic, understated. 5 prohibiting the sale of alcohol (a dry state). 6 (of bread) without butter etc. 7 (of provisions etc.) Solid, not liquid. 8 impassive. 9 (of a cow) not yielding milk. 10 colloq. Thirsty (feel dry). —v. (dries, dried) 1 make or become dry. 2 (usu. As dried adj.) Preserve (food etc.) By removing moisture. 3 (often foll. By up) colloq. Forget one’s lines. —n. (pl. Dries) 1 act of drying. 2 dry ginger ale. 3 dry place (come into the dry). dry out 1 make or become fully dry. 2 treat or be treated for alcoholism. Dry up 1 make or become utterly dry. 2 dry dishes. 3 colloq. (esp. In imper.) Cease talking. 4 become unproductive. 5 (of supplies) run out. dryness n. [old english]
Dryad n. Wood nymph. [greek drus tree]
Dry battery n. (also dry cell) electric battery or cell in which electrolyte is absorbed in a solid.
Dry-clean v. Clean (clothes etc.) With solvents without water. dry-cleaner n.
Dry dock n. Dock that can be pumped dry for building or repairing ships.
Dryer var. Of *drier2.
Dry-fly attrib. Adj. (of fishing) with a floating artificial fly.
Dry ice n. Solid carbon dioxide used as a refrigerant.
Dry land n. Land as distinct from sea etc.
Dryly var. Of *drily.
Dry measure n. Measure for dry goods.
Dry rot n. Decayed state of unventilated wood; fungi causing this.
Dry run n. Colloq. Rehearsal.
Dry-shod adj. & adv. Without wetting one’s shoes.
Drystone attrib. Adj. (of a wall etc.) Built without mortar.
Dsc abbr. Distinguished service cross.
D.sc. Abbr. Doctor of science.
Dsm abbr. Distinguished service medal.
Dso abbr. Distinguished service order.
Dss abbr. Department of social security (formerly dhss).
Dt abbr. (also dt’s) delirium tremens.
Dti abbr. Department of trade and industry.
Dual —adj. 1 in two parts; twofold. 2 double (dual ownership). —n. Gram. Dual number or form. duality n. [latin duo two]
Dual carriageway n. Road with a dividing strip between traffic flowing in opposite directions.
Dual control n. Two linked sets of controls, enabling operation by either of two persons.
Dub1 v. (-bb-) 1 make (a person) a knight by touching his shoulders with a sword. 2 give (a person) a name, nickname, etc. 3 smear (leather) with grease. [french]
Dub2 v. (-bb-) 1 provide (a film etc.) With an, esp. Translated, alternative soundtrack. 2 add (sound effects or music) to a film or broadcast. 3 transfer or make a copy of (recorded sound or images). [abbreviation of *double]
Dubbin n. (also dubbing) thick grease for softening and waterproofing leather. [see *dub1 3]
Dubiety n. Literary doubt. [latin: related to *dubious]
Ducal adj. Of or like a duke. [french: related to *duke]
Ducat n. Gold coin, formerly current in most of europe. [medieval latin ducatus *duchy]
Duchess n. 1 duke’s wife or widow. 2 woman holding the rank of duke. [medieval latin ducissa: related to *duke]
Duchesse potatoes n.pl. Mashed potatoes mixed with egg, baked or fried, and served as small cakes or used as piping. [french]
Duchy n. (pl. -ies) territory of a duke or duchess; royal dukedom of cornwall or lancaster. [medieval latin ducatus: related to *duke]
Duck1 —n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 a swimming-bird, esp. The domesticated form of the mallard or wild duck. B female of this. C its flesh as food. 2 score of 0 in cricket. 3 (also ducks) colloq. (esp. As a form of address) dear. —v. 1 bob down, esp. To avoid being seen or hit. 2 a dip one’s head briefly under water. B plunge (a person) briefly in water. 3 colloq. Dodge (a task etc.). like water off a duck’s back colloq. Producing no effect. [old english]
Duck2 n. 1 strong linen or cotton fabric. 2 (in pl.) Trousers made of this. [dutch]
Duckbill n. (also duck-billed platypus) = *platypus.
Duckboard n. (usu. In pl.) Path of wooden slats over muddy ground, in a trench, etc.
Duckling n. Young duck.
Ducks and drakes n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Game of making a flat stone skim the surface of water. play ducks and drakes with colloq. Squander.
Duckweed n. Any of various plants growing on the surface of still water.
Ducky n. (pl. -ies) colloq. (esp. As a form of address) dear.
Duct —n. Channel or tube for conveying a fluid, cable, bodily secretions, etc. (tear ducts). —v. Convey through a duct. [latin ductus from duco duct-lead]
Ductile adj. 1 (of metal) capable of being drawn into wire; pliable. 2 easily moulded. 3 docile. ductility n. [latin: related to *duct]
Ductless gland n. Gland secreting directly into the bloodstream.
Dud slang —n. 1 useless or broken thing. 2 counterfeit article. 3 (in pl.) Clothes, rags. —adj. Useless, defective. [origin unknown]
Dude n. Slang 1 fellow. 2 us dandy. 3 us city-dweller staying on a ranch. [german dial. Dude fool]
Dudgeon n. Resentment, indignation. in high dudgeon very angry. [origin unknown]
Due —adj. 1 owing or payable. 2 (often foll. By to) merited; appropriate. 3 (foll. By to) that ought to be given or ascribed to (a person, cause, etc.) (first place is due to milton; difficulty due to ignorance). 4 (often foll.
Usage the use of due to to mean ‘because of’ as in the example given is regarded as unacceptable by some people and could be avoided by substituting his lateness was due to an accident. Alternatively, owing to could be used.
Duel —n. 1 armed contest between two people, usu. To the death. 2 two-sided contest. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) fight a duel. duellist n. [latin duellum war]
Duenna n. Older woman acting as a chaperon to girls, esp. In spain. [spanish from latin domina *don1]
Duet n. Musical composition for two performers. duettist n. [latin duo two]
Duff2 v. duff up slang beat; thrash. [perhaps from *duffer]
Duffer n. Colloq. Inefficient or stupid person; dunce. [origin uncertain]
Duffle n. (also duffel) heavy woollen cloth. [duffel in belgium]
Duffle bag n. Cylindrical canvas bag closed by a drawstring.
Duffle-coat n. Hooded overcoat of duffle, fastened with toggles.
Dug1 past and past part. Of *dig.
Dug2 n. Udder, teat. [origin unknown]
Dugong n. (pl. Same or -s) asian sea-mammal. [malay]
Dugout n. 1 a roofed shelter, esp. For troops in trenches. B underground shelter.
2 canoe made from a tree-trunk.
Duke n. 1 person holding the highest hereditary title of the nobility. 2 sovereign prince ruling a duchy or small state. dukedom n. [latin dux leader]
Dulcet adj. Sweet-sounding. [latin dulcis sweet]
Dulcimer n. Metal stringed instrument struck with two hand-held hammers. [latin: related to *dulcet, melos song]
Dull —adj. 1 tedious; not interesting. 2 (of the weather) overcast. 3 (of colour, light, sound, etc.) Not bright, vivid, or clear. 4 (of a pain) indistinct; not acute (a dull ache). 5 slow-witted; stupid. 6 (of a knife-edge etc.) Blunt. 7 a (of trade etc.) Sluggish, slow. B listless; depressed. 8 (of the ears, eyes, etc.) Lacking keenness. —v. Make or become dull. dullness n. Dully adv. [low german or dutch]
Dullard n. Stupid person.
Duly adv. 1 in due time or manner. 2 rightly, properly.
Dumb adj. 1 a unable to speak. B (of an animal) naturally dumb. 2 silenced by surprise, shyness, etc. 3 taciturn, reticent (dumb insolence). 4 suffered or done in silence (dumb agony). 5 colloq. Stupid; ignorant. 6 disenfranchised; inarticulate (dumb masses). 7 (of a computer terminal etc.) Able to transmit or receive but unable to process data. 8 giving no sound. [old english]
Dumb-bell n. 1 short bar with a weight at each end, for muscle-building etc. 2
slang stupid person, esp. A woman.
Dumbfound v. Nonplus, make speechless with surprise. [from dumb, confound]
Dumbo n. (pl. -s) slang stupid person. [from dumb, -o]
Dumb show n. Gestures; mime.
Dumbstruck adj. Speechless with surprise.
Dumb waiter n. Small hand-operated lift for conveying food from kitchen to dining-room.
Dumdum n. (in full dumdum bullet) soft-nosed bullet that expands on impact. [dum-dum in india]
Dummy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 model of a human figure, esp. As used to display clothes or by a ventriloquist or as a target. 2 (often attrib.) Imitation object used to replace a real or normal one. 3 baby’s rubber or plastic teat. 4 colloq. Stupid person. 5 figurehead. 6 imaginary player in bridge etc., whose cards are exposed and played by a partner. —attrib. Adj.
Dummy run n. Trial attempt; rehearsal.
Dump —n. 1 place or heap for depositing rubbish. 2 colloq. Unpleasant or
dreary place. 3 temporary store of ammunition etc. —v. 1 put down firmly or clumsily. 2 deposit as rubbish. 3 colloq. Abandon or get rid of. 4 sell (excess goods) to a foreign market at a low price. 5 copy (the contents of a computer memory etc.) As a diagnostic aid or for security. dump on esp. Us criticize or abuse; get the better of. [origin uncertain]
Dumpling n. 1 ball of dough boiled in stew or containing apple etc. 2 small fat person. [dump small round object]
Dumps n.pl. (usu. In down in the dumps) colloq. Low spirits. [low german or dutch: related to *damp]
Dump truck n. Truck that tilts or opens at the back for unloading.
Dumpy adj. (-ier, -iest) short and stout. dumpily adv. Dumpiness n. [related to *dumpling]
Dun —adj. Greyish-brown. —n. 1 dun colour. 2 dun horse. [old english]
Dunce n. Person slow at learning; dullard. [duns scotus, name of a philosopher]
Dunce’s cap n. Paper cone worn by a dunce.
Dunderhead n. Stupid person. [origin unknown]
Dune n. Drift of sand etc. Formed by the wind. [dutch: related to *down3]
Dung —n. Excrement of animals; manure. —v. Apply dung to (land). [old english]
Dungaree n. 1 coarse cotton cloth. 2 (in pl.) Overalls or trousers of this. [hindi]
Dung-beetle n. Beetle whose larvae develop in dung.
Dungeon n. Underground prison cell. [earlier donjon keep of a castle; ultimately from latin dominus lord]
Dunghill n. Heap of dung or refuse.
Dunk v. 1 dip (food) into liquid before eating. 2 immerse. [german tunken dip]
Dunlin n. Red-backed sandpiper. [probably from *dun]
Dunnock n. Hedge sparrow. [apparently from *dun]
Duo n. (pl. -s) 1 pair of performers. 2 duet. [italian from latin, = two]
Duodecimal adj. 1 of twelfths or twelve. 2 in or by twelves. [latin duodecim twelve]
Duodenum n. (pl. -s) first part of the small intestine immediately below the stomach. duodenal adj. [medieval latin: related to *duodecimal]
Duologue n. Dialogue between two people. [from duo, monologue]
Dupe —n. Victim of deception. —v. (-ping) deceive, trick. [french]
Duple adj. Of two parts. [latin duplus]
Duple time n. Mus. Rhythm with two beats to the bar.
Duplex —n. (often attrib.) Esp. Us 1 flat on two floors. 2 house subdivided for two families; semi-detached house. —adj. 1 of two parts. 2 computing (of a circuit) allowing simultaneous two-way transmission of signals. [latin, = double]
Duplicate —adj. 1 identical. 2 a having two identical parts. B doubled. 3 (of card-games) with the same hands played by different players. —n. 1 identical thing, esp. A copy. 2 copy of a letter etc. —v. (-ting) 1 multiply by two; double. 2 make or be an exact copy of. 3 repeat (an action etc.), esp. Unnecessarily. in duplicate in two exact copies. duplication n. [latin: related to *duplex]
Duplicator n. Machine for making multiple copies of a text etc.
Duplicity n. Double-dealing; deceitfulness. duplicitous adj. [latin: related to *duplex]
Durable —adj. 1 lasting; hard-wearing. 2 (of goods) with a relatively long useful life. —n. (in pl.) Durable goods. durability n. [latin durus hard]
Dura mater n. Tough outermost membrane enveloping the brain and spinal cord. [medieval latin = hard mother, translation of arabic]
Duration n. 1 time taken by an event. 2 specified length of time (duration of a minute). for the duration 1 until the end of an event. 2 for a very long time. [medieval latin: related to *durable]
Duress n. 1 compulsion, esp. Illegal use of threats or violence (under duress). 2 imprisonment. [latin durus hard]
Durex n. Propr. Condom. [origin uncertain]
During prep. Throughout or at some point in. [latin: related to *durable]
Dust —n. 1 finely powdered earth or other material etc. (pollen dust). 2 dead person’s remains. 3 confusion, turmoil. —v. 1 wipe the dust from (furniture etc.). 2 a sprinkle with powder, sugar, etc. B sprinkle (sugar, powder, etc.). dust down 1 dust the clothes of. 2 colloq. Reprimand. 3 = dust off. Dust off 1 remove the dust from. 2 use again after a long period. When the dust settles when things quieten down. [old english]
Dustbin n. Container for household refuse.
Dust bowl n. Desert made by drought or erosion.
Dustcart n. Vehicle collecting household refuse.
Dust cover n. 1 = dust-sheet. 2 = dust-jacket.
Duster n. Cloth for dusting furniture etc.
Dust-jacket n. Paper cover on a hardback book.
Dustman n. Person employed to collect household refuse.
Dustpan n. Pan into which dust is brushed from the floor.
Dust-sheet n. Protective cloth over furniture.
Dust-up n. Colloq. Fight, disturbance.
Dusty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 full of or covered with dust. 2 (of a colour) dull or muted. not so dusty slang fairly good. dustily adv. Dustiness n.
Dusty answer n. Colloq. Curt refusal.
Dutch —adj. Of the netherlands or its people or language. —n. 1 the dutch language. 2 (prec. By the; treated as pl.) The people of the netherlands. go dutch share expenses on an outing etc. [dutch]
Dutch n. Slang wife. [abbreviation of *duchess]
Dutch auction n. One in which the price is progressively reduced.
Dutch barn n. Roof for hay etc., set on poles.
Dutch cap n. Dome-shaped contraceptive device fitting over the cervix.
Dutch courage n. Courage induced by alcohol.
Dutch elm disease n. Fungus disease of elms.
Dutchman n. (fem. Dutchwoman) person of dutch birth or nationality.
Dutch oven n. 1 metal box with the open side facing a fire. 2 covered cooking-pot for braising etc.
Dutch treat n. Party, outing, etc., at which people pay for themselves.
Duty n. (pl. -ies) 1 a moral or legal obligation; responsibility. B binding force of what is right. 2 tax on certain goods, imports, etc. 3 job or function arising from a business or office (playground duty). 4 deference; respect due to a superior. do duty for serve as or pass for (something else). On (or off) duty working (or not
working). [anglo-french: related to *due]
Duty-bound adj. Obliged by duty.
Duty-free adj. (of goods) on which duty is not payable.
Duty-free shop n. Shop at an airport etc. Selling duty-free goods.
Duvet n. Thick soft quilt used instead of sheets and blankets. [french]
Dwarf —n. (pl. -s or dwarves) 1 person, animal, or plant much below normal size. 2 small mythological being with magical powers. 3 small usu. Dense star. —v. 1 stunt in growth. 2 make seem small. dwarfish adj. [old english]
Usage in sense 1, with regard to people, the term person of restricted growth is now often preferred.
Dwell v. (past and past part. Dwelt or dwelled) live, reside. dwell on (or upon) think, write, or speak at length on. dweller n. [old english, = lead astray]
Dwelling n. House, residence.
Dwindle v. (-ling) 1 become gradually less or smaller. 2 lose importance. [old english]
Dy symb. Dysprosium.
Dye —n. 1 substance used to change the colour of hair, fabric, etc. 2 colour so produced. —v. (dyeing, dyed) 1 colour with dye. 2 dye a specified colour (dyed it yellow). dyer n. [old english]
Dyed-in-the-wool adj. (usu. Attrib.) Out and out; unchangeable.
Dying attrib. Adj. Of, or at the time of, death (dying words).
Dyke1 (also dike) —n. 1 embankment built to prevent flooding. 2 low wall of turf or stone. —v. (-king) provide or protect with dyke(s). [related to *ditch]
Dyke2 n. (also dike) slang lesbian. [origin unknown]
Dynamic adj. 1 energetic; active. 2 physics a of motive force. B of force in actual operation. 3 of dynamics. dynamically adv. [greek dunamis power]
Dynamics n.pl. 1 (usu. Treated as sing.) A mathematical study of motion and the forces causing it. B branch of any science concerned with forces or changes. 2 motive forces in any sphere. 3 mus. Variation in loudness.
Dynamism n. Energy; dynamic power.
Dynamite —n. 1 high explosive mixture containing nitroglycerine. 2 potentially dangerous person etc. —v. (-ting) charge or blow up with dynamite.
Dynamo n. (pl. -s) 1 machine converting mechanical into electrical energy, esp. By rotating coils of copper wire in a magnetic field. 2 colloq. Energetic person. [abbreviation of dynamo-electric machine]
Dynamometer n. Instrument measuring energy expended. [greek: related to *dynamic]
Dynast n. 1 ruler. 2 member of a dynasty. [latin from greek]
Dynasty n. (pl. -ies) 1 line of hereditary rulers. 2 succession of leaders in any field. dynastic adj. [latin from greek]
Dyne n. Physics force required to give a mass of one gram an acceleration of one centimetre per second per second. [greek dunamis force]
Dys-prefix bad, difficult. [greek]
Dysentery n. Inflammation of the intestines, causing severe diarrhoea. [greek entera bowels]
Dysfunction n. Abnormality or impairment of functioning.
Dysfunction n. Abnormality or impairment of functioning.
Dyslexia n. Abnormal difficulty in reading and spelling. dyslectic adj. & n. Dyslexic adj. & n. [greek lexis speech]
Dysmenorrhoea n. Painful or difficult menstruation.
Dyspepsia n. Indigestion. dyspeptic adj. & n. [greek peptos digested]
Dysphasia n. Lack of coordination in speech, owing to brain damage. [greek dusphatos hard to utter]
Dysprosium n. Metallic element of the lanthanide series. [greek dusprositos hard to get at]
Dystrophy n. Defective nutrition. [greek -trophe nourishment]
E
E1 n. (also e) (pl. Es or e’s) 1 fifth letter of the alphabet. 2 mus. Third note of the diatonic scale of c major.
E2 abbr. (also e.) 1 east, eastern. 2 see *enumber.
E-prefix see *ex-1 before some consonants.
Each —adj. Every one of two or more persons or things, regarded separately (five in each class). —pron. Each person or thing (each of us). [old english]
Each other pron. One another.
Each way adj. (of a bet) backing a horse etc. To win or to come second or third.
Eager adj. Keen, enthusiastic (eager to learn; eager for news). eagerly adv. Eagerness n. [latin acer keen]
Eager beaver n. Colloq. Very diligent person.
Eagle n. 1 a large bird of prey with keen vision and powerful flight. B this as a symbol, esp. Of the us. 2 score of two strokes under par at any hole in golf. [latin
symbol, esp. Of the us. 2 score of two strokes under par at any hole in golf. [latin aquila]
Eagle eye n. Keen sight, watchfulness. eagle-eyed adj.
Eaglet n. Young eagle.
E. & o. E. Abbr. Errors and omissions excepted.
Ear1 n. 1 organ of hearing, esp. Its external part. 2 faculty for discriminating sounds (an ear for music). 3 attention, esp. Sympathetic (give ear to; have a person’s ear). all ears listening attentively. Have (or keep) an ear to the ground be alert to rumours or trends. Up to one’s ears (often foll. By in) colloq. Deeply involved or occupied. [old english]
Ear2 n. Seed-bearing head of a cereal plant. [old english]
Earache n. Pain in the inner ear.
Eardrum n. Membrane of the middle ear.
Earful n. (pl. -s) colloq. 1 prolonged amount of talking. 2 strong reprimand.
Earl n. British nobleman ranking between marquis and viscount. earldom n. [old english]
Earl marshal n. President of the college of heralds, with ceremonial duties.
Early —adj. & adv. (-ier, -iest) 1 before the due, usual, or expected time. 2 a not far on in the day or night, or in time (early evening; at the earliest opportunity). B prompt (early payment appreciated). 3 not far on in a period, development, or process of evolution; being the first stage (early english architecture; early spring). 4 forward in flowering, ripening, etc. (early peaches). —n. (pl. -ies) (usu. In pl.) Early fruit or vegetable. earliness n. [old english: related to *ere]
Early bird n. Colloq. Person who arrives, gets up, etc. Early.
Early days n.pl. Too soon to expect results etc.
Early on adv. At an early stage.
Earmark —v. Set aside for a special purpose. —n. Identifying mark.
Earn v. 1 bring in as income or interest. 2 be entitled to or obtain as the reward for work or merit. earner n. [old english]
Earnest adj. Intensely serious. in earnest serious, seriously, with determination. earnestly adv. Earnestness n. [old english]
Earnings n.pl. Money earned.
Earnings n.pl. Money earned.
Earphone n. Device applied to the ear to receive a radio etc. Communication.
Earpiece n. Part of a telephone etc. Applied to the ear.
Ear-piercing —adj. Shrill. —n. Piercing of the ears for wearing earrings.
Earplug n. Piece of wax etc. Placed in the ear to protect against water, noise, etc.
Earring n. Jewellery worn on the ear.
Earshot n. Hearing-range (within earshot).
Ear-splitting adj. Excessively loud.
Earth —n. 1 a (also earth) the planet on which we live. B land and sea, as distinct from sky. 2 a the ground (fell to earth). B soil, mould. 3 relig. This world, as distinct from heaven or hell. 4 connection to the earth as the completion of an electrical circuit. 5 hole of a fox etc. 6 (prec. By the) colloq. Huge sum; everything (cost the earth; want the earth). —v. 1 cover (plant-roots) with earth. 2 connect (an electrical circuit) to the earth. come back (or down) to earth return to realities. Gone to earth in hiding. On earth colloq. Existing anywhere; emphatically (the happiest man on earth; looked like nothing on earth; what on earth have you done?). Run to earth find after a long search.
Earthbound adj. 1 attached to the earth or earthly things. 2 moving towards the earth.
Earthen adj. Made of earth or baked clay.
Earthenware n. Pottery made of fired clay.
Earthling n. Inhabitant of the earth, esp. In science fiction.
Earthly adj. 1 of the earth or human life on it; terrestrial. 2 (usu. With neg.) Colloq. Remotely possible (is no earthly use; there wasn’t an earthly reason). not an earthly colloq. No chance or idea whatever.
Earth mother n. Sensual and maternal woman.
Earthquake n. Convulsion of the earth’s surface as a result of faults in strata or volcanic action.
Earth sciences n.pl. Those concerned with the earth or part of it.
Earthwork n. Artificial bank of earth in fortification or road-building etc.
Earthworm n. Common worm living in the ground.
Earthy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like earth or soil. 2 coarse, crude (earthy humour).
earthiness n.
Ear-trumpet n. Trumpet-shaped device formerly used as a hearing-aid.
Earwig n. Small insect with pincers at its rear end. [from *ear1, because they were once thought to enter the head through the ear]
Ease —n. 1 facility, effortlessness. 2 a freedom from pain or trouble. B freedom from constraint. —v. (-sing) 1 relieve from pain or anxiety. 2 (often foll. By off, up) a become less burdensome or severe. B begin to take it easy. C slow down; moderate one’s behaviour etc. 3 a relax; slacken; make a less tight fit. B move or be moved carefully into place (eased it into position). at ease 1 free from anxiety or constraint. 2 mil. In a relaxed attitude, with the feet apart. [latin: related to *adjacent]
Easel n. Stand for an artist’s work, a blackboard, etc. [dutch ezel ass]
Easement n. Legal right of way or similar right over another’s land. [french:
related to *ease]
Easily adv. 1 without difficulty. 2 by far (easily the best). 3 very probably (it could easily snow).
East —n. 1 a point of the horizon where the sun rises at the equinoxes. B compass point corresponding to this. C direction in which this lies. 2 (usu. The east) a countries to the east of europe. B states of eastern europe. 3 eastern part of a country, town, etc. —adj. 1 towards, at, near, or facing the east. 2 from the east (east wind). —adv. 1 towards, at, or near the east. 2 (foll. By of) further east than. to the east (often foll. By of) in an easterly direction. [old english]
Eastbound adj. Travelling or leading eastwards.
East end n. Part of london east of the city. east ender n.
Easter n. Festival (held on a variable sunday in march or april) commemorating christ’s resurrection. [old english]
Easter egg n. Artificial usu. Chocolate egg given at easter.
Easterly —adj. & adv. 1 in an eastern position or direction. 2 (of a wind) from the east. —n. (pl. -ies) such a wind.
Eastern adj. Of or in the east. easternmost adj.
Eastern church n. Orthodox church.
Easterner n. Native or inhabitant of the east.
East-north-east n. Point or direction midway between east and north-east.
East-south-east n. Point or direction midway between east and south-east.
Eastward —adj. & adv. (also eastwards) towards the east. —n. Eastward direction or region.
Easy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 not difficult; not requiring great effort. 2 free from pain, trouble, or anxiety. 3 free from constraint; relaxed and pleasant. 4 compliant. —adv. With ease; in an effortless or relaxed manner. —int. Go or move carefully. easy on the eye (or ear etc.) Colloq. Pleasant to look at (or listen to etc.). Go easy (foll. By with, on) be sparing or cautious. I’m easy colloq. I have no preference. Take it easy 1 proceed gently. 2 relax; work less. easiness n. [french: related to *ease]
Easy chair n. Large comfortable armchair.
Easygoing adj. Placid and tolerant.
Easy street n. Colloq. Affluence.
Eat —v. (past ate; past part. Eaten) 1 a take into the mouth, chew, and swallow (food). B consume food; take a meal. C devour (eaten by a lion). 2 (foll. By away, at, into) a destroy gradually, esp. By corrosion, disease, etc. B begin to consume or diminish (resources etc.). 3 colloq. Trouble, vex (what’s eating you?). —n. (in pl.) Colloq. Food. eat one’s heart out suffer from excessive longing or envy. Eat out have a meal away from home, esp. In a restaurant. Eat up 1 eat completely.
Eatable —adj. Fit to be eaten. —n. (usu. In pl.) Food.
Eater n. 1 person who eats (a big eater). 2 eating apple etc.
Eating apple etc. N. Apple etc. Suitable for eating raw.
Eau-de-cologne n. Toilet water orig. From cologne. [french, = water of cologne]
Eaves n.pl. Underside of a projecting roof. [old english]
Eavesdrop v. (-pp-) listen to a private conversation. eavesdropper n.
Ebb —n. Movement of the tide out to sea. —v. (often foll. By away) 1 flow out to sea; recede. 2 decline (life was ebbing away). [old english]
Ebonite n. Vulcanite. [from *ebony]
Ebony —n. Heavy hard dark wood of a tropical tree. —adj. 1 made of ebony. 2
Ebony —n. Heavy hard dark wood of a tropical tree. —adj. 1 made of ebony. 2 black like ebony. [greek ebenos ebony tree]
Ebullient adj. Exuberant. ebullience n. Ebulliency n. Ebulliently adv. [latin:
related to *boil1]
Ec abbr. 1 east central. 2 european community.
Eccentric —adj. 1 odd or capricious in behaviour or appearance. 2 (also excentric) a not placed, not having its axis placed, centrally. B (often foll. By to) (of a circle) not concentric (to another). C (of an orbit) not circular. —n. 1 eccentric person. 2 disc at the end of a shaft for changing rotatory into backward-and-forward motion. eccentrically adv. Eccentricity n. [greek: related to *centre]
Eccles cake n. Round cake of pastry filled with currants etc. [eccles in n. England]
Echelon n. 1 level in an organization, in society, etc.; those occupying it (often in
pl.: upper echelons). 2 wedge-shaped formation of troops, aircraft, etc. [french, = ladder, from latin scala]
Echidna n. Australian egg-laying spiny mammal. [greek, = viper]
Echinoderm n. (usu. Spiny) sea animal of the group including the starfish and sea urchin. [greek ekhinos sea-urchin, derma skin]
Echo —n. (pl. -es) 1 a repetition of a sound by the reflection of sound waves. B sound so produced. 2 reflected radio or radar beam. 3 close imitation or imitator. 4 circumstance or event reminiscent of an earlier one. —v. (-es, -ed) 1 a (of a place) resound with an echo. B (of a sound) be repeated; resound. 2 repeat (a sound) thus. 3 a repeat (another’s words). B imitate the opinions etc. Of. [latin from greek]
Echo chamber n. Enclosure with sound-reflecting walls.
Echoic adj. (of a word) onomatopoeic.
Echolocation n. Location of objects by reflected sound.
Echo-sounder n. Depth-sounding device using timed echoes. Echt adj. Genuine. [german]
Éclair n. Small elongated iced cake of choux pastry filled with cream. [french, = lightning]
Eclampsia n. Convulsive condition occurring esp. In pregnant women. [ultimately from greek]
Éclat n. 1 brilliant display. 2 social distinction; conspicuous success. [french]
Eclectic —adj. Selecting ideas, style, etc., from various sources. —n. Eclectic person or philosopher. eclectically adv. Eclecticism n. [greek eklego pick out]
Eclipse —n. 1 obscuring of light from one heavenly body by another. 2 loss of light, importance, or prominence. —v. (-sing) 1 (of a heavenly body) cause the eclipse of (another). 2 intercept (light). 3 outshine, surpass. [greek ekleipsis]
Ecliptic n. Sun’s apparent path among the stars during the year.
Eclogue n. Short pastoral poem. [greek: related to *eclectic]
Eco-comb. Form ecology, ecological (ecoclimate).
Ecology n. 1 the study of the relations of organisms to one another and to their surroundings. 2 the study of the interaction of people with their environment. ecological adj. Ecologically adv. Ecologist n. [greek oikos house]
Economic adj. 1 of economics. 2 profitable (not economic to run buses on a sunday). 3 connected with trade and industry (economic geography). economically adv. [greek: related to *economy]
Economics n.pl. (as sing.) 1 science of the production and distribution of wealth.
2 application of this to a particular subject (the economics of publishing).
Economist n. Expert on or student of economics.
Economize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 be economical; make economies; reduce expenditure. 2 (foll. By on) use sparingly.
Economy n. (pl. -ies) 1 a community’s system of wealth creation. B particular kind of this (a capitalist economy). C administration or condition of this. 2 a careful management of (esp. Financial) resources; frugality. B instance of this (made many economies). 3 sparing or careful use (economy of language). [greek oikonomia household management]
Economy class n. Cheapest class of air travel.
Economy-size adj. (of goods) consisting of a larger quantity for a proportionally lower cost.
Ecosystem n. Biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.
Ecstasy n. (pl. -ies) 1 overwhelming joy or rapture. 2 slang type of hallucinogenic drug. ecstatic adj. Ecstatically adv. [greek ekstasis standing outside oneself]
Ect abbr. Electroconvulsive therapy.
Ecto-comb. Form outside. [greek ektos]
Ectomorph n. Person with a lean body. [greek morphe form]
-ectomy comb. Form denoting the surgical removal of part of the body (appendectomy). [greek ektome excision]
Ectoplasm n. Supposed viscous substance exuding from the body of a spiritualistic medium during a trance. [from *ecto-, *plasma]
Ecu n. (also ecu) (pl. -s) european currency unit. [abbreviation]
Ecumenical adj. 1 of or representing the whole christian world. 2 seeking worldwide christian unity. ecumenically adv. Ecumenism n. [greek oikoumenikos of the inhabited earth]
oikoumenikos of the inhabited earth]
Eczema n. Inflammation of the skin, with itching and discharge. [latin from greek]
-ed1 suffix forming adjectives: 1 from nouns, meaning ‘having, wearing, etc.’ (talented; trousered). 2 from phrases of adjective and noun (good-humoured). [old english]
-ed2 suffix forming: 1 past tense and past participle of weak verbs (needed). 2 participial adjectives (escaped prisoner). [old english]
Edam n. Round dutch cheese with a red rind. [edam in holland]
Eddy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 circular movement of water causing a small whirlpool. 2 movement of wind, smoke, etc. Resembling this. —v. (-ies, -ied) whirl round in eddies. [old english ed-again, back]
Edelweiss n. Alpine plant with white flowers. [german, = noble-white]
Edema n. (brit. Oedema) accumulation of excess fluid in body tissues, causing swelling. [greek oideo swell]
Eden n. Place or state of great happiness, with reference to the abode of adam and eve at the creation. [hebrew, originally = delight]
Edentate —adj. Having no or few teeth. —n. Such a mammal. [latin dens dent-tooth]
Edge —n. 1 boundary-line or margin of an area or surface. 2 narrow surface of a thin object. 3 meeting-line of surfaces. 4 a sharpened side of a blade. B sharpness. 5 brink of a precipice. 6 edge-like thing, esp. The crest of a ridge. 7 effectiveness, incisiveness; excitement. —v. (-ging) 1 advance, esp. Gradually or furtively. 2 a provide with an edge or border. B form a border to. 3 sharpen (a tool etc.). have the edge on (or over) have a slight advantage over. On edge tense and irritable. Set a person’s teeth on edge (of taste or sound) cause an unpleasant nervous sensation. Take the edge off make less intense. [old english]
Edgeways adv. (also edgewise) with edge uppermost or foremost. get a word in edgeways contribute to a conversation when the dominant speaker pauses.
Edging n. Thing forming an edge or border.
Edgy adj. (-ier, -iest) irritable; anxious. edgily adv. Edginess n.
Edible adj. Fit to be eaten. edibility n. [latin edo eat]
Edict n. Order proclaimed by authority. [latin edico proclaim]
Edifice n. Building, esp. An imposing one. [latin aedis dwelling]
Edify v. (-ies, -ied) improve morally or intellectually. edification n. [latin aedifico build]
Edit v. (-t-) 1 assemble, prepare, or modify (written material for publication). 2 be editor of (a newspaper etc.). 3 take extracts from and collate (a film etc.) To form a unified sequence. 4 a prepare (data) for processing by a computer. B alter (a text entered in a word processor etc.). 5 a reword in order to correct, or to alter the emphasis. B (foll. By out) remove (a part) from a text etc. [latin edo edit-give out]
Edition n. 1 edited or published form of a book etc. 2 copies of a book, newspaper, etc. Issued at one time. 3 instance of a regular broadcast. 4 person or thing similar to another (a miniature edition of her mother).
Editor n. 1 person who edits. 2 person who directs the preparation of a newspaper or broadcast news programme or a particular section of one (sports editor). 3 person who selects or commissions material for publication. 4 computer program for entering and modifying textual data. editorship n.
Editorial —adj. 1 of editing or editors. 2 written or approved by an editor. —n.
Article giving a newspaper’s views on a current topic. editorially adv.
Edp abbr. Electronic data processing.
Educate v. (-ting) 1 give intellectual, moral, and social instruction to. 2 provide
education for. educable adj. Educability n. Educative adj. Educator n. [latin educo -are rear]
Educated adj. 1 having had an (esp. Good) education. 2 resulting from this (educated accent). 3 based on experience or study (educated guess).
Education n. 1 systematic instruction. 2 particular kind of or stage in education (a classical education; further education). 3 development of character or mental powers. educational adj. Educationally adv.
Educationist n. (also educationalist) expert in educational methods.
Educe v. (-cing) literary bring out or develop from latency. eduction n. [latin educo -ere draw out]
Edwardian —adj. Of or characteristic of the reign of edward vii (1901–10). —n.
Person of this period.
-ee suffix forming nouns denoting: 1 person affected by the verbal action (employee; payee). 2 person concerned with or described as (absentee; refugee). 3 object of smaller size (bootee). [french -é in past part.]
Eec abbr. European economic community.
Usage ec is the more correct term.
Eeg abbr. Electroencephalogram.
Eel n. Snakelike fish. [old english]
-eer suffix forming: 1 nouns meaning ‘person concerned with’ (auctioneer). 2 verbs meaning ‘be concerned with’ (electioneer). [french -ier from latin -arius]
Eerie adj. (eerier, eeriest) gloomy and strange; weird (eerie silence). eerily adv. Eeriness n. [old english]
Ef-see *ex-1.
Efface v. (-cing) 1 rub or wipe out (a mark, recollection, etc.). 2 surpass, eclipse. 3 refl. (usu. As self-effacing adj.) Treat oneself as unimportant. effacement n. [french: related to *face]
Effect —n. 1 result or consequence of an action etc. 2 efficacy (had little effect). 3 impression produced on a spectator, hearer, etc. (lights gave a pretty effect; said it just for effect). 4 (in pl.) Property. 5 (in pl.) Lighting, sound, etc., giving realism to a play, film, etc. 6 physical phenomenon (doppler effect; greenhouse effect). —v. Bring about (a change, cure, etc.). bring (or carry) into effect accomplish. Give effect to make operative. In effect for practical purposes. Take effect become operative. To the effect that the gist being that. To that effect having that result or implication. With effect from coming into operation at (a stated time). [latin: related to *fact]
Usage effect should not be confused with affect which, as a verb, has more
meanings and is more common, but which does not exist as a noun.
Effective adj. 1 producing the intended result. 2 impressive, striking. 3 actual, existing. 4 operative. effectively adv. Effectiveness n.
Effeminate adj. (of a man) womanish in appearance or manner. effeminacy n. Effeminately adv. [latin femina woman]
Effervesce v. (-cing) 1 give off bubbles of gas. 2 be lively. effervescence n. Effervescent adj. [latin: related to *fervent]
Effete adj. Feeble, lanquid; effeminate. effeteness n. [latin]
Efficacious adj. Producing the desired effect. efficacy n. [latin efficax: related to *efficient]
Efficient adj. 1 productive with minimum waste or effort. 2 (of a person) capable; acting effectively. efficiency n. Efficiently adv. [latin facio make]
Effigy n. (pl. -ies) sculpture or model of a person. burn in effigy burn a model of a person. [latin effigies from fingo fashion]
Effloresce v. (-cing) 1 burst into flower. 2 a (of a substance) turn to a fine powder on exposure to air. B (of salts) come to the surface and crystallize. C (of a surface) become covered with salt particles. efflorescence n. Efflorescent adj. [latin flos flor- *flower]
Effluence n. 1 flowing out of light, electricity, etc. 2 that which flows out. [latin fluo flux-flow]
Effluent —adj. Flowing out. —n. 1 sewage or industrial waste discharged into a river etc. 2 stream or lake flowing from a larger body of water.
Effluvium n. (pl. -via) unpleasant or noxious outflow. [latin: related to *effluence]
Effort n. 1 use of physical or mental energy. 2 determined attempt. 3 force exerted. 4 colloq. Something accomplished. [latin fortis strong]
Effortless adj. Easily done, requiring no effort. effortlessly adv. Effortlessness n.
Effrontery n. (pl. -ies) impudent audacity. [latin frons front-forehead]
Effulgent adj. Literary radiant. effulgence n. [latin fulgeo shine]
Effuse v. (-sing) 1 pour forth (liquid, light, etc.). 2 give out (ideas etc.). [latin fundo fus-pour]
Effusion n. 1 outpouring. 2 derog. Unrestrained flow of words. [latin: related to *effuse]
Effusive adj. Gushing, demonstrative. effusively adv. Effusiveness n.
Efl abbr. English as a foreign language.
Eft n. Newt. [old english]
Efta n. (also efta) european free trade association. [abbreviation]
E.g. Abbr. For example. [latin exempli gratia]
Egalitarian —adj. Of or advocating equal rights for all. —n. Egalitarian person. egalitarianism n. [french égal *equal]
Egg1 n. 1 a body produced by females of birds, insects, etc. And capable of developing into a new individual. B egg of the domestic hen, used for food. 2 biol. Ovum. 3 colloq. Person or thing of a specified kind (good egg). with egg on one’s face colloq.
Egg2 v. (foll. By on) urge. [old norse: related to *edge]
Eggcup n. Cup for holding a boiled egg.
Eggcup n. Cup for holding a boiled egg.
Egg-flip n. (also egg-nog) drink of alcoholic spirit with beaten egg, milk, etc.
Egghead n. Colloq. Intellectual; expert.
Eggplant n. = *aubergine.
Eggshell —n. Shell of an egg. —adj. 1 (of china) thin and fragile. 2 (of paint) with a slight gloss.
Egg-white n. White part round the yolk of an egg.
Eglantine n. Sweetbrier. [latin acus needle]
Ego n. (pl. -s) 1 the self; the part of the mind that reacts to reality and has a sense of individuality. 2 self-esteem; self-conceit. [latin, = i]
Egocentric adj. Self-centred.
Egoism n. 1 self-interest as the moral basis of behaviour. 2 systematic selfishness. 3 = *egotism. egoist n. Egoistic adj. Egoistical adj. Egoistically adv.
Usage the senses of egoism and egotism overlap, but egoism alone is used as a term in philosophy and psychology to mean self-interest (often contrasted with altruism).
Egotism n. 1 self-conceit. 2 selfishness. egotist n. Egotistic adj. Egotistical adj.
Egotistically adv.
Usage see note at egoism.
Ego-trip n. Colloq. Activity to boost one’s own self-esteem or self-conceit.
Egress n. Formal 1 exit. 2 right of going out. [latin egredior -gress-walk out]
Egret n. A kind of heron with long white feathers. [french aigrette]
Egyptian —adj. Of egypt. —n. 1 native of egypt. 2 language of the ancient egyptians.
Egyptology n. The study of the language, history, and culture of ancient egypt.
egyptologist n.
Eh int. Colloq. 1 expressing enquiry or surprise. 2 inviting assent. 3 asking for
Eh int. Colloq. 1 expressing enquiry or surprise. 2 inviting assent. 3 asking for repetition or explanation. [instinctive exclamation]
Eider n. Any of various large northern ducks. [icelandic]
Eiderdown n. Quilt stuffed with soft material, esp. Down.
Eight adj. & n. 1 one more than seven. 2 symbol for this (8, viii, viii). 3 size etc. Denoted by eight. 4 eight-oared rowing-boat or its crew. 5 eight o’clock. [old english]
Eighteen adj. & n. 1 one more than seventeen. 2 symbol for this (18, xviii, xviii). 3 size etc. Denoted by eighteen. 4 (18) (of films) suitable only for persons of 18 years and over. eighteenth adj. & n. [old english]
Eightfold adj. & adv. 1 eight times as much or as many. 2 consisting of eight parts.
Eighth adj. & n. 1 next after seventh. 2 one of eight equal parts of a thing.
eighthly adv.
Eightsome n. (in full eightsome reel) lively scottish dance for eight people.
Eighty adj. & n. (pl. -ies) 1 eight times ten. 2 symbol for this (80, lxxx, lxxx). 3 (in pl.) Numbers from 80 to 89, esp. The years of a century or of a person’s life. eightieth adj. & n. [old english]
Einsteinium n. Artificial radioactive metallic element. [einstein, name of a physicist]
Eisteddfod n. Congress of welsh poets and musicians; festival for musical competitions etc. [welsh]
Either —adj. & pron. 1 one or the other of two (either of you can go; you may have either book). 2 each of two (houses on either side of the road). —adv. & conj. 1 as one possibility (is either right or wrong). 2 as one choice or alternative; which way you will (either come in or go out). 3 (with neg.) A any more than the other (if you do not go, i shall not either). B moreover (there is no time to lose, either). [old english]
Ejaculate v. (-ting) (also absol.) 1 exclaim. 2 emit (semen) in orgasm. ejaculation n. Ejaculatory adj. [latin ejaculor dart out]
Eject v. 1 expel, compel to leave. 2 (of a pilot etc.) Cause oneself to be propelled from an aircraft as an emergency measure. 3 cause to be removed, drop out, or pop up automatically from a gun, cassette-player, etc. 4 dispossess (a tenant). 5 emit, send out. ejection n. [latin ejicio eject-throw out]
Ejector n. Device for ejecting.
Ejector seat n. Device in an aircraft for the emergency ejection of a pilot etc.
Eke v. (eking) eke out 1 supplement (income etc.). 2 make (a living) or support
(an existence) with difficulty. [old english]
Elaborate —adj. 1 minutely worked out. 2 complicated. —v. (-ting) work out or explain in detail. elaborately adv. Elaborateness n. Elaboration n. [latin: related to *labour]
Élan n. Vivacity, dash. [french]
Eland n. (pl. Same or -s) large african antelope. [dutch]
Elastic —adj. 1 able to resume its normal bulk or shape after contraction, dilation, or distortion. 2 springy. 3 flexible, adaptable. —n. Elastic cord or fabric, usu. Woven with strips of rubber. elastically adv. Elasticity n. [greek elastikos propulsive]
Elasticated adj. (of fabric) made elastic by weaving with rubber thread.
Elastic band n. = *rubber band.
Elastomer n. Natural or synthetic rubber or rubber-like plastic. [from *elastic, after isomer]
Elate v. (-ting) (esp. As elated adj.) Make delighted or proud. elatedly adv. Elation n. [latin effero elat-raise]
Elbow —n. 1 a joint between the forearm and the upper arm. B part of a sleeve covering the elbow. 2 elbow-shaped bend etc. —v. (foll. By in, out, aside, etc.) 1 jostle or thrust (a person or oneself). 2 make (one’s way) thus. give a person the elbow colloq. Dismiss or reject a person. [old english: related to ell, bow1]
Elbow-grease n. Colloq. Vigorous polishing; hard work.
Elbow-room n. Sufficient room to move or work in.
Elder1 —attrib. Adj. (of persons, esp. When related) senior; of greater age. —n. 1 older of two persons (is my elder by ten years). 2 (in pl.) Persons of greater age or venerable because of age. 3 official in the early christian church and some modern churches. [old english: related to *old]
Elder2 n. Tree with white flowers and dark berries. [old english]
Elderberry n. (pl. -ies) berry of the elder tree.
Elderly adj. Rather old; past middle age.
Elder statesman n. Influential experienced older person, esp. A politician.
Eldest adj. First-born; oldest surviving.
Eldorado n. (pl. -s) 1 imaginary land of great wealth. 2 place of abundance or opportunity. [spanish el dorado the gilded]
Elecampane n. Plant with bitter aromatic leaves and roots. [latin enula this plant, campana of the fields]
Elect —v. (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) 1 choose. 2 choose by voting. —adj. 1 chosen. 2 select, choice. 3 (after the noun) chosen but not yet in office (president elect). [latin eligo elect-pick out]
Election n. 1 electing or being elected. 2 occasion of this.
Electioneer v. Take part in an election campaign.
Elective adj. 1 chosen by or derived from election. 2 (of a body) having the power to elect. 3 optional, not urgently necessary.
Elector n. 1 person who has the right to vote in an election. 2 (elector) hist. (in the holy roman empire) any of the german princes entitled to elect the emperor. electoral adj.
Electorate n. 1 body of all electors. 2 hist. Office or territories of a german
Electorate n. 1 body of all electors. 2 hist. Office or territories of a german elector.
Electric —adj. 1 of, worked by, or charged with electricity; producing or capable of generating electricity. 2 causing or charged with excitement. —n. (in pl.) Colloq. Electrical equipment. [greek elektron amber]
Electrical adj. Of electricity. electrically adv.
Electric blanket n. Blanket heated by an internal electric element.
Electric chair n. Electrified chair used for capital punishment.
Electric eel n. Eel-like fish able to give an electric shock.
Electric eye n. Colloq. Photoelectric cell operating a relay when a beam of light is broken.
Electric fire n. Electrically operated portable domestic heater.
Electric guitar n. Guitar with a solid body and built-in pick-up rather than a soundbox.
Electrician n. Person who installs or maintains electrical equipment for a living.
Electricity n. 1 form of energy occurring in elementary particles (electrons, protons, etc.) And hence in larger bodies containing them. 2 science of electricity. 3 supply of electricity. 4 excitement.
Electric shock n. Effect of a sudden discharge of electricity through the body of a person etc.
Electrify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 charge with electricity. 2 convert to the use of electric power. 3 cause sudden excitement (news was electrifying). electrification n.
Electro-comb. Form of, by, or caused by electricity.
Electrocardiogram n. Record traced by an electrocardiograph. [german: related to *electro-]
Electrocardiograph n. Instrument recording the electric currents generated by a heartbeat.
Electroconvulsive adj. (of therapy) using convulsive response to electric shocks.
Electrocute v. (-ting) kill by electric shock. electrocution n. [from *electro-, after execute]
Electrode n. Conductor through which electricity enters or leaves an electrolyte, gas, vacuum, etc. [from *electric, greek hodos way]
Electrodynamics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) The study of electricity in motion.
electrodynamic adj.
Electroencephalogram n. Record traced by an electroencephalograph. [german:
related to *electro-]
Electroencephalograph n. Instrument that records the electrical activity of the brain.
Electrolyse v. (us -yze) (-sing, us -zing) subject to or treat by electrolysis.
Electrolysis n. 1 chemical decomposition by electric action. 2 destruction of tumours, hair-roots, etc., by this process. electrolytic adj.
Electrolyte n. 1 solution able to conduct electricity, esp. In an electric cell or battery. 2 substance that can dissolve to produce this.
Electrolyze v. (brit. -yse) (-zing, brit. -sing) subject to or treat by electrolysis.
Electromagnet n. Soft metal core made into a magnet by passing an electric current through a coil surrounding it.
Electromagnetic adj. Having both electrical and magnetic properties.
electromagnetically adv.
Electromagnetism n. 1 magnetic forces produced by electricity. 2 the study of these.
Electromotive adj. Producing or tending to produce an electric current.
Electromotive force n. Force set up in an electric circuit by a difference in potential.
Electron n. Stable elementary particle with a charge of negative electricity, found in all atoms and acting as the primary carrier of electricity in solids.
Electronic adj. 1 a produced by or involving the flow of electrons. B of electrons or electronics. 2 (of music) produced by electronic means and usu. Recorded on tape. electronically adv.
Electronic mail n. The sending of messages by a computer system; such messages.
Electronics n.pl. (treated as sing.) Science of the movement of electrons in a vacuum, gas, semiconductor, etc., esp. In devices in which the flow is controlled and utilized.
Electronic tagging n. The attaching of electronic markers to people or goods, enabling them to be tracked down.
Electron lens n. Device for focusing a stream of electrons by means of electric or magnetic fields.
Electron microscope n. Microscope with high magnification and resolution, using electron beams instead of light.
Electronvolt n. A unit of energy, the amount gained by an electron when accelerated through a potential difference of one volt.
Electroplate —v. (-ting) coat with a thin layer of chromium, silver, etc., by electrolysis. —n. Electroplated articles.
Electroscope n. Instrument for detecting and measuring electricity, esp. As an indication of the ionization of air by radioactivity. electroscopic adj.
Electro-shock attrib. Adj. (of therapy) by means of electric shocks.
Electrostatics n.pl. (treated as sing.) The study of electricity at rest.
Electrotechnology n. Science of the application of electricity in technology.
Electrotherapy n. Treatment of diseases by use of electricity.
Elegant adj. 1 tasteful, refined, graceful. 2 ingeniously simple. elegance n. Elegantly adv. [latin: related to *elect]
Elegiac —adj. 1 used for elegies. 2 mournful. —n. (in pl.) Elegiac verses.
elegiacally adv.
Elegy n. (pl. -ies) 1 sorrowful poem or song, esp. For the dead. 2 poem in elegiac metre. [latin from greek]
Element n. 1 component part; contributing factor. 2 any of the substances that cannot be resolved by chemical means into simpler substances. 3 a any of the four substances (earth, water, air, and fire) in ancient and medieval philosophy. B a being’s natural abode or environment. 4 electr. Wire that heats up in an electric heater, kettle, etc. 5 (in pl.) Atmospheric agencies, esp. Wind and storm. 6 (in pl.) Rudiments of learning or of an art etc. 7 (in pl.) Bread and wine of the eucharist. in one’s element in one’s preferred situation, doing what one does well and enjoys. [french from latin]
Elemental adj. 1 of or like the elements or the forces of nature; powerful. 2 essential, basic.
Elementary adj. 1 dealing with the simplest facts of a subject. 2 unanalysable.
Elementary particle n. Physics subatomic particle, esp. One not known to consist of simpler ones.
Elephant n. (pl. Same or -s) largest living land animal, with a trunk and ivory tusks. [greek elephas]
Elephantiasis n. Skin disease causing gross enlargement of limbs etc.
Elephantine adj. 1 of elephants. 2 a huge. B clumsy.
Elevate v. (-ting) 1 raise, lift up. 2 exalt in rank etc. 3 (usu. As elevated adj.) Raise morally or intellectually. [latin levo lift]
Elevation n. 1 a elevating or being elevated. B angle with the horizontal. C height above sea level etc. D high position. 2 drawing or diagram showing one side of a building.
Elevator n. 1 us lift. 2 movable part of a tailplane for changing an aircraft’s altitude. 3 hoisting machine.
Eleven adj. & n. 1 one more than ten. 2 symbol for this (11, xi, xi). 3 size etc. Denoted by eleven. 4 team of eleven players at cricket, football, etc. 5 eleven o’clock. [old english]
Elevenfold adj. & adv. 1 eleven times as much or as many. 2 consisting of eleven parts.
Eleven-plus n. Esp. Hist. Examination taken at age 11–12 to determine the type of secondary school a child would enter.
Elevenses n. Colloq. Light refreshment taken at about 11 a.m.
Eleventh adj. & n. 1 next after tenth. 2 each of eleven equal parts of a thing.
eleventh hour last possible moment.
Elf n. (pl. Elves) mythological being, esp. One that is small and mischievous. elfish adj. Elvish adj. [old english]
Elfin adj. Of elves; elflike.
Elicit v. (-t-) draw out (facts, a response, etc.), esp. With difficulty. [latin elicio]
Elide v. (-ding) omit (a vowel or syllable) in pronunciation. [latin elido elis-crush out]
Eligible adj. 1 (often foll. By for) fit or entitled to be chosen (eligible for a rebate). 2 desirable or suitable, esp. For marriage. eligibility n. [latin: related to *elect]
Electroplate —v. (-ting) coat with a thin layer of chromium, silver, etc., by electrolysis. —n. Electroplated articles.
electrolysis. —n. Electroplated articles.
Electroscope n. Instrument for detecting and measuring electricity, esp. As an indication of the ionization of air by radioactivity. electroscopic adj.
Electro-shock attrib. Adj. (of therapy) by means of electric shocks.
Electrostatics n.pl. (treated as sing.) The study of electricity at rest.
Electrotechnology n. Science of the application of electricity in technology.
Electrotherapy n. Treatment of diseases by use of electricity.
Elegant adj. 1 tasteful, refined, graceful. 2 ingeniously simple. elegance n. Elegantly adv. [latin: related to *elect]
Elegiac —adj. 1 used for elegies. 2 mournful. —n. (in pl.) Elegiac verses.
elegiacally adv.
Elegy n. (pl. -ies) 1 sorrowful poem or song, esp. For the dead. 2 poem in elegiac metre. [latin from greek]
Element n. 1 component part; contributing factor. 2 any of the substances that
cannot be resolved by chemical means into simpler substances. 3 a any of the four substances (earth, water, air, and fire) in ancient and medieval philosophy. B a being’s natural abode or environment. 4 electr. Wire that heats up in an electric heater, kettle, etc. 5 (in pl.) Atmospheric agencies, esp. Wind and storm. 6 (in pl.) Rudiments of learning or of an art etc. 7 (in pl.) Bread and wine of the eucharist. in one’s element in one’s preferred situation, doing what one does well and enjoys. [french from latin]
Elemental adj. 1 of or like the elements or the forces of nature; powerful. 2 essential, basic.
Elementary adj. 1 dealing with the simplest facts of a subject. 2 unanalysable.
Elementary particle n. Physics subatomic particle, esp. One not known to consist of simpler ones.
Elephant n. (pl. Same or -s) largest living land animal, with a trunk and ivory tusks. [greek elephas]
Elephantiasis n. Skin disease causing gross enlargement of limbs etc.
Elephantine adj. 1 of elephants. 2 a huge. B clumsy.
Elevate v. (-ting) 1 raise, lift up. 2 exalt in rank etc. 3 (usu. As elevated adj.) Raise morally or intellectually. [latin levo lift]
Elevation n. 1 a elevating or being elevated. B angle with the horizontal. C height above sea level etc. D high position. 2 drawing or diagram showing one side of a building.
Elevator n. 1 us lift. 2 movable part of a tailplane for changing an aircraft’s altitude. 3 hoisting machine.
Eleven adj. & n. 1 one more than ten. 2 symbol for this (11, xi, xi). 3 size etc. Denoted by eleven. 4 team of eleven players at cricket, football, etc. 5 eleven o’clock. [old english]
Elevenfold adj. & adv. 1 eleven times as much or as many. 2 consisting of eleven parts.
Eleven-plus n. Esp. Hist. Examination taken at age 11–12 to determine the type of secondary school a child would enter.
Elevenses n. Colloq. Light refreshment taken at about 11 a.m.
Eleventh adj. & n. 1 next after tenth. 2 each of eleven equal parts of a thing.
eleventh hour last possible moment.
Elf n. (pl. Elves) mythological being, esp. One that is small and mischievous. elfish adj. Elvish adj. [old english]
Elfin adj. Of elves; elflike.
Elicit v. (-t-) draw out (facts, a response, etc.), esp. With difficulty. [latin elicio]
Elide v. (-ding) omit (a vowel or syllable) in pronunciation. [latin elido elis-crush out]
Eligible adj. 1 (often foll. By for) fit or entitled to be chosen (eligible for a rebate). 2 desirable or suitable, esp. For marriage. eligibility n. [latin: related to *elect]
Eliminate v. (-ting) 1 remove, get rid of. 2 exclude from consideration. 3 exclude from a further stage of a competition through defeat etc. elimination n. Eliminator n. [latin limen limin-threshold] (-ting) 1 remove, get rid of. 2 exclude from consideration. 3 exclude from a further stage of a competition through defeat etc. elimination n. Eliminator n. [latin limen limin-threshold]
Elision n. Omission of a vowel or syllable in pronunciation (e.g. In we’ll). [latin:
related to *elide]
Élite n. 1 (prec. By the) the best (of a group). 2 select group or class. 3 a size of letters in typewriting (12 per inch). [french: related to *elect]
Élitism n. Recourse to or advocacy of leadership or dominance by a select group.
élitist n. & adj.
Elixir n. 1 a alchemist’s preparation supposedly able to change metals into gold
or (in full elixir of life) to prolong life indefinitely. B remedy for all ills. 2
or (in full elixir of life) to prolong life indefinitely. B remedy for all ills. 2 aromatic medicinal drug. [latin from arabic]
Elizabethan —adj. Of the time of queen elizabeth i or ii. —n. Person of this time.
Elk n. (pl. Same or -s) large deer of northern parts of europe, n. America, and asia. [old english]
Ell n. Hist. Measure = 45 in. [old english, = forearm]
Ellipse n. Regular oval, resulting when a cone is cut obliquely by a plane. [greek elleipsis deficit]
Ellipsis n. (pl. Ellipses) 1 omission of words needed to complete a construction or sense. 2 set of three dots etc. Indicating omission.
Ellipsoid n. Solid of which all the plane sections through one axis are circles and all the other plane sections are ellipses.
Elliptic adj. (also elliptical) of or in the form of an ellipse. elliptically adv.
Elm n. 1 tree with rough serrated leaves. 2 its wood. [old english]
Elocution n. Art of clear and expressive speech. [latin loquor speak]
Elongate v. (-ting) lengthen, extend. elongation n. [latin longus long]
Elope v. (-ping) run away to marry secretly. elopement n. [anglo-french]
Eloquence n. Fluent and effective use of language. [latin loquor speak]
Eloquent adj. 1 having eloquence. 2 (often foll. By of) expressive. eloquently adv.
Else adv. 1 (prec. By indefinite or interrog. Pron.) Besides (someone else; nowhere else; who else?). 2 instead (what else could i say?). 3 otherwise; if not (run, (or) else you will be late). or else see *or1. [old english]
Elsewhere adv. In or to some other place.
Elucidate v. (-ting) throw light on; explain. elucidation n. Elucidatory adj. [latin:
related to *lucid]
Elude v. (-ding) 1 escape adroitly from (danger, pursuit, etc.). 2 avoid compliance with (a law etc.) Or fulfilment of (an obligation). 3 baffle (a person or memory etc.). elusion n. [latin ludo play]
Elusive adj. 1 difficult to find or catch. 2 difficult to remember. 3 avoiding the point raised. elusiveness n.
Elver n. Young eel. [from *eel, *fare]
Elves pl. Of *elf.
Elvish see *elf.
Elysium n. 1 (also elysian fields) (in greek mythology) abode of the blessed after death. 2 place of ideal happiness. elysian adj. [latin from greek]
Em n. Printing unit of measurement equal to the width of an m. [name of the letter m]
Em-1 ,2 see *en-1,2.
‘Em pron. Colloq. Them.
Emaciate v. (-ting) (esp. As emaciated adj.) Make abnormally thin or feeble. emaciation n. [latin macies leanness]
Email n. (also e-mail) = *electronic mail.
Emanate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By from) issue or originate (from a source). emanation n. [latin mano flow]
Emancipate v. (-ting) 1 free from social or political restraint. 2 (usu. As emancipated adj.) Free from the inhibitions of moral or social conventions. 3 free from slavery. emancipation n. Emancipatory adj. [latin, = free from possession, from manus hand, capio take]
Emasculate —v. (-ting) 1 deprive of force or vigour. 2 castrate. —adj. 1 deprived of force. 2 castrated. 3 effeminate. emasculation n. [latin: related to *male]
Embalm v. 1 preserve (a corpse) from decay. 2 preserve from oblivion. 3 make fragrant. embalmment n. [french: related to *balm]
Embankment n. Bank constructed to keep back water or carry a road, railway, etc.
Embargo —n. (pl. -es) 1 order forbidding foreign ships to enter, or any ships to leave, a country’s ports. 2 official suspension of an activity. —v. (-es, -ed) place under embargo. [spanish: related to *bar1]
Embark v. 1 (often foll. By for) put or go on board a ship or aircraft (to a destination). 2 (foll. By on, in) begin an enterprise. embarkation n. (in sense 1). [french: related to *barque]
Embarrass v. 1 make (a person) feel awkward or ashamed. 2 (as embarrassed
adj.) Encumbered with debts. 3 encumber. embarrassment n. [italian imbarrare bar in]
Embassy n. (pl. -ies) 1 a residence or offices of an ambassador. B ambassador and staff. 2 deputation to a foreign government. [french: related to *ambassador]
Embattled adj. 1 prepared or arrayed for battle. 2 fortified with battlements. 3 under heavy attack or in trying circumstances.
Embed v. (also imbed) (-dd-) (esp. As embedded adj.) Fix firmly in a surrounding mass.
Embellish v. 1 beautify, adorn. 2 enhance with fictitious additions. embellishment n. [french bel, *beau]
Ember n. (usu. In pl.) Small piece of glowing coal etc. In a dying fire. [old english]
Ember days n.pl. Days of fasting and prayer in the christian church, associated with ordinations. [old english]
Embezzle v. (-ling) divert (money etc.) Fraudulently to one’s own use. embezzlement n. Embezzler n. [anglo-french]
Embitter v. Arouse bitter feelings in. embitterment n.
Emblazon v. 1 portray or adorn conspicuously. 2 adorn (a heraldic shield).
emblazonment n.
Emblem n. 1 symbol. 2 (foll. By of) type, embodiment (the very emblem of courage). 3 heraldic or representative device. emblematic adj. [greek, = insertion]
Embody v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make (an idea etc.) Actual or discernible. 2 (of a thing) be a tangible expression of. 3 include, comprise. embodiment n.
Embolden v. Make bold; encourage.
Embolism n. Obstruction of an artery by a clot, air-bubble, etc. [latin from greek]
Embolus n. (pl. -li) object causing an embolism.
Emboss v. Carve or decorate with a design in relief. embossment n. [related to *boss2]
Embouchure n. Way of applying the mouth to the mouthpiece of a musical instrument. [french: related to *en-1, bouche mouth]
Embrace —v. (-cing) 1 a hold closely in the arms. B (absol., of two people)
Embrace —v. (-cing) 1 a hold closely in the arms. B (absol., of two people) embrace each other. 2 clasp, enclose. 3 accept eagerly (an offer etc.). 4 adopt (a cause, idea, etc.). 5 include, comprise. 6 take in with the eye or mind. —n. Act of embracing, clasp. embraceable adj. [latin: related to *brace]
Embrasure n. 1 bevelling of a wall at the sides of a window etc. 2 opening in a parapet for a gun etc. embrasured adj. [french embraser splay]
Embrocation n. Liquid for rubbing on the body to relieve muscular pain. [greek embrokhe lotion]
Embroider v. 1 decorate (cloth etc.) With needlework. 2 embellish (a narrative). embroiderer n. [anglo-french from germanic]
Embroidery n. (pl. -ies) 1 art of embroidering. 2 embroidered work. 3 inessential ornament. 4 fictitious additions (to a story etc.).
Embroil v. (often foll. By with) involve (a person etc.) In a conflict or difficulties. embroilment n. [french brouiller mix]
Embryo n. (pl. -s) 1 a unborn or unhatched offspring. B human offspring in the first eight weeks from conception. 2 rudimentary plant in a seed. 3 thing in a rudimentary stage. 4 (attrib.) Undeveloped, immature. in embryo undeveloped. embryonic adj. [greek bruo grow]
Embryology n. The study of embryos.
Emend v. Edit (a text etc.) To make corrections. emendation n. [latin menda fault]
Emerald green adj. & n. (as adj. Often hyphenated) bright green.
Emerald isle n. Ireland.
Emerge v. (-ging) 1 come up or out into view. 2 (of facts etc.) Become known, be revealed. 3 become recognized or prominent. 4 (of a question, difficulty, etc.) Become apparent. emergence n. Emergent adj. [latin: related to *merge]
Emergency n. (pl. -ies) 1 sudden state of danger etc., requiring immediate action. 2 a condition requiring immediate treatment. B patient with this. 3 (attrib.) For use in an emergency. [medieval latin: related to *emerge]
Emeritus adj. Retired but retaining one’s title as an honour (emeritus professor). [latin mereor earn]
Emery n. Coarse corundum for polishing metal etc. [greek smeris polishing powder]
Emigrant —n. Person who emigrates. —adj. Emigrating.
Emigrate v. (-ting) leave one’s own country to settle in another. emigration n. [latin: related to *migrate]
Émigré n. Emigrant, esp. A political exile. [french]
Eminence n. 1 distinction; recognized superiority. 2 piece of rising ground. 3 title used in addressing or referring to a cardinal (your eminence; his eminence). [latin: related to *eminent]
Éminence grise n. (pl. Éminences grises pronunc. Same) person who exercises power or influence without holding office. [french, = grey cardinal (orig. Of richelieu’s secretary)]
Eminent adj. Distinguished, notable, outstanding. [latin emineo jut out]
Emir n. (also amir) title of various muslim rulers. [french from arabic ‘amir]
Emirate n. Rank, domain, or reign of an emir.
Emissary n. (pl. -ies) person sent on a diplomatic mission. [latin: related to *emit]
Emit v. (-tt-) give or send out (heat, light, a smell, sound, etc.); discharge. emission n. [latin emitto emiss-]
Emollient —adj. That softens or soothes the skin, feelings, etc. —n. Emollient substance. [latin mollis soft]
Emolument n. Fee from employment, salary. [latin]
Emote v. (-ting) show excessive emotion.
Emotion n. 1 strong instinctive feeling such as love or fear. 2 emotional intensity or sensibility (spoke with emotion). [french: related to *motion]
Emotional adj. 1 of or expressing emotions. 2 especially liable to emotion. 3 arousing emotion. emotionalism n. Emotionally adv.
Usage see note at emotive.
Emotive adj. 1 arousing emotion. 2 of emotion. [latin: related to *motion]
Usage although the senses of emotive and emotional overlap, emotive is more common in the sense ‘arousing emotion’, as in an emotive issue, and is not used at all in sense 2 of emotional.
Empanel v. (also impanel) (-ll-; us -l-) enter (a jury) on a panel.
Empathize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (usu. Foll. By with) exercise empathy.
Empathy n. Ability to identify with a person or object. empathetic adj. [as *pathos]
Emperor n. Sovereign of an empire. [latin impero command]
Emperor penguin n. Largest known penguin.
Emphasis n. (pl. Emphases) 1 importance or prominence attached to a thing (emphasis on economy). 2 stress laid on a word or syllable to make the meaning clear or show importance. 3 vigour or intensity of expression, feeling, etc. [latin from greek]
Emphasize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) put emphasis on, stress.
Emphatic adj. 1 forcibly expressive. 2 of words: a bearing the stress. B used to give emphasis. emphatically adv.
Emphysema n. Disease of the lungs causing breathlessness. [greek emphusao puff up]
Empire n. 1 large group of states or countries under a single authority. 2 supreme dominion. 3 large commercial organization etc. Owned or directed by one person. 4 (the empire) hist. The british empire. [latin imperium dominion]
Empire-building n. Purposeful accumulation of territory, authority, etc.
Empirical adj. (also empiric) based on observation, experience, or experiment, not on theory. empirically adv. Empiricism n. Empiricist n. [greek empeiria experience]
Emplacement n. 1 putting in position. 2 platform for guns. [french: related to *place]
Employ —v. 1 use the services of (a person) in return for payment. 2 use (a thing, time, energy, etc.) To good effect. 3 keep (a person) occupied. —n. (in phr. In the employ of) employed by. employable adj. Employer n. [latin implicor be involved]
Employee n. Person employed for wages.
Employment n. 1 employing or being employed. 2 person’s trade or profession.
Employment office n. (formerly employment exchange) state-run employment agency.
Emporium n. (pl. -s or -ria) 1 large shop or store. 2 centre of commerce, market. [greek emporos merchant]
Empower v. Give authority to.
Empress n. 1 wife or widow of an emperor. 2 woman emperor. [french: related to *emperor]
Empty —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 containing nothing. 2 (of a house etc.) Unoccupied or unfurnished. 3 (of a vehicle etc.) Without passengers etc. 4 a hollow, insincere (empty threats). B without purpose (an empty existence). C vacuous (an empty head). 5 colloq. Hungry. —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 remove the contents of. 2 (often foll. By into) transfer (contents). 3 become empty. 4 (of a river) discharge itself. —n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Empty bottle etc. emptiness n. [old english]
Empty-handed adj. (usu. Predic.) 1 bringing or taking nothing. 2 having achieved nothing.
Empty-headed adj. Foolish; lacking sense.
Empyrean —n. The highest heaven, as the sphere of fire or abode of god. —adj. Of the empyrean. empyreal adj. [greek pur fire]
Ems abbr. European monetary system.
Emu abbr. Economic and monetary union; european monetary union.
Emu n. (pl. -s) large flightless australian bird. [portuguese]
Emulate v. (-ting) 1 try to equal or excel. 2 imitate. emulation n. Emulative adj. Emulator n. [latin aemulus rival]
Emulsify v. (-ies, -ied) convert into an emulsion. emulsification n. Emulsifier n.
Emulsion n. 1 fine dispersion of one liquid in another, esp. As paint, medicine, etc. 2 mixture of a silver compound in gelatin etc. For coating photographic plateor film. 3 emulsion paint. [latin mulgeo milk]
Emulsion paint n. Water-thinned paint.
En n. Printing unit of measurement equal to half an em. [name of the letter n]
En-1 prefix (also em-before b, p) forming verbs, = *in-2: 1 from nouns, meaning ‘put into or on’ (engulf; entrust; embed). 2 from nouns or adjectives, meaning ‘bring into the condition of’ (enslave); often with the suffix -en (enlighten). 3 from verbs: a in the sense ‘in, into, on’ (enfold). B as an intensifier (entangle). [french en-, latin in-]
-en suffix forming verbs: 1 from adjectives, usu. Meaning ‘make or become so or more so’ (deepen; moisten). 2 from nouns (happen; strengthen). [old english]
Enable v. (-ling) 1 (foll. By to + infin.) Give (a person etc.) The means or authority. 2 make possible. 3 esp. Computing make (a device) operational; switch on.
Enact v. 1 a ordain, decree. B make (a bill etc.) Law. 2 play (a part on stage or in life). enactive adj.
Enactment n. 1 law enacted. 2 process of enacting.
Enamel —n. 1 glasslike opaque ornamental or preservative coating on metal etc. 2 a smooth hard coating. B a kind of hard gloss paint. C cosmetic simulating this, esp. Nail varnish. 3 hard coating of a tooth. 4 painting done in enamel. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) inlay, coat, or portray with enamel.
Enamor v. (brit. Enamour) (usu. In passive; foll. By of) inspire with love or delight. [french amour love]
Enamour v. (us enamor) (usu. In passive; foll. By of) inspire with love or delight. [french amour love]
En bloc adv. In a block; all at the same time. [french]
Encamp v. Settle in a (esp. Military) camp. encampment n.
Encapsulate v. (-ting) 1 enclose in or as in a capsule. 2 express briefly, summarize. encapsulation n. [related to *capsule]
Encase v. (-sing) enclose in or as in a case. encasement n.
Encaustic —adj. (of painting etc.) Using pigments mixed with hot wax, which are burned in as an inlay. —n. 1 art of encaustic painting. 2 product of this. [greek: related to *caustic]
-ence suffix forming nouns expressing: 1 a quality or state or an instance of this (patience; an impertinence). 2 an action (reference). [french -ence, latin -erie]
Encephalitis n. Inflammation of the brain. [greek egkephalos brain]
Enchanter n. (fem. Enchantress) person who enchants, esp. By using magic.
Encircle v. (-ling) 1 surround. 2 form a circle round. encirclement n.
Enclave n. Territory of one state surrounded by that of another. [latin clavis key]
Enclose v. (-sing) 1 a surround with a wall, fence, etc. B shut in. 2 put in a receptacle (esp. In an envelope with a letter). 3 (usu. As enclosed adj.) Seclude (a religious community) from the outside world. [latin: related to *include]
Enclosure n. 1 act of enclosing. 2 enclosed space or area, esp. At a sporting event. 3 thing enclosed with a letter. [french: related to *enclose]
Encode v. (-ding) put into code.
Encomium n. (pl. -s) formal or high-flown praise. [greek komos revelry]
Encompass v. 1 contain; include. 2 surround.
Encore —n. 1 audience’s demand for the repetition of an item, or for a further item. 2 such an item. —v. (-ring) 1 call for the repetition of (an item). 2 call back (a performer) for this. —int. Again, once more. [french, = once again]
Encounter —v. 1 meet unexpectedly. 2 meet as an adversary. —n. Meeting by chance or in conflict. [latin contra against]
Encourage v. (-ging) 1 give courage or confidence to. 2 urge. 3 promote. encouragement n. [french: related to *en-1]
Encroach v. 1 (foll. By on, upon) intrude on another’s territory etc. 2 advance gradually beyond due limits. encroachment n. [french croc *crook]
Encrust v. 1 cover with or form a crust. 2 coat with a hard casing or deposit, sometimes for decoration. [french: related to *en-1]
Encumber v. 1 be a burden to. 2 hamper. [french from romanic]
Encumbrance n. 1 burden. 2 impediment.
-ency suffix forming nouns denoting quality or state (efficiency; fluency; presidency). [latin -entia]
Encyclical —adj. For wide circulation. —n. Papal encyclical letter. [greek:
related to *cycle]
Encyclopedia n. (also -paedia) book, often in a number of volumes, giving information on many subjects, or on many aspects of one subject. [greek egkuklios all-round, paideia education]
Encyclopedic adj. (also -paedic) (of knowledge or information) comprehensive.
End —n. 1 a extreme limit. B extremity (to the ends of the earth). 2 extreme part or surface of a thing (strip of wood with a nail in one end). 3 a finish (no end to his misery). B latter part. C death, destruction (met an untimely end). D result. 4 goal (will do anything to achieve his ends). 5 remnant (cigarette-end). 6 (prec.
Endanger v. Place in danger.
Endangered species n. Species in danger of extinction.
Endear v. (usu. Foll. By to) make dear. endearing adj.
Endearment n. 1 an expression of affection. 2 liking, affection.
Endeavor (brit. Endeavour) —v. (foll. By to + infin.) Try earnestly. —n. Earnest attempt. [from *en-1, french devoir owe]
Endeavour (us endeavor) —v. (foll. By to + infin.) Try earnestly. —n. Earnest attempt. [from *en-1, french devoir owe]
Endemic adj. (often foll. By to) regularly or only found among a particular people or in a particular region. endemically adv. [greek en-in, demos the people]
Ending n. 1 end or final part, esp. Of a story. 2 inflected final part of a word.
Endive n. Curly-leaved plant used in salads. [greek entubon]
Endless adj. 1 infinite; without end. 2 continual (endless complaints). 3 colloq. Innumerable. 4 (of a belt, chain, etc.) Having the ends joined for continuous action over wheels etc. endlessly adv. [old english: related to *end]
Endmost adj. Nearest the end.
Endo-comb. Form internal. [greek endon within]
Endocrine adj. (of a gland) secreting directly into the blood. [greek krino sift]
Endogenous adj. Growing or originating from within.
Endometrium n. Membrane lining the womb. [greek metra womb]
Endomorph n. Person with a soft round body. [greek morphe form]
Endorse v. (also indorse) (-sing) 1 approve. 2 sign or write on (a document), esp. Sign the back of (a cheque). 3 enter details of a conviction for an offence on (a driving-licence). endorsement n. [latin dorsum back]
Endoscope n. Instrument for viewing internal parts of the body.
Endow v. 1 bequeath or give a permanent income to (a person, institution, etc.). 2 (esp. As endowed adj.) Provide with talent, ability, etc. [anglo-french: related to *dower]
Endowment n. 1 endowing. 2 endowed income. 3 (attrib.) Denoting forms of life insurance with payment of a fixed sum on a specified date, or on the death of the insured person if earlier.
Endowment mortgage n. Mortgage linked to endowment insurance.
Endpaper n. Either of the blank leaves of paper at the beginning and end of a book.
End-product n. Final product of manufacture etc.
Endue v. (also indue) (-dues, -dued, -duing) (foll. By with) provide (a person) with (qualities etc.). [latin induo put on clothes]
Endurance n. 1 power of enduring. 2 ability to withstand prolonged strain. [french: related to *endure]
Endure v. (-ring) 1 undergo (a difficulty etc.). 2 tolerate. 3 last. endurable adj. [latin durus hard]
Endways adv. (also endwise) 1 with end uppermost or foremost. 2 end to end.
Enema n. 1 introduction of fluid etc. Into the rectum, esp. To flush out its contents. 2 fluid etc. Used for this. [greek hiemi send]
Enemy n. (pl. -ies) 1 person actively hostile to another. 2 a (often attrib.) Hostile nation or army. B member of this. 3 adversary or opponent (enemy of progress). [latin: related to *in-2, amicus friend]
Energetic adj. Full of energy, vigorous. energetically adv. [greek: related to *energy]
Energize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 give energy to. 2 provide (a device) with energy for operation.
Energy n. (pl. -ies) 1 capacity for activity, force, vigour. 2 capacity of matter or radiation to do work. [greek ergon work]
Enervate v. (-ting) deprive of vigour or vitality. enervation n. [latin: related to *nerve]
En famille adv. In or with one’s family. [french, = in family]
Enfant terrible n. (pl. Enfants terribles pronunc. Same) indiscreet or unruly person. [french, = terrible child]
Enfeeble v. (-ling) make feeble. enfeeblement n.
Enfilade —n. Gunfire directed along a line from end to end. —v. (-ding) direct an enfilade at. [french: related to *file1]
Enfold v. 1 (usu. Foll. By in, with) wrap; envelop. 2 clasp, embrace.
Enforce v. (-cing) 1 compel observance of (a law etc.). 2 (foll. By on) impose (an action or one’s will, etc.) On. enforceable adj. Enforcement n. Enforcer n. [latin: related to *force1]
Enfranchise v. (-sing) 1 give (a person) the right to vote. 2 give (a town) municipal rights, esp. Representation in parliament. 3 hist. Free (a slave etc.). enfranchisement n. [french: related to *frank]
Engage v. (-ging) 1 employ or hire (a person). 2 a (usu. In passive) occupy (are you engaged tomorrow?). B hold fast (a person’s attention). 3 (usu. In passive) bind by a promise, esp. Of marriage. 4 arrange beforehand to occupy (a room, seat, etc.). 5 a interlock (parts of a gear etc.). B (of a gear etc.) Become interlocked. 6 a come into battle with. B bring (troops) into battle with. C come into battle with (an enemy etc.). 7 take part (engage in politics). 8 (foll. By that + clause or to + infin.) Undertake. [french: related to *gage1]
Engaged adj. 1 pledged to marry. 2 (of a person) occupied, busy. 3 (of a telephone line, toilet, etc.) In use.
Engagement n. 1 engaging or being engaged. 2 appointment with another person.
Engender v. Give rise to; produce (a feeling etc.). [related to *genus]
Engine n. 1 mechanical contrivance of parts working together, esp. As a source of power (steam engine). 2 a railway locomotive. B = *fire-engine. [latin ingenium device]
Engineer —n. 1 person skilled in a branch of engineering. 2 person who makes or is in charge of engines etc. (ship’s engineer). 3 person who designs and constructs military works; soldier so trained. 4 contriver. —v. 1 contrive, bring about. 2 act as an engineer. 3 construct or manage as an engineer. [medieval
latin: related to *engine]
Engineering n. Application of science to the design, building, and use of machines etc. (civil engineering).
English —adj. Of england or its people or language. —n. 1 language of england, now used in the uk, us, and most commonwealth countries. 2 (prec. By the; treated as pl.) The people of england. [old english]
Englishman n. (fem. Englishwoman) person who is english by birth or descent.
Engraft v. (also ingraft) 1 bot. (usu. Foll. By into, on) graft. 2 implant. 3 (usu.
Foll. By into) incorporate.
Engrave v. (-ving) 1 (often foll. By on) carve (a text or design) on a hard surface. 2 inscribe (a surface) thus. 3 (often foll. By on) impress deeply (on a person’s memory). engraver n. [from *grave3]
Engraving n. Print made from an engraved plate.
Engross v. 1 absorb the attention of; occupy fully. 2 write out in larger letters or in legal form. engrossment n. [anglo-french: related to *en-1]
Engulf v. Flow over and swamp; overwhelm. engulfment n.
Enhance v. (-cing) intensify (qualities, powers, etc.); improve (something already good). enhancement n. [anglo-french from latin altus high]
Enigma n. 1 puzzling thing or person. 2 riddle or paradox. enigmatic adj. Enigmatically adv. [latin from greek]
Enjoin v. 1 command or order. 2 (often foll. By on) impose (an action). 3 (usu. Foll. By from) law prohibit by injunction (from doing a thing). [latin injungo attach]
Enjoy v. 1 take pleasure in. 2 have the use or benefit of. 3 experience (enjoy good health). enjoy oneself experience pleasure. enjoyment n. [french]
Enjoyable adj. Pleasant. enjoyably adv.
Enkephalin n. Either of two morphine-like peptides in the brain thought to control levels of pain. [greek egkephalos brain]
Enkindle v. (-ling) cause to flare up, arouse.
Enlarge v. (-ging) 1 make or become larger or wider. 2 (often foll. By on, upon) describe in greater detail. 3 reproduce a photograph on a larger scale. enlargement n. [french: related to *large]
Enlarger n. Apparatus for enlarging photographs.
Enlighten v. 1 (often foll. By on) inform (about a subject). 2 (as enlightened adj.) Progressive.
Enlightenment n. 1 enlightening or being enlightened. 2 (the enlightenment) 18th-c. Philosophy of reason and individualism.
Enlist v. 1 enrol in the armed services. 2 secure as a means of help or support.
enlistment n.
Enliven v. Make lively or cheerful; brighten (a picture etc.); inspirit. enlivenment n.
En masse adv. All together. [french]
Enmesh v. Entangle in or as in a net.
Enmity n. (pl. -ies) 1 state of being an enemy. 2 hostility. [romanic: related to *enemy]
Ennoble v. (-ling) 1 make noble. 2 make (a person) a noble. ennoblement n. [french: related to *en-1]
Ennui n. Mental weariness from idleness or lack of interest; boredom. [french:
related to *annoy]
Enormity n. (pl. -ies) 1 monstrous wickedness; monstrous crime. 2 serious error. 3 great size. [latin enormitas]
Usage sense 3 is commonly found, but is regarded as incorrect by some people.
Enormous adj. Extremely large. enormously adv. [latin enormis: related to *norm]
Enough —adj. As much or as many as required (enough apples). —n. Sufficient amount or quantity (we have enough). —adv. 1 adequately (warm enough). 2 fairly (sings well enough). 3 quite (you know well enough what i mean). have had enough of want no more of; be satiated with or tired of. Sure enough as expected. [old english]
En passant adv. In passing; casually (mentioned it en passant). [french, = in passing]
Enprint n. Standard-sized photograph. [enlarged print]
Enquire v. (-ring) 1 seek information; ask; ask a question. 2 = *inquire. 3 (foll. By after, for) ask about (a person, a person’s health, etc.). enquirer n. [latin quaero quaesit-seek]
Enquiry n. (pl. -ies) 1 act of asking or seeking information. 2 = *inquiry.
Enrage v. (-ging) make furious. [french: related to *en-1]
Enrapture v. (-ring) delight intensely.
Enrich v. 1 make rich or richer. 2 make more nutritive. 3 increase the strength, wealth, value, or contents of. enrichment n. [french: related to *en-1]
Enrol v. (us enroll) (-ll-) 1 enlist. 2 a write the name of (a person) on a list. B incorporate as a member. C enrol oneself, esp. For a course of study. enrolment n. [french: related to *en-1]
Enroll v. (brit. Enrol) (-ll-) 1 enlist. 2 a write the name of (a person) on a list. B incorporate as a member. C enrol oneself, esp. For a course of study. enrolment n. [french: related to *en-1]
En route adv. On the way. [french]
Ensconce v. (-cing) (usu. Refl. Or in passive) establish or settle comfortably. [from sconce small fortification]
Ensemble n. 1 a thing viewed as the sum of its parts. B general effect of this. 2 set of clothes worn together. 3 group of performers working together. 4 mus. Concerted passage for an ensemble. [latin simul at the same time]
Enshrine v. (-ning) 1 enclose in a shrine. 2 protect, make inviolable.
enshrinement n.
Enshroud v. Literary 1 cover with or as with a shroud. 2 obscure.
Ensign n. 1 banner or flag, esp. The military or naval flag of a nation. 2 standard-bearer. 3 a hist. Lowest commissioned infantry officer. B us lowest commissioned naval officer. [french: related to *insignia]
Enslave v. (-ving) make (a person) a slave. enslavement n.
Ensnare v. (-ring) catch in or as in a snare. ensnarement n.
Ensue v. (-sues, -sued, -suing) happen later or as a result. [latin sequor follow]
En suite —adv. Forming a single unit (bedroom with bathroom en suite). —adj. 1 forming a single unit (en suite bathroom). 2 with a bathroom attached (seven en suite bedrooms). [french, = in sequence]
Ensure v. (-ring) 1 make certain. 2 (usu. Foll. By against) make safe (ensure against risks). ensurer n. [anglo-french: related to *assure]
against risks). ensurer n. [anglo-french: related to *assure]
Ent abbr. Ear, nose, and throat.
-ent suffix 1 forming adjectives denoting attribution of an action (consequent) or state (existent). 2 forming agent nouns (president). [latin -ent-present participial stem of verbs]
Entablature n. Upper part of a classical building supported by columns including an architrave, frieze, and cornice. [italian: related to *table]
Entail —v. 1 necessitate or involve unavoidably (entails much effort). 2 law bequeath (an estate) to a specified line of beneficiaries so that it cannot be sold or given away. —n. Law 1 entailed estate. 2 succession to such an estate. [related to *tail2]
Entangle v. (-ling) 1 catch or hold fast in a snare, tangle, etc. 2 involve in difficulties. 3 complicate. entanglement n.
Entente n. Friendly understanding between states. [french]
Entente cordiale n. Entente, esp. Between britain and france from 1904.
Enter v. 1 go or come in or into. 2 come on stage (also as a direction: enter macbeth). 3 penetrate (bullet entered his arm). 4 write (name, details, etc.) In a
list, book, etc. 5 register, record the name of as a competitor (entered for the long jump). 6 a become a member of (a society or profession). B enrol in a school etc. 7 make known; present for consideration (enter a protest). 8 record formally (before a court of law etc.). 9 (foll. By into) a engage in (conversation etc.). B subscribe to; bind oneself by (an agreement, contract, etc.). C form part of (a calculation, plan, etc.). D sympathize with (feelings). 10 (foll. By on, upon) a begin; begin to deal with. B assume the functions of (an office) or possession of (property). [latin intra within]
Enteric adj. Of the intestines. enteritis n. [greek enteron intestine]
Entry n. (pl. -ies) 1 a going or coming in. B liberty to do this. 2 place of entrance; door, gate, etc. 3 passage between buildings. 4 a item entered in a diary, list, etc. B recording of this. 5 a person or thing competing in a race etc. B list of competitors. [romanic: related to *enter]
Entryphone n. Propr. Intercom at the entrance of a building or flat for callers to identify themselves.
Entwine v. (-ning) twine round, interweave.
Enumber n. E plus a number, the ec designation for food additives.
Enumerate v. (-ting) 1 specify (items). 2 count. enumeration n. Enumerative adj. [latin: related to *number]
Enumerator n. Person employed in census-taking.
Enunciate v. (-ting) 1 pronounce (words) clearly. 2 express in definite terms. enunciation n. [latin nuntio announce]
Enuresis n. Involuntary urination. [greek enoureo urinate in]
Envelop v. (-p-) 1 wrap up or cover completely. 2 completely surround. envelopment n. [french]
Envelope n. 1 folded paper container for a letter etc. 2 wrapper, covering. 3 gas container of a balloon or airship.
Enviable adj. Likely to excite envy, desirable. enviably adv.
Envious adj. Feeling or showing envy. enviously adv. [anglo-french: related to *envy]
Environment n. 1 surroundings, esp. As affecting lives. 2 circumstances of living. 3 computing overall structure within which a user, computer, or program operates. environmental adj. Environmentally adv. [french environ surroundings]
Environmentalist n. Person concerned with the protection of the natural environment. environmentalism n.
Environs n.pl. District round a town etc.
Envisage v. (-ging) 1 have a mental picture of (a thing not yet existing). 2 imagine as possible or desirable. [french: related to *visage]
Envoy n. 1 messenger or representative. 2 (in full envoy extraordinary) diplomatic agent ranking below ambassador. [french envoyer send, from latin via way]
Envy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 discontent aroused by another’s better fortune etc. 2 object of this feeling. —v. (-ies, -ied) feel envy of (a person etc.). [latin invidia, from video see]
Enwrap v. (-pp-) (often foll. By in) literary wrap, enfold.
Enzyme n. Protein catalyst of a specific biochemical reaction. [greek enzumos leavened]
Eocene geol. —adj. Of the second epoch of the tertiary period. —n. This epoch. [greek eos dawn, kainos new]
Eolian harp n. (brit. Aeolian) stringed instrument or toy sounding when the wind passes through it. [latin aeolus wind-god, from greek]
Eolithic adj. Of the period preceding the palaeolithic age. [greek eos dawn, lithos
stone]
Eon var. Of *aeon.
Ep abbr. Extended-play (gramophone record).
Epaulet n. (brit. Epaulette) ornamental shoulder-piece on a coat etc., esp. On a uniform. [french épaule shoulder]
Epaulette n. (us epaulet) ornamental shoulder-piece on a coat etc., esp. On a uniform. [french épaule shoulder]
Épée n. Sharp-pointed sword, used (with the end blunted) in fencing. [french:
related to *spathe]
Ephedrine n. Alkaloid drug used to relieve asthma, etc. [ephedra, genus of plants yielding it]
Ephemera n.pl. Things of only short-lived relevance. [latin: related to *ephemeral]
Ephemeral adj. Lasting or of use for only a short time; transitory. [greek: related to *epi-, hemera day]
Epi-prefix 1 upon. 2 above. 3 in addition. [greek]
Epic —n. 1 long poem narrating the adventures or deeds of one or more heroic or legendary figures. 2 book or film based on an epic narrative. —adj. 1 of or like an epic. 2 grand, heroic. [greek epos song]
Epicene —adj. 1 of, for, denoting, or used by both sexes. 2 having characteristics of both sexes or of neither sex. —n. Epicene person. [greek koinos common]
Epicenter n. (brit. Epicentre) 1 point at which an earthquake reaches the earth’s surface. 2 central point of a difficulty. [greek: related to *centre]
Epicentre n. (us epicenter) 1 point at which an earthquake reaches the earth’s surface. 2 central point of a difficulty. [greek: related to *centre]
Epicure n. Person with refined tastes, esp. In food and drink. epicurism n. [medieval latin: related to *epicurean]
Epicurean —n. 1 disciple or student of the greek philosopher epicurus. 2 (epicurean) devotee of (esp. Sensual) enjoyment. —adj. 1 of epicurus or his ideas. 2 (epicurean) characteristic of an epicurean. epicureanism n. [latin from greek]
Epidemic —n. Widespread occurrence of a disease in a community at a particular time. —adj. In the nature of an epidemic. [greek epi against, demos the people]
Epidemiology n. The study of epidemic diseases and their control.
epidemiologist n.
Epidermis n. Outer layer of the skin. epidermal adj. [greek derma skin]
Epidiascope n. Optical projector capable of giving images of both opaque and transparent objects. [from epi-, dia-, *-scope]
Epidural —adj. (of an anaesthetic) introduced into the space around the dura mater of the spinal cord. —n. Epidural anaesthetic. [from epi-, dura mater]
Epiglottis n. Flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, depressed during swallowing to cover the windpipe. epiglottal adj. [greek glotta tongue]
Epigram n. 1 short poem with a witty ending. 2 pointed saying. epigrammatic adj. [greek: related to *-gram]
Epigraph n. Inscription. [greek: related to *-graph]
Epilepsy n. Nervous disorder with convulsions and often loss of consciousness. [greek lambano take]
Epileptic —adj. Of epilepsy. —n. Person with epilepsy. [french: related to *epilepsy]
Epilogue n. 1 short piece ending a literary work. 2 speech addressed to the audience by an actor at the end of a play. [greek logos speech]
Epiphany n. (pl. -ies) 1 (epiphany) a manifestation of christ to the magi. B festival of this on 6 january. 2 manifestation of a god or demigod. [greek phaino show]
Episcopacy n. (pl. -ies) 1 government by bishops. 2 (prec. By the) the bishops.
Episcopal adj. 1 of a bishop or bishops. 2 (of a church) governed by bishops. episcopally adv. [church latin: related to *bishop]
Episcopalian —adj. 1 of episcopacy. 2 of an episcopal church or (episcopalian) the episcopal church. —n. 1 adherent of episcopacy. 2 (episcopalian) member of the episcopal church. episcopalianism n.
Episcopate n. 1 the office or tenure of a bishop. 2 (prec. By the) the bishops collectively. [church latin: related to *bishop]
Episiotomy n. (pl. -ies) surgical cut made at the vaginal opening during childbirth, to aid delivery. [greek epision pubic region]
Episode n. 1 event or group of events as part of a sequence. 2 each of the parts of a serial story or broadcast. 3 incident or set of incidents in a narrative. [greek eisodos entry]
Episodic adj. 1 consisting of separate episodes. 2 irregular, sporadic. episodically adv.
Epistemology n. Philosophy of knowledge. epistemological adj. [greek episteme knowledge]
Epistle n. 1 joc. Letter. 2 (epistle) any of the apostles’ letters in the new testament. 3 poem etc. In the form of a letter. [greek epistole from stello send]
Epistolary adj. Of or in the form of a letter or letters. [latin: related to *epistle]
Epitaph n. Words written in memory of a dead person, esp. As a tomb inscription. [greek taphos tomb]
Epithelium n. (pl. -s or -lia) tissue forming the outer layer of the body and lining many hollow structures. epithelial adj. [greek thele teat]
Epithet n. 1 adjective etc. Expressing a quality or attribute. 2 this as a term of abuse. [greek tithemi place]
Epitome n. 1 person or thing embodying a quality etc. 2 thing representing another in miniature. [greek temno cut]
Epitomize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make or be a perfect example of (a quality etc.).
Epns abbr. Electroplated nickel silver.
Epoch n. 1 period of history etc. Marked by notable events. 2 beginning of an era. 3 geol. Division of a period, corresponding to a set of strata. epochal adj. [greek, = pause]
Epoch-making adj. Remarkable; very important.
Eponym n. 1 word, place-name, etc., derived from a person’s name. 2 person whose name is used in this way. eponymous adj. [greek onoma name]
Epos abbr. Electronic point-of-sale (equipment recording stock, sales, etc. In shops).
Epoxy adj. Relating to or derived from a compound with one oxygen atom and two carbon atoms bonded in a triangle. [from epi-, oxygen]
Epoxy resin n. Synthetic thermosetting resin.
Epsilon n. Fifth letter of the greek alphabet (e, e). [greek]
Epsom salts n. Magnesium sulphate used as a purgative etc. [epsom in s. England]
Equable adj. 1 not varying. 2 moderate (equable climate). 3 (of a person) not easily disturbed. equably adv. [related to *equal]
Equal —adj. 1 (often foll. By to, with) the same in quantity, quality, size, degree, level, etc. 2 evenly balanced (an equal contest). 3 having the same rights or status (human beings are essentially equal). 4 uniform in application or effect. — n. Person or thing equal to another, esp. In rank or quality. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 be equal to. 2 achieve something that is equal to. be equal to have the ability or resources for. [latin aequalis]
Equality n. Being equal. [latin: related to *equal]
Equalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make or become equal. 2 reach one’s opponent’s score. equalization n.
Equalizer n. (also -iser) equalizing score or goal etc.
Equally adv. 1 in an equal manner (treated them equally). 2 to an equal degree (equally important).
Usage in sense 2, construction with as (e.g. Equally as important) is often found, but is considered incorrect by some people.
Equal opportunity n. (often in pl.) Opportunity to compete on equal terms, regardless of sex, race, etc.
Equanimity n. Composure, evenness of temper, esp. In adversity. [latin aequus even, animus mind]
Equate v. (-ting) 1 (usu. Foll. By to, with) regard as equal or equivalent. 2 (foll. By with) be equal or equivalent to. equatable adj. [latin aequo aequat-: related to *equal]
Equation n. 1 equating or making equal; being equal. 2 statement that two mathematical expressions are equal (indicated by the sign =). 3 formula indicating a chemical reaction by means of symbols.
Equator n. 1 imaginary line round the earth or other body, equidistant from the poles. 2 = celestial equator. [medieval latin: related to equate]
Equatorial adj. Of or near the equator.
Equerry n. (pl. -ies) officer attending the british royal family. [french esquierie stable]
Equestrian —adj. 1 of horse-riding. 2 on horseback. —n. Rider or performer on horseback. equestrianism n. [latin equestris from equus horse] Equi-comb. Form equal. [latin: related to *equal]
Equiangular adj. Having equal angles.
Equidistant adj. At equal distances.
Equilateral adj. Having all its sides equal in length.
Equilibrium n. (pl. -ria or -s) 1 state of physical balance. 2 state of composure. [latin libra balance]
Equine adj. Of or like a horse. [latin equus horse]
Equinoctial —adj. Happening at or near the time of an equinox. —n. (in full equinoctial line) = *celestial equator. [latin: related to *equinox]
Equinox n. Time or date (twice each year) at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when day and night are of equal length. [latin nox noctis night]
Enterprise n. 1 undertaking, esp. A challenging one. 2 readiness to engage in such undertakings. 3 business firm or venture. [latin prehendo grasp]
Entertainment n. 1 entertaining or being entertained. 2 thing that entertains; performance.
Enthral v. (us enthrall) (-ll-) captivate, please greatly. enthralment n. [from en-1, thrall]
Enthrall v. (brit. Enthral) (-ll-) captivate, please greatly. enthralment n. [from en-1, thrall]
Enthrone v. (-ning) place on a throne, esp. Ceremonially. enthronement n.
Enthuse v. (-sing) colloq. Be or make enthusiastic.
Enthusiasm n. 1 (often foll. By for, about) strong interest or admiration, great eagerness. 2 object of enthusiasm. [greek entheos inspired by a god]
Enthusiast n. Person full of enthusiasm. [church latin: related to *enthusiasm]
Enthusiastic adj. Having enthusiasm. enthusiastically adv.
Entice v. (-cing) attract by the offer of pleasure or reward. enticement n. Enticing adj. Enticingly adv. [french enticier probably from romanic]
Entire adj. 1 whole, complete. 2 unbroken. 3 unqualified, absolute. 4 in one piece; continuous. [latin: related to *integer]
Entirely adv. 1 wholly. 2 solely.
Entirety n. (pl. -ies) 1 completeness. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) sum total. in its entirety in its complete form.
Entitle v. (-ling) 1 (usu. Foll. By to) give (a person) a just claim or right. 2 give a title to. entitlement n. [latin: related to *title]
Entity n. (pl. -ies) 1 thing with distinct existence. 2 thing’s existence in itself. [latin ens ent-being]
Entomb v. 1 place in a tomb. 2 serve as a tomb for. entombment n. [french:
related to *tomb]
Entomology n. The study of insects. entomological adj. Entomologist n. [greek entomon insect]
Entourage n. People attending an important person. [french]
Entourage n. People attending an important person. [french]
Entr’acte n. 1 interval between acts of a play. 2 music or dance performed during this. [french]
Entrails n.pl. 1 bowels, intestines. 2 innermost parts of a thing. [latin inter among]
Entrance1 n. 1 place for entering. 2 going or coming in. 3 right of admission. 4 coming of an actor on stage. 5 (in full entrance fee) admission fee. [french: related to *enter]
Entrance2 v. (-cing) 1 enchant, delight. 2 put into a trance. entrancement n.
Entrancing adj. Entrancingly adv.
Entrant n. Person who enters (an examination, profession, etc.). [french: related to *enter]
Entrap v. (-pp-) 1 catch in or as in a trap. 2 beguile. entrapment n. [related to *en-1]
Entreat v. Ask earnestly, beg. [related to *en-1]
Entreaty n. (pl. -ies) earnest request.
Entrecôte n. Boned steak off the sirloin. [french, = between-rib]
Entrée n. 1 dish served between the fish and meat courses. 2 us main dish. 3 right of admission. [french]
Entrench v. 1 a establish firmly (in a position, office, etc.). B (as entrenched adj.) (of an attitude etc.) Not easily modified. 2 surround with a trench as a fortification. entrenchment n.
Entrepôt n. Warehouse for goods in transit. [french]
Entrepreneur n. 1 person who undertakes a commercial venture. 2 contractor acting as an intermediary. entrepreneurial adj. Entrepreneurialism n. (also entrepreneurism). [french: related to *enterprise]
Entropy n. 1 physics measure of the disorganization or degradation of the universe, resulting in a decrease in available energy. 2 physics measure of the unavailability of a system’s thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work. [greek: related to *en-2, trope transformation]
Entrust v. (also intrust) 1 (foll. By to) give (a person or thing) into the care of a person. 2 (foll. By with) assign responsibility for (a person or thing) to (a person) (entrusted him with my camera).
Equip v. (-pp-) supply with what is needed. [old norse skipa to man a ship]
Equipage n. 1 archaic a requisites. B outfit. 2 hist. Carriage and horses with attendants. [french: related to *equip]
Equipment n. 1 necessary articles, clothing, etc. 2 equipping or being equipped. [french: related to *equip]
Equipoise n. 1 equilibrium. 2 counterbalancing thing.
Equitable adj. 1 fair, just. 2 law valid in equity as distinct from law. equitably adv. [french: related to *equity]
Equitation n. Horsemanship; horse-riding. [latin equito ride a horse]
Equity n. (pl. -ies) 1 fairness. 2 principles of justice used to correct or supplement the law. 3 a value of the shares issued by a company. B (in pl.) Stocks and shares not bearing fixed interest. [latin aequitas: related to *equal]
Equivalent —adj. 1 (often foll. By to) equal in value, amount, importance, etc. 2 corresponding. 3 having the same meaning or result. —n. Equivalent thing, amount, etc. equivalence n. [latin: related to *value]
Equivocal adj. 1 of double or doubtful meaning. 2 of uncertain nature. 3 (of a person etc.) Questionable. equivocally adv. [latin voco call]
Equivocate v. (-ting) use ambiguity to conceal the truth. equivocation n.
Equivocator n. [latin: related to *equivocal]
Er abbr. Queen elizabeth. [latin elizabetha regina]
Er symb. Erbium.
Er int. Expressing hesitation. [imitative]
-er1 suffix forming nouns from nouns, adjectives, and verbs, denoting: 1 person, animal, or thing that does (cobbler; poker). 2 person or thing that is (foreigner; four-wheeler). 3 person concerned with (hatter; geographer). 4 person from (villager; sixth-former). [old english]
-er2 suffix forming the comparative of adjectives (wider) and adverbs (faster). [old english]
-er3 suffix used in a slang distortion of the word (rugger). [probably an extension of *-er1]
Era n. 1 system of chronology reckoning from a noteworthy event (christian era). 2 large period, esp. Regarded historically. 3 date at which an era begins. 4 major division of geological time. [latin, = number (pl. Of aes money)]
Eradicate v. (-ting) root out; destroy completely. eradicable adj. Eradication n. Eradicator n. [latin radix -icis root]
Erase v. (-sing) 1 rub out; obliterate. 2 remove all traces of. 3 remove recorded material from (magnetic tape or disk). [latin rado ras-scrape]
Eraser n. Thing that erases, esp. A piece of rubber etc. For removing pencil etc.
Marks.
Erasure n. 1 erasing. 2 erased word etc.
Erbium n. Metallic element of the lanthanide series. [ytterby in sweden]
Ere prep. & conj. Poet. Or archaic before (of time) (ere noon; ere they come). [old english]
Erect —adj. 1 upright, vertical. 2 (of the penis etc.) Enlarged and rigid, esp. In sexual excitement. 3 (of hair) bristling. —v. 1 set up; build. 2 establish. erection n. Erectly adv. Erectness n. [latin erigere erect-set up]
Erectile adj. That can become erect (esp. Of body tissue in sexual excitement). [french: related to *erect]
Erg n. Unit of work or energy. [greek ergon work]
Ergo adv. Therefore. [latin]
Ergonomics n. The study of the relationship between people and their working environment. ergonomic adj. [greek ergon work]
Ergot n. Disease of rye etc. Caused by a fungus. [french]
Erin n. Poet. Ireland. [irish]
Erm abbr. Exchange rate mechanism.
Ermine n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 stoat, esp. When white in winter. 2 its white fur, used to trim robes etc. [french]
Ernie n. Device for drawing prizewinning numbers of premium bonds. [electronic random number indicator equipment]
Erode v. (-ding) wear away, destroy gradually. erosion n. Erosive adj. [latin rodo ros-gnaw]
Erogenous adj. (of a part of the body) particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation. [greek (as *erotic), *-genous]
Erotic adj. Of or causing sexual love, esp. Tending to arouse sexual desire or excitement. erotically adv. [greek eros sexual love]
Erotica n.pl. Erotic literature or art.
Eroticism n. 1 erotic character. 2 use of or response to erotic images or stimulation.
Err v. 1 be mistaken or incorrect. 2 do wrong; sin. [latin erro stray]
Errand n. 1 short journey, esp. On another’s behalf, to take a message, collect goods, etc. 2 object of such a journey. [old english]
Errand of mercy n. Journey to relieve suffering etc.
Errant adj. 1 erring. 2 literary or archaic travelling in search of adventure (knight errant). errantry n. (in sense 2). [from *err: sense 2 ultimately from latin iter journey]
Erratic adj. 1 inconsistent in conduct, opinions, etc. 2 uncertain in movement. erratically adv. [latin: related to *err]
Erratum n. (pl. Errata) error in printing or writing. [latin: related to *err] Erroneous adj. Incorrect. erroneously adv. [latin: related to *err]
Error n. 1 mistake. 2 condition of being morally wrong (led into error). 3 degree of inaccuracy in a calculation etc. (2% error). [latin: related to *err]
Ersatz adj. & n. Substitute, imitation. [german]
Erse —adj. Irish or highland gaelic. —n. The gaelic language. [early scots form of *irish]
Erstwhile —adj. Former, previous. —adv. Archaic formerly. [related to *ere]
Eructation n. Formal belching. [latin ructo belch]
Erudite adj. Learned. erudition n. [latin eruditus instructed: related to *rude]
Erupt v. 1 break out suddenly or dramatically. 2 (of a volcano) eject lava etc. 3 (of a rash etc.) Appear on the skin. eruption n. Eruptive adj. [latin erumpo erupt-break out]
-ery suffix (also -ry) forming nouns denoting: 1 class or kind (greenery; machinery; citizenry). 2 employment; state or condition (dentistry; slavery). 3 place of work or cultivation or breeding (brewery; rookery). 4 behaviour (mimicry). 5 often derog. All that has to do with (popery). [french -erie]
Erysipelas n. Disease causing fever and a deep red inflammation of the skin. [latin from greek]
Erythrocyte n. Red blood cell. [greek eruthros red, *-cyte]
Es symb. Einsteinium.
Escalate v. (-ting) 1 increase or develop (usu. Rapidly) by stages. 2 make or become more intense. escalation n. [from *escalator]
Escalator n. Moving staircase consisting of a circulating belt forming steps. [latin scala ladder]
Escalope n. Thin slice of boneless meat, esp. Veal. [french, originally = shell]
Escapade n. Piece of reckless behaviour. [french from provençal or spanish:
related to *escape]
Escape —v. (-ping) 1 (often foll. By from) get free of restriction or control. 2 (of gas etc.) Leak. 3 succeed in avoiding punishment etc. 4 get free of (a person, grasp, etc.). 5 avoid (a commitment, danger, etc.). 6 elude the notice or memory of (nothing escapes you; name escaped me). 7 (of words etc.) Issue unawares from (a person etc.). —n. 1 act or instance of escaping. 2 means of escaping (often attrib.: escape hatch). 3 leakage of gas etc. 4 temporary relief from unpleasant reality. [latin cappa cloak]
Escape clause n. Law clause specifying conditions under which a contracting party is free from an obligation.
Escapee n. Person who has escaped.
Escapement n. Part of a clock etc. That connects and regulates the motive power. [french: related to *escape]
Escape velocity n. Minimum velocity needed to escape from the gravitational field of a body.
Escapism n. Pursuit of distraction and relief from reality. escapist n. & adj.
Escapology n. Techniques of escaping from confinement, esp. As entertainment.
escapologist n.
Escarpment n. Long steep slope at the edge of a plateau etc. [french from italian:
related to *scarp]
Eschatology n. Theology of death and final destiny. eschatological adj. [greek eskhatos last]
Escheat hist. —n. 1 reversion of property to the state etc. In the absence of legal heirs. 2 property so affected. —v. 1 hand over (property) as an escheat. 2 confiscate. 3 revert by escheat. [latin cado fall]
Eschew v. Formal avoid; abstain from. eschewal n. [germanic: related to *shy1]
Escort —n. 1 one or more persons, vehicles, etc., accompanying a person, vehicle, etc., for protection or as a mark of status. 2 person accompanying a person of the opposite sex socially. —v. Act as an escort to. [french from italian]
Escritoire n. Writing-desk with drawers etc. [french from latin scriptorium writing-room]
Escudo n. (pl. -s) chief monetary unit of portugal. [spanish and portuguese from latin scutum shield]
Escutcheon n. Shield or emblem bearing a coat of arms. [latin scutum shield]
Eskimo —n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 member of a people inhabiting n. Canada, alaska, greenland, and e. Siberia. 2 language of this people. —adj. Of eskimos or their language. [algonquian]
Usage the eskimos of n. America prefer the name inuit.
Esn abbr. Educationally subnormal.
Esophagus n. (brit. Oesophagus) (pl. -gi or -guses) passage from the mouth to the stomach; gullet. [greek]
Esoteric adj. Intelligible only to those with special knowledge. esoterically adv.
Esoteric adj. Intelligible only to those with special knowledge. esoterically adv. [greek eso within]
Esp abbr. Extrasensory perception.
Espadrille n. Light canvas shoe with a plaited fibre sole. [provençal: related to *esparto]
Espalier n. 1 lattice-work along which the branches of a tree or shrub are trained. 2 tree or shrub so trained. [french from italian]
Esparto n. (pl. -s) (in full esparto grass) coarse grass of spain and n. Africa, used to make good-quality paper etc. [greek sparton rope]
Especial adj. Notable. [latin: related to *special]
Especially adv. 1 in particular. 2 much more than in other cases. 3 particularly.
Esperanto n. An artificial language designed for universal use. [latin spero hope]
Espionage n. Spying or use of spies. [french: related to *spy]
Esplanade n. 1 long open level area for walking on, esp. Beside the sea. 2 level space separating a fortress from a town. [latin planus level]
Espousal n. 1 (foll. By of) espousing of (a cause etc.). 2 archaic marriage, betrothal.
Espouse v. (-sing) 1 adopt or support (a cause, doctrine, etc.). 2 archaic a (usu. Of a man) marry. B (usu. Foll. By to) give (a woman) in marriage. [latin spondeo betroth]
Ex-servicewoman n. Woman formerly a member of the armed forces.
Extant adj. Still existing. [latin ex(s)to exist]
Extemporaneous adj. Spoken or done without preparation. extemporaneously adv. [from *extempore]
Extempore adj. & adv. Without preparation. [latin]
Extemporize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) improvise. extemporization n.
Extend v. 1 lengthen or make larger in space or time. 2 stretch or lay out at full length. 3 (foll. By to, over) reach or be or make continuous over a specified area. 4 (foll. By to) have a specified scope (permit does not extend to camping). 5 offer or accord (an invitation, hospitality, kindness, etc.). 6 (usu. Refl. Or in
passive) tax the powers of (an athlete, horse, etc.). extendible adj. (also extensible). [latin extendo -tens-: related to *tend1]
Extended family n. Family including relatives living near.
Extended-play adj. (of a gramophone record) playing for somewhat longer than most singles.
Extension n. 1 extending or being extended. 2 part enlarging or added on to a main building etc. 3 additional part. 4 a subsidiary telephone on the same line as the main one. B its number. 5 additional period of time. 6 extramural instruction by a university or college.
Extensive adj. 1 covering a large area. 2 far-reaching. extensively adv. Extensiveness n. [latin: related to *extend]
Extent n. 1 space over which a thing extends. 2 range, scope, degree. [anglo-french: related to *extend]
Extenuate v. (often as extenuating adj.) Make (guilt or an offence) seem less serious by reference to another factor. extenuation n. [latin tenuis thin]
Exterior —adj. 1 of or on the outer side. 2 coming from outside. —n. 1 outward aspect or surface of a building etc. 2 outward demeanour. 3 outdoor scene in filming. [latin]
Exterminate v. (-ting) destroy utterly (esp. A living thing). extermination n. Exterminator n. [latin: related to *terminal]
External —adj. 1 a of or on the outside or visible part. B coming from the outside or an outside source. 2 relating to a country’s foreign affairs. 3 outside the conscious subject (the external world). 4 (of medicine etc.) For use on the outside of the body. 5 for students taking the examinations of a university without attending it. —n. (in pl.) 1 outward features or aspect. 2 external circumstances. 3 inessentials. externality n. Externally adv. [latin externus outer]
Externalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) give or attribute external existence to.
externalization n.
Extinct adj. 1 that has died out. 2 a no longer burning. B (of a volcano) that no longer erupts. 3 obsolete. [latin ex(s)tinguo -stinct-quench]
Extinction n. 1 making or becoming extinct. 2 extinguishing or being extinguished. 3 total destruction or annihilation.
Extinguish v. 1 cause (a flame, light, etc.) To die out. 2 destroy. 3 terminate. 4 wipe out (a debt). extinguishable adj.
Extinguisher n. = *fire extinguisher.
Extirpate v. (-ting) root out; destroy completely. extirpation n. [latin ex(s)tirpo from stirps stem of tree]
Extol v. (-ll-) praise enthusiastically. [latin tollo raise]
Extort v. Obtain by coercion. [latin torqueo tort-twist]
Extortion n. 1 act of extorting, esp. Money. 2 illegal exaction. extortioner n.
Extortionist n.
Extortionate adj. (of a price etc.) Exorbitant. extortionately adv.
Extra —adj. Additional; more than usual or necessary or expected. —adv. 1 more than usually. 2 additionally (was charged extra). —n. 1 extra thing. 2 thing for which an extra charge is made. 3 person engaged temporarily for a minor part in a film. 4 special issue of a newspaper etc. 5 cricket run scored other than from a hit with the bat. [probably from *extraordinary]
Extra-comb. Form 1 outside, beyond. 2 beyond the scope of. [latin extra outside]
Extra-comb. Form 1 outside, beyond. 2 beyond the scope of. [latin extra outside]
Extra cover n. Cricket 1 fielding position on a line between cover-point and mid-off, but beyond these. 2 fielder at this position.
Extract —v. 1 remove or take out, esp. By effort or force. 2 obtain (money, an admission, etc.) Against a person’s will. 3 obtain (a natural resource) from the earth. 4 select or reproduce for quotation or performance. 5 obtain (juice etc.) By
pressure, distillation, etc. 6 derive (pleasure etc.). 7 find (the root of a number). —n. 1 short passage from a book etc. 2 preparation containing a concentrated constituent of a substance (malt extract). [latin traho tract-draw]
Extraction n. 1 extracting or being extracted. 2 removal of a tooth. 3 lineage, descent (of indian extraction). [latin: related to *extract]
Extractive adj. Of or involving extraction.
Extractor n. 1 person or machine that extracts. 2 (attrib.) (of a device) that extracts bad air etc.
Extracurricular adj. Not part of the normal curriculum.
Extraditable adj. 1 liable to extradition. 2 (of a crime) warranting extradition.
Extradite v. (-ting) hand over (a person accused or convicted of a crime) to the foreign state etc. In which the crime was committed. extradition n. [french: related to *tradition]
Extramarital adj. (esp. Of sexual relations) occurring outside marriage. Extramural adj. Additional to normal teaching or studies, esp. For non-resident students.
Extraneous adj. 1 of external origin. 2 (often foll. By to) a separate from the object to which it is attached etc. B irrelevant, unrelated. [latin extraneus]
Extrapolate v. (-ting) (also absol.) Calculate approximately from known data etc. (others which lie outside the range of those known). extrapolation n. [from extra-
interpolate]
Extrasensory adj. Derived by means other than the known senses, e.g. By telepathy.
Extraterrestrial —adj. Outside the earth or its atmosphere. —n. (in science fiction) being from outer space.
Extravaganza n. 1 spectacular theatrical or television production. 2 fanciful literary, musical, or dramatic composition. [italian]
Extreme —adj. 1 of a high, or the highest, degree (extreme danger). 2 severe (extreme measures). 3 outermost. 4 on the far left or right of a political party. 5 utmost; last. —n. 1 (often in pl.) Either of two things as remote or as different as
possible. 2 thing at either end. 3 highest degree. 4 math. First or last term of a ratio or series. go to extremes take an extreme course of action. In the extreme to an extreme degree. extremely adv. [french from latin]
Extreme unction n. Last rites in the roman catholic and orthodox churches.
Extremist n. (also attrib.) Person with extreme views. extremism n.
Extremity n. (pl. -ies) 1 extreme point; very end. 2 (in pl.) The hands and feet. 3 condition of extreme adversity. [latin: related to *extreme]
Extricate v. (-ting) (often foll. By from) free or disentangle from a difficulty etc. extricable adj. Extrication n. [latin tricae perplexities]
Extrinsic adj. 1 not inherent or intrinsic. 2 (often foll. By to) extraneous; not belonging. extrinsically adv. [latin extrinsecus outwardly]
Extrovert —n. 1 outgoing person. 2 person mainly concerned with external things. —adj. Typical of or with the nature of an extrovert. extroversion n. Extroverted adj. [latin verto turn]
Extrude v. (-ding) 1 (foll. By from) thrust or force out. 2 shape metal, plastics, etc. By forcing them through a die. extrusion n. Extrusive adj. [latin extrudo -trus-thrust out]
Exude v. (-ding) 1 ooze out. 2 emit (a smell). 3 display (an emotion etc.) Freely. exudation n. [latin sudo sweat]
Exult v. Be joyful. exultation n. Exultant adj. Exultantly adv. [latin ex(s)ulto from salio salt-leap]
-ey var. Of *-y2.
Eye —n. 1 organ of sight. 2 eye characterized by the colour of the iris (has blue eyes). 3 region round the eye (eyes swollen from weeping). 4 (in sing. Or pl.) Sight. 5 particular visual ability (a straight eye). 6 thing like an eye, esp.: a a spot on a peacock’s tail. B a leaf bud of a potato. 7 calm region at the centre of a hurricane etc. 8 hole of a needle. —v. (eyes, eyed, eyeing or eying) (often foll. By up) watch or observe closely, esp. Admiringly or with suspicion. all eyes watching intently. An eye for an eye retaliation in kind. Have an eye for be discerning about. Have one’s eye on wish or plan to procure. Have eyes for be interested in; wish to acquire. Keep an eye on 1 watch. 2 look after. Keep an eye open (or out) (often foll. By for) watch carefully. Keep one’s eyes open (or peeled or skinned) watch out; be on the alert. Make eyes (or sheep’s eyes) (foll. By at) look amorously or flirtatiously at. One in the eye (foll. By for) disappointment or setback. See eye to eye (often foll. By with) agree. Set eyes on see. Up to the (or one’s) eyes in deeply engaged or involved in. With one’s eyes shut (or closed) with little effort. With an eye to with a view to. [old english]
Eyeball —n. Ball of the eye within the lids and socket. —v. Us slang look or stare (at).
Eyeball to eyeball adv. Colloq. Confronting closely.
Eyeball to eyeball adv. Colloq. Confronting closely.
Eyebath n. Small vessel for applying lotion etc. To the eye.
Eyebright n. Plant used as a remedy for weak eyes.
Eyebrow n. Line of hair on the ridge above the eye-socket. raise one’s eyebrows show surprise, disbelief, or disapproval.
Eye-catching adj. Colloq. Striking.
Eyeful n. (pl. -s) colloq. 1 (esp. In phr. Get an eyeful (of)) good look; as much as the eye can take in. 2 visually striking person or thing. 3 thing thrown or blown into the eye.
Eyeglass n. Lens to assist defective sight.
Eyehole n. Hole to look through.
Eyelash n. Each of the hairs growing on the edges of the eyelids.
Eyelet n. 1 small hole for string or rope etc. To pass through. 2 metal ring strengthening this. [french oillet from latin oculus]
Eyelid n. Either of the folds of skin closing to cover the eye.
Eye-liner n. Cosmetic applied as a line round the eye.
Eye-opener n. Colloq. Enlightening experience; unexpected revelation.
Eyepiece n. Lens or lenses to which the eye is applied at the end of an optical instrument.
Eye-shade n. Device to protect the eyes, esp. From strong light.
Eye-shadow n. Coloured cosmetic applied to the eyelids.
Eyesight n. Faculty or power of seeing.
Eyesore n. Ugly thing.
Eye strain n. Fatigue of the eye muscles.
Eye-tooth n. Canine tooth in the upper jaw just under the eye.
Eyewash n. 1 lotion for the eyes. 2 slang nonsense; insincere talk.
Eyewitness n. Person who saw a thing happen and can tell of it.
Eyrie n. 1 nest of a bird of prey, esp. An eagle, built high up. 2 house etc. Perched high up. [french aire lair, from latin agrum piece of ground]
Espresso n. (also expresso) (pl. -s) strong black coffee made under steam pressure. [italian, = pressed out]
Esprit n. Sprightliness, wit. esprit de corps devotion to and pride in one’s group. [french: related to *spirit]
Espy v. (-ies, -ied) catch sight of. [french: related to *spy]
Esq. Abbr. Esquire.
-esque suffix forming adjectives meaning ‘in the style of’ or ‘resembling’ (kafkaesque). [french from latin -iscus]
Esquire n. 1 (usu. As abbr. Esq.) Title added to a man’s surname when no other title is used, esp. As a form of address for letters. 2 archaic = *squire. [french from latin scutum shield]
Essay —n. 1 short piece of writing on a given subject. 2 (often foll. By at, in) formal attempt. —v. Attempt. essayist n. [latin exigo weigh: cf. *assay]
Essence n. 1 fundamental nature; inherent characteristics. 2 a extract got by distillation etc. B perfume. of the essence indispensable. In essence fundamentally. [latin esse be]
Essential —adj. 1 necessary; indispensable. 2 of or constituting the essence of a person or thing. —n. (esp. In pl.) Basic or indispensable element or thing. essentially adv. [latin: related to *essence]
Essential oil n. Volatile oil derived from a plant etc. With its characteristic odour.
-est suffix forming the superlative of adjectives (widest; nicest; happiest) and adverbs (soonest). [old english]
Establish v. 1 set up (a business, system, etc.) On a permanent basis. 2 (foll. By in) settle (a person or oneself) in some capacity. 3 (esp. As established adj.) A achieve permanent acceptance for (a custom, belief, etc.). B place (a fact etc.) Beyond dispute. [latin stabilio make firm]
Established church n. The church recognized by the state.
Establishment n. 1 establishing or being established. 2 a business organization or public institution. B place of business. C residence. 3 a staff of an organization. B household. 4 organized body permanently maintained. 5 church system organized by law. 6 (the establishment) social group with authority or influence and resisting change.
Estate n. 1 property consisting of much land and usu. A large house. 2 modern residential or industrial area with an integrated design or purpose. 3 person’s assets and liabilities, esp. At death. 4 property where rubber, tea, grapes, etc., are cultivated. 5 order or class forming (or regarded as) part of the body politic. 6 archaic or literary state or position in life (the estate of holy matrimony). the three estates lords spiritual (the heads of the church), lords temporal (the peerage), and the commons. [french estat, from latin sto stat-stand]
Estate agent n. Person whose business is the sale or lease of buildings and land on behalf of others.
Estate car n. Car with a continuous area for rear passengers and luggage.
Estate duty n. Hist. Death duty.
Usage estate duty was replaced in 1975 by capital transfer tax and in 1986 by inheritance tax.
Esteem —v. 1 (usu. In passive) have a high regard for. 2 formal consider (esteemed it an honour). —n. High regard; favour. [latin: related to *estimate]
Ester n. Chem. A compound produced by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by an organic radical. [german]
Estimable adj. Worthy of esteem; admirable. [latin: related to *esteem]
Estimate —n. 1 approximate judgement, esp. Of cost, value, size, etc. 2 statement of approximate charge for work to be undertaken. —v. (-ting) (also absol.) 1 form an estimate or opinion of. 2 (foll. By that) make a rough calculation. 3 (often foll. By at) form an estimate; adjudge. estimator n. [latin aestimo fix the price of]
Estimation n. 1 estimating. 2 judgement of worth. [latin: related to *estimate]
Estonian —n. 1 a native or national of estonia in eastern europe. B person of estonian descent. 2 language of estonia. —adj. Of estonia, its people, or language.
Estrange v. (-ging) 1 (usu. In passive; often foll. By from) alienate; make hostile or indifferent. 2 (as estranged adj.) (of a husband or wife) no longer living with his or her spouse. estrangement n. [latin: related to *strange]
Estrogen n. (brit. Oestrogen) 1 sex hormone developing and maintaining female characteristics of the body. 2 this produced artificially for use in medicine. [greek oistros frenzy, *-gen]
Estrus n. (also estrum, brit. Oestrus) recurring period of sexual receptivity in many female mammals oestrous adj. [greek oistros frenzy]
Estuary n. (pl. -ies) wide tidal river mouth. [latin aestus tide]
Eta abbr. Estimated time of arrival.
Eta n. Seventh letter of the greek alphabet (h, h). [greek]
Et al. Abbr. And others. [latin et alii]
Etc. Abbr. = *et cetera.
Et cetera (also etcetera) —adv. 1 and the rest. 2 and so on. —n. (in pl.) The usual extras. [latin]
Etch v. 1 a reproduce (a picture etc.) By engraving it on a metal plate with acid (esp. To print copies). B engrave (a plate) in this way. 2 practise this craft. 3 (foll. By on, upon) impress deeply (esp. On the mind). etcher n. [dutch etsen]
Etching n. 1 print made from an etched plate. 2 art of producing these plates.
Eternal adj. 1 existing always; without an end or (usu.) Beginning. 2 unchanging. 3 colloq. Constant; too frequent (eternal nagging). eternally adv. [latin aeternus]
Eternal triangle n. Two people of one sex and one person of the other involved in a complex emotional relationship.
Eternity n. (pl. -ies) 1 infinite (esp. Future) time. 2 endless life after death. 3 being eternal. 4 colloq. (often prec. By an) a very long time. [latin: related to *eternal]
Eternity ring n. Finger-ring esp. Set with gems all round.
-eth var. Of *-th.
Ethanal n. = *acetaldehyde.
Ethane n. Gaseous hydrocarbon of the alkane series. [from *ether]
Ether n. 1 chem. Colourless volatile organic liquid used as an anaesthetic or solvent. 2 clear sky; upper regions of the air. 3 hist. A medium formerly assumed to permeate all space. B medium through which electromagnetic waves were formerly thought to be transmitted. [greek aitho burn]
Ethereal adj. 1 light, airy. 2 highly delicate, esp. In appearance. 3 heavenly. ethereally adv. [greek: related to *ether]
Ethic —n. Set of moral principles (the quaker ethic). —adj. = ethical. [greek:
related to ethos]
Ethical adj. 1 relating to morals, esp. As concerning human conduct. 2 morally correct. 3 (of a drug etc.) Not advertised to the general public, and usu. Available only on prescription. ethically adv.
Ethics n.pl. (also treated as sing.) 1 moral philosophy. 2 a moral principles. B set
Ethics n.pl. (also treated as sing.) 1 moral philosophy. 2 a moral principles. B set of these.
Ethiopian —n. 1 native or national of ethiopia in ne africa. 2 person of ethiopian descent. —adj. Of ethiopia.
Ethnic adj. 1 a (of a social group) having a common national or cultural tradition. B (of music, clothing, etc.) Inspired by or resembling those of an exotic people. 2 denoting origin by birth or descent rather than nationality (ethnic turks). ethnically adv. [greek ethnos nation]
Ethnology n. The comparative study of peoples. ethnological adj. Ethnologist n.
Ethos n. Characteristic spirit or attitudes of a community etc. [greek ethos character]
Ethyl n. (attrib.) A radical derived from ethane, present in alcohol and ether. [german: related to *ether]
Ethylene n. A hydrocarbon of the alkene series.
Etiolate v. (-ting) 1 make (a plant) pale by excluding light. 2 give a sickly colour to (a person). etiolation n. [latin stipula straw]
Etiology n. (brit. Aetiology) study of causation or of the causes of disease. aetiological adj. [greek aitia cause]
aetiological adj. [greek aitia cause]
Etiquette n. Conventional rules of social behaviour or professional conduct. [french: related to *ticket]
Etruscan —adj. Of ancient etruria in italy. —n. 1 native of etruria. 2 language of etruria. [latin etruscus]
Et seq. Abbr. (also et seqq.) And the following (pages etc.). [latin et sequentia]
-ette suffix forming nouns meaning: 1 small (kitchenette). 2 imitation or substitute (flannelette). 3 female (usherette). [french]
Étude n. = *study n. 6. [french, = study]
Etymology n. (pl. -ies) 1 a derivation and development of a word in form and meaning. B account of these. 2 the study of word origins. etymological adj. Etymologist n. [greek etumos true]
Eu symb. Europium.
Eu-comb. Form well, easily. [greek]
Eucalyptus n. (pl. -tuses or -ti) (also eucalypt pl. -s) 1 tall evergreen australasian tree. 2 its oil, used as an antiseptic etc. [from *eu-, greek kaluptos covered]
Eucharist n. 1 christian sacrament in which consecrated bread and wine are consumed. 2 consecrated elements, esp. The bread. eucharistic adj. [greek, = thanksgiving]
Eugenics n.pl. (also treated as sing.) Improvement of the qualities of a race by control of inherited characteristics. eugenic adj. Eugenically adv. [from *eu-, greek gen-produce]
Eukaryote n. Organism consisting of a cell or cells in which the genetic material is contained within a distinct nucleus. eukaryotic adj. [from *eu-, karyo-from greek karuon kernel, -ote as in *zygote]
Eulogize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) praise in speech or writing. eulogistic adj.
Eulogy n. (pl. -ies) 1 speech or writing in praise of a person. 2 expression of praise. [latin from greek]
Eunuch n. Castrated man, esp. One formerly employed at an oriental harem or court. [greek, = bedchamber attendant]
Euphemism n. 1 mild or vague expression substituted for a harsher or more direct one (e.g. Pass over for die). 2 use of such expressions. euphemistic adj. Euphemistically adv. [greek pheme speaking]
Euphonium n. Brass instrument of the tuba family. [related to *euphony]
Euphony n. (pl. -ies) 1 pleasantness of sound, esp. Of a word or phrase. 2 pleasant sound. euphonious adj. [greek phone sound]
Euphoria n. Intense feeling of well-being and excitement. euphoric adj. [greek phero bear]
Eurasian —adj. 1 of mixed european and asian parentage. 2 of europe and asia.
—n. Eurasian person.
Eureka int. I have found it! (announcing a discovery etc.). [greek heureka]
Euro-comb. Form europe, european. [abbreviation]
Eurodollar n. Dollar held in a bank outside the us.
European —adj. 1 of or in europe. 2 originating in, native to, or characteristic of europe. —n. 1 a native or inhabitant of europe. B person descended from natives of europe. 2 person favouring european integration. [greek europe europe]
Europium n. Metallic element of the lanthanide series. [from the name europe]
Eustachian tube n. Tube from the pharynx to the cavity of the middle ear. [eustachio, name of an anatomist]
Euthanasia n. Bringing about of a gentle death in the case of incurable and painful disease. [greek thanatos death]
Ev abbr. Electronvolt.
Evacuate v. (-ting) 1 a remove (people) from a place of danger. B empty (a place) in this way. 2 make empty. 3 (of troops) withdraw from (a place). 4 empty (the bowels etc.). evacuation n. [latin vacuus empty]
Evacuee n. Person evacuated.
Evade v. (-ding) 1 a escape from, avoid, esp. By guile or trickery. B avoid doing (one’s duty etc.). C avoid answering (a question). 2 avoid paying (tax). [latin evado escape]
Evaluate v. (-ting) 1 assess, appraise. 2 find or state the number or amount of. evaluation n. [french: related to *value]
Evanesce v. (-cing) literary fade from sight. [latin vanus empty]
Evanescent adj. Quickly fading. evanescence n.
Evangelical —adj. 1 of or according to the teaching of the gospel. 2 of the protestant school maintaining the doctrine of salvation by faith. —n. Member of
protestant school maintaining the doctrine of salvation by faith. —n. Member of this. evangelicalism n. Evangelically adv. [greek: related to *eu-, *angel]
Evangelism n. Preaching or spreading of the gospel.
Evangelist n. 1 writer of one of the four gospels. 2 preacher of the gospel.
evangelistic adj.
Evangelize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 (also absol.) Preach the gospel to. 2 convert to christianity. evangelization n.
Evaporate v. (-ting) 1 turn from solid or liquid into vapour. 2 (cause to) lose moisture as vapour. 3 (cause to) disappear. evaporable adj. Evaporation n. [latin: related to *vapour]
Evaporated milk n. Unsweetened milk concentrated by evaporation.
Evasion n. 1 evading. 2 evasive answer. [latin: related to *evade]
Evasive adj. 1 seeking to evade. 2 not direct in one’s answers etc. evasively adv.
Evasiveness n.
Eve n. 1 evening or day before a festival etc. (christmas eve; eve of the funeral). 2 time just before an event (eve of the election). 3 archaic evening. [= *even2]
Even1 —adj. (evener, evenest) 1 level; smooth. 2 a uniform in quality; constant. B equal in amount or value etc. C equally balanced. 3 (of a person’s temper etc.) Equable, calm. 4 a (of a number) divisible by two without a remainder. B bearing such a number (no parking on even dates). C not involving fractions; exact (in even dozens). —adv. 1 inviting comparison of the assertion, negation, etc., with an implied one that is less strong or remarkable (never even opened [let alone read] the letter; ran even faster [not just as fast as before]). 2 introducing an extreme case (even you must realize it). —v. (often foll. By up) make or become even. even now 1 now as well as before. 2 at this very moment. Even so nevertheless. Even though despite the fact that. Get (or be) even with have one’s revenge on. evenly adv. Evenness n. [old english]
Even2 n. Poet. Evening. [old english]
Even chance n. Equal chance of success or failure.
Even-handed adj. Impartial.
Evening n. End part of the day, esp. From about 6 p.m. To bedtime. [old english:
related to *even2]
Evening dress n. Formal dress for evening wear.
Evening primrose n. Plant with pale-yellow flowers that open in the evening.
Evening star n. Planet, esp. Venus, conspicuous in the west after sunset.
Even money n. Betting odds offering the gambler the chance of winning the amount staked.
Evens n.pl. = *even money.
Evensong n. Service of evening prayer in the church of england. [from *even2]
Event n. 1 thing that happens. 2 fact of a thing’s occurring. 3 item in a (esp. Sports) programme. at all events (or in any event) whatever happens. In the event as it turns (or turned) out. In the event of if (a specified thing) happens. In the event that if it happens that. [latin venio vent-come]
Usage the phrase in the event that is considered awkward by some people. It can usually be avoided by rephrasing, e.g. In the event that it rains can be replaced by in the event of rain.
Eventful adj. Marked by noteworthy events. eventfully adv.
Eventide n. Archaic or poet. = *evening. [related to *even2]
Eventing n. Participation in equestrian competitions, esp. Dressage and showjumping. [see *event 3]
Eventual adj. Occurring in due course, ultimate. eventually adv. [from *event]
Eventual adj. Occurring in due course, ultimate. eventually adv. [from *event]
Eventuality n. (pl. -ies) possible event or outcome.
Eventuate v. (-ting) (often foll. By in) result.
Ever adv. 1 at all times; always (ever hopeful; ever after). 2 at any time (have you ever smoked?; nothing ever happens). 3 (used for emphasis) in any way; at all (how ever did you do it?). 4 (in comb.) Constantly (ever-present). 5 (foll. By so, such) colloq. Very; very much (ever so easy; thanks ever so). did you ever? Colloq. Did you ever hear or see the like? Ever since throughout the period since. [old english]
Usage when ever is used with a question word for emphasis it is written separately (see sense 2). When used with a relative pronoun or adverb to give it indefinite or general force, ever is written as one word with the relative pronoun or adverb, e.g. However it’s done, it’s difficult.
Evergreen —adj. Retaining green leaves all year round. —n. Evergreen plant.
Everlasting —adj. 1 lasting for ever or for a long time. 2 (of flowers) keeping their shape and colour when dried. —n. 1 eternity. 2 everlasting flower.
Evermore adv. For ever; always.
Every adj. 1 each single (heard every word). 2 each at a specified interval in a series (comes every four days). 3 all possible (every prospect of success). every bit as colloq. (in comparisons) quite as. Every now and again (or then) from time
bit as colloq. (in comparisons) quite as. Every now and again (or then) from time to time. Every other each second in a series (every other day). Every so often occasionally. [old english: related to *ever, *each]
Everybody pron. Every person.
Everyday attrib. Adj. 1 occurring every day. 2 used on ordinary days. 3 commonplace.
Everyman n. Ordinary or typical human being. [name of a character in a 15th-c. Morality play]
Everyone pron. Everybody.
Every one n. Each one.
Everything pron. 1 all things. 2 most important thing (speed is everything).
Everywhere adv. 1 in every place. 2 colloq. In many places.
Evict v. Expel (a tenant etc.) By legal process. eviction n. [latin evinco evict-conquer]
Evidence —n. 1 (often foll. By for, of) available facts, circumstances, etc. Indicating whether or not a thing is true or valid. 2 law a information tending to prove a fact or proposition. B statements or proofs admissible as testimony in a lawcourt. —v. (-cing) be evidence of. in evidence conspicuous. Queen’s (or king’s or state’s) evidence law evidence for the prosecution given by a participant in the crime at issue. [latin video see]
Evident adj. Plain or obvious; manifest. [latin: related to *evidence]
Evidential adj. Of or providing evidence.
Evidently adv. 1 seemingly; as it appears. 2 as shown by evidence.
Evil eye n. Gaze that is superstitiously believed to cause harm.
Evince v. (-cing) indicate, display (a quality, feeling, etc.). [latin: related to *evict]
Eviscerate v. (-ting) disembowel. evisceration n. [latin: related to *viscera]
Evocative adj. Evoking (esp. Feelings or memories). evocatively adv.
Evocativeness n.
Evoke v. (-king) inspire or draw forth (memories, a response, etc.). evocation n. [latin voco call]
Evolution n. 1 gradual development. 2 development of species from earlier forms, as an explanation of their origins. 3 unfolding of events etc. (evolution of the plot). 4 change in the disposition of troops or ships. evolutionary adj. [latin: related to *evolve]
Evolutionist n. Person who regards evolution as explaining the origin of species.
Evolve v. (-ving) 1 develop gradually and naturally. 2 devise (a theory, plan, etc.). 3 unfold. 4 give off (gas, heat, etc.). [latin volvo volut-roll]
Ewe n. Female sheep. [old english]
Ewer n. Water-jug with a wide mouth. [latin aqua water]
Ex1 prep. (of goods) sold from (ex-works). [latin, = out of]
Ex2 n. Colloq. Former husband or wife. [see *ex-1 2]
Ex-1 prefix (also before some consonants e-, ef-before f) 1 forming verbs meaning: a out, forth (exclude; exit). B upward (extol). C thoroughly (excruciate). D bring into a state (exasperate). E remove or free from (expatriate; exonerate). 2 forming nouns from titles of office, status, etc., meaning ‘formerly’ (ex-president; ex-wife). [latin from ex out of]
Ex-2 prefix out (exodus). [greek]
Exacerbate v. (-ting) 1 make (pain etc.) Worse. 2 irritate (a person). exacerbation n. [latin acerbus bitter]
Exact —adj. 1 accurate; correct in all details (exact description). 2 precise. —v. 1 demand and enforce payment of (money etc.). 2 demand; insist on; require. exactness n. [latin exigo exact-require]
Exacting adj. 1 making great demands. 2 requiring much effort.
Exaction n. 1 exacting or being exacted. 2 a illegal or exorbitant demand; extortion. B sum or thing exacted.
Exactitude n. Exactness, precision.
Exactly adv. 1 precisely. 2 (said in reply) i quite agree.
Exact science n. A science in which absolute precision is possible.
Exaggerate v. (-ting) 1 (also absol.) Make (a thing) seem larger or greater etc. Than it really is. 2 increase beyond normal or due proportions (exaggerated politeness). exaggeration n. [latin agger heap]
Exalt v. 1 raise in rank or power etc. 2 praise highly. 3 (usu. As exalted adj.) Make lofty or noble (exalted aims; exalted style). exaltation n. [latin altus high]
Exam n. = *examination 3.
Examination n. 1 examining or being examined. 2 detailed inspection. 3 test of proficiency or knowledge by questions. 4 formal questioning of a witness etc. In court.
Examine v. (-ning) 1 inquire into the nature or condition etc. Of. 2 look closely at. 3 test the proficiency of. 4 check the health of (a patient). 5 formally question in court. examinee n. Examiner n. [latin examen tongue of a balance]
Example n. 1 thing characteristic of its kind or illustrating a general rule. 2 person, thing, or piece of conduct, in terms of its fitness to be imitated. 3 circumstance or treatment seen as a warning to others. 4 problem or exercise designed to illustrate a rule. for example by way of illustration. [latin exemplum: related to *exempt]
Exasperate v. (-ting) irritate intensely. exasperation n. [latin asper rough]
Ex cathedra adj. & adv. With full authority (esp. Of a papal pronouncement). [latin, = from the chair]
Excavate v. (-ting) 1 a make (a hole or channel) by digging. B dig out material from (the ground). 2 reveal or extract by digging. 3 (also absol.) Archaeol. Dig systematically to explore (a site). excavation n. Excavator n. [latin excavo: related to *cave]
Exceed v. 1 (often foll. By by an amount) be more or greater than. 2 go beyond or do more than is warranted by (a set limit, esp. Of one’s authority, instructions, or rights). 3 surpass. [latin excedo -cess-go beyond]
Exceedingly adv. Extremely.
Excel v. (-ll-) 1 surpass. 2 be pre-eminent. [latin excello be eminent]
Excellence n. Outstanding merit or quality. [latin: related to *excel]
Excellency n. (pl. -ies) (usu. Prec. By your, his, her, their) title used in addressing or referring to certain high officials.
Excellent adj. Extremely good.
Excentric var. Of *eccentric (in technical senses).
Except —v. Exclude from a general statement, condition, etc. —prep. (often foll. By for) not including; other than (all failed except him; is all right except that it is too long). —conj. Archaic unless (except he be born again). [latin excipio – cept-take out]
Excepting prep. = *except prep.
Usage excepting should be used only after not and always; otherwise, except should be used.
Exception n. 1 excepting or being excepted. 2 thing that has been or will be excepted. 3 instance that does not follow a rule. take exception (often foll. By to) object. With the exception of except.
Exceptionable adj. Open to objection.
Usage exceptionable is sometimes confused with exceptional.
Excerpt —n. Short extract from a book, film, etc. —v. (also absol.) Take excerpts from. excerption n. [latin carpo pluck]
Excess —n. 1 exceeding. 2 amount by which one thing exceeds another. 3 a overstepping of accepted limits of moderation, esp. In eating or drinking. B (in pl.) Immoderate behaviour. 4 part of an insurance claim to be paid by the insured. —attrib. Adj. Usu. 1 that exceeds a limited or prescribed amount. 2 required as extra payment (excess postage). in (or to) excess exceeding the proper amount or degree.
Excess baggage n. (also excess luggage) baggage exceeding a weight allowance and liable to an extra charge.
Excessive adj. Too much or too great. excessively adv.
Exchange —n. 1 giving of one thing and receiving of another in its place. 2 giving of money for its equivalent in the money of the same or another country. 3 centre where telephone connections are made. 4 place where merchants, bankers, etc. Transact business. 5 a office where information is given or a service provided. B employment office. 6 system of settling debts without the use of money, by bills of exchange. 7 short conversation. —v. (-ging) 1 (often foll. By for) give or receive (one thing) in place of another. 2 give and receive as equivalents. 3 (often foll. By with) make an exchange. in exchange (often foll. By for) as a thing exchanged (for). exchangeable adj. [french: related to *change]
Exchange rate n. Value of one currency in terms of another.
Exchequer n. 1 former government department in charge of national revenue. 2 royal or national treasury. 3 money of a private individual or group. [medieval latin scaccarium chessboard]
latin scaccarium chessboard]
Usage with reference to sense 1, the functions of this department in the uk now belong to the treasury, although the name formally survives, esp. In the title chancellor of the exchequer.
Excise1 —n. 1 tax on goods produced or sold within the country of origin. 2 tax on certain licences. —v. (-sing) 1 charge excise on. 2 force (a person) to pay excise. [dutch excijs from romanic: related to latin *census tax]
Excise2 v. (-sing) 1 remove (a passage from a book etc.). 2 cut out (an organ etc.) By surgery. excision n. [latin excido cut out]
Excitable adj. Easily excited. excitability n. Excitably adv.
Excite v. (-ting) 1 a rouse the emotions of (a person). B arouse (feelings etc.). C arouse sexually. 2 provoke (an action etc.). 3 stimulate (an organism, tissue, etc.) To activity. [latin cieo stir up]
Excitement n. 1 excited state of mind. 2 exciting thing.
Exciting adj. Arousing great interest or enthusiasm. excitingly adv.
Exclaim v. 1 cry out suddenly. 2 (foll. By that) utter by exclaiming. [latin:
related to *claim]
Exclamation n. 1 exclaiming. 2 word(s) exclaimed. [latin: related to *exclaim]
Exclamation mark n. Punctuation mark (!) Indicating exclamation.
Exclamatory adj. Of or serving as an exclamation.
Exclude v. (-ding) 1 keep out (a person or thing) from a place, group, privilege, etc. 2 remove from consideration (no theory can be excluded). 3 makeimpossible, preclude (excluded all doubt). exclusion n. [latin excludo -clus-shut out]
Exclusive —adj. 1 excluding other things. 2 (predic.; foll. By of) not including; except for. 3 tending to exclude others, esp. Socially. 4 high-class. 5 not obtainable elsewhere or not published elsewhere. —n. Article etc. Published by only one newspaper etc. exclusively adv. Exclusiveness n. Exclusivity n. [medieval latin: related to *exclude]
Excommunicate —v. (-ting) officially exclude (a person) from membership and esp. Sacraments of the church. —adj. Excommunicated. —n. Excommunicated person. excommunication n. [latin: related to *common]
Excoriate v. (-ting) 1 a remove skin from (a person etc.) By abrasion. B strip off (skin). 2 censure severely. excoriation n. [latin corium hide]
Excrement n. Faeces. excremental adj. [latin: related to *excrete]
Excrescence n. 1 abnormal or morbid outgrowth on the body or a plant. 2 ugly addition. excrescent adj. [latin cresco grow]
Excreta n.pl. Faeces and urine. [latin: related to *excrete]
Excrete v. (-ting) (of an animal or plant) expel (waste matter). excretion n. Excretory adj. [latin cerno cret-sift]
Exculpate v. (-ting) formal (often foll. By from) free from blame; clear of a charge. exculpation n. Exculpatory adj. [latin culpa blame]
Excursion n. Journey (usu. A day-trip) to a place and back, made for pleasure. [latin excurro run out]
Excursive adj. Literary digressive.
Excuse —v. (-sing) 1 try to lessen the blame attaching to (a person, act, or fault). 2 (of a fact) serve as a reason to judge (a person or act) less severely. 3 (often foll. By from) release (a person) from a duty etc. 4 forgive (a fault or offence). 5 (foll. By for) forgive (a person) for (a fault). 6 refl. Leave with apologies. —n. 1 reason put forward to mitigate or justify an offence. 2 apology (made my excuses). be excused be allowed to leave the room etc. Or be absent. Excuse me polite preface to an interruption etc., or to disagreeing. excusable adj. [latin
causa accusation]
Ex-directory adj. Not listed in a telephone directory, at one’s own request.
Execrable adj. Abominable. [latin: related to *execrate]
Execrate v. (-ting) 1 express or feel abhorrence for. 2 (also absol.) Curse (a person or thing). execration n. [latin exsecror curse: related to *sacred]
Execute v. (-ting) 1 carry out, perform (a plan, duty etc.). 2 carry out a design for (a product of art or skill). 3 carry out a death sentence on. 4 make (a legal instrument) valid by signing, sealing, etc. [latin sequor follow]
Execution n. 1 carrying out; performance. 2 technique or style of performance in the arts, esp. Music. 3 carrying out of a death sentence. [latin: related to *execute]
Executioner n. Official who carries out a death sentence.
Executive —n. 1 person or body with managerial or administrative responsibility. 2 branch of a government etc. Concerned with executing laws, agreements, etc. —adj. Concerned with executing laws, agreements, etc., or with other administration or management. [medieval latin: related to *execute]
Executor n. (fem. Executrix) person appointed by a testator to administer his or
her will. executorial adj.
Exegesis n. (pl. Exegeses) critical explanation of a text, esp. Of scripture. exegetic adj. [greek hegeomai lead]
Exemplar n. 1 model. 2 typical or parallel instance. [latin: related to *example]
Exemplary adj. 1 fit to be imitated; outstandingly good. 2 serving as a warning. 3 illustrative. [latin: related to *example]
Exemplify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 illustrate by example. 2 be an example of.
exemplification n.
Exempt —adj. (often foll. By from) free from an obligation or liability etc. Imposed on others. —v. (foll. By from) make exempt. exemption n. [latin eximo -empt-take out]
Exercise —n. 1 activity requiring physical effort, done to sustain or improve health. 2 mental or spiritual activity, esp. As practice to develop a faculty. 3 task devised as exercise. 4 a use or application of a mental faculty, right, etc. B practice of an ability, quality, etc. 5 (often in pl.) Military drill or manoeuvres. —v. (-sing) 1 use or apply (a faculty, right, etc.). 2 perform (a function). 3 a take (esp. Physical) exercise. B provide (an animal) with exercise. 4 a tax the powers of. B perplex, worry. [latin exerceo keep busy]
Exert v. 1 bring to bear, use (a quality, force, influence, etc.). 2 refl. (often foll. By for, or to + infin.) Use one’s efforts or endeavours; strive. exertion n. [latin
exsero exsert-put forth]
Exert v. 1 bring to bear, use (a quality, force, influence, etc.). 2 refl. (often foll. By for, or to + infin.) Use one’s efforts or endeavours; strive. exertion n. [latin exsero exsert-put forth]
Exeunt v. (as a stage direction) (actors) leave the stage. [latin: related to *exit]
Exfoliate v. (-ting) 1 come off in scales or layers. 2 throw off layers of bark. exfoliation n. [latin folium leaf]
Ex gratia —adv. As a favour; not from (esp. Legal) obligation. —attrib. Adj. Granted on this basis. [latin, = from favour]
Exhale v. (-ling) 1 breathe out. 2 give off or be given off in vapour. exhalation n. [french from latin halo breathe]
Exhaust —v. 1 consume or use up the whole of. 2 (often as exhausted adj. Or exhausting adj.) Tire out. 3 study or expound (a subject) completely. 4 (often foll. By of) empty (a vessel etc.) Of its contents. —n. 1 waste gases etc. Expelled from an engine after combustion. 2 (also exhaust-pipe) pipe or system by which these are expelled. 3 process of expulsion of these gases. exhaustible adj. [latin haurio haust-drain]
Exhaustion n. 1 exhausting or being exhausted. 2 total loss of strength.
Exhaustive adj. Thorough, comprehensive. exhaustively adv. Exhaustiveness n.
Exhibit —v. (-t-) 1 show or reveal, esp. Publicly. 2 display (a quality etc.). —n. Item displayed, esp. In an exhibition or as evidence in a lawcourt. exhibitor n. [latin exhibeo -hibit-]
Exhibition n. 1 display (esp. Public) of works of art etc. 2 exhibiting or being exhibited. 3 scholarship, esp. From the funds of a school, college, etc.
Exhibitioner n. Student who has been awarded an exhibition.
Exhibitionism n. 1 tendency towards attention-seeking behaviour. 2 psychol.
Compulsion to display one’s genitals in public. exhibitionist n.
Exhilarate v. (often as exhilarating adj. Or exhilarated adj.) Enliven, gladden; raise the spirits of. exhilaration n. [latin hilaris cheerful]
Exhort v. (often foll. By to + infin.) Urge strongly or earnestly. exhortation n. Exhortative adj. Exhortatory adj. [latin exhortor encourage]
Exhume v. (-ming) dig up (esp. A buried corpse). exhumation n. [latin humus ground]
Exigency n. (pl. -ies) (also exigence) 1 urgent need or demand. 2 emergency. exigent adj. [latin exigo *exact]
Exiguous adj. Scanty, small. exiguity n. [latin]
Exile —n. 1 expulsion from one’s native land or (internal exile) native town etc. 2 long absence abroad. 3 exiled person. —v. (-ling) send into exile. [french from latin]
Exist v. 1 have a place in objective reality. 2 (of circumstances etc.) Occur; be found. 3 live with no pleasure. 4 continue in being. 5 live. [latin existo]
Existence n. 1 fact or manner of being or existing. 2 continuance in life or being.
3 all that exists. existent adj.
Existential adj. 1 of or relating to existence. 2 philos. Concerned with existence, esp. With human existence as viewed by existentialism. existentially adv.
Existentialism n. Philosophical theory emphasizing the existence of the individual as a free and self-determining agent. existentialist n. & adj.
Exit —n. 1 passage or door by which to leave a room etc. 2 act or right of going out. 3 place where vehicles can leave a motorway etc. 4 actor’s departure from the stage. —v. (-t-) 1 go out of a room etc. 2 leave the stage (also as a direction: exit macbeth). [latin exeo exit-go out]
Exit poll n. Poll of people leaving a polling-station, asking how they voted.
Exo-comb. Form external. [greek exo outside]
Exocrine adj. (of a gland) secreting through a duct. [greek krino sift]
Exodus n. 1 mass departure. 2 (exodus) biblical departure of the israelites from egypt. [greek hodos way]
Ex officio adv. & attrib. Adj. By virtue of one’s office. [latin]
Exonerate v. (-ting) (often foll. By from) free or declare free from blame etc. exoneration n. [latin onus oner-burden]
Exorbitant adj. (of a price, demand, etc.) Grossly excessive. [latin: related to *orbit]
Exorcize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 expel (a supposed evil spirit) by prayers etc. 2 (often foll. By of) free (a person or place) in this way. exorcism n. Exorcistn. [greek horkos oath]
Exordium n. (pl. -s or -dia) introductory part, esp. Of a discourse or treatise. [latin exordior begin]
Exotic —adj. 1 introduced from a foreign country; not native. 2 strange or unusual. —n. Exotic person or thing. exotically adv. [greek exo outside]
Exotica n.pl. Strange or rare objects.
Exotica n.pl. Strange or rare objects.
Expand v. 1 increase in size or importance. 2 (often foll. By on) give a fuller account. 3 become more genial. 4 set or write out in full. 5 spread out flat. expandable adj. [latin pando pans-spread]
Expanse n. Wide continuous area of land, space, etc.
Expansible adj. That can be expanded.
Expansion n. 1 expanding or being expanded. 2 enlargement of the scale or scope of a business.
Expansionism n. Advocacy of expansion, esp. Of a state’s territory. expansionist n. & adj.
Expansive adj. 1 able or tending to expand. 2 extensive. 3 (of a person etc.) Effusive, open. expansively adv. Expansiveness n.
Expat n. & adj. Colloq. Expatriate. [abbreviation]
Expatiate v. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By on, upon) speak or write at length. expatiation n. Expatiatory adj. [latin spatium *space]
Expatriate —adj. 1 living abroad. 2 exiled. —n. Expatriate person. —v. (-ting) 1 expel (a person) from his or her native country. 2 refl. Renounce one’s citizenship. expatriation n. [latin patria native land]
Expect v. 1 a regard as likely. B look for as appropriate or one’s due (i expect cooperation). 2 colloq. Think, suppose. be expecting colloq. Be pregnant (with). [latin specto look]
Expectancy n. (pl. -ies) 1 state of expectation. 2 prospect. 3 (foll. By of) prospective chance.
Expectant adj. 1 hopeful, expecting. 2 having an expectation. 3 pregnant.
expectantly adv.
Expectation n. 1 expecting or anticipation. 2 thing expected. 3 (foll. By of) probability of an event. 4 (in pl.) One’s prospects of inheritance.
Expectorate v. (-ting) (also absol.) Cough or spit out (phlegm etc.). expectoration n. [latin pectus pector-breast]
Expedient —adj. Advantageous; advisable on practical rather than moral grounds. —n. Means of attaining an end; resource. expedience n. Expediency n. [related to *expedite]
Expedite v. (-ting) 1 assist the progress of. 2 accomplish (business) quickly. [latin expedio from pes ped-foot]
Expedition n. 1 journey or voyage for a particular purpose, esp. Exploration. 2 people etc. Undertaking this. 3 speed. [latin: related to *expedite]
Expeditionary adj. Of or used in an expedition.
Expeditious adj. Acting or done with speed and efficiency.
Expel v. (-ll-) (often foll. By from) 1 deprive (a person) of membership etc. Of a school, society, etc. 2 force out, eject. 3 order or force to leave a building etc. [latin pello puls-drive]
Expend v. Spend or use up (money, time, etc.). [latin pendo pens-weigh]
Expendable adj. That may be sacrificed or dispensed with; not worth preserving or saving.
Expenditure n. 1 spending or using up. 2 thing (esp. Money) expended.
Expense n. 1 cost incurred; payment of money. 2 (usu. In pl.) A costs incurred in doing a job etc. B amount paid to reimburse this. 3 thing on which money is spent. at the expense of so as to cause loss or harm to; costing. [latin expensa: related to *expend]
Expense account n. List of an employee’s expenses payable by the employer.
Expensive adj. Costing or charging much. expensively adv. Expensiveness n.
Experience —n. 1 observation of or practical acquaintance with facts or events. 2 knowledge or skill resulting from this. 3 event or activity participated in or observed (a rare experience). —v. (-cing) 1 have experience of; undergo. 2 feel. [latin experior -pert-try]
Experienced adj. 1 having had much experience. 2 skilled from experience (experienced driver).
Experiential adj. Involving or based on experience. experientially adv.
Experiment —n. Procedure adopted in the hope of success, or for testing a hypothesis etc., or to demonstrate a known fact. —v. (often foll. By on, with) make an experiment. experimentation n. Experimenter n. [latin: related to *experience]
Experimental adj. 1 based on or making use of experiment. 2 used in experiments. experimentalism n. Experimentally adv.
Expert —adj. 1 (often foll. By at, in) having special knowledge of or skill in a subject. 2 (attrib.) Involving or resulting from this (expert advice). —n. (often foll. By at, in) person with special knowledge or skill. expertly adv. [latin: related to *experience]
Expertise n. Expert skill, knowledge, or judgement. [french]
Expiate v. (-ting) pay the penalty for or make amends for (wrongdoing). expiable adj. Expiation n. Expiatory adj. [latin expio: related to *pious]
Expire v. (-ring) 1 (of a period of time, validity, etc.) Come to an end. 2 cease to be valid. 3 die. 4 (also absol.) Breathe out (air etc.). expiration n. Expiratory adj. (in sense 4). [latin spirare breathe]
Expiry n. End of validity or duration.
Explain v. 1 a make clear or intelligible (also absol.: let me explain). B make known in detail. 2 (foll. By that) say by way of explanation. 3 account for (one’s conduct etc.). explain away minimize the significance of by explanation. Explain oneself 1 make one’s meaning clear. 2 give an account of one’s motives or conduct. [latin explano from planus flat]
Explanation n. 1 explaining. 2 statement or circumstance that explains something.
Explanatory adj. Serving or designed to explain.
Expletive n. Swear-word or exclamation. [latin expleo fill out]
Explicable adj. That can be explained.
Explicate v. (-ting) 1 develop the meaning of (an idea etc.). 2 explain (esp. A literary text). explication n. [latin explico -plicat-unfold]
Explicit adj. 1 expressly stated, not merely implied; stated in detail. 2 definite. 3 outspoken. explicitly adv. Explicitness n. [latin: related to *explicate]
Explode v. (-ding) 1 a expand suddenly with a loud noise owing to a release of internal energy. B cause (a bomb etc.) To explode. 2 give vent suddenly to emotion, esp. Anger. 3 (of a population etc.) Increase suddenly or rapidly. 4 show (a theory etc.) To be false or baseless. 5 (as exploded adj.) (of a drawing etc.) Showing the components of a mechanism somewhat separated but in the normal relative positions. [latin explodo -plos-hiss off the stage]
Exploit —n. Daring feat. —v. 1 make use of (a resource etc.). 2 usu. Derog. Utilize or take advantage of (esp. A person) for one’s own ends. exploitation n. Exploitative adj. Exploiter n. [latin: related to *explicate]
Explore v. (-ring) 1 travel through (a country etc.) To learn about it. 2 inquire into. 3 surgery examine (a part of the body) in detail. exploration n. Exploratory adj. Explorer n. [latin exploro search out]
Explosion n. 1 exploding. 2 loud noise caused by this. 3 sudden outbreak of feeling. 4 rapid or sudden increase. [latin: related to *explode]
Explosive —adj. 1 able, tending, likely to explode. 2 likely to cause a violent
outburst etc.; dangerously tense. —n. Explosive substance. explosiveness n.
Expo n. (also expo) (pl. -s) large international exhibition. [abbreviation of *exposition 4]
Exponent n. 1 person who promotes an idea etc. 2 practitioner of an activity, profession, etc. 3 person who explains or interprets something. 4 type or representative. 5 raised symbol beside a numeral indicating how many of the number are to be multiplied together (e.g. 23 = 2 x 2 x 2). [latin expono *expound]
Exponential adj. 1 of or indicated by a mathematical exponent. 2 (of an increase etc.) More and more rapid.
Export —v. Sell or send (goods or services) to another country. —n. 1 exporting. 2 a exported article or service. B (in pl.) Amount exported. exportation n. Exporter n. [latin porto carry]
Expose v. (-sing) (esp. As exposed adj.) 1 leave uncovered or unprotected, esp. From the weather. 2 (foll. By to) a put at risk of. B subject to (an influence etc.). 3 photog. Subject (a film) to light, esp. By operation of a camera. 4 reveal the identity or fact of. 5 exhibit, display. expose oneself display one’s body, esp. One’s genitals, indecently in public. [latin pono put]
Exposé n. 1 orderly statement of facts. 2 revelation of something discreditable. [french]
Exposition n. 1 explanatory account. 2 explanation or commentary. 3 mus. Part of a movement in which the principal themes are presented. 4 large public
exhibition. [latin: related to *expound]
Ex post facto adj. & adv. With retrospective action or force. [latin, = in the light of subsequent events]
Expostulate v. (-ting) (often foll. By with a person) make a protest; remonstrate. expostulation n. Expostulatory adj. [latin: related to *postulate]
Exposure n. (foll. By to) 1 exposing or being exposed. 2 physical condition resulting from being exposed to the elements. 3 photog. A exposing a film etc. To the light. B duration of this. C section of film etc. Affected by it.
Expound v. 1 set out in detail. 2 explain or interpret. [latin pono posit-place]
Express —v. 1 represent or make known in words or by gestures, conduct, etc. 2 refl. Communicate what one thinks, feels, or means. 3 esp. Math. Represent by symbols. 4 squeeze out (liquid or air). 5 send by express service. —adj. 1 operating at high speed. 2 also definitely stated. 3 delivered by a specially fast service. —adv. 1 at high speed. 2 by express messenger or train. —n. 1 express train etc. 2 us service for the rapid transport of parcels etc. expressible adj. Expressly adv. (in sense 2 of adj.). [latin exprimo -press-squeeze out]
Expression n. 1 expressing or being expressed. 2 word or phrase expressed. 3 person’s facial appearance, indicating feeling. 4 conveying of feeling in music, speaking, dance, etc. 5 depiction of feeling etc. In art. 6 math. Collection of symbols expressing a quantity. expressionless adj. [french: related to *express]
Expressionism n. Style of painting, music, drama, etc., seeking to express emotion rather than the external world. expressionist n. & adj.
Expressive adj. 1 full of expression (expressive look). 2 (foll. By of) serving to express. expressively adv. Expressiveness n.
Expresso var. Of *espresso.
Expressway n. Us motorway.
Expropriate v. (-ting) 1 take away (property) from its owner. 2 (foll. By from) dispossess. expropriation n. Expropriator n. [latin proprium property]
Expulsion n. Expelling or being expelled. expulsive adj. [latin: related to *expel]
Expunge v. (-ging) erase, remove (objectionable matter) from a book etc. [latin expungo prick out (for deletion)]
Expurgate v. (-ting) 1 remove objectionable matter from (a book etc.). 2 remove (such matter). expurgation n. Expurgator n. [latin: related to *purge]
F abbr. (also f.) 1 female. 2 feminine. 3 following page etc. 4 mus. Forte. 5 folio.
6 focal length.
Fa abbr. Football association.
Fa var. Of *fah.
Fab adj. Colloq. Fabulous, marvellous. [abbreviation]
Fable n. 1 a fictional, esp. Supernatural, story. B moral tale, esp. With animals as characters. 2 legendary tales collectively (in fable). 3 a lie. B thing only supposed to exist. [latin fabula discourse]
Fabled adj. Celebrated; legendary.
Fabled adj. Celebrated; legendary.
Fabric n. 1 woven material; cloth. 2 walls, floor, and roof of a building. 3 essential structure. [latin faber metalworker]
Fabricate v. (-ting) 1 construct, esp. From components. 2 invent (a story etc.). 3 forge (a document). fabrication n. Fabricator n. [latin: related to *fabric]
Fabulous adj. 1 incredible. 2 colloq. Marvellous. 3 legendary. fabulously adv. [latin: related to *fable]
Façade n. 1 face or front of a building. 2 outward appearance, esp. A deceptive one. [french: related to *face]
Face —n. 1 front of the head from forehead to chin. 2 facial expression. 3 coolness, effrontery. 4 surface, esp.: a the side of a mountain etc. (north face). B
*coalface. C geom. Each surface of a solid. D the façade of a building. E the dial of a clock etc. 5 functional side of a tool etc. 6 = *typeface. 7 aspect (unacceptable face of capitalism). —v. (-cing) 1 look or be positioned towards or in a certain direction. 2 be opposite. 3 meet resolutely. 4 confront (faces us with a problem). 5 a coat the surface of (a thing). B put a facing on (a garment). face the music colloq. Take unpleasant consequences without flinching. Face up to accept bravely. Have the face be shameless enough. In face (or the face) of despite. Lose face be humiliated. On the face of it apparently. Put a bold (or brave) face on it accept difficulty etc. Cheerfully. Save face avoid humiliation. Set one’s face against oppose stubbornly. To a person’s face openly in a person’s presence. [latin facies]
Face-cloth n. Cloth for washing one’s face.
Face-flannel n. = *face-cloth.
Faceless adj. 1 without identity; characterless. 2 purposely not identifiable.
Face-lift n. 1 (also face-lifting) cosmetic surgery to remove wrinkles etc. 2 improvement to appearance, efficiency, etc.
Face-pack n. Skin preparation for the face.
Facer n. Colloq. Sudden difficulty.
Facet n. 1 aspect. 2 side of a cut gem etc. [french: related to *fact]
Facetious adj. Intending or intended to be amusing, esp. Inappropriately. facetiously adv. [latin facetia jest]
Face to face adv. & adj. (also face-to-face when attrib.) (often foll. By with) facing; confronting each other.
Face value n. 1 nominal value of money. 2 superficial appearance or implication.
Facia var. Of *fascia.
Facia var. Of *fascia.
Facial —adj. Of or for the face. —n. Beauty treatment for the face. facially adv.
Facile adj. Usu. Derog. 1 easily achieved but of little value. 2 glib, fluent. [latin facio do]
Facilitate v. (-ting) ease (a process etc.). facilitation n. [italian: related to *facile]
Facility n. (pl. -ies) 1 ease; absence of difficulty. 2 fluency, dexterity. 3 (esp. In pl.) Opportunity or equipment for doing something. [latin: related to *facile]
Facing n. 1 layer of material covering part of a garment etc. For contrast or strength. 2 outer covering on a wall etc.
Facsimile n. Exact copy, esp. Of writing, printing, a picture, etc. [latin, = make like]
Fact n. 1 thing that is known to exist or to be true. 2 (usu. In pl.) Item of verified information. 3 truth, reality. 4 thing assumed as the basis for argument. before (or after) the fact before (or after) the committing of a crime. In (or in point of) fact 1 in reality. 2 in short. [latin factum from facio do]
Faction n. Small organized dissentient group within a larger one, esp. In politics. factional adj. [latin: related to *fact]
-faction comb. Form forming nouns of action from verbs in -fy (satisfaction). [latin -factio]
Factious adj. Of, characterized by, or inclined to faction. [latin: related to *faction]
Factitious adj. 1 specially contrived. 2 artificial. [latin: related to *fact]
Fact of life n. Something that must be accepted.
Factor n. 1 circumstance etc. Contributing to a result. 2 whole number etc. That when multiplied with another produces a given number. 3 a business agent. B scot. Land-agent, steward. C agent, deputy. [latin: related to *fact]
Factorial —n. Product of a number and all the whole numbers below it. —adj.
Of a factor or factorial.
Factorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) resolve into factors. factorization n.
Factory n. (pl. -ies) building(s) in which goods are manufactured. [ultimately from latin factorium]
Factory farm n. Farm using intensive or industrial methods of livestock rearing.
factory farming n.
Factotum n. (pl. -s) employee who does all kinds of work. [medieval latin:
related to fact, total]
Facts and figures n.pl. Precise details.
Factsheet n. Information leaflet, esp. Accompanying a television programme.
Facts of life n.pl. (prec. By the) information about sexual functions and practices.
Factual adj. Based on or concerned with fact. factually adv.
Faculty n. (pl. -ies) 1 aptitude for a particular activity. 2 inherent mental or physical power. 3 a group of related university departments. B us teaching staff of a university or college. 4 authorization, esp. By a church authority. [latin: related to *facile]
Fad n. 1 craze. 2 peculiar notion. faddish adj. [probably from fiddle-faddle]
Faddy adj. (-ier, -iest) having petty likes and dislikes. faddiness n.
Fade —v. (-ding) 1 lose or cause to lose colour, light, or sound; slowly diminish. 2 lose freshness or strength. 3 (foll. By in, out) cinematog. Etc. Cause (a picture
or sound) to appear or disappear, increase or decrease, gradually. —n. Action of fading. fade away 1 colloq. Languish, grow thin. 2 die away; disappear. [french fade dull]
Faeces n.pl. (us feces) waste matter discharged from the bowels. faecal adj. [latin]
Faff v. Colloq. (often foll. By about, around) fuss, dither. [imitative]
Fag1 —n. 1 colloq. Tedious task. 2 slang cigarette. 3 (at public schools) junior boy who runs errands for a senior. —v. (-gg-) 1 (often foll. By out) colloq. Exhaust. 2 (at public schools) act as a fag. [origin unknown]
Fag2 n. Us slang offens. Male homosexual. [abbreviation of *faggot]
Fag-end n. Slang cigarette-end.
Faggot n. (us fagot) 1 ball of seasoned chopped liver etc., baked or fried. 2 bundle of sticks etc. 3 slang offens. A unpleasant woman. B us male homosexual. [french from italian]
Fagot n. (brit. Faggot) 1 ball of seasoned chopped liver etc., baked or fried. 2 bundle of sticks etc. 3 slang offens. A unpleasant woman. B us male homosexual. [french from italian]
Fah n. (also fa) mus. Fourth note of a major scale. [latin famuli: see *gamut]
Fahrenheit adj. Of a scale of temperature on which water freezes at 32° and boils at 212°. [fahrenheit, name of a physicist]
Faience n. Decorated and glazed earthenware and porcelain. [french from faenza in italy]
Fail —v. 1 not succeed (failed to qualify). 2 be or judge to be unsuccessful in (an examination etc.). 3 be unable; neglect (failed to appear). 4 disappoint. 5 be absent or insufficient.
Failed adj. Unsuccessful (failed actor).
Failing —n. Fault, weakness. —prep. In default of.
Fail-safe adj. Reverting to a safe condition when faulty etc.
Failure n. 1 lack of success; failing. 2 unsuccessful person or thing. 3 non-performance. 4 breaking down or ceasing to function (heart failure). 5 running short of supply etc. [anglo-french: related to *fail]
Fain archaic —predic. Adj. (foll. By to + infin.) Willing or obliged to. —adv. Gladly (esp. Would fain). [old english]
2 become faint. —n. Act or state of fainting. faintly adv. Faintness n. [french:
related to *feign]
Faint-hearted adj. Cowardly, timid.
Fair1 —adj. 1 just, equitable; in accordance with the rules. 2 blond; light or pale. 3 a moderate in quality or amount. B satisfactory. 4 (of weather) fine; (of the wind) favourable. 5 clean, clear (fair copy). 6 archaic beautiful. —adv. 1 in a just manner. 2 exactly, completely. in a fair way to likely to. fairness n. [old english]
Fair2 n. 1 stalls, amusements, etc., for public entertainment. 2 periodic market, often with entertainments. 3 exhibition, esp. Commercial. [latin feriae holiday]
Fair and square adv. Exactly; straightforwardly.
Fair dinkum see *dinkum.
Fair dos n.pl. (esp. As int.) Colloq. Fair shares; fair treatment.
Fair game n. Legitimate target or object.
Fairground n. Outdoor area where a fair is held.
Fairing n. Streamlining structure added to a ship, aircraft, vehicle, etc.
Fair isle n. (also attrib.) Multicoloured knitwear design characteristic of fair isle. [fair isle in the shetlands]
Fairly adv. 1 in a fair manner. 2 moderately (fairly good). 3 quite, rather (fairly narrow).
Fair play n. Just treatment or behaviour.
Fair sex n. (prec. By the) women.
Fairway n. 1 navigable channel. 2 part of a golf-course between a tee and its green, kept free of rough grass.
Fair-weather friend n. Unreliable friend or ally.
Fairy n. (pl. -ies) 1 (often attrib.) Small winged legendary being. 2 slang offens. Male homosexual. [french: related to fay, -ery]
Fairy cake n. Small iced sponge cake.
Fairy godmother n. Benefactress.
Fairyland n. 1 home of fairies. 2 enchanted region.
Fairy lights n.pl. Small decorative coloured lights.
Fairy ring n. Ring of darker grass caused by fungi.
Fairy story n. (also fairy tale) 1 tale about fairies. 2 incredible story; lie.
Fait accompli n. Thing that has been done and is not capable of alteration. [french]
Faith n. 1 complete trust or confidence. 2 firm, esp. Religious, belief. 3 religion or creed (christian faith). 4 loyalty, trustworthiness. [latin fides]
Faithful adj. 1 showing faith. 2 (often foll. By to) loyal, trustworthy. 3 accurate (faithful account). 4 (the faithful) the believers in a religion. faithfulness n.
Faithfully adv. In a faithful manner. yours faithfully formula for ending a formal letter when it begins ‘dear sir’ or ‘dear madam’.
Faithless adj. 1 false, unreliable, disloyal. 2 without religious faith.
Fake —n. False or counterfeit thing or person. —adj. Counterfeit; not genuine. —v. (-king) 1 make a fake or imitation of (faked my signature). 2 feign (a feeling, illness, etc.). [german fegen sweep]
Fakir n. Muslim or (rarely) hindu religious beggar or ascetic. [arabic, = poor man]
Falcon n. Small hawk sometimes trained to hunt. [latin falco]
Falconry n. Breeding and training of hawks.
Fall —v. (past fell; past part. Fallen) 1 go or come down freely; descend. 2 (often foll. By over) come suddenly to the ground from loss of balance etc. 3 a hang or slope down. B (foll. By into) (of a river etc.) Discharge into. 4 a sink lower; decline, esp. In power, status, etc. B subside. 5 occur (falls on a monday). 6 (of the face) show dismay or disappointment. 7 yield to temptation. 8 take or have a particular direction or place (his eye fell on me; accent falls on the first syllable). 9 a find a place; be naturally divisible. B (foll. By under, within) be classed among. 10 come by chance or duty (it fell to me to answer). 11 a pass into a specified condition (fell ill). B become (fall asleep). 12 be defeated or captured. 13 die. 14 (foll. By on, upon) a attack. B meet with. C embrace or embark on avidly. 15 (foll. By to + verbal noun) begin (fell to wondering). —n.
1 act of falling. 2 that which falls or has fallen, e.g. Snow. 3 recorded amount of rainfall etc. 4 overthrow (fall of rome). 5 a succumbing to temptation. B (the fall) adam’s sin and its results. 6 (also fall) us autumn. 7 (esp. In pl.) Waterfall etc. 8 wrestling-bout; throw in wrestling. fall about colloq. Be helpless withlaughter. Fall away 1 (of a surface) incline abruptly. 2 become few or thin; gradually vanish. 3 desert. Fall back retreat. Fall back on have recourse to in difficulty. Fall behind 1 be outstripped; lag. 2 be in arrears. Fall down (often foll. By on) colloq. Fail. Fall for colloq. Be captivated or deceived by. Fall foul of come into conflict with. Fall in 1 take one’s place in military formation. 2 collapse inwards. Fall in with 1 meet by chance. 2 agree with. 3 coincide with.
Fall off 1 become detached. 2 decrease, deteriorate. Fall out 1 quarrel. 2 (of the hair, teeth, etc.) Become detached. 3 mil. Come out of formation. 4 result; occur. Fall over backwards see *backwards. Fall over oneself colloq. 1 be eager. 2 stumble through haste, confusion, etc. Fall short be deficient. Fall short of fail to reach or obtain. Fall through fail; miscarry. Fall to begin, e.g. Eating or working. [old english]
Fallacy n. (pl. -ies) 1 mistaken belief. 2 faulty reasoning; misleading argument. fallacious adj. [latin fallo deceive]
Fall guy n. Slang easy victim; scapegoat.
Fallible adj. Capable of making mistakes. fallibility n. Fallibly adv. [medieval latin: related to *fallacy]
Falling star n. Meteor.
Fallopian tube n. Either of two tubes along which ova travel from the ovaries to the womb. [fallopius, name of an anatomist]
Fallout n. Radioactive nuclear debris.
Fallow —adj. 1 (of land) ploughed but left unsown. 2 uncultivated. —n. Fallow land. [old english]
Fallow deer n. Small deer with a white-spotted reddish-brown summer coat. [old english fallow pale brownish or reddish yellow]
False adj. 1 wrong, incorrect. 2 spurious, artificial. 3 improperly so called (false acacia). 4 deceptive. 5 (foll. By to) deceitful, treacherous, or unfaithful. falsely adv. Falseness n. [latin falsus: related to *fail]
False alarm n. Alarm given needlessly.
Falsehood n. 1 untrue thing. 2 a act of lying. B lie.
False pretences n.pl. Misrepresentations made with intent to deceive (esp. Under false pretences).
Falsetto n. Male singing voice above the normal range. [italian diminutive:
related to *false]
Falsies n.pl. Colloq. Pads worn to make the breasts seem larger.
Falsify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 fraudulently alter. 2 misrepresent. falsification n. [french or medieval latin: related to *false]
Falsity n. Being false.
Falter v. 1 stumble; go unsteadily. 2 lose courage. 3 speak hesitatingly. [origin uncertain]
Fame n. 1 renown; being famous. 2 archaic reputation. [latin fama]
Famed adj. (foll. By for) famous; much spoken of.
Familial adj. Of a family or its members.
Familiar —adj. 1 a (often foll. By to) well known. B often met (with). 2 (foll. By with) knowing a thing well. 3 (often foll. By with) well acquainted (with a person). 4 informal, esp. Presumptuously so. —n. 1 close friend. 2 (in full familiar spirit) supposed attendant of a witch etc. familiarity n. Familiarly adv. [latin: related to *family]
Familiarize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (usu. Foll. By with) make (a person or oneself) conversant or well acquainted. familiarization n.
Family n. (pl. -ies) 1 set of relations, esp. Parents and children. 2 a members of a household. B person’s children. 3 all the descendants of a common ancestor. 4 group of similar objects, people, etc. 5 group of related genera of animals or plants. in the family way colloq. Pregnant. [latin familia]
Family allowance n. Former name for *child benefit.
Family credit n. (also family income supplement) regular state payment to a low-income family.
Family man n. Man who has a wife and children, esp. One fond of family life.
Family name n. Surname.
Family planning n. Birth control.
Family tree n. Genealogical chart.
Famine n. Extreme scarcity, esp. Of food. [latin fames hunger]
Famish v. (usu. In passive) make or become extremely hungry. be famished (or famishing) colloq. Be very hungry. [romanic: related to *famine]
Famous adj. 1 (often foll. By for) celebrated; well-known. 2 colloq. Excellent. famously adv. [latin: related to *fame]
Fan1 —n. 1 apparatus, usu. With rotating blades, for ventilation etc. 2 folding semicircular device waved to cool oneself. 3 thing spread out like a fan (fan tracery). —v. (-nn-) 1 blow air on, with or as with a fan. 2 (of a breeze) blow gently on. 3 (usu. Foll. By out) spread out like a fan. [latin vannus winnowing-basket]
Fan2 n. Devotee of a particular activity, performer, etc. (film fan). [abbreviation
of *fanatic]
Fanatic —n. Person obsessively devoted to a belief, activity, etc. —adj. Excessively enthusiastic. fanatical adj. Fanatically adv. Fanaticism n. [latin fanum temple]
Fan belt n. Belt driving a fan to cool the radiator in a vehicle.
Fancier n. Connoisseur (dog-fancier).
Fanciful adj. 1 imaginary. 2 indulging in fancies. fancifully adv.
Fan club n. Club of devotees.
Fancy —n. (pl. -ies) 1 inclination. 2 whim. 3 supposition. 4 a faculty of imagination. B mental image. —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 ornamental. 2 extravagant. — v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (foll. By that) be inclined to suppose. 2 colloq. Feel a desire for (fancy a drink?). 3 colloq. Find sexually attractive. 4 colloq. Value (oneself, one’s ability, etc.) Unduly highly. 5 (in imper.) Exclamation of surprise. 6 imagine. take a fancy to become (esp. Inexplicably) fond of. Take a person’s fancy suddenly attract or please. fanciable adj. (in sense 3 of v.). Fancily adv. Fanciness n. [contraction of *fantasy]
Fancy dress n. Costume for masquerading at a party.
Fancy-free adj. Without (esp. Emotional) commitments.
Fancy man n. Slang derog. 1 woman’s lover. 2 pimp.
Fancy woman n. Slang derog. Mistress.
Fandango n. (pl. -es or -s) 1 lively spanish dance for two. 2 music for this. [spanish]
Fanfare n. Short showy or ceremonious sounding of trumpets etc. [french]
Fang n. 1 canine tooth, esp. Of a dog or wolf. 2 tooth of a venomous snake. 3 root of a tooth or its prong. [old english]
Fan-jet n. = *turbofan.
Fanlight n. Small, orig. Semicircular, window over a door or another window.
Fan mail n. Letters from fans.
Fanny n. (pl. -ies) 1 coarse slang the female genitals. 2 us slang the buttocks. [origin unknown]
Fantail n. Pigeon with a broad tail.
Fantasia n. Free or improvisatory musical or other composition, or one based on familiar tunes. [italian: related to *fantasy]
Fantasize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 day-dream. 2 imagine; create a fantasy about.
Fantastic adj. 1 colloq. Excellent, extraordinary. 2 extravagantly fanciful. 3 grotesque, quaint. fantastically adv. [greek: related to *fantasy]
Fantasy n. (pl. -ies) 1 imagination, esp. When unrelated to reality (lives in the realm of fantasy). 2 mental image, day-dream. 3 fantastic invention or composition. [greek phantasia appearance]
Far (further, furthest or farther, farthest) —adv. 1 at, to, or by a great distance (far away; far off; far out). 2 a long way (off) in space or time (are you travelling far?). 3 to a great extent or degree; by much (far better; far too early). —adj. 1 remote; distant (far country). 2 more distant (far end of the hall). 3 extreme (far left). as far as 1 right up to (a place). 2 to the extent that. By far by a great amount. A far cry a long way. Far from very different from being; almost the opposite of (far from being fat). Go far 1 achieve much. 2 contribute greatly. Go too far overstep the limit (of propriety etc.). So far 1 to such an extent; to this point. 2 until now. So (or in so) far as (or that) to the extent that. So far so good satisfactory up to now. [old english]
Farad n. Si unit of capacitance. [faraday, name of a physicist]
Far and away adv. By a very large amount.
Far and wide adv. Over a large area.
Far-away adj. 1 remote. 2 (of a look or voice) dreamy, distant.
Farce n. 1 a low comedy with a ludicrously improbable plot. B this branch of drama. 2 absurdly futile proceedings; pretence. farcical adj. [latin farcio to stuff, used metaphorically of interludes etc.]
Fare —n. 1 a price of a journey on public transport. B fare-paying passenger. 2 range of food. —v. (-ring) progress; get on (how did you fare?). [old english]
Far east n. (prec. By the) china, japan, and other countries of e. Asia.
Fare-stage n. 1 section of bus etc. Route for which a fixed fare is charged. 2 stop marking this.
Farewell —int. Goodbye. —n. Leave-taking.
Far-fetched adj. Unconvincing, incredible.
Far-flung adj. 1 widely scattered. 2 remote.
Far gone adj. Colloq. Very ill, drunk, etc.
Farina n. 1 flour or meal of cereal, nuts, or starchy roots. 2 starch. farinaceous adj. [latin]
Farm —n. 1 land and its buildings under one management for growing crops, rearing animals, etc. 2 such land etc. For a specified purpose (trout-farm). 3 = *farmhouse. —v. 1 a use (land) for growing crops, rearing animals, etc. B be a farmer; work on a farm. 2 breed (fish etc.) Commercially. 3 (often foll. By out) delegate or subcontract (work) to others. farming n. [french ferme from latin firma fixed payment]
Farrago n. (pl. -s or us -es) medley, hotchpotch. [latin, = mixed fodder, from far corn]
Far-reaching adj. Widely influential or applicable.
Farrier n. Smith who shoes horses. [latin ferrum iron, horseshoe]
Farrow —n. 1 litter of pigs. 2 birth of a litter. —v. (also absol.) (of a sow) produce (pigs). [old english]
Far-seeing adj. Showing foresight; wise.
Farsi n. Modern persian language. [persian]
Far-sighted adj. 1 having foresight, prudent. 2 esp. Us = *long-sighted.
Fart coarse slang —v. 1 emit wind from the anus. 2 (foll. By about, around) behave foolishly. —n. 1 an emission of wind from the anus. 2 unpleasant or foolish person. [old english]
Farther var. Of *further (esp. Of physical distance).
Farthest var. Of *furthest (esp. Of physical distance).
Farthing n. Hist. Coin and monetary unit worth a quarter of an old penny. [old english: related to *fourth]
Usage the farthing was withdrawn from circulation in 1961.
Farthingale n. Hist. Hooped petticoat. [spanish verdugo rod]
Fasces n.pl. 1 rom. Hist. Bundle of rods with a projecting axe-blade, as a magistrate’s symbol of power. 2 emblems of authority. [latin, pl. Of fascis bundle]
Fascia n. (also facia) (pl. -s) 1 a instrument panel of a vehicle. B similar panel etc. For operating machinery. 2 strip with a name etc. Over a shop-front. 3 a longflat surface in classical architecture. B flat surface, usu. Of wood, covering the ends of rafters. 4 stripe or band. [latin, = band, door-frame]
Fascicle n. Section of a book that is published in instalments. [latin diminutive:
related to *fasces]
Fascinate v. (-ting) 1 capture the interest of; attract. 2 paralyse (a victim) with fear. fascination n. [latin fascinum spell]
Fascism n. 1 extreme totalitarian rightwing nationalist movement in italy (1922– 43). 2 (also fascism) any similar movement. fascist n. & adj. (also fascist). Fascistic adj. (also fascistic). [italian fascio bundle, organized group]
Fashion —n. 1 current popular custom or style, esp. In dress. 2 manner of doing something. —v. (often foll. By into) make or form. after (or in) a fashion to some extent, barely acceptably. In (or out of) fashion fashionable (or not fashionable). [latin factio: related to *fact]
Fashionable adj. 1 following or suited to current fashion. 2 of or favoured by high society. fashionableness n. Fashionably adv.
Fast1 —adj. 1 rapid, quick-moving. 2 capable of or intended for high speed (fast car; fast road). 3 (of a clock etc.) Ahead of the correct time. 4 (of a pitch etc.) Causing the ball to bounce quickly. 5 firm; firmly fixed or attached (fast knot; fast friendship). 6 (of a colour) not fading. 7 pleasure seeking, dissolute. 8 (of photographic film etc.) Needing only short exposure. —adv. 1 quickly; in quick succession. 2 firmly, tightly (stand fast). 3 soundly, completely (fast asleep). pull a fast one colloq. Perpetrate deceit. [old english]
Fast2 —v. Abstain from food, or certain food, for a time. —n. Act or period of fasting. [old english]
Fastback n. 1 car with a sloping rear. 2 such a rear.
Fast breeder n. (also fast breeder reactor) reactor using fast neutrons.
Fasten v. 1 make or become fixed or secure. 2 (foll. By in, up) lock securely; shut in. 3 (foll. By on, upon) direct (a look, thoughts, etc.) Towards. 4 (foll. By on, upon) a take hold of. B single out. 5 (foll. By off) fix with a knot or stitches. fastener n. [old english: related to *fast1]
Fastening n. Device that fastens something; fastener.
Fast food n. Restaurant food that is quickly produced and served.
Fast worker n. Colloq. Person who rapidly makes esp. Sexual advances.
Fat —n. 1 natural oily or greasy substance found esp. In animal bodies. 2 part of meat etc. Containing this. —adj. (fatter, fattest) 1 corpulent; plump. 2 containing much fat. 3 fertile. 4 a thick (fat book). B substantial (fat cheque). 5 colloq. Iron. Very little; not much (a fat chance; a fat lot). —v. (-tt-) make or become fat. the fat is in the fire trouble is imminent. Kill the fatted calf celebrate, esp. At a prodigal’s return (luke 15). Live off (or on) the fat of the land live luxuriously. fatless adj. Fatness n. Fattish adj. [old english]
Fatal adj. 1 causing or ending in death (fatal accident). 2 (often foll. By to) ruinous (fatal mistake). 3 fateful. fatally adv. [latin: related to *fate]
Fatalism n. 1 belief in predetermination. 2 submissive acceptance. fatalist n.
Fatalistic adj. Fatalistically adv.
Fatality n. (pl. -ies) 1 death by accident or in war etc. 2 fatal influence. 3 predestined liability to disaster.
Fate —n. 1 supposed power predetermining events. 2 a the future so determined. B individual’s destiny or fortune. 3 death, destruction. —v. (-ting) 1 (usu. In passive) preordain (fated to win). 2 (as fated adj.) Doomed. fate worse than death see *death. [italian and latin fatum]
Father —n. 1 male parent. 2 (usu. In pl.) Forefather. 3 originator, early leader. 4 (fathers or fathers of the church) early christian theologians. 5 (also father) (often as a title or form of address) priest. 6 (the father) (in christian belief) first person of the trinity. 7 (father) venerable person, esp. As a title in personifications (father time). 8 (usu. In pl.) Elders (city fathers). —v. 1 beget. 2 originate (a scheme etc.). fatherhood n. Fatherless adj. [old english]
Father-figure n. Older man respected and trusted like a father.
Father-in-law n. (pl. Fathers-in-law) father of one’s husband or wife.
Fatherland n. One’s native country.
Fatherly adj. Like or of a father.
Father’s day n. Day on which cards and presents are given to fathers.
Fathom —n. (pl. Often fathom when prec. By a number) measure of six feet, esp. In depth soundings. —v. 1 comprehend. 2 measure the depth of (water). fathomable adj. [old english]
Fathomless adj. Too deep to fathom.
Fatigue —n. 1 extreme tiredness. 2 weakness in metals etc. Caused by repeated stress. 3 a non-military army duty. B (in pl.) Clothing worn for this. —v. (-gues, -gued, -guing) cause fatigue in. [latin fatigo exhaust]
Fatstock n. Livestock fattened for slaughter.
Fatten v. Make or become fat.
Fatty adj. (-ier, -iest) like or containing fat.
Fatty acid n. Organic compound consisting of a hydrocarbon chain and a terminal carboxyl group.
Fatuous adj. Vacantly silly; purposeless, idiotic. fatuity n. (pl. -ies). Fatuously adv. Fatuousness n. [latin fatuus]
Fatwa n. Legal decision or ruling by an islamic religious leader. [arabic]
Faucet n. Esp. Us tap. [french fausset vent-peg]
Fault —n. 1 defect or imperfection of character, structure, appearance, etc. 2 responsibility for wrongdoing, error, etc. (your own fault). 3 break in an electric circuit. 4 transgression, offence. 5 a tennis etc. Incorrect service. B (in showjumping) penalty for error. 6 break in rock strata. —v. 1 find fault with; blame. 2 geol. A break the continuity of (strata). B show a fault. at fault guilty; to blame. Find fault (often foll. By with) criticize; complain. To a fault excessively (generous to a fault). [latin fallo deceive]
Fault-finder n. Complaining person.
Fault-finding n. Continual criticism.
Faultless adj. Perfect. faultlessly adv.
Faulty adj. (-ier, -iest) having faults; imperfect. faultily adv. Faultiness n.
Faun n. Latin rural deity with goat’s horns, legs, and tail. [latin faunus]
Fauna n. (pl. -s or -nae) animal life of a region or period. [latin fauna, name of a rural goddess]
Faux pas n. (pl. Same) tactless mistake; blunder. [french, = false step]
Favor (brit. Favour) —n. 1 kind act (did it as a favour). 2 approval, goodwill; friendly regard (gained their favour). 3 partiality. 4 badge, ribbon, etc., as an emblem of support. —v. 1 regard or treat with favour or partiality. 2 support, promote, prefer. 3 be to the advantage of; facilitate. 4 tend to confirm (an idea etc.). 5 (foll. By with) oblige. 6 (as favoured adj.) Having special advantages.
Favorite (brit. Favourite) —adj. Preferred to all others (favourite book). —n. 1 favourite person or thing. 2 sport competitor thought most likely to win. [italian: related to *favour]
Favoritism n. (brit. Favouritism) unfair favouring of one person etc. At the
expense of another.
Favour (us favor) —n. 1 kind act (did it as a favour). 2 approval, goodwill; friendly regard (gained their favour). 3 partiality. 4 badge, ribbon, etc., as an emblem of support. —v. 1 regard or treat with favour or partiality. 2 support, promote, prefer. 3 be to the advantage of; facilitate. 4 tend to confirm (an idea etc.). 5 (foll. By with) oblige. 6 (as favoured adj.) Having special advantages. in favour 1 approved of. 2 (foll. By of) a in support of. B to the advantage of. Out of favour disapproved of. [latin faveo be kind to]
Favourite (us favorite) —adj. Preferred to all others (favourite book). —n. 1 favourite person or thing. 2 sport competitor thought most likely to win. [italian: related to *favour]
Favouritism n. (us favoritism) unfair favouring of one person etc. At the expense of another.
Fawn1 —n. 1 deer in its first year. 2 light yellowish brown. —adj. Fawn-coloured. —v. (also absol.) Give birth to (a fawn). [latin: related to *foetus]
Fawn2 v. 1 (often foll. By on, upon) behave servilely, cringe. 2 (of esp. A dog) show extreme affection. [old english]
Fax —n. 1 transmission of an exact copy of a document etc. Electronically. 2 copy produced by this. —v. Transmit in this way. [abbreviation of *facsimile]
Fay n. Literary fairy. [latin fata pl., = goddesses of destiny]
Faze v. (-zing) (often as fazed adj.) Colloq. Disconcert, disorientate. [origin unknown]
Fba abbr. Fellow of the british academy.
Fbi abbr. Federal bureau of investigation.
Fc abbr. Football club.
Fco abbr. Foreign and commonwealth office.
Fe abbr. Further education.
Fe symb. Iron. [latin ferrum]
Fealty n. (pl. -ies) 1 hist. Fidelity to a feudal lord. 2 allegiance. [latin: related to *fidelity]
Fear —n. 1 a panic or distress caused by a sense of impending danger, pain, etc. B cause of this. C state of alarm (in fear). 2 (often foll. By of) dread, awe (towards) (fear of heights). 3 danger (little fear of failure). —v. 1 feel fear about or towards. 2 (foll. By for) feel anxiety about (feared for my life). 3 (often foll. By that) foresee or expect with unease, fear, or regret (fear the worst; i fear that you are wrong). 4 (foll. By verbal noun) shrink from (feared meeting his ex-wife). 5 revere (esp. God). for fear of (or that) to avoid the risk of (or that). No fear colloq. Certainly not! [old english]
Fearful adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By of or that) afraid. 2 terrible, awful. 3 colloq.
Extreme, esp. Unpleasant (fearful row). fearfully adv. Fearfulness n.
Fearless adj. (often foll. By of) not afraid, brave. fearlessly adv. Fearlessness n.
Usage feasible should not be used to mean ‘possible’ or ‘probable’ in the sense ‘likely’. ‘possible’ or ‘probable’ should be used instead.
Feast —n. 1 large or sumptuous meal. 2 sensual or mental pleasure. 3 religious festival. 4 annual village festival. —v. 1 (often foll. By on) partake of a feast; eat and drink sumptuously. 2 regale. feast one’s eyes on look with pleasure at. [latin festus joy]
Feat n. Remarkable act or achievement. [latin: related to *fact]
Feather —n. 1 one of the structures forming a bird’s plumage, with a horny stem and fine strands. 2 (collect.) A plumage. B game-birds. —v. 1 cover or line with feathers. 2 turn (an oar) edgeways through the air. feather in one’s cap a personal achievement. Feather one’s nest enrich oneself. In fine (or high) feather colloq. In good spirits. feathery adj. [old english]
Feather bed n. Bed with a feather-stuffed mattress.
Feather-bed v. (-dd-) cushion, esp. Financially.
Feather-brain n. (also feather-head) silly or absent-minded person. feather-brained adj. (also feather-headed).
Feathering n. 1 bird’s plumage. 2 feathers of an arrow. 3 feather-like structure or marking.
Featherweight n. 1 a weight in certain sports between bantamweight and lightweight, in amateur boxing 54–7kg. B sportsman of this weight. 2 very light person or thing. 3 (usu. Attrib.) Unimportant thing.
Feature —n. 1 distinctive or characteristic part of a thing. 2 (usu. In pl.) Part of the face. 3 (esp. Specialized) article in a newspaper etc. 4 (in full feature film) main film in a cinema programme. —v. (-ring) 1 make a special display of; emphasize. 2 have as or be a central participant or topic in a film, broadcast, etc. featureless adj. [latin factura formation: related to *fact]
Feb. Abbr. February.
Febrifuge n. Medicine or treatment for fever. [latin febris fever]
Febrile adj. Of fever; feverish. [latin febris fever]
February n. (pl. -ies) second month of the year. [latin februa purification feast]
Fecal us var. Of faecal (*feces).
Feces n.pl. (brit. Faeces) waste matter discharged from the bowels. faecal adj. [latin]
Feckless adj. 1 feeble, ineffective. 2 unthinking, irresponsible. [scots feck from effeck var. Of *effect]
Fecund adj. 1 prolific, fertile. 2 fertilizing. fecundity n. [latin]
Fecundate v. (-ting) 1 make fruitful. 2 fertilize. fecundation n.
Fed past and past part. Of *feed. fed up (often foll. By with) discontented or bored.
bored.
Federal adj. 1 of a system of government in which self-governing states unite for certain functions etc. 2 of such a federation (federal laws). 3 of or favouring centralized government. 4 (federal) us of the northern states in the civil war. 5 comprising an association of largely independent units. federalism n. Federalist n. Federalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). Federalization n. Federally adv. [latin foedus covenant]
Federal reserve n. (in the us) reserve cash available to banks.
Federate —v. (-ting) unite on a federal basis. —adj. Federally organized.
federative adj.
Federation n. 1 federal group. 2 act of federating. [latin: related to *federal]
Fee n. 1 payment made for professional advice or services etc. 2 a charge for a privilege, examination, admission to a society, etc. (enrolment fee). B money paid for the transfer to another employer of a footballer etc. 3 (in pl.) Regular payments (esp. To a school). 4 law inherited estate, unlimited (fee simple) or limited (fee tail) as to category of heir. [medieval latin feudum]
Feed —v. (past and past part. Fed) 1 a supply with food. B put food into the mouth of. 2 give as food, esp. To animals. 3 (usu. Foll. By on) (esp. Of animals, or colloq. Of people) eat. 4 (often foll. By on) nourish or be nourished by; benefit from. 5 a keep (a fire, machine, etc.) Supplied with fuel etc. B (foll. By into) supply (material) to a machine etc. C (often foll. By into) (of a river etc.) Flow into a lake etc. D keep (a meter) supplied with coins to ensure continuity. 6 slang supply (an actor etc.) With cues. 7 sport send passes to (a player). 8 gratify (vanity etc.). 9 provide (advice, information, etc.) To. —n. 1 food, esp. For animals or infants. 2 feeding; giving of food. 3 colloq. Meal. 4 a raw material for a machine etc. B provision of or device for this. feed back produce feedback. Feed up fatten. [old english]
Feedback n. 1 public response to an event, experiment, etc. 2 electronics a return of a fraction of an output signal to the input. B signal so returned.
Feeder n. 1 person or thing that feeds, esp. In specified manner. 2 baby’s feeding-bottle. 3 bib. 4 tributary stream. 5 branch road, railway line, etc. Linking with a main system. 6 main carrying electricity to a distribution point. 7 feeding apparatus in a machine.
Feel —v. (past and past part. Felt) 1 a examine or search by touch. B (absol.) Have the sensation of touch (unable to feel). 2 perceive or ascertain by touch (feel the warmth). 3 experience, exhibit, or be affected by (an emotion, conviction, etc.) (felt strongly about it; felt the rebuke). 4 (foll. By that) have an impression (i feel that i am right). 5 consider, think (i feel it useful). 6 seem (air feels chilly). 7 be consciously; consider oneself (i feel happy). 8 (foll. By for, with) have sympathy or pity. 9 (often foll. By up) slang fondle sexually. —n. 1 feeling; testing by touch. 2 sensation characterizing a material, situation, etc. 3
sense of touch. feel like have a wish or inclination for. Feel up to be ready to face or deal with. Feel one’s way proceed cautiously. Get the feel of become accustomed to using. [old english]
Feeler n. 1 organ in certain animals for touching or searching for food. 2 tentative proposal (put out feelers).
Feeling —n. 1 a capacity to feel; sense of touch (lost all feeling). B physical sensation. 2 a (often foll. By of) emotional reaction (feeling of despair). B (in pl.) Emotional susceptibilities (hurt my feelings). 3 particular sensitivity (feeling for literature). 4 a opinion or notion (had a feeling she would). B general sentiment. 5 sympathy or compassion. 6 emotional sensibility or intensity (played with feeling). —adj. Sensitive, sympathetic; heartfelt. feelingly adv.
Feet pl. Of *foot.
Feign v. Simulate; pretend (feign madness). [latin fingo fict-mould, contrive]
Feint —n. 1 sham attack or diversionary blow. 2 pretence. —v. Make a feint. — adj. = faint adj. 5. [french: related to feign]
Feldspar n. (also felspar) common aluminium silicate of potassium, sodium, or calcium. feldspathic adj. [german feld field, spat(h) *spar3]
Felicitate v. (-ting) formal congratulate. felicitation n. (usu. In pl.). [latin felix happy]
Felicity n. (pl. -ies) formal 1 intense happiness. 2 a capacity for apt expression. B well-chosen phrase. [latin felix happy]
Feline —adj. 1 of the cat family. 2 catlike. —n. Animal of the cat family. felinity n. [latin feles cat]
Fell1 past of *fall v.
Fell2 v. 1 cut down (esp. A tree). 2 strike or knock down. 3 stitch down (the edge of a seam). [old english]
Fell3 n. N.engl. 1 hill. 2 stretch of hills or moorland. [old norse]
Fell4 adj. Poet. Or rhet. Ruthless, destructive. at (or in) one fell swoop in a single (orig. Deadly) action. [french: related to *felon]
Fell5 n. Animal’s hide or skin with its hair. [old english]
Fellatio n. Oral stimulation of the penis. [latin fello suck]
Feller n. = *fellow 1.
Felloe n. (also felly) (pl. -s or -ies) outer circle (or a section of it) of a wheel. [old english]
Fellow n. 1 colloq. Man or boy (poor fellow!). 2 (usu. In pl.) Person in a group etc.; comrade (separated from their fellows). 3 counterpart; one of a pair. 4 equal; peer. 5 a incorporated senior member of a college. B elected graduate paid to do research. 6 member of a learned society. 7 (attrib.) Of the same group etc. (fellow-countryman). [old english from old norse]
Fellow-feeling n. Sympathy.
Fellowship n. 1 friendly association with others, companionship. 2 body of associates. 3 status or income of a fellow of a college or society.
Fellow-traveller n. 1 person who travels with another. 2 sympathizer with the communist party.
Felly var. Of *felloe.
Felon n. Person who has committed a felony. [medieval latin fello]
Felony n. (pl. -ies) serious, usu. Violent, crime. felonious adj.
Felspar var. Of *feldspar.
Felspar var. Of *feldspar.
Felt1 —n. Cloth of matted and pressed fibres of wool etc. —v. 1 make into felt; mat. 2 cover with felt. 3 become matted. [old english]
Felt2 past and past part. Of *feel.
Felt-tipped pen n. (also felt-tip pen) pen with a fibre point.
Felucca n. Small mediterranean coasting vessel with oars and/or sails. [arabic fulk]
Female —adj. 1 of the sex that can give birth or produce eggs. 2 (of plants) fruit-bearing. 3 of women or female animals or plants. 4 (of a screw, socket, etc.) Hollow to receive an inserted part. —n. Female person, animal, or plant. [latin diminutive of femina woman, assimilated to male]
Feminine —adj. 1 of women. 2 having womanly qualities. 3 of or denoting the female gender. —n. Feminine gender or word. femininity n. [latin: related to *female]
Feminism n. Advocacy of women’s rights and sexual equality. feminist n. & adj.
Femme fatale n. (pl. Femmes fatales pronunc. Same) dangerously seductive woman. [french]
Femur n. (pl. -s or femora) thigh-bone. femoral adj. [latin]
Fen n. 1 low marshy land. 2 (the fens) lowlying areas in cambridgeshire etc. [old english]
Fence —n. 1 barrier, railing, etc., enclosing a field, garden, etc. 2 large upright jump for horses. 3 slang receiver of stolen goods. 4 guard or guide in machinery. —v. (-cing) 1 surround with or as with a fence. 2 (foll. By in, off, up) enclose, separate, or seal, with or as with a fence. 3 practise fencing with a sword. 4 be evasive. 5 slang deal in (stolen goods). fencer n. [from *defence]
Fencing n. 1 set of, or material for, fences. 2 sword-fighting, esp. As a sport.
Fend v. 1 (foll. By for) look after (esp. Oneself). 2 (usu. Foll. By off) ward off. [from *defend]
Fender n. 1 low frame bordering a fireplace. 2 naut. Padding protecting a ship against impact. 3 us vehicle’s bumper.
Fennel n. Yellow-flowered fragrant herb used for flavouring. [latin fenum hay]
Fenugreek n. Leguminous plant with aromatic seeds used for flavouring. [latin, = greek hay]
Feral adj. 1 wild; uncultivated. 2 (of an animal) escaped and living wild. 3 brutal. [latin ferus wild]
Ferial adj. Eccl. (of a day) not a festival or fast. [latin feria *fair2]
Ferment —n. 1 excitement, unrest. 2 a fermentation. B fermenting-agent. —v. 1 undergo or subject to fermentation. 2 excite; stir up. [latin fermentum: related to *fervent]
Fermentation n. 1 breakdown of a substance by yeasts and bacteria etc., esp. Of sugar in making alcohol. 2 agitation, excitement. fermentative adj. [latin: related to *ferment]
Fermium n. Transuranic artificial radioactive metallic element. [fermi, name of a physicist]
Fern n. (pl. Same or -s) flowerless plant usu. Having feathery fronds. ferny adj. [old english]
Ferocious adj. Fierce, savage. ferociously adv. Ferocity n. [latin ferox]
-ferous comb. Form (usu. -iferous) forming adjectives with the sense ‘bearing’, ‘having’ (odoriferous). [latin fero bear]
Ferrel var. Of *ferrule.
Ferret —n. Small polecat used in catching rabbits, rats, etc. —v. 1 hunt with ferrets. 2 (often foll. By out, about, etc.) Rummage; search out (secrets, criminals, etc.). [latin fur thief]
Ferric adj. 1 of iron. 2 containing iron in a trivalent form. [latin ferrum iron]
Ferris wheel n. Tall revolving vertical wheel with passenger cars in fairgrounds etc. [ferris, name of its inventor]
Ferro-comb. Form 1 iron. 2 (of alloys) containing iron. [related to *ferric]
Ferroconcrete —n. Reinforced concrete. —adj. Made of this.
Ferrous adj. 1 containing iron. 2 containing iron in a divalent form.
Ferrule n. (also ferrel) 1 ring or cap on the lower end of a stick, umbrella, etc. 2 band strengthening or forming a joint. [latin viriae bracelet]
Ferry —n. (pl. -ies) 1 boat or aircraft etc. For esp. Regular transport, esp. Across water. 2 place or service of ferrying. —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 convey or go in a ferry. 2 (of a boat etc.) Cross water regularly. 3 transport, esp. Regularly, from place to place. ferryman n. [old norse]
Fertile adj. 1 a (of soil) abundantly productive. B fruitful. 2 a (of a seed, egg, etc.) Capable of growth. B (of animals and plants) able to reproduce. 3 (of the
mind) inventive. 4 (of nuclear material) able to become fissile by the capture of neutrons. fertility n. [french from latin]
Fertilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make (soil etc.) Fertile. 2 cause (an egg, female animal, etc.) To develop by mating etc. fertilization n.
Fertilizer n. (also -iser) substance added to soil to make it more fertile.
Fervid adj. Ardent, intense. fervidly adv. [latin: related to *fervent]
Fervor n. (brit. Fervour) passion, zeal. [latin: related to *fervent]
Fervour n. (us fervor) passion, zeal. [latin: related to *fervent]
Fescue n. A pasture and fodder grass. [latin festuca stalk, straw]
Festal adj. 1 joyous, merry. 2 of a feast or festival. festally adv. [latin: related to *feast]
Fester v. 1 make or become septic. 2 cause continuing anger or bitterness. 3 rot, stagnate. [latin *fistula]
Festival n. 1 day or period of celebration. 2 series of cultural events in a town etc. (bath festival). [french: related to *festive]
Festive adj. 1 of or characteristic of a festival. 2 joyous. festively adv. Festiveness n. [latin: related to *feast]
Festivity n. (pl. -ies) 1 gaiety, rejoicing. 2 (in pl.) Celebration; party.
Festoon —n. Curved hanging chain of flowers, leaves, ribbons, etc. —v. (often foll. By with) adorn with or form into festoons; decorate elaborately. [italian: related to *festive]
Festschrift n. (also festschrift) (pl. -en or -s) collection of writings published in honour of a scholar. [german, = festival-writing]
Feta n. Soft white esp. Ewe’s-milk cheese made esp. In greece. [greek pheta]
Fetal us var. Of foetal (*fetus).
Fetch —v. 1 go for and bring back (fetch a doctor). 2 be sold for (a price) (fetched £10). 3 cause (blood, tears, etc.) To flow. 4 draw (breath), heave (a sigh). 5 colloq. Give (a blow etc.) (fetched him a slap). —n.
Fetching adj. Attractive. fetchingly adv.
Fête —n. 1 outdoor fund-raising event with stalls and amusements etc. 2 festival. 3 saint’s day. —v. (-ting) honour or entertain lavishly. [french: related to *feast]
Fetish n. 1 psychol. Abnormal object of sexual desire. 2 a object worshipped by primitive peoples. B obsessional cause (makes a fetish of punctuality). fetishism n. Fetishist n. Fetishistic adj. [portuguese feitiço charm]
Fetlock n. Back of a horse’s leg above the hoof with a tuft of hair. [ultimately related to *foot]
Fetter —n. 1 shackle for the ankles. 2 (in pl.) Captivity. 3 restraint. —v. 1 put into fetters. 2 restrict. [old english]
Fettle n. Condition or trim (in fine fettle). [old english]
Fetus n. (brit. Foetus) (pl. -tuses) unborn mammalian offspring, esp. A human embryo of eight weeks or more. foetal adj. [latin fetus offspring]
Feu scot. —n. 1 perpetual lease at a fixed rent. 2 land so held. —v. (feus, feued, feuing) grant (land) on feu. [french: related to *fee]
Feud1 —n. Prolonged hostility, esp. Between families, tribes, etc. —v. Conduct a feud. [germanic: related to *foe]
Feud2 n. = fief. [medieval latin feudum fee]
Feudal adj. 1 of, like, or according to the feudal system. 2 reactionary (feudal attitude). feudalism n. Feudalistic adj.
Feudal system n. Medieval system of land tenure with allegiance and service due to the landowner.
Fever —n. 1 a abnormally high temperature, often with delirium etc. B disease characterized by this (scarlet fever). 2 nervous excitement; agitation. —v. (esp. As fevered adj.) Affect with fever or excitement. [latin febris]
Feverfew n. Aromatic bushy plant, used formerly to reduce fever, now to cure migraine. [latin febrifuga: related to *fever, fugo drive away]
Feverish adj. 1 having symptoms of fever. 2 excited, restless. feverishly adv.
Feverishness n.
Fever pitch n. State of extreme excitement.
Few —adj. Not many (few doctors smoke). —n. (as pl.) 1 (prec. By a) some but not many (a few of his friends were there). 2 not many (few are chosen). 3 (prec.
By the) a the minority. B the elect. a good few colloq. Fairly large number. No fewer than as many as (a specified number). Not a few a considerable number. [old english]
Few and far between predic. Adj. Scarce.
Fey adj. 1 a strange, other-worldly; whimsical. B clairvoyant. 2 scot. Fated to die soon. [old english, = doomed to die]
Fez n. (pl. Fezzes) man’s flat-topped conical red cap worn by some muslims. [turkish]
Ff abbr. Mus. Fortissimo.
Ff. Abbr. Following pages etc.
Fiancé n. (fem. Fiancée pronunc. Same) person one is engaged to. [french]
Fiasco n. (pl. -s) ludicrous or humiliating failure or breakdown. [italian, = bottle]
Fiat n. 1 authorization. 2 decree. [latin, = let it be done]
Fib —n. Trivial lie. —v. (-bb-) tell a fib. fibber n. [perhaps from fible-fable, a reduplication of *fable]
Fiber n. (brit. Fibre) 1 thread or filament forming tissue or textile. 2 piece of threadlike glass. 3 substance formed of fibres, or able to be spun, woven, etc. 4 structure; character (moral fibre). 5 roughage. [french from latin fibra]
Fiberboard n. (brit. Fibreboard) board of compressed wood or other plant fibres.
Fiberglass n. (brit. Fibreglass) 1 fabric made from woven glass fibres. 2 plastic reinforced by glass fibres.
Fibre n. (us fiber) 1 thread or filament forming tissue or textile. 2 piece of threadlike glass. 3 substance formed of fibres, or able to be spun, woven, etc. 4 structure; character (moral fibre). 5 roughage. [french from latin fibra]
Fibreboard n. (us fiberboard) board of compressed wood or other plant fibres.
Fibreglass n. (us fiberglass) 1 fabric made from woven glass fibres. 2 plastic reinforced by glass fibres.
Fibre optics n.pl. Optics using thin glass fibres, usu. For the transmission of modulated light to carry signals.
Fibril n. Small fibre. [diminutive of *fibre]
Fibroid —adj. Of, like, or containing fibrous tissue or fibres. —n. Benign fibrous tumour growing in the womb.
Fibrosis n. Thickening and scarring of connective tissue. [from *fibre, *-osis]
Fibrositis n. Rheumatic inflammation of fibrous tissue. [from *fibre, *-itis]
Fibrous adj. Of or like fibres.
Fibula n. (pl. Fibulae or -s) small outer bone between the knee and the ankle. fibular adj. [latin, = brooch]
-fic suffix (usu. As -ific) forming adjectives meaning ‘producing’, ‘making’ (prolific; pacific). [latin facio make]
-fication suffix (usu. As -ification) forming nouns of action from verbs in -fy (purification; simplification).
Fiche n. (pl. Same or -s) microfiche. [abbreviation]
Fiction n. 1 non-factual literature, esp. Novels. 2 invented idea, thing, etc. 3
generally accepted falsehood (polite fiction). fictional adj. Fictionalize v. (also – ise) (-zing or -sing). [latin: related to *feign]
Fictitious adj. Imaginary, unreal; not genuine.
Fiddle —n. 1 colloq. Or derog. Stringed instrument played with a bow, esp. A violin. 2 colloq. Cheat or fraud. 3 fiddly task. —v. (-ling) 1 a (often foll. By with, at) play restlessly. B (often foll. By about) move aimlessly; waste time. C (usu. Foll. By with) adjust, tinker; tamper. 2 slang a cheat, swindle. B falsify. C get by cheating. 3 play (a tune) on the fiddle. as fit as a fiddle in very good health. Play second (or first) fiddle take a subordinate (or leading) role. [old english]
Fiddly adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Awkward or tiresome to do or use.
Fidelity n. 1 faithfulness, loyalty. 2 strict accuracy. 3 precision in sound
reproduction (high fidelity). [latin fides faith]
Fidget —v. (-t-) 1 move or act restlessly or nervously. 2 be or make uneasy. —n. 1 person who fidgets. 2 (usu. In pl.) Restless movements or mood. fidgety adj. [obsolete or dial. Fidge twitch]
Fiduciary —adj. 1 a of a trust, trustee, or trusteeship. B held or given in trust. 2 (of paper currency) dependent on public confidence or securities. —n. (pl. -ies) trustee. [latin fiducia trust]
Fie int. Archaic expressing disgust, shame, etc. [french from latin]
Fief n. 1 land held under the feudal system or in fee. 2 person’s sphere of operation. [french: related to *fee]
Field —n. 1 area of esp. Cultivated enclosed land. 2 area rich in some natural product (gas field). 3 land for a game etc. (football field). 4 participants in a contest, race, or sport, or all except those specified. 5 cricket a the side fielding. B fielder. 6 expanse of ice, snow, sea, sky, etc. 7 a battlefield. B (attrib.) (of artillery etc.) Light and mobile. 8 area of activity or study (in his own field). 9 physics a region in which a force is effective (gravitational field). B force exerted in this. 10 range of perception (field of view). 11 (attrib.) A (of an animal or plant) wild (field mouse).
Field-day n. 1 exciting or successful time. 2 military exercise or review.
Fielder n. = *fieldsman.
Field events n.pl. Athletic events other than races.
Fieldfare n. Thrush with grey plumage.
Field-glasses n.pl. Outdoor binoculars.
Field marshal n. Army officer of the highest rank.
Field mouse n. Small long-tailed rodent.
Field officer n. Army officer of field rank.
Field of honour n. Battlefield.
Field rank n. Army rank above captain and below general.
Fieldsman n. Cricket, baseball, etc. Member (other than the bowler or pitcher) of the fielding side.
Field sports n.pl. Outdoor sports, esp. Hunting, shooting, and fishing.
Field telegraph n. Movable military telegraph.
Fieldwork n. 1 practical surveying, science, sociology, etc. Conducted in the natural environment. 2 temporary fortification. fieldworker n.
Fiend n. 1 evil spirit, demon. 2 a wicked or cruel person. B mischievous or annoying person. 3 slang devotee (fitness fiend). 4 difficult or unpleasant thing. fiendish adj. Fiendishly adv. [old english]
Fierce adj. (fiercer, fiercest) 1 violently aggressive or frightening. 2 eager, intense. 3 unpleasantly strong or intense (fierce heat). fiercely adv. Fierceness n. [latin ferus savage]
Fiery adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 consisting of or flaming with fire. 2 bright red. 3 hot; burning. 4 a flashing, ardent (fiery eyes). B pugnacious; spirited (fiery temper). fierily adv. Fieriness n.
Fiesta n. Holiday, festivity, or religious festival. [spanish]
Fifa abbr. International football federation. [french fédération internationale de football association]
Fife n. Small shrill flute used in military music. fifer n. [german pfeife *pipe or french fifre]
Fifteen adj. & n. 1 one more than fourteen. 2 symbol for this (15, xv, xv). 3 size etc. Denoted by fifteen. 4 team of fifteen players, esp. In rugby. 5 (15) (of a film)for persons of 15 and over. fifteenth adj. & n. [old english: related to *five, *-teen]
Fifth adj. & n. 1 next after fourth. 2 any of five equal parts of a thing. 3 mus. Interval or chord spanning five consecutive notes in a diatonic scale (e.g. C to g). fifthly adv. [old english: related to *five]
Fifth column n. Traitorous group within a country at war etc. fifth-columnist n.
Fifty adj. & n. (pl. -ies) 1 five times ten. 2 symbol for this (50, l, l). 3 (in pl.) Numbers from 50 to 59, esp. The years of a century or of a person’s life. fiftieth adj. & n. [old english]
Fifty-fifty —adj. Equal. —adv. Equally, half and half.
Fig1 n. 1 soft pulpy fruit with many seeds. 2 (in full fig-tree) tree bearing figs. not care (or give) a fig not care at all. [latin ficus]
Fig2 n. 1 dress or equipment (in full fig). 2 condition or form (in good fig). [obsolete feague: related to *fake]
Fig. Abbr. Figure.
Fig2 n. 1 dress or equipment (in full fig). 2 condition or form (in good fig). [obsolete feague: related to *fake]
Fig. Abbr. Figure.
Fight —v. (past and past part. Fought) 1 (often foll. By against, with) contend or contend with in war, battle, single combat, etc. 2 engage in (a battle, duel, etc.).
3 contend (an election); maintain (a lawsuit, cause, etc.) Against an opponent. 4 strive to achieve something or to overcome (disease, fire, etc.). 5 make (one’s way) by fighting. —n. 1 a combat. B boxing-match. C battle. 2 conflict, struggle, or effort. 3 power or inclination to fight (no fight left). fight back 1 counter-attack. 2 suppress (tears etc.). Fight for 1 fight on behalf of. 2 fight to secure. Fight a losing battle struggle without hope of success. Fight off repel with effort. Fight out (usu. Fight it out) settle by fighting. Fight shy of avoid. Put up a fight offer resistance. [old english]
Fighter n. 1 person or animal that fights. 2 fast military aircraft designed for attacking other aircraft.
Fighting chance n. Slight chance of success if an effort is made.
Fighting fit n. Fit and ready; at the peak of fitness.
Fig-leaf n. 1 leaf of a fig-tree. 2 concealing device, esp. For the genitals (gen.
3:7).
Figment n. Invented or imaginary thing. [latin: related to *feign]
Figuration n. 1 a act or mode of formation; form. B shape or outline. 2 ornamentation. [latin: related to *figure]
Figurative adj. 1 metaphorical, not literal. 2 characterized by figures of speech. 3 of pictorial or sculptural representation. figuratively adv. [latin: related to *figure]
Figure —n. 1 external form or bodily shape. 2 a silhouette, human form (figure on the lawn). B person of a specified kind or appearance (public figure; cut a poor figure). 3 a human form in drawing, sculpture, etc. B image or likeness. 4 two-or three-dimensional space enclosed by lines or surface(s), e.g. A triangle or sphere. 5 a numerical symbol or number, esp. 0–9. B amount; estimated value (cannot put a figure on it). C (in pl.) Arithmetical calculations. 6 diagram or illustration. 7 decorative pattern. 8 movement or sequence in a set dance etc. 9 mus. Succession of notes from which longer passages are developed. 10 (in full figure of speech) metaphor, hyperbole, etc. —v. (-ring) 1 appear or be mentioned, esp. Prominently. 2 represent pictorially. 3 imagine; picture mentally. 4 embellish with a pattern etc. (figured satin). 5 calculate; do arithmetic. 6 symbolize. 7 esp. Us a understand, consider. B colloq. Make sense; be likely (that figures). figure on us count on, expect. Figure out work out by arithmetic or logic. [latin figura: related to *feign]
Figured bass n. Mus. = *continuo.
Figurehead n. 1 nominal leader. 2 wooden bust or figure at a ship’s prow.
Figure-skating n. Skating in prescribed patterns. figure-skater n.
Figurine n. Statuette. [italian: related to *figure]
Filament n. 1 threadlike body or fibre. 2 conducting wire or thread in an electric bulb etc. filamentous adj. [latin filum thread]
Filbert n. 1 the cultivated hazel with edible nuts. 2 this nut. [anglo-french, because ripe about st philibert’s day]
Filch v. Pilfer, steal. [origin unknown]
File1 —n. 1 folder, box, etc., for holding loose papers. 2 papers kept in this. 3 computing collection of (usu. Related) data stored under one name. 4 line of people or things one behind another. —v. (-ling) 1 place (papers) in a file or among (esp. Public) records. 2 submit (a petition for divorce, a patent application, etc.). 3 (of a reporter) send (copy) to a newspaper. 4 walk in a line. [latin filum thread]
File2 —n. Tool with a roughened surface for smoothing or shaping wood, fingernails, etc. —v. (-ling) smooth or shape with a file. [old english]
Filial adj. Of or due from a son or daughter. filially adv. [latin filius, -a son, daughter]
Filibuster —n. 1 obstruction of progress in a legislative assembly, esp. By prolonged speaking. 2 esp. Us person who engages in this. —v. Act as a filibuster (against). filibusterer n. [dutch: related to *freebooter]
Filigree n. 1 fine ornamental work in gold etc. Wire. 2 similar delicate work. filigreed adj. [latin filum thread, granum seed]
Filing n. (usu. In pl.) Particle rubbed off by a file.
Filing cabinet n. Cabinet with drawers for storing files.
Filipino —n. (pl. -s) native or national of the philippines. —adj. Of the philippines or filipinos. [spanish, = philippine]
Fill —v. 1 (often foll. By with) make or become full. 2 occupy completely; spread over or through. 3 block up (a cavity in a tooth); drill and put a filling into (a decayed tooth). 4 appoint a person to hold or (of a person) hold (a post). 5 hold (an office). 6 carry out or supply (an order, commission, etc.). 7 occupy (vacant time). 8 (of a sail) be distended by wind. 9 (usu. As filling adj.) (esp. Of food) satisfy, satiate. —n. 1 as much as one wants or can bear (eat your fill). 2 enough to fill something. fill the bill be suitable or adequate. Fill in 1 complete (a form, document, etc.). 2 a complete (a drawing etc.) Within an outline. B fill (an outline) in this way. 3 fill (a hole etc.) Completely. 4 (often foll. By for) act as a substitute. 5 occupy oneself during (spare time). 6 colloq. Inform (a person) more fully. 7 slang thrash, beat. Fill out 1 enlarge to the required size. 2 become enlarged or plump. 3 us fill in (a document etc.). Fill up 1 make or become completely full. 2 fill in (a document etc.). 3 fill the petrol tank of (a car etc.). [old english]
Filler n. 1 material used to fill a cavity or increase bulk. 2 small item filling space in a newspaper etc.
Fillet —n. 1 a boneless piece of meat or fish. B (in full fillet steak) undercut of a sirloin. 2 ribbon etc. Binding the hair. 3 thin narrow strip or ridge. 4 narrow flat band between mouldings. —v. (-t-) 1 remove bones from (fish or meat) or divide into fillets. 2 bind or provide with fillet(s). [latin filum thread]
Filling n. Material that fills a tooth, sandwich, pie, etc.
Filling-station n. Garage selling petrol etc.
Fillip —n. 1 stimulus, incentive. 2 flick with a finger or thumb. —v. (-p-) 1 stimulate. 2 flick. [imitative]
Filly n. (pl. -ies) 1 young female horse. 2 colloq. Girl or young woman. [old norse]
Film —n. 1 thin coating or covering layer. 2 strip or sheet of plastic etc. Coated with light-sensitive emulsion for exposure in a camera. 3 a story, episode, etc., on film, with the illusion of movement. B (in pl.) The cinema industry. 4 slight veil or haze etc. 5 dimness or morbid growth affecting the eyes. —v. 1 make a photographic film of (a scene, story, etc.). 2 cover or become covered with or as with a film. [old english]
Film-goer n. Person who frequents the cinema.
Filmsetting n. Typesetting by projecting characters on to photographic film.
film-set v. Filmsetter n.
Film star n. Celebrated film actor or actress.
Film-strip n. Series of transparencies in a strip for projection.
Filmy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 thin and translucent. 2 covered with or as with a film.
Filofax n. Propr. A type of loose-leaf personal organizer. [from *file1, *fact]
Filo pastry n. (also phyllo pastry) leaved pastry like strudel pastry. [greek phullon leaf]
Filter —n. 1 porous device for removing impurities etc. From a liquid or gas passed through it. 2 = *filter tip. 3 screen or attachment for absorbing or modifying light, x-rays, etc. 4 device for suppressing unwanted electrical or sound waves. 5 arrangement for filtering traffic. —v. 1 (cause to) pass through a filter. 2 (foll. By through, into, etc.) Make way gradually. 3 (foll. By out) (cause to) leak. 4 allow (traffic) or (of traffic) be allowed to pass to the left or right at a junction. [germanic: related to *felt1]
Filter-paper n. Porous paper for filtering.
Filter tip n. 1 filter on a cigarette removing some impurities. 2 cigarette with this.
filter-tipped adj.
Filth n. 1 repugnant or extreme dirt. 2 obscenity. [old english: related to *foul]
Filthy lucre n. 1 dishonourable gain. 2 joc. Money.
Filtrate —v. (-ting) filter. —n. Filtered liquid. filtration n. [related to *filter]
Fin n. 1 (usu. Thin) flat external organ of esp. Fish, for propelling, steering, etc. (dorsal fin). 2 similar stabilizing projection on an aircraft, car, etc. 3 underwater swimmer’s flipper. finned adj. [old english]
Finagle v. (-ling) colloq. Act or obtain dishonestly. finagler n. [dial. Fainaigue cheat]
Final —adj. 1 situated at the end, coming last. 2 conclusive, decisive. —n. 1 last or deciding heat or game in sports etc. (cup final). 2 last daily edition of a newspaper. 3 (usu. In pl.) Examinations at the end of a degree course. finally adv. [latin finis end]
Final cause n. Philos. Ultimate purpose.
Final clause n. Gram. Clause expressing purpose.
Finale n. Last movement or section of a piece of music or drama etc. [italian:
related to *final]
Finalist n. Competitor in the final of a competition etc.
Finality n. (pl. -ies) 1 fact of being final. 2 final act etc. [latin: related to *final]
Finalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) put into final form; complete. finalization n.
Final solution n. Nazi policy (1941–5) of exterminating european jews.
Finance —n. 1 management of (esp. Public) money. 2 monetary support for an enterprise. 3 (in pl.) Money resources of a state, company, or person. —v. (-cing) provide capital for. [french: related to *fine2]
Finance company n. (also finance house) company providing money, esp. For hire-purchase transactions.
Financial adj. Of finance. financially adv.
Financial year n. Year as reckoned for taxing or accounting, esp. From 6 april.
Financier n. Capitalist; entrepreneur. [french: related to *finance]
Financier n. Capitalist; entrepreneur. [french: related to *finance]
Finch n. Small seed-eating bird, esp. A crossbill, canary, or chaffinch. [old english]
Find —v. (past and past part. Found) 1 a discover or get by chance or effort (found a key). B become aware of. 2 a obtain, succeed in obtaining; receive (idea found acceptance). B summon up (found courage). 3 seek out and provide or supply (will find you a book; finds his own meals). 4 discover by study etc. (find the answer). 5 a perceive or experience (find no sense in it). B (often in passive) discover to be present (not found in shakespeare). C discover from experience (finds england too cold). 6 law (of a jury, judge, etc.) Decide and declare (found him guilty). 7 reach by a natural process (water finds its own level). —n. 1 discovery of treasure etc. 2 valued thing or person newly discovered. all found (of wages) with board and lodging provided free. Find fault see *fault. Find favour prove acceptable. Find one’s feet 1 become able to walk. 2 develop independence. Find oneself 1 discover that one is (found herself agreeing).
Finder n. 1 person who finds. 2 small telescope attached to a large one to locate an object. 3 viewfinder.
Finding n. (often in pl.) Conclusion reached by an inquiry etc.
Fine1 —adj. 1 a of high quality; excellent (fine painting). B good, satisfactory (that will be fine). 2 a pure, refined. B (of gold or silver) containing a specified proportion of pure metal. 3 imposing, dignified (fine buildings). 4 in good health (i’m fine). 5 (of weather etc.) Bright and clear. 6 a thin; sharp. B in small particles. C worked in slender thread. 7 euphemistic; flattering (fine words). 8 ornate, showy. 9 fastidious, affectedly refined. —adv. 1 finely. 2 colloq. Very well (suits me fine). —v. (-ning) 1 (often foll. By away, down, off) make or become finer, thinner, more tapering, or less coarse. 2 (often foll. By down) make or become clear (esp. Of beer etc.). not to put too fine a point on it to speak bluntly. finely adv. Fineness n. [french fin from latin finio *finish]
Fine2 —n. Money to be paid as a penalty. —v. (-ning) punish by a fine (fined him £5). in fine in short. [french fin settlement of a dispute, from latin finis end]
Fine arts n.pl. Poetry, music, and the visual arts, esp. Painting, sculpture, and architecture.
Finery n. Showy dress or decoration. [from *fine1]
Fines herbes n.pl. Mixed herbs used in cooking. [french, = fine herbs]
Fine-spun adj. 1 delicate. 2 (of theory etc.) Too subtle, unpractical.
Finesse —n. 1 refinement. 2 subtle manipulation. 3 artfulness; tact. 4 cards attempt to win a trick with a card that is not the highest held. —v. (-ssing) 1 use or achieve by finesse. 2 cards a make a finesse. B play (a card) as a finesse. [french: related to *fine1]
Fine-tooth comb n. Comb with close-set teeth. go over with a fine-tooth comb check or search thoroughly.
Fine-tune v. Make small adjustments to (a mechanism etc.).
Finger —n. 1 any of the terminal projections of the hand (usu. Excluding the thumb). 2 part of a glove etc. For a finger. 3 finger-like object or structure (fish finger). 4 colloq. Small measure of liquor. —v. Touch, feel, or turn about with the fingers. get (or pull) one’s finger out slang start to act. Lay a finger on touch, however slightly. Put one’s finger on locate or identify exactly. fingerless adj. [old english]
Finger-board n. Part of the neck of a stringed instrument on which the fingers press to vary the pitch.
Finger-bowl n. (also finger-glass) small bowl for rinsing the fingers during a meal.
Finger-dry v. Dry and style (the hair) by running one’s fingers through it.
Fingering n. 1 technique etc. Of using the fingers, esp. In playing music. 2 indication of this in a musical score.
Finger-mark n. Mark left by a finger.
Fingernail n. Nail of each finger.
Finger-plate n. Plate fixed to a door to prevent finger-marks.
Fingerprint —n. Impression of a fingertip on a surface, used in detecting crime.
—v. Record the fingerprints of.
Finger-stall n. Protective cover for an injured finger.
Fingertip n. Tip of a finger. have at one’s fingertips be thoroughly familiar with (a subject etc.).
Finial n. Ornamental top or end of a roof, gable, etc. [anglo-french: related to *fine1]
Finicky adj. (also finical, finicking) 1 over-particular, fastidious. 2 detailed; fiddly. finickiness n. [perhaps from *fine1]
Finis n. End, esp. Of a book. [latin]
Finish —v. 1 a (often foll. By off) bring or come to an end or the end of; complete; cease. B (usu. Foll. By off) colloq. Kill; vanquish. C (often foll. By off, up) consume or complete consuming (food or drink). 2 treat the surface of (cloth, woodwork, etc.). —n. 1 a end, last stage, completion. B point at which a race etc. Ends. 2 method, material, etc. Used for surface treatment of wood, cloth, etc. (mahogany finish). finish up (often foll. By in, by) end (finished up by crying). Finish with have no more to do with, complete using etc. [latin finis end]
Finishing-school n. Private college preparing girls for fashionable society.
Finishing touch n. (also finishing touches) final enhancing details.
Finite adj. 1 limited; not infinite. 2 (of a part of a verb) having a specific number and person. [latin: related to *finish]
Finn n. Native or national of finland; person of finnish descent. [old english]
Finnan n. (in full finnan haddock) smoke-cured haddock. [findhorn, findon, in scotland]
Finnic adj. Of the group of peoples or languages related to the finns or finnish.
Finnish —adj. Of the finns or their language. —n. Language of the finns.
Fino n. (pl. -s) light-coloured dry sherry. [spanish, = fine]
Fiord n. (also fjord) long narrow sea inlet, as in norway. [norwegian]
Fipple n. Plug at the mouth-end of a wind instrument. [origin unknown]
Fipple flute n. Flute played by blowing endwise, e.g. A recorder.
Fir n. 1 (in full fir-tree) evergreen coniferous tree with needles growing singly on the stems. 2 its wood. firry adj. [old norse]
the stems. 2 its wood. firry adj. [old norse]
Fir-cone n. Fruit of the fir.
Fire —n. 1 a combustion of substances with oxygen, giving out light and heat. B flame or incandescence. 2 destructive burning (forest fire). 3 a burning fuel in a grate, furnace, etc. B = electric fire. C = gas fire. 4 firing of guns. 5 a fervour, spirit, vivacity. B poetic inspiration. 6 burning heat, fever. —v. (-ring) 1 (often foll. By at, into, on) a shoot (a gun, missile, etc.). B shoot a gun or missile etc. 2 produce (a broadside, salute, etc.) By shooting guns etc. 3 (of a gun etc.) Be discharged. 4 explode or kindle (an explosive). 5 deliver or utter rapidly (fired insults at us). 6 slang dismiss (an employee). 7 set fire to intentionally. 8 catch fire. 9 (of esp. An internal-combustion engine) undergo ignition. 10 supply (a furnace, engine, etc.) With fuel. 11 stimulate; enthuse. 12 bake, dry, or cure (pottery, bricks, tea, tobacco, etc.). 13 become or cause to become heated, excited, red, or glowing. catch fire begin to burn. Fire away colloq. Begin; go ahead. On fire 1 burning. 2 excited. Set fire to (or set on fire) ignite, kindle. Set the world (or thames) on fire do something remarkable or sensational. Under fire 1 being shot at. 2 being rigorously criticized or questioned. [old english]
Fire-alarm n. Device warning of fire.
Fire and brimstone n. Supposed torments of hell.
Firearm n. (usu. In pl.) Gun, pistol, or rifle.
Fire-ball n. 1 large meteor. 2 ball of flame or lightning. 3 energetic person.
Fire-bomb n. Incendiary bomb.
Firebox n. Place where fuel is burned in a steam engine or boiler.
Firebrand n. 1 piece of burning wood. 2 person causing trouble or unrest.
Fire-break n. Obstacle to the spread of fire in a forest etc., esp. An open space.
Fire-brick n. Fireproof brick in a grate.
Fire brigade n. Body of professional firefighters.
Fireclay n. Clay used to make fire-bricks.
Firecracker n. Us explosive firework.
Firedamp n. Miners’ name for methane, which is explosive when mixed with air.
Firedog n. Andiron.
Fire door n. Fire-resistant door preventing the spread of fire.
Fire-drill n. Rehearsal of the procedures to be used in case of fire.
Fire-eater n. 1 conjuror who appears to swallow fire. 2 quarrelsome person.
Fire-engine n. Vehicle carrying hoses, firefighters, etc.
Fire-escape n. Emergency staircase etc. For use in a fire.
Fire extinguisher n. Apparatus discharging foam etc. To extinguish a fire.
Firefighter n. = *fireman 1.
Firefly n. Beetle emitting phosphorescent light, e.g. The glow-worm.
Fire-guard n. Protective screen placed in front of a fireplace.
Fire-irons n.pl. Tongs, poker, and shovel for a domestic fire.
Firelight n. Light from a fire in a fireplace.
Firelighter n. Inflammable material used to start a fire in a grate.
Fireman n. 1 member of a fire brigade. 2 person who tends a steam engine or steamship furnace.
Fireplace n. 1 place for a domestic fire, esp. A recess in a wall. 2 structure surrounding this.
Fire-power n. Destructive capacity of guns etc.
Fire-practice n. Fire-drill.
Fireproof —adj. Able to resist fire or great heat. —v. Make fireproof.
Fire-raiser n. Arsonist. fire-raising n.
Fire-screen n. 1 ornamental screen for a fireplace. 2 screen against the direct heat of a fire. 3 fire-guard.
Fire-ship n. Hist. Ship set on fire and directed against an enemy’s ships etc.
Fireside n. 1 area round a fireplace. 2 home or home-life.
Fire station n. Headquarters of a fire brigade.
Fire station n. Headquarters of a fire brigade.
Fire-storm n. High wind or storm following a fire caused by bombs.
Fire-trap n. Building without fire-escapes etc.
Fire-watcher n. Person keeping watch for fires, esp. Those caused by bombs.
Fire-water n. Colloq. Strong alcoholic liquor.
Firewood n. Wood as fuel.
Firework n. 1 device that burns or explodes spectacularly when lit. 2 (in pl.) Outburst of passion, esp. Anger.
Firing n. 1 discharge of guns. 2 fuel.
Firing-line n. 1 front line in a battle. 2 centre of activity etc.
Firing-squad n. 1 soldiers ordered to shoot a condemned person. 2 group firing the salute at a military funeral.
Firm1 —adj. 1 a solid or compact. B fixed, stable, steady. 2 a resolute,
Firm1 —adj. 1 a solid or compact. B fixed, stable, steady. 2 a resolute, determined. B steadfast, constant (firm belief; firm friend). 3 (of an offer etc.) Definite; not conditional. —adv. Firmly (stand firm). —v. (often foll. By up) make or become firm, secure, compact, or solid. firmly adv. Firmness n. [latin firmus]
Firm2 n. Business concern or its partners. [latin firma: cf. *firm1]
Firmament n. Literary the sky regarded as a vault or arch. [latin: related to *firm1]
Firmware n. Computing permanent kind of software.
Firry see *fir.
First —adj. 1 earliest in time or order (took the first bus). 2 foremost in rank or importance (first lord of the treasury). 3 most willing or likely (the first to admit it). 4 basic or evident (first principles). —n. 1 (prec. By the) person or thing first mentioned or occurring. 2 first occurrence of something notable. 3 place in the first class in an examination. 4 first gear. 5 a first place in a race. B winner of this. —adv. 1 before any other person or thing (first of all; first and foremost). 2 before someone or something else (get this done first). 3 for the first time (when did you first see her?). 4 in preference; rather (will see him damned first). at first at the beginning. At first hand directly from the original source.
First class —n. 1 best group or category. 2 best accommodation in a train, ship, etc. 3 mail given priority. 4 highest division in an examination. —adj. & adv.(first-class) 1 of or by the first class. 2 excellent.
First cousin see *cousin.
First-day cover n. Envelope with stamps postmarked on their first day of issue.
First floor n. (us second floor) floor above the ground floor.
First-foot scot. —n. First person to cross a threshold in the new year. —v. Be a first-foot.
First-fruit n. (usu. In pl.) 1 first agricultural produce of a season, esp. As offered to god. 2 first results of work etc.
Firsthand adj. & adv. From the original source; direct.
First lady n. (in the us) wife of the president.
First light n. Dawn.
Firstly adv. In the first place, first (cf. *first adv.).
First mate n. (on a merchant ship) second in command.
First name n. Personal or christian name.
First night n. First public performance of a play etc.
First offender n. Criminal without previous convictions.
First officer n. = *first mate.
First person see *person.
First post n. (also last post) bugle-call as a signal to retire for the night.
First-rate adj. 1 excellent. 2 colloq. Very well (feeling first-rate).
First thing adv. Colloq. Before anything else; very early.
Firth n. (also frith) 1 narrow inlet of sea. 2 estuary. [old norse: related to *fiord]
Fiscal —adj. Of public revenue. —n. 1 legal official in some countries. 2 scot. = *procurator fiscal. [latin fiscus treasury]
Fiscal year n. = *financial year.
Fish1 —n. (pl. Same or -es) 1 vertebrate cold-blooded animal with gills and fins living wholly in water. 2 any of various non-vertebrate animals living wholly in water, e.g. The cuttlefish, shellfish, and jellyfish. 3 fish as food. 4 colloq. Person of a specified, usu. Unpleasant, kind (an odd fish). 5 (the fish or fishes) sign or constellation pisces. —v. 1 try to catch fish. 2 fish in (a certain river, pool, etc.). 3 (foll. By for) a search for. B seek indirectly (fishing for compliments). 4 (foll. By up, out, etc.) Retrieve with effort. drink like a fish drink alcohol excessively. Fish out of water person out of his or her element. Other fish to fry other matters to attend to. [old english]
Fish2 n. Flat or curved plate of iron, wood, etc., used to strengthen a beam, joint, or mast. [french ficher fix, from latin figere *fix]
Fish-bowl n. (usu. Round) glass bowl for pet fish.
Fish cake n. Breaded cake of fish and mashed potato, usu. Fried.
Fisher n. 1 animal that catches fish. 2 archaic fisherman. [old english]
Fisherman n. Man who catches fish as a livelihood or for sport.
Fishery n. (pl. -ies) 1 place where fish are caught or reared. 2 industry of fishing or breeding fish.
Fish-eye lens n. Very wide-angle lens with a highly-curved front.
Fish farm n. Place where fish are bred for food.
Fish finger n. Small oblong piece of fish in batter or breadcrumbs.
Fish-hook n. Barbed hook for catching fish.
Fishing n. Catching fish.
Fishing-line n. Thread with a baited hook etc. For catching fish.
Fishing-rod n. Tapering usu. Jointed rod for fishing.
Fish-kettle n. Oval pan for boiling fish.
Fish-knife n. Knife for eating or serving fish.
Fish-meal n. Ground dried fish as fertilizer or animal feed.
Fishmonger n. Dealer in fish.
Fishnet n. (often attrib.) Open-meshed fabric (fishnet stockings).
Fish-plate n. Flat piece of iron etc. Connecting railway rails or positioning masonry.
Fish-slice n. Flat slotted cooking utensil.
Fishtail n. Device etc. Shaped like a fish’s tail.
Fishwife n. 1 coarse-mannered or noisy woman. 2 woman who sells fish.
Fishy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like fish. 2 slang dubious, suspect. fishily adv.
Fishiness n.
Fissile adj. 1 capable of undergoing nuclear fission. 2 tending to split. [latin:
Fissile adj. 1 capable of undergoing nuclear fission. 2 tending to split. [latin:
related to *fissure]
Fission —n. 1 splitting of a heavy atomic nucleus, with a release of energy. 2 cell division as a mode of reproduction. —v. (cause to) undergo fission. fissionable adj. [latin: related to *fissure]
Fission bomb n. Atomic bomb.
Fissure —n. Crack or split, usu. Long and narrow. —v. (-ring) split, crack. [latin findo fiss-cleave]
Fist n. Tightly closed hand. fistful n. (pl. -s). [old english]
Fisticuffs n.pl. Fighting with the fists. [probably from obsolete fisty (from fist), cuff2]
Fistula n. (pl. -s or -lae) abnormal or artificial passage between an organ and the body surface or between two organs. fistular adj. Fistulous adj. [latin, = pipe]
Fit1 —adj. (fitter, fittest) 1 a well suited. B qualified, competent, worthy. C in suitable condition, ready. D (foll. By for) good enough (fit for a king). 2 in good health or condition. 3 proper, becoming, right (it is fit that). —v. (-tt-) 1 a (also absol.) Be of the right shape and size for (dress fits her; key doesn’t fit). B (often foll. By in, into) be correctly positioned (that bit fits here). C find room for (fit another on here). 2 make suitable or competent; adapt (fitted for battle). 3 (usu. Foll. By with) supply. 4 fix in place (fit a lock on the door). 5 = fit on. 6 befit, become (it fits the occasion). —n. Way in which a garment, component, etc., fits
become (it fits the occasion). —n. Way in which a garment, component, etc., fits (tight fit). —adv. (foll. By to + infin.) Colloq. So that; likely (laughing fit to bust). fit the bill = fill the bill. Fit in 1 (often foll. By with) be compatible; accommodate (tried to fit in with their plans). 2 find space or time for (dentist fitted me in). Fit on try on (a garment). Fit out (or up) (often foll. By with) equip. See (or think) fit (often foll. By to + infin.) Decide or choose (a specified action). fitly adv. Fitness n. [origin unknown]
Fit2 n. 1 sudden esp. Epileptic seizure with unconsciousness or convulsions. 2 sudden brief bout or burst (fit of giggles; fit of coughing). by (or in) fits and starts spasmodically. Have a fit colloq. Be greatly surprised or outraged. In fits laughing uncontrollably. [old english]
Fitful adj. Spasmodic or intermittent. fitfully adv.
Fitment n. (usu. In pl.) Fixed item of furniture.
Fitted adj. 1 made to fit closely or exactly (fitted carpet). 2 provided with built-in fittings etc. (fitted kitchen). 3 built-in (fitted cupboards).
Fitter n. 1 mechanic who fits together and adjusts machinery. 2 supervisor of the cutting, fitting, etc. Of garments.
Fitting —n. 1 trying-on of a garment etc. For adjustment before completion. 2 (in pl.) Fixtures and fitments of a building. —adj. Proper, becoming, right. fittingly adv.
Five adj. & n. 1 one more than four. 2 symbol for this (5, v, v). 3 size etc. Denoted by five. 4 set or team of five. 5 five o’clock (is it five yet?). 6 cricket hit
scoring five runs. [old english]
Fivefold adj. & adv. 1 five times as much or as many. 2 consisting of five parts.
Five o’clock shadow n. Beard-growth visible in the latter part of the day.
Fiver n. Colloq. Five-pound note.
Fives n. Game in which a ball is hit with a gloved hand or bat against the walls of a court.
Five-star adj. Of the highest class.
Fivestones n. Jacks played with five pieces of metal etc. And usu. No ball.
Fix —v. 1 make firm or stable; fasten, secure. 2 decide, settle, specify (a price, date, etc.). 3 mend, repair. 4 implant in the mind. 5 a (foll. By on, upon) direct (the eyes etc.) Steadily, set. B attract and hold (the attention, eyes, etc.). C (foll. By with) single out with one’s look etc. 6 place definitely, establish. 7 determine the exact nature, position, etc., of; refer (a thing) to a definite place or time; identify, locate. 8 a make (the eyes, features, etc.) Rigid. B (of eyes, features, etc.) Become rigid. 9 us colloq. Prepare (food or drink). 10 congeal or become congealed. 11 colloq. Punish, kill, deal with (a person). 12 colloq. A bribe or threaten into supporting. B gain a fraudulent result of (a race etc.). 13 slang inject a narcotic. 14 make (a colour, photographic image, etc.) Fast or permanent. 15 (of a plant etc.) Assimilate (nitrogen or carbon dioxide). —n. 1
colloq. Dilemma, predicament. 2 a finding one’s position by bearings etc. B position found in this way. 3 slang dose of an addictive drug. be fixed (usu. Foll. By for) colloq. Be situated (regarding) (how is he fixed for money?). Fix on (or upon) choose, decide on. Fix up 1 arrange, organize. 2 accommodate. 3 (often foll. By with) provide (a person) (fixed me up with a job). fixable adj. [latin figo fix-]
Fixate v. (-ting) 1 direct one’s gaze on. 2 psychol. (usu. In passive; often foll. By on, upon) cause (a person) to become abnormally attached to a person or thing. [latin: related to *fix]
Fixation n. 1 state of being fixated. 2 obsession, monomania. 3 coagulation. 4 process of assimilating a gas to form a solid compound.
Fixative —adj. Tending to fix or secure. —n. Fixative substance.
Fixedly adv. Intently.
Fixed star n. Astron. Seemingly motionless star.
Fixer n. 1 person or thing that fixes. 2 photog. Substance for fixing a photographic image etc. 3 colloq. Person who makes esp. Illicit deals.
Fixings n.pl. Us 1 apparatus or equipment. 2 trimmings for a dish, dress, etc.
Fixity n. Fixed state; stability; permanence.
Fixture n. 1 a something fixed in position. B colloq. Seemingly immovable person or thing (seems to be a fixture). 2 a sporting event, esp. A match, race, etc. B date agreed for this. 3 (in pl.) Articles attached to a house or land andregarded as legally part of it.
Fizz —v. 1 make a hissing or spluttering sound. 2 (of a drink) effervesce. —n. 1 effervescence. 2 colloq. Effervescent drink, esp. Champagne. [imitative]
Fizzle —v. (-ling) make a feeble hiss. —n. Such a sound. fizzle out end feebly. [imitative]
Fizzy adj. (-ier, -iest) effervescent. fizziness n.
Fjord var. Of *fiord.
Fl. Abbr. 1 floruit. 2 fluid.
Flab n. Colloq. Fat; flabbiness. [imitative, or from *flabby]
Flabbergast v. (esp. As flabbergasted adj.) Colloq. Astonish; dumbfound. [origin uncertain]
Flabby adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of flesh etc.) Limp; flaccid. 2 feeble. flabbiness n. [alteration of flappy: related to *flap]
Flaccid adj. Limp, flabby, drooping. flaccidity n. [latin flaccus limp]
Flag1 —n. 1 a usu. Oblong or square piece of cloth, attachable by one edge to a pole or rope as a country’s emblem or standard, a signal, etc. B small toy etc. Resembling a flag. 2 adjustable strip of metal etc. Indicating a taxi’s availability for hire. —v. (-gg-) 1 a grow tired; lag (was soon flagging). B hang down; droop. 2 mark out with or as if with a flag or flags. 3 (often foll. By that) inform or communicate by flag-signals. flag down signal to stop. [origin unknown]
Flag2 —n. (also flagstone) 1 flat usu. Rectangular paving stone. 2 (in pl.) Pavement of these. —v. (-gg-) pave with flags. [probably scandinavian]
Flag3 n. Plant with a bladed leaf (esp. The iris). [origin unknown]
Flag-day n. Fund-raising day for a charity, esp. With the sale of small paper flags etc. In the street.
Flagellant —n. Person who scourges himself, herself, or others as a religious discipline or as a sexual stimulus. —adj. Of flagellation. [latin flagellum whip]
Flagellate v. (-ting) scourge, flog. flagellation n.
Flagellum n. (pl. -gella) 1 long lashlike appendage on some microscopic organisms. 2 runner; creeping shoot. [latin, = whip]
Flageolet n. Small flute blown at the end. [french from provençal]
Flag of convenience n. Foreign flag under which a ship is registered, usu. To avoid regulations or financial charges.
Flag-officer n. Admiral, vice admiral, or rear admiral, or the commodore of a yacht-club.
Flag of truce n. White flag requesting a truce.
Flagon n. 1 large bottle, usu. Holding a quart (1.13 litres), esp. Of wine, cider, etc. 2 large vessel for wine etc., usu. With a handle, spout, and lid. [latin flasco*flask]
Flagship n. 1 ship with an admiral on board. 2 leader in a category etc.; exemplar.
Flagstaff n. Pole on which a flag may be hoisted.
Flagstone n. = *flag2.
Flag-waving n. Populist agitation, chauvinism.
Flail —n. Wooden staff with a short heavy stick swinging from it, used for threshing. —v. 1 wave or swing wildly. 2 beat with or as with a flail. [latin flagellum whip]
Flair n. 1 natural talent in a specific area (flair for languages). 2 style, finesse. [french flairer to smell]
Flake —n. 1 small thin light piece of snow etc. 2 thin broad piece peeled or split off. 3 dogfish etc. As food. —v. (-king) (often foll. By away, off) 1 take off or come away in flakes. 2 sprinkle with or fall in flakes. flake out colloq. Fall asleep or drop from exhaustion; faint. [origin unknown]
Flak jacket n. Protective reinforced military jacket.
Flaky adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of, like, or in flakes. 2 esp. Us slang crazy, eccentric.
Flaky pastry n. Crumblier version of puff pastry.
Flaky pastry n. Crumblier version of puff pastry.
Flambé adj. (of food) covered with alcohol and set alight briefly (following a noun: pancakes flambé). [french: related to *flame]
Flamboyant adj. 1 ostentatious; showy. 2 floridly decorated or coloured. flamboyance n. Flamboyantly adv. [french: related to *flambé]
Flame —n. 1 a ignited gas. B portion of this (flame flickered; burst into flames). 2 a bright light or colouring. B brilliant orange-red colour. 3 a strong passion, esp. Love (fan the flame). B colloq. Sweetheart. —v. (-ming) 1 (often foll. By away, forth, out, up) burn; blaze. 2 (often foll. By out, up) a (of passion) break out. B (of a person) become angry. 3 shine or glow like flame. [latin flamma]
Flamenco n. (pl. -s) 1 style of spanish gypsy guitar music with singing. 2 dance performed to this. [spanish, = flemish]
Flame-thrower n. Weapon for throwing a spray of flame.
Flaming adj. 1 emitting flames. 2 very hot (flaming june). 3 colloq. A passionate (flaming row). B expressing annoyance (that flaming dog). 4 bright-coloured.
Flamingo n. (pl. -s or -es) tall long-necked wading bird with mainly pink plumage. [provençal: related to *flame]
Flammable adj. Inflammable. flammability n. [latin: related to *flame]
Flammable adj. Inflammable. flammability n. [latin: related to *flame]
Usage flammable is often used because inflammable can be mistaken for a negative (the true negative being non-flammable).
Flan n. 1 pastry case with a savoury or sweet filling. 2 sponge base with a sweet topping. [medieval latin flado -onis]
Flange n. Projecting flat rim etc., for strengthening or attachment. [origin uncertain]
Flank —n. 1 side of the body between ribs and hip. 2 side of a mountain, building, etc. 3 right or left side of an army etc. —v. (often in passive) be at or move along the side of (road flanked by mountains). [french from germanic]
Flannel —n. 1 a woven woollen usu. Napless fabric. B (in pl.) Flannel garments, esp. Trousers. 2 face-cloth, esp. Towelling. 3 slang nonsense; flattery. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 slang flatter. 2 wash with a flannel. [welsh gwlanen from gwlan wool]
Flannelette n. Napped cotton fabric like flannel.
Flap —v. (-pp-) 1 move or be moved up and down; beat. 2 colloq. Be agitated or panicky. 3 sway; flutter. 4 (usu. Foll. By away, off) strike (flies etc.) With flat object; drive. 5 colloq. (of ears) listen intently. —n. 1 piece of cloth, wood, etc. Attached by one side esp. To cover a gap, e.g. A pocket-cover, the folded part of an envelope, a table-leaf. 2 motion of a wing, arm, etc. 3 colloq. Agitation; panic (in a flap). 4 aileron. 5 light blow with something flat. flappy adj. [probably
imitative]
Flapdoodle n. Colloq. Nonsense. [origin unknown]
Flapjack n. 1 sweet oatcake. 2 esp. Us pancake.
Flapper n. 1 person apt to panic. 2 slang (in the 1920s) young unconventional woman.
Flare —v. (-ring) 1 widen gradually (flared trousers). 2 (cause to) blaze brightly and unsteadily. 3 burst out, esp. Angrily. —n. 1 a dazzling irregular flame or light. B sudden outburst of flame. 2 flame or bright light used as a signal or to illuminate a target etc. 3 a gradual widening, esp. Of a skirt or trousers. B (in pl.) Wide-bottomed trousers. flare up burst into a sudden blaze, anger, activity, etc. [origin unknown]
Flare-path n. Line of lights on a runway to guide aircraft.
Flare-up n. Sudden outburst.
Flash —v. 1 (cause to) emit a brief or sudden light; (cause to) gleam. 2 send or reflect like a sudden flame (eyes flashed fire). 3 a burst suddenly into view or perception (answer flashed upon me). B move swiftly (train flashed past). 4 a send (news etc.) By radio, telegraph, etc. B signal to (a person) with lights. 5 colloq. Show ostentatiously (flashed her ring). 6 slang indecently expose oneself. —n. 1 sudden bright light or flame, e.g. Of lightning. 2 an instant (in a flash). 3
sudden brief feeling, display of wit, etc. (flash of hope). 4 = *newsflash. 5 photog. = *flashlight 1. 6 mil. Coloured cloth patch on a uniform. 7 bright patch of colour. —adj. Colloq. Gaudy; showy; vulgar (flash car). [imitative]
Flashback n. Scene set in an earlier time than the main action.
Flash bulb n. Photog. Bulb for a flashlight.
Flash-cube n. Photog. Set of four flash bulbs in a cube, operated in turn.
Flasher n. 1 slang man who indecently exposes himself. 2 automatic device for switching lights rapidly on and off.
Flash-gun n. Device operating a camera flashlight.
Flashing n. (usu. Metal) strip used to prevent water penetration at a roof joint etc. [dial.]
Flash in the pan n. Promising start followed by failure.
Flash-lamp n. Portable flashing electric lamp.
Flashlight n. 1 light giving an intense flash, used for night or indoor photography. 2 us electric torch.
photography. 2 us electric torch.
Flashpoint n. 1 temperature at which vapour from oil etc. Will ignite in air. 2 point at which anger etc. Is expressed.
Flask n. 1 narrow-necked bulbous bottle for wine etc. Or used in chemistry. 2 = *hip-flask. 3 = vacuum flask. [latin flasca, flasco: cf. flagon]
Flat1 —adj. (flatter, flattest) 1 a horizontally level. B even; smooth; unbroken. C level and shallow (flat cap). 2 unqualified; downright (flat refusal). 3 a dull; lifeless; monotonous (in a flat tone). B dejected. 4 (of a fizzy drink) having lost its effervescence. 5 (of an accumulator, battery, etc.) Having exhausted its charge. 6 mus. A below true or normal pitch (violins are flat). B (of a key) having a flat or flats in the signature. C (as b, e, etc. Flat) semitone lower than b, e, etc. 7 (of a tyre) punctured; deflated. —adv. 1 at full length; spread out (lay flat; flat against the wall). 2 colloq. A completely, absolutely (flat broke). B exactly (in five minutes flat). 3 mus. Below the true or normal pitch (sings flat). —n. 1 flat part or thing (flat of the hand). 2 level ground, esp. A plain or swamp. 3 mus. A note lowered a semitone below natural pitch. B sign indicating this. 4 (as the flat) flat racing or its season. 5 theatr. Flat scenery on a frame. 6 esp. Us colloq. Flat tyre. flat out 1 at top speed. 2 using all one’s strength etc. That’s flat colloq. That is definite. flatly adv. Flatness n. Flattish adj. [old norse]
Flat2 n. Set of rooms, usu. On one floor, as a residence. flatlet n. [obsolete flet floor, dwelling, from germanic: related to *flat1]
Flat-fish n. Sole, plaice, etc. With both eyes on one side of a flattened body.
Flat foot n. Foot with a flattened arch.
Flat-footed n. 1 having flat feet. 2 colloq. A uninspired. B unprepared. C resolute.
Flat-iron n. Hist. Domestic iron heated on a fire etc.
Flatmate n. Person sharing a flat.
Flat race n. Horse race without jumps, over level ground. flat racing n.
Flat rate n. Unvarying rate or charge.
Flat spin n. 1 aeron. A nearly horizontal spin. 2 colloq. State of panic.
Flatten v. 1 make or become flat. 2 colloq. A humiliate. B knock down.
Flatter v. 1 compliment unduly, esp. For gain or advantage. 2 (usu. Refl.; usu. Foll. By that) congratulate or delude (oneself etc.) (he flatters himself that he can sing). 3 (of colour, style, portrait, painter etc.) Enhance the appearance of (that blouse flatters you). 4 cause to feel honoured. flatterer n. Flattering adj. Flatteringly adv. [french]
Flattery n. Exaggerated or insincere praise.
Flatulent adj. 1 a causing intestinal wind. B caused by or suffering from this. 2 (of speech etc.) Inflated, pretentious. flatulence n. [latin flatus blowing]
Flatworm n. Worm with a flattened body, e.g. Flukes.
Flaunt v. (often refl.) Display proudly; show off; parade. [origin unknown]
Usage flaunt is often confused with flout which means ‘to disobey contemptuously’.
Flautist n. Flute-player. [italian: related to *flute]
Flavor (brit. Flavour) —n. 1 mingled sensation of smell and taste (cheesy flavour). 2 characteristic quality (romantic flavour). 3 (usu. Foll. By of) slight admixture (flavour of failure). —v. Give flavour to; season. flavourless adj. Flavoursome adj. [french]
Flavoring n. (brit. Flavouring) substance used to flavour food or drink.
Flavour (us flavor) —n. 1 mingled sensation of smell and taste (cheesy flavour). 2 characteristic quality (romantic flavour). 3 (usu. Foll. By of) slight admixture (flavour of failure). —v. Give flavour to; season. flavourless adj. Flavoursome
(flavour of failure). —v. Give flavour to; season. flavourless adj. Flavoursome adj. [french]
Flavouring n. (us flavoring) substance used to flavour food or drink.
Flavour of the month n. (also flavour of the week) temporary trend or fashion.
Flax n. 1 blue-flowered plant cultivated for its textile fibre and its seeds. 2 flax fibres. [old english]
Flaxen adj. 1 of flax. 2 (of hair) pale yellow.
Flax-seed n. Linseed.
Flay v. 1 strip the skin or hide off, esp. By beating. 2 criticize severely. 3 peel off (skin, bark, peel, etc.). 4 extort money etc. From. [old english]
Flea n. Small wingless jumping parasitic insect. a flea in one’s ear sharp reproof. [old english]
Fleabag n. Slang shabby or unattractive person or thing.
Flea-bite n. 1 bite of a flea. 2 trivial injury or inconvenience.
Flea-bitten adj. 1 bitten by or infested with fleas. 2 shabby.
Flea market n. Street market selling second-hand goods etc.
Flea-pit n. Dingy dirty cinema etc.
Fleck —n. 1 small patch of colour or light. 2 particle, speck. —v. Mark with flecks. [old norse, or low german or dutch]
Flection n. (brit. Flexion) 1 bending or being bent, esp. Of a limb or joint. 2 bent part; curve. [latin flexio: related to *flex1]
Fled past and past part. Of *flee.
Fledge v. (-ging) 1 provide or deck (an arrow etc.) With feathers. 2 bring up (a young bird) until it can fly. 3 (as fledged adj.) A able to fly. B independent; mature. [obsolete adj. Fledge fit to fly]
Fledgling n. (also fledgeling) 1 young bird. 2 inexperienced person.
Flee v. (past and past part. Fled) 1 (often foll. By from, before) a run away (from); leave abruptly (fled the room). B seek safety by fleeing. 2 vanish. [old english]
Fleece —n. 1 a woolly coat of a sheep etc. B wool sheared from a sheep at one time. 2 thing resembling a fleece, esp. Soft fabric for lining etc. —v. (-cing) 1 (often foll. By of) strip of money, valuables, etc.; swindle. 2 shear (sheep etc.). 3 cover as if with a fleece (sky fleeced with clouds). fleecy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Fleet —n. 1 a warships under one commander-in-chief. B (prec. By the) nation’s warships etc.; navy. 2 number of vehicles in one company etc. —adj. Poet. Literary swift, nimble. [old english]
Fleeting adj. Transitory; brief. fleetingly adv.
Fleming n. 1 native of medieval flanders. 2 member of a flemish-speaking people of n. And w. Belgium. [old english]
Flemish —adj. Of flanders. —n. Language of the flemings. [dutch]
Flesh n. 1 a soft, esp. Muscular, substance between the skin and bones of an animal or a human. B plumpness; fat. 2 the body, esp. As sinful. 3 pulpy substance of a fruit etc. 4 a visible surface of the human body. B (also flesh-
colour) yellowish pink colour. 5 animal or human life. all flesh all animate creation. Flesh out make or become substantial. In the flesh in person. One’s own flesh and blood near relatives. [old english]
Flesh and blood —n. 1 the body or its substance. 2 humankind. 3 human nature, esp. As fallible. —adj. Real, not imaginary.
Fleshy adj. (-ier, -iest) of flesh; plump, pulpy. fleshiness n.
Fleur-de-lis n. (also fleur-de-lys) (pl. Fleurs-pronunc. Same) 1 iris flower. 2 heraldry a lily of three petals. B former royal arms of france. [french, = flower of lily]
Flew past of *fly1.
Flews n.pl. Hanging lips of a bloodhound etc. [origin unknown]
Flex1 v. 1 bend (a joint, limb, etc.) Or be bent. 2 move (a muscle) or (of a
Flex1 v. 1 bend (a joint, limb, etc.) Or be bent. 2 move (a muscle) or (of a muscle) be moved to bend a joint. [latin flecto flex-bend]
Flex2 n. Flexible insulated electric cable. [abbreviation of *flexible]
Flexible adj. 1 capable of bending without breaking; pliable. 2 manageable. 3 adaptable; variable (works flexible hours). flexibility n. Flexibly adv. [latin flexibilis: related to *flex1]
Flexion n. (us flection) 1 bending or being bent, esp. Of a limb or joint. 2 bent part; curve. [latin flexio: related to *flex1]
Flexitime n. System of flexible working hours. [from *flexible]
Flibbertigibbet n. Gossiping, frivolous, or restless person. [imitative]
Flick —n. 1 a light sharp blow with a whip etc. B sudden release of a bent digit, esp. To propel a small object. 2 sudden movement or jerk, esp. Of the wrist in throwing etc. 3 colloq. A cinema film. B (in pl.; prec. By the) the cinema. —v. 1 (often foll. By away, off) strike or move with a flick (flicked the ash off). 2 give a flick with (a whip etc.). flick through 1 turn over (cards, pages, etc.). 2 a turn over the pages etc. Of, by a rapid movement of the fingers. B glance through (a book etc.). [imitative]
Flicker —v. 1 (of light or flame) shine or burn unsteadily. 2 flutter. 3 (of hope etc.) Waver. —n. 1 flickering movement or light. 2 brief spell (of hope etc.). flicker out die away. [old english]
Flick-knife n. Knife with a blade that springs out when a button is pressed.
Flier var. Of *flyer.
Flight1 n. 1 a act or manner of flying. B movement or passage through the air. 2 a journey through the air or in space. B timetabled airline journey. 3 flock of birds, insects, etc. 4 (usu. Foll. By of) series, esp. Of stairs. 5 imaginative excursion or sally (flight of fancy). 6 (usu. Foll. By of) volley (flight of arrows). 7 tail of a dart. [old english: related to *fly1]
Flight2 n. Fleeing, hasty retreat. put to flight cause to flee. Take (or take to) flight flee. [old english]
Flight bag n. Small zipped shoulder bag for air travel.
Flight-deck n. 1 deck of an aircraft-carrier. 2 control room of a large aircraft.
Flightless adj. (of a bird etc.) Unable to fly.
Flight lieutenant n. Raf officer next below squadron leader.
Flight path n. Planned course of an aircraft etc.
Flight-recorder n. Device in an aircraft recording technical details of a flight.
Flight-recorder n. Device in an aircraft recording technical details of a flight.
Flight sergeant n. Raf rank next above sergeant.
Flighty adj. (-ier, -iest) (usu. Of a girl) frivolous, fickle, changeable. flightiness n.
Flinch v. Draw back in fear etc.; wince. [french from germanic]
Fling —v. (past and past part. Flung) 1 throw or hurl forcefully or hurriedly. 2 (foll. By on, off) put on or take off (clothes) carelessly or rapidly. 3 put or send suddenly or violently (was flung into jail). 4 rush, esp. Angrily (flung out of the room). 5 (foll. By away) discard rashly. —n. 1 act of flinging; throw. 2 bout of wild behaviour. 3 whirling scottish dance, esp. The highland fling. [old norse]
Flint n. 1 a hard grey siliceous stone. B piece of this, esp. As a primitive tool or weapon. 2 piece of hard alloy used to give a spark. 3 anything hard and unyielding. flinty adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Flintlock n. Hist. Old type of gun fired by a spark from a flint.
Flip1 —v. (-pp-) 1 flick or toss (a coin, pellet, etc.) So that it spins in the air. 2
turn (a small object) over; flick. 3 slang = flip one’s lid. —n. 1 act of flipping. 2 colloq. Short trip. —adj. Colloq. Glib; flippant. flip one’s lid slang lose self-control; go mad. Flip through = flick through. [probably from *fillip]
Flip2 n. 1 = egg-flip. 2 drink of heated beer and spirit. [perhaps from flip1]
Flip chart n. Large pad of paper on a stand.
Flip-flop n. (usu. Rubber) sandal with a thong between the toes. [imitative]
Flipper n. 1 broad flat limb of a turtle, penguin, etc., used in swimming. 2 similar rubber foot attachment for underwater swimming. 3 slang hand.
Flipping adj. & adv. Slang expressing annoyance, or as an intensifier.
Flip side n. Colloq. 1 reverse side of a gramophone record. 2 reverse or less important side of something.
Flirt —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By with) try to attract sexually but without serious intent. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) superficially engage in; trifle. —n. Person who flirts. flirtation n. Flirtatious adj. Flirtatiously adv. Flirtatiousness n. [imitative]
Flit —v. (-tt-) 1 move lightly, softly, or rapidly. 2 make short flights. 3 colloq. Disappear secretly to escape creditors etc. —n. Act of flitting. [old norse: related to *fleet]
Flitch n. Side of bacon. [old english]
Flitter v. Flit about; flutter. [from *flit]
Flitter-mouse n. = *bat2.
Float —v. 1 a (cause to) rest or move on the surface of a liquid. B set (a stranded ship) afloat. 2 colloq. A move in a leisurely way. B (often foll. By before) hover before the eye or mind. 3 (often foll. By in) move or be suspended freely in a liquid or gas. 4 a start or launch (a company, scheme, etc.). B offer (stock, shares, etc.) On the stock market. 5 commerce cause or allow to have a fluctuating exchange rate. 6 circulate or cause (a rumour or idea) to circulate. — n. 1 thing that floats, esp.: a a raft. B a light object as an indicator of a fish biting or supporting a fishing-net. C a hollow structure enabling an aircraft to float on water. D a floating device on water, petrol, etc., controlling the level. 2 small esp. Electrically-powered vehicle or cart (milk float). 3 decorated platform or tableau on a lorry in a procession etc. 4 a supply of loose change in a shop, at a fête, etc. B petty cash. 5 theatr. (in sing. Or pl.) Footlights. 6 tool for smoothing plaster. floatable adj. [old english]
Floatation var. Of *flotation.
Floating adj. Not settled; variable (floating population).
Floating dock n. Floating structure usable as a dry dock.
Floating kidney n. Abnormally movable kidney.
Floating rib n. Lower rib not attached to the breastbone.
Floating voter n. Voter without fixed allegiance.
Floaty adj. (esp. Of fabric) light and airy. [from *float]
Flocculent adj. Like or in tufts of wool etc.; downy. flocculence n. [related to *flock2]
Flock1 —n. 1 animals of one kind as a group or unit. 2 large crowd of people. 3 people in the care of a priest or teacher etc. —v. (usu. Foll. By to, in, out, together) congregate; mass; troop. [old english]
Flock2 n. 1 lock or tuft of wool, cotton, etc. 2 (also in pl.; often attrib.) Wool-refuse etc. Used for quilting and stuffing. [latin floccus]
Flock-paper n. (also flock-wallpaper) wallpaper with a raised flock pattern.
Floe n. Sheet of floating ice. [norwegian]
Flog v. (-gg-) 1 a beat with a whip, stick, etc. B make work through violent effort (flogged the engine). 2 (often foll. By off) slang sell. flog a dead horse waste one’s efforts. Flog to death colloq. Talk about or promote at tedious length. [origin unknown]
Flood —n. 1 a overflowing or influx of water, esp. Over land; inundation. B the water that overflows. 2 outpouring; torrent (flood of tears). 3 inflow of the tide (also in comb.: flood-tide).
Floodgate n. 1 gate for admitting or excluding water, esp. In a lock. 2 (usu. In pl.) Last restraint against tears, rain, anger, etc.
Floodlight —n. Large powerful light (usu. One of several) to illuminate a building, sports ground, etc. —v. Illuminate with floodlights. floodlit adj.
Flood-tide n. Exceptionally high tide caused esp. By the moon.
Floor —n. 1 lower supporting surface of a room. 2 a bottom of the sea, a cave, etc. B any level area. 3 all the rooms etc. On one level of a building; storey. 4 a(in a legislative assembly) place where members sit and speak. B right to speak next in a debate (gave him the floor). 5 minimum of prices, wages, etc. 6 colloq. Ground. —v. 1 provide with a floor; pave. 2 knock or bring (a person) down. 3 colloq. Confound, baffle. 4 colloq. Overcome. 5 serve as the floor of (lino floored the hall). from the floor (of a speech etc.) Given by a member of the audience. Take the floor 1 begin to dance. 2 speak in a debate. [old english]
Floorboard n. Long wooden board used for flooring.
Floorcloth n. Cloth for washing the floor.
Flooring n. Material of which a floor is made.
Floor manager n. Stage-manager of a television production.
Floor plan n. Diagram of the rooms etc. On one storey.
Floor show n. Nightclub entertainment.
Floozie n. (also floozy) (pl. -ies) colloq. Esp. Disreputable girl or woman. [origin unknown]
Flop —v. (-pp-) 1 sway about heavily or loosely. 2 (often foll. By down, on, into) fall or sit etc. Awkwardly or suddenly. 3 slang fail; collapse (play flopped). 4 make a dull soft thud or splash. —n. 1 flopping movement or sound. 2 slang failure. —adv. With a flop. [var. Of *flap]
Floppy —adj. (-ier, -iest) tending to flop; flaccid. —n. (pl. -ies) (in full floppy disk) computing flexible disc for the storage of data. floppiness n.
Flora n. (pl. -s or florae) 1 plant life of a region or period. 2 list or book of these.
Florentine —adj. Of florence in italy. —n. Native or citizen of florence. [latin]
Floret n. 1 each of the small flowers making up a composite flower-head. 2 each stem of a head of cauliflower, broccoli, etc. 3 small flower. [latin flos *flower]
Floribunda n. Plant, esp. A rose, bearing dense clusters of flowers. [related to *floret: cf. *moribund]
Florid adj. 1 ruddy (florid complexion). 2 elaborately ornate; showy. floridly adv. Floridness n. [latin: related to *flower]
Florin n. Hist. 1 british two-shilling coin now worth 10 pence. 2 english or foreign gold or silver coin. [italian fiorino: related to *florist]
Florist n. Person who deals in or grows flowers. [latin flos *flower]
Floruit —v. Flourished; lived and worked (of a painter, writer, etc., whose exact dates are unknown). —n. Period or date of working etc. [latin, = he or she flourished]
Floss —n. 1 rough silk of a silkworm’s cocoon. 2 silk thread used in embroidery. 3 = *dental floss. —v. (also absol.) Clean (teeth) with dental floss. flossy adj. [french floche]
Flotation n. (also floatation) launching or financing of a commercial enterprise etc. [from *float]
Flotilla n. 1 small fleet. 2 fleet of small ships. [spanish]
Flotsam n. Wreckage found floating. [anglo-french: related to *float]
Flotsam and jetsam n. 1 odds and ends. 2 vagrants.
Flounce1 —v. (-cing) (often foll. By away, about, off, out) go or move angrily or impatiently (flounced out in a huff). —n. Flouncing movement. [origin unknown]
Flounce2 —n. Frill on a dress, skirt, etc. —v. (-cing) trim with flounces. [alteration of frounce pleat, from french]
Flounder1 —v. 1 struggle helplessly as if wading in mud. 2 do a task clumsily. —n. Act of floundering. [imitative]
Flounder2 n. (pl. Same) 1 edible european flat-fish. 2 n. American flat-fish. [anglo-french, probably scandinavian]
Flour —n. 1 meal or powder from ground wheat etc. 2 any fine powder. —v. Sprinkle with flour. floury adj. (-ier, -iest). Flouriness n. [different spelling of *flower ‘best part’]
Flourish —v. 1 a grow vigorously; thrive. B prosper. C be in one’s prime. 2 wave, brandish. —n. 1 showy gesture. 2 ornamental curve in handwriting. 3 mus. Ornate passage or fanfare. [latin floreo from flos *flower]
Flout —v. Disobey (the law etc.) Contemptuously; mock; insult. —n. Flouting speech or act. [dutch fluiten whistle: related to *flute]
Usage flout is often confused with flaunt which means ‘to display proudly, show off’.
Flow —v. 1 glide along as a stream. 2 (of liquid, blood, etc.) Gush out; be spilt. 3 (of blood, money, electric current, etc.) Circulate. 4 move smoothly or steadily. 5 (of a garment, hair, etc.) Hang gracefully. 6 (often foll. By from) be caused by. 7 (esp. Of the tide) be in flood. 8 (of wine) be plentiful. 9 (foll. By with) archaic be plentifully supplied with (flowing with milk and honey). —n. 1 a flowing movement or mass. B flowing liquid (stop the flow). C outpouring; stream (flow of complaints). 2 rise of a tide or river (ebb and flow). [old english]
Flow chart n. (also flow diagram or flow sheet) diagram of the movement or action in a complex activity.
Flower —n. 1 part of a plant from which the fruit or seed is developed. 2 blossom, esp. Used for decoration. 3 plant cultivated for its flowers. —v. 1 bloom or cause (a plant) to bloom; blossom. 2 reach a peak. the flower of the best of. In flower blooming. flowered adj. [latin flos flor-]
Flower-bed n. Garden bed for flowers.
Flower-head n. = *head n. 3 c.
Flower people n. Hippies with flowers as symbols of peace and love.
Flowerpot n. Pot for growing a plant in.
Flower power n. Peace and love, esp. As a political idea.
Flowers of sulphur n. Fine powder produced when sulphur evaporates and condenses.
Flowery adj. 1 florally decorated. 2 (of style, speech, etc.) High-flown; ornate. 3 full of flowers. floweriness n.
Fluctuate v. (-ting) vary irregularly; rise and fall. fluctuation n. [latin fluctus wave]
Flue n. 1 smokeduct in a chimney. 2 channel for conveying heat. [origin unknown]
Fluent adj. 1 (of speech, style, etc.) Flowing, natural. 2 verbally facile, esp. In a foreign language (fluent in german). fluency n. Fluently adv. [latin fluo flow]
Fluff —n. 1 soft fur, feathers, or fabric particles etc. 2 slang mistake in a performance etc. —v. 1 (often foll. By up) shake into or become a soft mass. 2 colloq. Make a fluff; bungle. bit of fluff slang offens. Attractive woman. fluffy adj. (-ier, -iest). Fluffiness n. [probably dial. Alteration of flue fluff]
Flugelhorn n. Valved brass wind instrument like a cornet. [german flügel wing, horn horn]
Fluid —n. 1 substance, esp. A gas or liquid, whose shape is determined by its confines. 2 fluid part or secretion. —adj. 1 able to flow and alter shape freely. 2 constantly changing (situation is fluid).
Fluid ounce n. One-twentieth, or us one-sixteenth, of a pint.
Fluke1 —n. Lucky accident (won by a fluke). —v. (-king) achieve by a fluke. fluky adj. (-ier, -iest). [origin uncertain]
Fluke2 n. 1 parasitic flatworm, e.g. The liver fluke. 2 flat-fish, esp. A flounder. [old english]
Fluke3 n. 1 broad triangular plate on an anchor arm. 2 lobe of a whale’s tail. [perhaps from *fluke2]
Flummery n. (pl. -ies) 1 flattery; nonsense. 2 sweet dish made with beaten eggs, sugar, etc. [welsh llymru]
Flummox v. Colloq. Bewilder, disconcert. [origin unknown]
Flung past and past part. Of *fling.
Flunk v. Us colloq. Fail (esp. An exam). [origin unknown]
Flunkey n. (also flunky) (pl. -eys or -ies) usu. Derog. 1 liveried footman. 2 toady; snob. 3 us cook, waiter, etc. [origin uncertain]
Fluoresce v. (-scing) be or become fluorescent. [from *fluorescent]
Fluorescence n. 1 light radiation from certain substances. 2 property of absorbing invisible light and emitting visible light. [from *fluorspar, after opalescence]
Fluorescent adj. Of, having, or showing fluorescence.
Fluorescent lamp n. (also fluorescent bulb) esp. Tubular lamp or bulb radiating largely by fluorescence.
Fluoridate v. (-ting) add fluoride to (drinking-water etc.), esp. To prevent tooth decay. fluoridation n.
Fluoride n. Binary compound of fluorine.
Fluorinate v. (-ting) 1 = *fluoridate. 2 introduce fluorine into (a compound).
fluorination n.
Fluorine n. Poisonous pale-yellow gaseous element. [french: related to *fluorspar]
Fluorite n. Mineral form of calcium fluoride. [italian: related to *fluorspar]
Fluorocarbon n. Compound of a hydrocarbon with fluorine atoms.
Fluorspar n. = *fluorite. [fluor a mineral used as flux, from latin fluo flow]
Flurry —n. (pl. -ies) 1 gust or squall (of snow, rain, etc.). 2 sudden burst of activity, excitement, etc.; commotion. —v. (-ies, -ied) confuse; agitate. [imitative]
Flush1 —v. 1 blush, redden, glow warmly (he flushed with embarrassment). 2 (usu. As flushed adj.) Cause to glow or blush (often foll. By with: he was flushed with pride). 3 a cleanse (a drain, lavatory, etc.) By a flow of water. B (often foll. By away, down) dispose of in this way. 4 rush out, spurt. —n. 1 blush or glow. 2 a rush of water. B cleansing of a drain, lavatory, etc. Thus. 3 rush of esp. Elation or triumph. 4 freshness; vigour. 5 a (also hot flush) sudden feeling of heat during menopause. B feverish redness or temperature etc. —adj. 1 level, in the same plane. 2 colloq. Having plenty of money. [perhaps = *flush3]
Flush2 n. Hand of cards all of one suit, esp. In poker. [latin fluxus *flux]
Flush3 v. 1 cause (esp. A game-bird) to fly up. 2 (of a bird) fly up and away. flush out 1 reveal. 2 drive out. [imitative]
Fluster —v. 1 make or become nervous or confused (he flusters easily). 2 bustle. —n. Confused or agitated state. [origin unknown]
Flute —n. 1 a high-pitched woodwind instrument held sideways. B any similar wind instrument. 2 ornamental vertical groove in a column. —v. (-ting) 1 play, or play (a tune etc.) On, the flute. 2 speak or sing etc. In a high voice. 3 make grooves in. fluting n. Fluty adj. (in sense 1a of n.). [french]
Flutter —v. 1 flap (the wings) in flying or trying to fly. 2 fall quiveringly (fluttered to the ground). 3 wave or flap quickly. 4 move about restlessly. 5 (of a pulse etc.) Beat feebly or irregularly. —n. 1 act of fluttering. 2 tremulous
excitement (caused a flutter). 3 slang small bet, esp. On a horse. 4 abnormally rapid heartbeat. 5 rapid variation of pitch, esp. Of recorded sound. [old english]
Fluvial adj. Of or found in rivers. [latin fluvius river]
Flux n. 1 process of flowing or flowing out. 2 discharge. 3 continuous change (state of flux). 4 substance mixed with a metal etc. To aid fusion. [latin fluxus from fluo flux-flow]
Fly1 —v. (flies; past flew; past part. Flown) 1 a (of an aircraft, bird, etc.) Move through the air or space under control, esp. With wings. B travel through the air or space. 2 control the flight of or transport in (esp. An aircraft). 3 a cause to fly or remain aloft. B (of a flag, hair, etc.) Wave or flutter. 4 pass, move, or rise quickly. 5 a flee; flee from. B colloq. Depart hastily. 6 be driven, forced, or scattered (sent me flying). 7 (foll. By at, upon) a hasten or spring violently. B attack or criticize fiercely. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 (usu. In pl.) A concealing flap, esp. Over a trouser-fastening. B this fastening. 2 flap at a tent entrance. 3 (in pl.) Space above a stage where scenery and lighting are suspended. 4 act of flying. fly high be ambitious; prosper. Fly in the face of disregard or disobey. Fly a kite test opinion. Fly off the handle colloq. Lose one’s temper. [old english]
Fly2 n. (pl. Flies) 1 insect with two usu. Transparent wings. 2 other winged insect, e.g. A firefly. 3 disease of plants or animals caused by flies. 4 (esp. Artificial) fly as bait in fishing. like flies in large numbers (usu. Of people dying etc.). No flies on (him etc.) Colloq. (he is) very astute. [old english]
Flycatcher n. Bird catching insects during short flights from a chosen perch.
Flyer n. (also flier) colloq. 1 airman or airwoman. 2 thing that flies in a specified way (poor flyer). 3 fast-moving animal or vehicle. 4 ambitious or outstanding person. 5 small handbill.
Fly-fish v. Fish with a fly.
Fly-half n. Rugby stand-off half.
Flying —adj. 1 fluttering, waving, or hanging loose. 2 hasty, brief (flying visit). 3 designed for rapid movement. 4 (of an animal) leaping with winglike membranes etc. —n. Flight, esp. In an aircraft. with flying colours with distinction.
Flying boat n. Boatlike seaplane.
Flying buttress n. (usu. Arched) buttress running from the upper part of a wall to an outer support and transmitting the thrust of the roof or vault.
Flying doctor n. Doctor who uses an aircraft to visit patients.
Flying fish n. Tropical fish with winglike fins for gliding through the air.
Flying fox n. Fruit-eating bat with a foxlike head.
Flying officer n. Raf rank next below flight lieutenant.
Flying picket n. Mobile industrial strike picket.
Flying saucer n. Supposed alien spaceship.
Flying squad n. Rapidly mobile police detachment etc.
Flying start n. 1 start (of a race etc.) In which the starting-point is crossed at full speed. 2 vigorous start (of an enterprise etc.).
Fly in the ointment n. Minor irritation or setback.
Flyleaf n. Blank leaf at the beginning or end of a book.
Fly on the wall n. Unnoticed observer.
Flyover n. Bridge carrying one road or railway over another.
Fly-paper n. Sticky treated paper for catching flies.
Fly-past n. Ceremonial flight of aircraft.
Fly-post v. Fix (posters etc.) Illegally on walls etc.
Flysheet n. 1 canvas cover over a tent for extra protection. 2 short tract or circular.
Fly-tip v. Illegally dump (waste). fly-tipper n.
Fly-trap n. Plant that catches flies.
Flyweight n. 1 weight in certain sports between light flyweight and bantamweight, in amateur boxing 48–51 kg. 2 sportsman of this weight.
Flywheel n. Heavy wheel on a revolving shaft to regulate machinery or accumulate power.
accumulate power.
Fm abbr. 1 field marshal. 2 frequency modulation.
Fm symb. Fermium.
F-number n. Ratio of the focal length to the effective diameter of a camera lens. [from focal]
Fo abbr. Flying officer.
Foal —n. Young of a horse or related animal. —v. Give birth to (a foal). in (or with) foal (of a mare etc.) Pregnant. [old english]
Foam —n. 1 mass of small bubbles formed on or in liquid by agitation, fermentation, etc. 2 froth of saliva or sweat. 3 substance resembling these, e.g. Spongy rubber or plastic. —v. Emit or run with foam; froth. foam at the mouth be very angry. foamy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Fob1 n. 1 chain of a pocket-watch. 2 small pocket for a watch etc. 3 tab on a key-ring. [german]
Fob2 v. (-bb-) fob off 1 (often foll. By with a thing) deceive into accepting something inferior. 2 (often foll. By on or on to a person) offload (an unwanted thing). [cf. Obsolete fop dupe]
Focal adj. Of or at a focus. [latin: related to *focus]
Focal distance n. (also focal length) distance between the centre of a mirror or lens and its focus.
Focal point n. 1 = *focus n. 1. 2 centre of interest or activity.
Fo’c’s’le var. Of *forecastle.
Focus —n. (pl. Focuses or foci) 1 a point at which rays or waves meet after reflection or refraction. B point from which rays etc. Appear to proceed. 2 a point at which an object must be situated for a lens or mirror to give a well-defined image. B adjustment of the eye or a lens to give a clear image. C state of clear definition (out of focus). 3 = *focal point 2. —v. (-s-or -ss-) 1 bring into focus. 2 adjust the focus of (a lens or eye). 3 concentrate or be concentrated on. 4 converge or make converge to a focus. [latin, = hearth]
Fodder n. Dried hay or straw etc. As animal food. [old english]
Foe abbr. Friends of the earth.
Foe n. Esp. Poet. Enemy. [old english]
Foetid var. Of *fetid.
Foetus n. (us fetus) (pl. -tuses) unborn mammalian offspring, esp. A human embryo of eight weeks or more. foetal adj. [latin fetus offspring]
Fog —n. 1 thick cloud of water droplets or smoke suspended at or near the earth’s surface. 2 cloudiness on a photographic negative etc. 3 uncertain or confused position or state. —v. (-gg-) 1 cover or become covered with or as with fog. 2 perplex. [perhaps a back-formation from *foggy]
Fog-bank n. Mass of fog at sea.
Fog-bound adj. Unable to travel because of fog.
Fogey var. Of *fogy.
Foggy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 full of fog. 2 of or like fog. 3 vague, indistinct. not have the foggiest colloq. Have no idea at all. fogginess n. [perhaps from fog long grass]
Foghorn n. 1 horn warning ships in fog. 2 colloq. Loud penetrating voice.
Fog-lamp n. Powerful lamp for use in fog.
Fogy n. (also fogey) (pl. -ies or -eys) dull old-fashioned person (esp. Old fogy). [origin unknown]
[origin unknown]
Foible n. Minor weakness or idiosyncrasy. [french: related to *feeble]
Foil1 v. Frustrate, baffle, defeat. [perhaps from french fouler trample]
Foil2 n. 1 metal rolled into a very thin sheet. 2 person or thing setting off another to advantage. [latin folium leaf]
Foil3 n. Light blunt fencing sword. [origin unknown]
Foist v. (foll. By on) force (a thing or oneself) on to an unwilling person. [dutch vuisten take in the hand]
Fold1 —v. 1 a bend or close (a flexible thing) over upon itself. B (foll. By back, over, down) bend part of (a thing) (fold down the flap). 2 become or be able to be folded. 3 (foll. By away, up) make compact by folding. 4 (often foll. By up) colloq. Collapse, cease to function. 5 enfold (esp. Fold in the arms or to the breast). 6 (foll. By about, round) clasp (the arms). 7 (foll. By in) mix (an ingredient with others) gently. —n. 1 folding. 2 line made by folding. 3 folded part. 4 hollow among hills. 5 curvature of geological strata.
Fold2 —n. 1 = *sheepfold. 2 religious group or congregation. —v. Enclose (sheep) in a fold. [old english]
-fold suffix forming adjectives and adverbs from cardinal numbers, meaning: 1 in an amount multiplied by (repaid tenfold). 2 with so many parts (threefold blessing). [originally = ‘folded in so many layers’]
blessing). [originally = ‘folded in so many layers’]
Folder n. Folding cover or holder for loose papers.
Foliaceous adj. 1 of or like leaves. 2 laminated. [latin: related to *foil2]
Foliage n. Leaves, leafage. [french feuillage from feuille leaf]
Foliar adj. Of leaves. [as *foliate]
Foliar feed n. Fertilizer supplied to the leaves of plants.
Foliate —adj. 1 leaflike. 2 having leaves. —v. (-ting) split or beat into thin layers. foliation n. [latin folium leaf]
Folio —n. (pl. -s) 1 leaf of paper etc., esp. Numbered only on the front. 2 sheet of paper folded once making two leaves of a book. 3 book of such sheets. —adj. (of a book) made of folios, of the largest size. in folio made of folios. [latin, ablative of folium leaf]
Folk n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 (treated as pl.) People in general or of a specified class (few folk about; townsfolk). 2 (in pl.) (usu. Folks) one’s parents or relatives. 3 (treated as sing.) A people or nation. 4 (in full folk-music) (treated as sing.) Colloq. Traditional music or modern music in this style. 5 (attrib.) Of popular origin (folk art). [old english]
Folk-dance n. Dance of popular origin.
Folklore n. Traditional beliefs and stories of a people; the study of these.
Folk-singer n. Singer of folk-songs.
Folk-song n. Song of popular or traditional origin or style.
Folksy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like folk art, culture, etc. 2 friendly, unpretentious.
folksiness n.
Folk-tale n. Traditional story.
Folkweave n. Rough loosely woven fabric.
Follicle n. Small sac or vesicle in the body, esp. One containing a hair-root. follicular adj. [latin diminutive of follis bellows]
Follow v. 1 (often foll. By after) go or come after (a person or thing ahead). 2 go along (a road etc.). 3 come after in order or time (dessert followed; proceed as follows). 4 take as a guide or leader. 5 conform to. 6 practise (a trade or profession). 7 undertake (a course of study etc.). 8 understand (a speaker, argument, etc.). 9 take an interest in (current affairs etc.). 10 (foll. By with) provide with a sequel or successor. 11 happen after something else; ensue. 12 a
provide with a sequel or successor. 11 happen after something else; ensue. 12 a be necessarily true as a consequence. B (foll. By from) result. follow on 1 continue. 2 (of a cricket team) have to bat twice in succession. Follow out carry out (instructions etc.). Follow suit 1 play a card of the suit led. 2 conform to another’s actions. Follow through 1 continue to a conclusion. 2 continue the movement of a stroke after hitting the ball. Follow up (foll. By with) 1 develop, supplement. 2 investigate further. [old english]
Follower n. 1 supporter or devotee. 2 person who follows.
Following —prep. After in time; as a sequel to. —n. Supporters or devotees. — adj. That follows or comes after. the following 1 what follows. 2 now to be given or named (answer the following).
Follow-on n. Cricket instance of following on.
Follow-through n. Action of following through.
Follow-up n. Subsequent or continued action.
Folly n. (pl. -ies) 1 foolishness. 2 foolish act, behaviour, idea, etc. 3 fanciful ornamental building created for display. [french folie from fol mad, *fool1]
Foment v. Instigate or stir up (trouble, discontent, etc.). fomentation n. [latin foveo heat, cherish]
Fond adj. 1 (foll. By of) liking. 2 a affectionate. B doting. 3 (of beliefs etc.) Foolishly optimistic or credulous. fondly adv. Fondness n. [obsolete fon fool, be
Foolishly optimistic or credulous. fondly adv. Fondness n. [obsolete fon fool, be foolish]
Fondant n. Soft sugary sweet. [french = melting: related to *fuse1]
Fondle v. (-ling) caress. [related to *fond]
Fondue n. Dish of melted cheese. [french, = melted: related to *fuse1]
Font1 n. Receptacle in a church for baptismal water. [latin fons font-fountain]
Font2 var. Of *fount2.
Fontanel n. (brit. Fontanelle) membranous space in an infant’s skull at the angles of the parietal bones. [latin fontanella little *fountain]
Fontanelle n. (us fontanel) membranous space in an infant’s skull at the angles of the parietal bones. [latin fontanella little *fountain]
Food n. 1 a substance taken in to maintain life and growth. B solid food (food and drink). 2 mental stimulus (food for thought). [old english]
Food additive n. Substance added to food to colour or flavour it etc.
Food-chain n. Series of organisms each dependent on the next for food.
Foodie n. Colloq. Person who makes a cult of food; gourmet.
Food poisoning n. Illness due to bacteria etc. In food.
Food processor n. Machine for chopping and mixing food.
Foodstuff n. Substance used as food.
Food value n. Nourishing power of a food.
Fool1 —n. 1 rash, unwise, or stupid person. 2 hist. Jester; clown. 3 dupe. —v. 1 deceive. 2 (foll. By into or out of) trick; cheat. 3 joke or tease. 4 (foll. By about, around) play or trifle. act (or play) the fool behave in a silly way. Be no (or nobody’s) fool be shrewd or prudent. Make a fool of make (a person or oneself) look foolish; trick, deceive. [latin follis bellows]
Fool2 n. Dessert of fruit purée with cream or custard. [perhaps from *fool1]
Foolish adj. Lacking good sense or judgement; unwise. foolishly adv.
Foolishness n.
Foolproof adj. (of a procedure, mechanism, etc.) Incapable of misuse or mistake.
Foolscap n. Large size of paper, about 330 x 200 (or 400) mm. [from a watermark of a fool’s cap]
Fool’s paradise n. Illusory happiness.
Foot —n. (pl. Feet) 1 a part of the leg below the ankle. B part of a sock etc. Covering this. 2 a lowest part of a page, stairs, etc. B end of a bed where the feet rest. C part of a chair, appliance, etc. On which it rests. 3 step, pace, or tread (fleet of foot). 4 (pl. Feet or foot) linear measure of 12 inches (30.48 cm). 5 metrical unit of verse forming part of a line. 6 hist. Infantry. —v. 1 pay (a bill). 2 (usu. As foot it) go or traverse on foot. feet of clay fundamental weakness in a respected person. Have one’s (or both) feet on the ground be practical. Have one foot in the grave be near death or very old. My foot! Int. Expressing strong contradiction. On foot walking. Put one’s feet up colloq. Take a rest. Put one’s foot down colloq. 1 insist firmly. 2 accelerate a vehicle. Put one’s foot in it colloq. Make a tactless blunder. Under one’s feet in the way. Under foot on the ground. footless adj. [old english]
Footage n. 1 a length of tv or cinema film etc. 2 length in feet.
Foot-and-mouth disease n. Contagious viral disease of cattle etc.
Football n. 1 large inflated ball of leather or plastic. 2 outdoor team game played with this. footballer n.
Football pool n. (also football pools pl.) Large-scale organized gambling on the results of football matches.
Footbrake n. Foot-operated brake on a vehicle.
Footbridge n. Bridge for pedestrians.
Footfall n. Sound of a footstep.
Foot-fault n. (in tennis) placing of the foot over the baseline while serving.
Foothill n. Any of the low hills at the base of a mountain or range.
Foothold n. 1 secure place for a foot when climbing etc. 2 secure initial position.
Footing n. 1 foothold; secure position (lost his footing). 2 operational basis. 3 relative position or status (on an equal footing). 4 (often in pl.) Foundations of a wall.
Footle v. (-ling) (usu. Foll. By about) colloq. Potter or fiddle about. [origin uncertain]
Footlights n.pl. Row of floor-level lights at the front of a stage.
Footling adj. Colloq. Trivial, silly.
Footloose adj. Free to act as one pleases.
Footman n. Liveried servant.
Footmark n. Footprint.
Footnote n. Note printed at the foot of a page.
Footpad n. Hist. Unmounted highwayman.
Footpath n. Path for pedestrians; pavement.
Footplate n. Platform for the crew in a locomotive.
Footprint n. Impression left by a foot or shoe.
Footrest n. Stool, rail, etc. For the feet.
Footsie n. = *ft-se. [respelling of *ft-se]
Footsie n. Colloq. Amorous play with the feet.
Footsore adj. With sore feet, esp. From walking.
Footstep n. 1 step taken in walking. 2 sound of this. follow in a person’s footsteps do as another did before.
Footstool n. Stool for resting the feet on when sitting.
Footway n. Path for pedestrians.
Footwear n. Shoes, socks, etc.
Footwork n. Use or agility of the feet in sports, dancing, etc.
Fop n. Dandy. foppery n. Foppish adj. [perhaps from obsolete fop fool]
For —prep. 1 in the interest or to the benefit of; intended to go to (did it all for my country; these flowers are for you). 2 in defence, support, or favour of. 3 suitable or appropriate to (a dance for beginners; not for me to say). 4 in respect of or with reference to; regarding (usual for ties to be worn; ready for bed). 5 representing or in place of (mp for lincoln; here for my uncle). 6 in exchange with, at the price of, corresponding to (swapped it for a cake; give me £5 for it; bought it for £5; word for word). 7 as a consequence of (fined for speeding; decorated for bravery; here’s £5 for your trouble). 8 a with a view to; in the hope or quest of; in order to get (go for a walk; send for a doctor; did it for the money). B on account of (could not speak for laughing). 9 to reach; towards (left for rome). 10 so as to start promptly at (meet at seven for eight). 11 through or over (a distance or period); during (walked for miles). 12 as being (for the last time; i for one refuse). 13 in spite of; notwithstanding (for all your fine words). 14 considering or making due allowance in respect of (good for a beginner). — conj. Because, since, seeing that. be for it colloq. Be about to be punished etc. For all (that) in spite of, although. For ever for all time (cf. *forever). [old english reduced form of *fore]
For-prefix forming verbs etc. Meaning: 1 away, off (forget; forgive). 2 prohibition (forbid). 3 abstention or neglect (forgo; forsake). [old english]
Forage —n. 1 food for horses and cattle. 2 searching for food. —v. 1 search for food; rummage. 2 collect food from. 3 get by foraging. [germanic: related to *fodder]
Forage cap n. Infantry undress cap.
Forasmuch as conj. Archaic because, since. [from for as much]
Foray —n. Sudden attack; raid. —v. Make a foray. [french: related to *fodder]
Forbade (also forbad) past of *forbid.
Forbear1 v. (past forbore; past part. Forborne) formal abstain or desist (from) (could not forbear (from) speaking out; forbore to mention it). [old english: related to *bear1]
Forbear2 var. Of *forebear.
Forbearance n. Patient self-control; tolerance.
Forbid v. (forbidding; past forbade or forbad; past part. Forbidden) 1 (foll. By to
infin.) Order not (i forbid you to go). 2 refuse to allow (a thing, or a person to have a thing). 3 refuse a person entry to. god forbid! May it not happen! [old english: related to *bid]
Forbidden degrees n.pl. (also prohibited degrees) family relationship too close for marriage to be permitted.
Forbidden fruit n. Something desired esp. Because not allowed.
Force1 —n. 1 power; strength, impetus; intense effort. 2 coercion, compulsion. 3 a military strength. B organized body of soldiers, police, etc. 4 a moral, intellectual, or legal power, influence, or validity. B person etc. With such power (force for good). 5 effect; precise significance. 6 a influence tending to cause a change in the motion of a body. B intensity of this. —v. (-cing) 1 compel or coerce (a person) by force. 2 make a forcible entry into; break open by force. 3 drive or propel violently or against resistance. 4 make (a way) by force. 5 (foll. By on, upon) impose or press on (a person). 6 cause, produce, or attain by effort (forced a smile; forced an entry). 7 strain or increase to the utmost. 8 artificially hasten the growth of (a plant). 9 seek quick results from; accelerate (force the pace). force a person’s hand make a person act prematurely or unwillingly. Force the issue make an immediate decision necessary. In force 1 valid (laws now in force). 2 in great strength or numbers (attacked in force). [latin fortis strong]
Force2 n. N.engl. Waterfall. [old norse]
Forced labour n. Compulsory labour, esp. In prison.
Forced landing n. Emergency landing of an aircraft.
Forced march n. Long and vigorous march, esp. By troops.
Force-feed v. Force (esp. A prisoner) to take food.
Forceful adj. Vigorous, powerful, impressive. forcefully adv. Forcefulness n.
Force majeure n. 1 irresistible force. 2 unforeseeable circumstances excusing a person from the fulfilment of a contract. [french]
Forcemeat n. Minced seasoned meat for stuffing or garnish. [related to *farce]
Forceps n. (pl. Same) surgical pincers. [latin]
Forcible adj. Done by or involving force; forceful. forcibly adv. [french: related to *force1]
Ford —n. Shallow place where a river or stream may be crossed by wading, in a vehicle, etc. —v. Cross (water) at a ford. fordable adj. [old english]
Fore —adj. Situated in front. —n. Front part; bow of a ship. —int. (in golf) warning to a person in the path of a ball. to the fore in or into a conspicuous position. [old english]
Fore-prefix forming: 1 verbs meaning: a in front (foreshorten). B beforehand
(forewarn). 2 nouns meaning: a situated in front of (forecourt). B front part of (forehead). C of or near the bow of a ship (forecastle). D preceding (forerunner).
(forehead). C of or near the bow of a ship (forecastle). D preceding (forerunner).
Fore and aft —adv. At bow and stern; all over the ship. —adj. (fore-and-aft) (of a sail or rigging) lengthwise.
Forearm1 n. The arm from the elbow to the wrist or fingertips.
Forearm2 v. Arm beforehand, prepare.
Forebear n. (also forbear) (usu. In pl.) Ancestor. [from *fore, obsolete beer:
related to *be]
Forebode v. (-ding) 1 be an advance sign of, portend. 2 (often foll. By that) have a presentiment of (usu. Evil).
Foreboding n. Expectation of trouble.
Forecast —v. (past and past part. -cast or -casted) predict; estimate beforehand.
—n. Prediction, esp. Of weather. forecaster n.
Forecastle n. (also fo’c’s’le) forward part of a ship, formerly the living quarters.
Foreclose v. (-sing) 1 stop (a mortgage) from being redeemable. 2 repossess the mortgaged property of (a person) when a loan is not duly repaid. 3 exclude,
prevent. foreclosure n. [latin foris outside, *close2]
Forecourt n. 1 part of a filling-station with petrol pumps. 2 enclosed space in front of a building.
Forefather n. (usu. In pl.) Ancestor of a family or people.
Forefinger n. Finger next to the thumb.
Forefoot n. Front foot of an animal.
Forefront n. 1 leading position. 2 foremost part.
Forego var. Of *forgo.
Foregoing adj. Preceding; previously mentioned.
Foregone conclusion n. Easily predictable result.
Foreground n. 1 part of a view or picture nearest the observer. 2 most conspicuous position. [dutch: related to fore-, ground1]
Forehand n. 1 (in tennis etc.) Stroke played with the palm of the hand facing forward. 2 (attrib.) (also forehanded) of or made with a forehand.
forward. 2 (attrib.) (also forehanded) of or made with a forehand.
Forehead n. The part of the face above the eyebrows.
Foreign adj. 1 of, from, in, or characteristic of, a country or language other than one’s own. 2 dealing with other countries (foreign service). 3 of another district, society, etc. 4 (often foll. By to) unfamiliar, alien. 5 coming from outside (foreign body). foreignness n. [latin foris outside]
Foreign and commonwealth office n. British government department dealing with foreign affairs.
Foreigner n. Person born in or coming from another country.
Foreign legion n. Body of foreign volunteers in the (esp. French) army.
Foreign minister n. (also foreign secretary) government minister in charge of foreign affairs.
Foreign office n. Hist. Or informal = *foreign and commonwealth office.
Foreknow v. (past -knew, past part. -known) literary know beforehand.
foreknowledge n.
Foreland n. Cape, promontory.
Foreleg n. Front leg of an animal.
Forelimb n. Front limb of an animal.
Forelock n. Lock of hair just above the forehead. touch one’s forelock defer to a person of higher social rank.
Foreman n. 1 worker supervising others. 2 president and spokesman of a jury.
Foremast n. Mast nearest the bow of a ship.
Foremost —adj. 1 most notable, best. 2 first, front. —adv. Most importantly (first and foremost). [old english]
Forename n. First or christian name.
Forenoon n. Morning.
Forensic adj. 1 of or used in courts of law (forensic science; forensic medicine). 2 of or involving forensic science (sent for forensic examination). forensically adv. [latin forensis: related to *forum]
Usage use of forensic in sense 2 is common but considered an illogical extension of sense 1 by some people.
Foreordain v. Destine beforehand.
Forepaw n. Front paw of an animal.
Foreplay n. Stimulation preceding sexual intercourse.
Forerunner n. 1 predecessor. 2 herald.
Foresail n. Principal sail on a foremast.
Foresee v. (past -saw; past part. -seen) see or be aware of beforehand.
foreseeable adj.
Foreshadow v. Be a warning or indication of (a future event).
Foreshore n. Shore between high-and low-water marks.
Foreshorten v. Show or portray (an object) with the apparent shortening due to visual perspective.
visual perspective.
Foresight n. 1 regard or provision for the future. 2 foreseeing. 3 front sight of a gun.
Foreskin n. Fold of skin covering the end of the penis.
Forest —n. 1 (often attrib.) Large area of trees and undergrowth. 2 trees in this. 3 large number or dense mass. —v. 1 plant with trees. 2 convert into a forest. [latin forestis: related to *foreign]
Forestall v. 1 prevent by advance action. 2 deal with beforehand. [from fore-, stall1]
Forester n. 1 person managing a forest or skilled in forestry. 2 dweller in a forest.
Forestry n. Science or management of forests.
Foretaste n. Small preliminary experience of something.
Foretell v. (past and past part. -told) 1 predict, prophesy. 2 indicate the approach of.
Forethought n. 1 care or provision for the future. 2 deliberate intention.
Forever adv. Continually, persistently (is forever complaining) (cf. For ever).
Forewarn v. Warn beforehand.
Forewoman n. 1 female worker with supervisory responsibilities. 2 president and spokeswoman of a jury.
Foreword n. Introductory remarks at the beginning of a book, often not by the author.
Forfeit —n. 1 penalty. 2 thing surrendered as a penalty. —adj. Lost or surrendered as a penalty. —v. (-t-) lose the right to, surrender as a penalty. forfeiture n. [french forfaire transgress, from latin foris outside, facio do]
Forgather v. Assemble; associate. [dutch]
Forgave past of *forgive.
Forge1 —v. (-ging) 1 make or write in fraudulent imitation. 2 shape (metal) by heating and hammering. —n. 1 furnace or workshop etc. For melting or refining metal. 2 blacksmith’s workshop; smithy. forger n. [latin fabrica: related to *fabric]
Forge2 v. (-ging) move forward gradually or steadily. forge ahead 1 take the lead. 2 progress rapidly. [perhaps an alteration of *force1]
Forgery n. (pl. -ies) 1 act of forging. 2 forged document etc.
Forget v. (forgetting; past forgot; past part. Forgotten or us forgot) 1 (often foll. By about) lose remembrance of; not remember. 2 neglect or overlook. 3 cease to think of. forget oneself 1 act without dignity. 2 act selflessly. forgettable adj. [old english]
Forgetful adj. 1 apt to forget, absent-minded. 2 (often foll. By of) neglectful.
forgetfully adj. Forgetfulness n.
Forget-me-not n. Plant with small blue flowers.
Forgive v. (-ving; past forgave; past part. Forgiven) 1 cease to feel angry or resentful towards; pardon. 2 remit (a debt). forgivable adj. [old english]
Forgiveness n. Forgiving or being forgiven.
Forgiving adj. Inclined to forgive.
Forgo v. (also forego) (-goes; past -went; past part. -gone) go without; relinquish. [old english]
Forgot past of *forget.
Forgotten past part. Of *forget.
Fork —n. 1 pronged item of cutlery. 2 similar large tool used for digging, lifting, etc. 3 forked support for a bicycle wheel. 4 a divergence of a branch, road, etc. Into two parts. B place of this. C either part. —v. 1 form a fork or branch by separating into two parts. 2 take one road at a fork. 3 dig, lift, etc., with a fork. fork out slang pay, esp. Reluctantly. [latin furca pitchfork]
Fork-lift truck n. Vehicle with a fork for lifting and carrying loads.
Forlorn adj. 1 sad and abandoned. 2 in a pitiful state. forlornly adv. [lorn = past part. Of obsolete leese *lose]
Forlorn hope n. Faint remaining hope or chance. [dutch verloren hoop lost troop]
Form —n. 1 shape; arrangement of parts; visible aspect. 2 person or animal as visible or tangible. 3 mode of existence or manifestation. 4 kind or variety (a form of art). 5 printed document with blank spaces for information to be inserted. 6 class in a school. 7 customary method. 8 set order of words. 9 etiquette or specified adherence to it (good or bad form). 10 (prec. By the) correct procedure (knows the form). 11 a (of an athlete, horse, etc.) Condition of health and training. B racing history of a horse etc. 12 state or disposition (in great form). 13 any of the spellings, inflections, etc. Of a word. 14 arrangement and style in a literary or musical composition. 15 long low bench. 16 hare’s lair. —v. 1 make or be made (formed a straight line; puddles formed). 2 make up or constitute. 3 develop or establish as a concept, institution, or practice (form an idea; form a habit). 4 (foll. By into) mould or organize to become (formed ourselves into a circle). 5 (often foll. By up) (of troops etc.) Bring or move into
formation. 6 train or instruct. off form not playing or performing well. On form playing or performing well. Out of form not fit for racing etc. [latin forma]
Form comb. Form (usu. As -iform) forming adjectives meaning: 1 having the form of (cruciform). 2 having so many forms (multiform).
Formal adj. 1 in accordance with rules, convention, or ceremony (formal dress; formal occasion). 2 precise or symmetrical (formal garden). 3 prim or stiff. 4 perfunctory, in form only. 5 drawn up etc. Correctly; explicit (formal agreement). 6 of or concerned with (outward) form, not content or matter. formally adv. [latin: related to *form]
Formaldehyde n. Colourless pungent gas used as a disinfectant and preservative. [from *formic acid, *aldehyde]
Formalin n. Solution of formaldehyde in water.
Formalism n. Strict adherence to external form without regard to content, esp. In art. formalist n.
Formality n. (pl. -ies) 1 a formal, esp. Meaningless, act, regulation, or custom. B thing done simply to comply with a rule. 2 rigid observance of rules or convention.
Formalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 give definite (esp. Legal) form to. 2 make formal. formalization n.
Format —n. 1 shape and size (of a book, etc.). 2 style or manner of procedure etc. 3 computing arrangement of data etc. —v. (-tt-) 1 arrange or put into aformat. 2 computing prepare (a storage medium) to receive data. [latin formatus shaped: related to *form]
Formation n. 1 forming. 2 thing formed. 3 particular arrangement (e.g. Of troops). 4 rocks or strata with a common characteristic. [latin: related to *form]
Formative adj. Serving to form or fashion; of formation (formative years).
Forme n. Printing body of type secured in a chase ready for printing. [var. Of *form]
Former attrib. Adj. 1 of the past, earlier, previous (in former times). 2 (the former) (often absol.) The first or first-mentioned of two. [related to *foremost]
-former comb. Form pupil in a specified form (fourth-former).
Formerly adv. In former times.
Formica n. Propr. Hard durable plastic laminate used for surfaces. [origin uncertain]
Formic acid n. Colourless irritant volatile acid contained in fluid emitted by ants; methanoic acid. [latin formica ant]
Formidable adj. 1 inspiring dread, awe, or respect. 2 hard to overcome or deal with. formidably adv. [latin formido fear]
Usage the second pronunciation given, with the stress on the second syllable, is common but considered incorrect by some people.
Formless adj. Without definite or regular form. formlessness n.
Formula n. (pl. -s or (esp. In senses 1, 2) -lae) 1 chemical symbols showing the constituents of a substance. 2 mathematical rule expressed in symbols. 3 a fixed form of esp. Ceremonial or polite words. B words used to formulate a treaty etc. 4 a list of ingredients. B us infant’s food. 5 classification of a racing car, esp. By engine capacity.
Formulary n. (pl. -ies) 1 collection of esp. Religious formulas or set forms. 2 pharm. Compendium of drug formulae. [french or medieval latin: related to *formula]
Formulate v. (-ting) 1 express in a formula. 2 express clearly and precisely.
formulation n.
Fornicate v. (-ting) archaic or joc. (of people not married to each other) have sexual intercourse. fornication n. Fornicator n. [latin fornix brothel]
Forsake v. (-king; past forsook; past part. Forsaken) literary 1 give up; renounce. 2 desert, abandon. [old english]
Forsooth adv. Archaic or joc. Truly; no doubt. [old english: related to for, sooth]
Forsythia n. Shrub with bright yellow flowers in early spring. [forsyth, name of a botanist]
Fort n. Fortified military building or position. [latin fortis strong]
Forte1 n. Person’s strong point or speciality. [feminine of french *fort]
Forte2 mus. —adj. Loud. —adv. Loudly. —n. Loud playing or passage. [italian:
related to *fort]
Forth adv. Archaic except in set phrases 1 forward; into view (bring forth; come forth). 2 onwards in time (from this time forth). 3 forwards (back and forth). 4 out from a starting-point (set forth). and so forth see *so1. [old english]
Forthcoming adj. 1 coming or available soon. 2 produced when wanted. 3 (of a person) informative, responsive.
Forthwith adv. At once; without delay. [from *forth]
Fortification n. 1 act of fortifying. 2 (usu. In pl.) Defensive works, walls, etc.
Fortify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 provide with fortifications. 2 strengthen physically, mentally, or morally. 3 strengthen (wine) with alcohol. 4 increase the nutritive value of (food, esp. With vitamins). [latin fortis strong]
Fortissimo mus. —adj. Very loud. —adv. Very loudly. —n. (pl. -s or -mi) very loud playing or passage. [italian, superlative of *forte2]
Fortitude n. Courage in pain or adversity. [latin fortis strong]
Fortnight n. Two weeks. [old english, = fourteen nights]
Fortnightly —adj. Done, produced, or occurring once a fortnight. —adv. Every fortnight. —n. (pl. -ies) fortnightly magazine etc.
Fortran n. (also fortran) computer language used esp. For scientific calculations. [from formula translation]
Fortress n. Fortified building or town. [latin fortis strong]
Fortuitous adj. Happening by esp. Lucky chance; accidental. fortuitously adv. Fortuitousness n. Fortuity n. (pl. -ies). [latin forte by chance]
Fortunate adj. 1 lucky. 2 auspicious. fortunately adv. [latin fortunatus: related to *fortune]
Fortune n. 1 a chance or luck in human affairs. B person’s destiny. 2 (in sing. Or pl.) Luck that befalls a person or enterprise. 3 good luck. 4 prosperity. 5 colloq. Great wealth. make a (or one’s) fortune become very rich. [latin fortuna]
Fortune-teller n. Person who claims to foretell one’s destiny. fortune-telling n.
Forty adj. & n. (pl. -ies) 1 four times ten. 2 symbol for this (40, xl, xl). 3 (in pl.) Numbers from 40 to 49, esp. The years of a century or of a person’s life. fortieth adj. & n. [old english: related to *four]
Forty winks n. Colloq. Short sleep.
Forum n. 1 place of or meeting for public discussion. 2 court or tribunal. 3 hist. Public square in an ancient roman city used for judicial and other business. [latin]
Forward —adj. 1 onward; towards the front. 2 lying in the direction in which one is moving. 3 precocious; bold; presumptuous. 4 relating to the future (forward contract). 5 a approaching maturity or completion. B (of a plant etc.) Early. —n. Attacking player near the front in football, hockey, etc. —adv. 1 to the front; into
prominence (come forward; move forward). 2 in advance; ahead (sent them forward). 3 onward so as to make progress (no further forward). 4 towards the future (from this time forward). 5 (also forwards) a towards the front in the direction one is facing. B in the normal direction of motion. C with continuous forward motion (rushing forward). —v. 1 a send (a letter etc.) On to a further destination. B dispatch (goods etc.). 2 help to advance; promote. [old english: related to *forth, *-ward]
Forwent past of *forgo.
Fosse n. Long ditch or trench, esp. In a fortification. [latin fossa]
Fossil —n. 1 remains or impression of a (usu. Prehistoric) plant or animal hardened in rock. 2 colloq. Antiquated or unchanging person or thing. —attrib. Adj. Of or like a fossil; antiquated. fossilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). Fossilization n. [latin fodio foss-dig]
Fossil fuel n. Natural fuel extracted from the ground.
Foster —v. 1 a promote the growth or development of. B encourage or harbour (a feeling). 2 a bring up (another’s child). B (of a local authority etc.) Assign (a child) to be fostered. 3 (of circumstances) be favourable to. —attrib. Adj. 1 having a family connection by fostering (foster-brother; foster-parent). 2 concerned with fostering a child (foster care; foster home). [old english: related to *food]
Fought past and past part. Of *fight.
Foul —adj. 1 offensive; loathsome, stinking. 2 soiled, filthy. 3 colloq. Disgusting, awful. 4 a noxious (foul air). B clogged, choked. 5 obscenely abusive (foul language). 6 unfair; against the rules (by fair means or foul). 7 (of the weather) rough, stormy. 8 (of a rope etc.) Entangled. —n. 1 sport foul stroke or play. 2 collision, entanglement. —adv. Unfairly. —v. 1 make or become foul. 2 (of an animal) foul with excrement. 3 sport commit a foul against (a player). 4 (often foll. By up) a (cause to) become entangled or blocked. B bungle. 5 collide with. foully adv. Foulness n. [old english]
Foul-mouthed adj. Using obscene or offensive language.
Foul play n. 1 unfair play in games. 2 treacherous or violent act, esp. Murder.
Foul-up n. Muddle, bungle.
Found1 past and past part. Of *find.
Found2 v. 1 establish (an institution etc.); initiate, originate. 2 be the original builder of (a town etc.). 3 lay the base of (a building). 4 (foll. By on, upon) construct or base (a story, theory, rule, etc.) On. founder n. [latin fundus bottom]
Found3 v. 1 a melt and mould (metal). B fuse (materials for glass). 2 make by founding. founder n. [latin fundo fus-pour]
Foundation n. 1 a solid ground or base beneath a building. B (usu. In pl.) Lowest
part of a building, usu. Below ground level. 2 material base. 3 basis, underlying principle. 4 a establishing (esp. An endowed institution). B college, hospital, etc. So founded; its revenues. 5 (in full foundation garment) woman’s supporting undergarment, e.g. A corset. [latin: related to *found2]
Foundation-stone n. 1 stone laid ceremonially at the founding of a building. 2 basis.
Founder v. 1 (of a ship) fill with water and sink. 2 (of a plan etc.) Fail. 3 (of a horse or its rider) stumble, fall lame, stick in mud etc. [related to *found2]
Founding father n. American statesman at the time of the revolution.
Foundling n. Abandoned infant of unknown parentage. [related to *find]
Foundry n. (pl. -ies) workshop for or business of casting metal.
Fount1 n. Poet. Spring or fountain; source. [back-formation from *fountain]
Fount2 n. (also font) set of printing-type of same face and size. [french: related to *found3]
Fountain n. 1 a spouting jet or jets of water as an ornament or for drinking. B structure for this. 2 spring. 3 (often foll. By of) source. [latin fontana from fons font-spring]
Fountain-head n. Source.
Fountain-pen n. Pen with a reservoir or cartridge for ink.
Four adj. & n. 1 one more than three. 2 symbol for this (4, iv, iv). 3 size etc. Denoted by four. 4 team or crew of four; four-oared rowing-boat. 5 four o’clock. on all fours on hands and knees. [old english]
Fourfold adj. & adv. 1 four times as much or as many. 2 of four parts.
Four-in-hand n. Four-horse carriage with one driver.
Four-letter word n. Short obscene word.
Four-poster n. Bed with four posts supporting a canopy.
Foursome n. 1 group of four people. 2 golf match between two pairs.
Four-stroke adj. (of an internal-combustion engine) having a cycle of four strokes of the piston with the cylinder firing once.
Fourteen adj. & n. 1 one more than thirteen. 2 symbol for this (14, xiv, xiv). 3 size etc. Denoted by fourteen. fourteenth adj. & n. [old english: related to four, – teen]
Fourth adj. & n. 1 next after third. 2 any of four equal parts of a thing. fourthly adv. [old english: related to *four]
Fourth estate n. The press.
Four-wheel drive n. Drive acting on all four wheels of a vehicle.
Fowl —n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 chicken kept for eggs and meat. 2 poultry as food. 3 archaic (except in comb.) Bird (guineafowl; wildfowl). —v. Catch or hunt wildfowl. [old english]
Fox —n. 1 a wild canine animal with a bushy tail and red or grey fur. B its fur. 2 cunning person. —v. 1 deceive, baffle, trick. 2 (usu. As foxed adj.) Discolour (leaves of a book etc.) With brownish marks. foxlike adj. [old english]
Foxglove n. Tall plant with purple or white flowers like glove-fingers.
Foxhole n. Hole in the ground used as a shelter etc. In battle.
Foxhound n. A kind of hound bred and trained to hunt foxes.
Foxhound n. A kind of hound bred and trained to hunt foxes.
Fox-hunting n. Hunting foxes with hounds.
Fox-terrier n. A kind of short-haired terrier.
Foxtrot —n. 1 ballroom dance with slow and quick steps. 2 music for this. —v.
Foyer n. Entrance-hall in a hotel, theatre, etc. [french, = hearth, home, from latin *focus]
Fpa abbr. Family planning association.
Fr symb. Francium.
Fr. Abbr. 1 father. 2 french.
Fr. Abbr. Franc(s).
Fracas n. (pl. Same) noisy disturbance or quarrel. [french from italian]
Fraction n. 1 part of a whole number (e.g. 1/2, 0.5). 2 small part, piece, or amount. 3 portion of a mixture obtained by distillation etc. fractional adj. Fractionally adv. [latin frango fract-break]
Fractious adj. Irritable, peevish. [from *fraction in obsolete sense ‘brawling’]
Fracture —n. Breakage, esp. Of a bone or cartilage. —v. (-ring) cause a fracture in; suffer fracture. [latin: related to *fraction]
Fragile adj. 1 easily broken; weak. 2 delicate; not strong. fragility n. [latin:
related to *fracture]
Fragment —n. 1 part broken off. 2 extant remains or unfinished portion (of a book etc.). —v. Break or separate into fragments. fragmental adj. Fragmentary adj. Fragmentation n. [latin: related to *fraction]
Fragrance n. 1 sweetness of smell. 2 sweet scent. [latin fragro smell sweet]
Frailty n. (pl. -ies) 1 frail quality. 2 weakness, foible.
Frame —n. 1 case or border enclosing a picture, window, door, etc. 2 basic rigid supporting structure of a building, vehicle, etc. 3 (in pl.) Structure of spectacles holding the lenses. 4 human or animal body, esp. As large or small. 5 a established order or system (the frame of society). B construction, build, structure. 6 temporary state (esp. In frame of mind). 7 single complete image on a cinema film or transmitted in a series of lines by television. 8 a triangular structure for positioning balls in snooker etc. B round of play in snooker etc. 9 boxlike structure of glass etc. For protecting plants. 10 us slang = *frame-up. — v. (-ming) 1 a set in a frame. B serve as a frame for. 2 construct, put together, devise. 3 (foll. By to, into) adapt or fit. 4 slang concoct a false charge or evidence against; devise a plot against. 5 articulate (words). [old english, = be helpful]
Frame of reference n. 1 set of standards or principles governing behaviour, thought, etc. 2 system of geometrical axes for defining position.
Frame-up n. Slang conspiracy to convict an innocent person.
Framework n. 1 essential supporting structure. 2 basic system.
Franc n. Unit of currency of france, belgium, switzerland, etc. [french: related to *frank]
Franchise —n. 1 right to vote in state elections. 2 full membership of a corporation or state; citizenship. 3 authorization to sell a company’s goods etc.
In a particular area. 4 right or privilege granted to a person or corporation. —v. (-sing) grant a franchise to. [french franc *frank]
Franciscan —adj. Of st francis or his order. —n. Franciscan friar or nun. [latin franciscus francis]
Francium n. Radioactive metallic element. [france, the discoverer’s country]
Franco-comb. Form french and (franco-german). [latin: related to *frank]
Franglais n. Corrupt version of french using many english words and idioms. [french français french, anglais english]
Frank n. Member of the germanic people that conquered gaul in the 6th c. frankish adj. [old english]
Frank —adj. 1 candid, outspoken. 2 undisguised. 3 open. —v. Mark (a letter) to record the payment of postage. —n. Franking signature or mark. frankly adv. Frankness n. [latin francus free: related to *frank]
Frankenstein n. (in full frankenstein’s monster) thing that becomes terrifying to its maker. [frankenstein, name of a character in and title of a novel by mary shelley]
Frankfurter n. Seasoned smoked sausage. [german from frankfurt in germany]
Frankincense n. Aromatic gum resin burnt as incense. [french: related to frank in obsolete sense ‘high quality’, incense1]
Frantic adj. 1 wildly excited; frenzied. 2 hurried, anxious; desperate, violent. 3 colloq. Extreme. frantically adv. [latin: related to *frenetic]
Frappé adj. Iced, cooled. [french]
Fraternal adj. 1 of brothers, brotherly; comradely. 2 (of twins) developed from separate ova and not necessarily similar. fraternally adv. [latin frater brother]
Fraternity n. (pl. -ies) 1 religious brotherhood. 2 group with common interests, or of the same professional class. 3 us male students’ society. 4 brotherliness. [latin: related to *fraternal]
Fraternize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) (often foll. By with) 1 associate; make friends. 2 enter into friendly relations with enemies etc. fraternization n. [french and latin: related to *fraternal]
Fratricide n. 1 killing of one’s brother or sister. 2 person who does this. fratricidal adj. [latin frater brother]
Frau n. (pl. Frauen) (often as a title) married or widowed german-speaking woman. [german]
Fraud n. 1 criminal deception. 2 dishonest artifice or trick. 3 person or thing that is not what it claims to be. [latin fraus fraud-]
Fraudulent adj. Of, involving, or guilty of fraud. fraudulence n. Fraudulently adv. [latin: related to *fraud]
Fraught adj. 1 (foll. By with) filled or charged with (danger etc.). 2 colloq. Distressing; tense. [dutch vracht *freight]
Fräulein n. (often as a title or form of address) unmarried german-speaking woman. [german]
Fray1 v. 1 wear through or become worn; esp. (of woven material) unravel at the edge. 2 (of nerves, temper, etc.) Become strained. [latin frico rub]
Fray2 n. 1 conflict, fight. 2 brawl. [related to *affray]
Frazzle colloq. —n. Worn, exhausted, or shrivelled state (burnt to a frazzle). — v. (-ling) (usu. As frazzled adj.) Wear out; exhaust. [origin uncertain]
Freak —n. 1 (often attrib.) Monstrosity; abnormal person or thing (freak storm). 2 colloq. A unconventional person. B fanatic of a specified kind (health freak). C drug addict. —v. (often foll. By out) colloq. 1 become or make very angry. 2 (cause to) undergo hallucinations etc., esp. As a result of drug abuse. 3 adopt an unconventional lifestyle. freakish adj. Freaky adj. (-ier, -iest). [probably from dial.]
Freckle —n. Small light brown spot on the skin. —v. (-ling) (usu. As freckled adj.) Spot or be spotted with freckles. freckly adj. [old norse]
Free —adj. (freer; freest) 1 not a slave or under another’s control; having personal rights and social and political liberty. 2 (of a state, its citizens, etc.) Autonomous; democratic. 3 a unrestricted; not confined or fixed. B not imprisoned. C released from duties etc. D independent (free agent). 4 (foll. By of, from) a exempt from (tax etc.). B not containing or subject to (free of preservatives; free from disease). 5 (foll. By to + infin.) Permitted; at liberty to. 6 costing nothing. 7 a clear of duties etc. (am free tomorrow). B not in use (bathroom is free). 8 spontaneous, unforced (free offer). 9 available to all. 10 lavish (free with their money). 11 frank, unreserved. 12 (of literary style) informal, unmetrical. 13 (of translation) not literal. 14 familiar, impudent. 15 (of stories etc.) Slightly indecent. 16 chem. Not combined (free oxygen). 17 (of power or energy) disengaged, available. —adv. 1 freely. 2 without cost or payment. —v. (frees, freed) 1 make free; liberate. 2 (foll. By of, from) relieve from. 3 disentangle, clear. for free colloq. Free of charge, gratis. Free on board (or rail) without charge for delivery to a ship or railway wagon. freely adv. [old english]
-free comb. Form free of or from (worry-free; duty-free).
Free and easy adj. Informal, relaxed.
Freebie n. Colloq. Thing given free of charge.
Freeboard n. Part of a ship’s side between the waterline and deck.
Freebooter n. Pirate. [dutch vrijbuiter: related to free, booty]
Free-born adj. Not born a slave.
Free church n. Nonconformist church.
Freedman n. Emancipated slave.
Freedom n. 1 condition of being free or unrestricted. 2 personal or civic liberty. 3 liberty of action (freedom to leave). 4 (foll. By from) exemption from. 5 (foll. By of) a honorary membership or citizenship (freedom of the city). B unrestricted use of (a house etc.). [old english]
Freedom fighter n. Terrorist or rebel claiming to fight for freedom.
Free enterprise n. Freedom of private business from state control.
Free fall n. Movement under the force of gravity only.
Free fight n. General fight in which all present join.
Freefone n. (also freefone, -phone) system whereby certain telephone calls, esp.
Freefone n. (also freefone, -phone) system whereby certain telephone calls, esp.
On business, can be made without cost to the caller.
Free-for-all n. Free fight, unrestricted discussion, etc.
Free-form attrib. Adj. Of irregular shape or structure.
Freehand —adj. (of a drawing etc.) Done without special instruments. —adv. In a freehand manner.
Free hand n. Freedom to act at one’s own discretion.
Freehanded adj. Generous.
Freehold —n. 1 complete ownership of property for an unlimited period. 2 such land or property. —adj. Owned thus. freeholder n.
Free house n. Public house not controlled by a brewery.
Free kick n. Kick granted in football as a minor penalty.
Freelance —n. 1 (also freelancer) person, usu. Self-employed, working for several employers on particular assignments. 2 (attrib.) (freelance editor). —v. (-cing) act as a freelance. —adv. As a freelance. [free lance, a medieval mercenary]
Freeloader n. Slang sponger. freeload v.
Free love n. Sexual freedom.
Freeman n. 1 person who has the freedom of a city etc. 2 person who is not a slave or serf.
Free market n. Market governed by unrestricted competition.
Freemason n. Member of an international fraternity for mutual help and fellowship with elaborate secret rituals. freemasonry n.
Free port n. 1 port without customs duties. 2 port open to all traders.
Freepost n. System of business post where postage is paid by the addressee.
Free radical n. Chem. Atom or group of atoms with one or more unpaired electrons.
Free-range adj. 1 (of hens etc.) Roaming freely; not kept in a battery. 2 (of eggs) produced by such hens.
Freesia n. African bulb with fragrant flowers. [freese, name of a physician]
Free speech n. Right of expression.
Free spirit n. Independent or uninhibited person.
Free-spoken adj. Forthright.
Free-standing adj. Not supported by another structure.
Freestyle n. 1 swimming race in which any stroke may be used. 2 wrestling allowing almost any hold.
Freethinker n. Person who rejects dogma or authority, esp. In religious belief.
freethinking n. & adj.
Free trade n. Trade without import restrictions etc.
Free vote n. Parliamentary vote not subject to party discipline.
Freeway n. Us motorway.
Free wheel n. Driving wheel of a bicycle, able to revolve with the pedals at rest.
Free-wheel v. 1 ride a bicycle with the pedals at rest. 2 act without constraint.
Free will n. 1 power of acting independently of necessity or fate. 2 ability to act without coercion (did it of my own free will).
Free world n. Hist. Non-communist countries’ collective name for themselves.
Freeze —v. (-zing; past froze; past part. Frozen) 1 a turn into ice or another solid by cold. B make or become rigid from the cold. 2 be or feel very cold. 3 cover or become covered with ice. 4 (foll. By to, together) adhere by frost. 5 refrigerate (food) below freezing point. 6 a make or become motionless through fear, surprise, etc. B (as frozen adj) devoid of emotion (frozen smile). 7 make (assets etc.) Unrealizable. 8 fix (prices, wages, etc.) At a certain level. 9 stop (the movement in a film). —n. 1 period or state of frost. 2 fixing or stabilization of prices, wages, etc. 3 (in full freeze-frame) still film-shot. freeze up obstruct or be obstructed by ice. [old english]
Freeze-dry v. Preserve (food) by freezing and then drying in a vacuum.
Freezer n. Refrigerated cabinet etc. For preserving frozen food at very low temperatures.
Freeze-up n. Period or state of extreme cold.
Freezing point n. Temperature at which a liquid, esp. Water, freezes.
Freight —n. 1 transport of goods in containers or by water or air, or (us) by land. 2 goods transported; cargo, load. 3 charge for the transport of goods. —v. Transport as or load with freight. [low german or dutch vrecht]
Freighter n. 1 ship or aircraft for carrying freight. 2 us freight-wagon.
Freightliner n. Train carrying goods in containers.
French —adj. 1 of france, its people, or language. 2 having french characteristics. —n. 1 the french language. 2 (the french) (pl.) The people of france. 3 colloq. Dry vermouth. frenchness n. [old english: related to *frank]
French bean n. Kidney or haricot bean as unripe sliced pods or ripe seeds.
French bread n. Long crisp loaf.
French canadian n. Canadian whose principal language is french.
French chalk n. A kind of talc used for marking cloth, as a dry lubricant, etc.
French dressing n. Salad dressing of seasoned vinegar and oil.
French fried potatoes n.pl. (or french fries) us potato chips.
French horn n. Coiled brass wind instrument with a wide bell.
Frenchify v. (-ies, -ied) (usu. As frenchified adj.) Colloq. Make french in form, manners, etc.
French kiss n. Open-mouthed kiss.
French leave n. Absence without permission.
French letter n. Colloq. Condom.
Frenchman n. Man of french birth or nationality.
French polish n. Shellac polish for wood. french-polish v.
French window n. Glazed door in an outside wall.
Frenchwoman n. Woman of french birth or nationality.
Frenzy —n. (pl. -ies) wild or delirious excitement, agitation, or fury. —v. (-ies, – ied) (usu. As frenzied adj.) Drive to frenzy. frenziedly adv. [medieval latin: related to *frenetic]
Frequency n. (pl. -ies) 1 commonness of occurrence. 2 frequent occurrence. 3 rate of recurrence (of a vibration etc.); number of repetitions in a given time, esp. Per second. [related to *frequent]
Frequency modulation n. Electronics modulation by varying carrier-wave frequency.
Frequent —adj. 1 occurring often or in close succession. 2 habitual, constant. — v. Attend or go to habitually. frequently adv. [latin frequens -ent-crowded]
Frequentative gram. —adj. (of a verb etc.) Expressing frequent repetition or intensity. —n. Frequentative verb etc.
Fresco n. (pl. -s) painting done in water-colour on a wall or ceiling before the plaster is dry. [italian, = fresh]
Fresh —adj. 1 newly made or obtained. 2 a other, different; new (start a fresh page; fresh ideas). B additional (fresh supplies). 3 (foll. By from) lately arrived. 4 not stale, musty, or faded. 5 (of food) not preserved; newly caught, grown, etc. 6 not salty (fresh water). 7 a pure, untainted, refreshing (fresh air). B bright and
pure in colour (fresh complexion). 8 (of wind) brisk. 9 colloq. Cheeky; amorously impudent. 10 inexperienced. —adv. Newly, recently (esp. In comb.: fresh-baked). freshly adv. Freshness n. [old english fersc and french freis]
Freshen v. 1 make or become fresh. 2 (foll. By up) a wash, tidy oneself, etc. B revive.
Fresher n. Colloq. First-year student at university or (us) high school.
Freshet n. 1 rush of fresh water flowing into the sea. 2 flood of a river.
Freshman n. = *fresher.
Freshwater attrib. Adj. (of fish etc.) Not of the sea.
Fret1 —v. (-tt-) 1 be worried or distressed. 2 worry, vex. 3 wear or consume by gnawing or rubbing. —n. Worry, vexation. [old english: related to for, eat]
Fret2 —n. Ornamental pattern of straight lines joined usu. At right angles. —v. (-tt-) embellish with a fret or with carved or embossed work. [french freter]
Fret3 n. Each of a series of bars or ridges on the finger-board of a guitar etc. To guide fingering. [origin unknown]
Fretful adj. Anxious, irritable. fretfully adv.
Fretsaw n. Narrow saw on a frame for cutting thin wood in patterns.
Fretwork n. Ornamental work in wood done with a fretsaw.
Freudian —adj. Of freud, his theories, or his method of psychoanalysis. —n.
Follower of freud.
Freudian slip n. Unintentional verbal error revealing subconscious feelings.
Fri. Abbr. Friday.
Friable adj. Easily crumbled. friability n. [latin frio crumble]
Friar n. Member of a male non-enclosed roman catholic order, e.g. Carmelites and franciscans. [latin frater brother]
Friar’s balsam n. Tincture of benzoin etc. Used esp. As an inhalant.
Friary n. (pl. -ies) monastery for friars.
Fricassee —n. Pieces of meat served in a thick sauce. —v. (fricassees, fricasseed) make a fricassee of. [french]
fricasseed) make a fricassee of. [french]
Fricative —adj. (of a consonant) sounded by friction of the breath in a narrow opening. —n. Such a consonant (e.g. F, th). [latin frico rub]
Friction n. 1 rubbing of one object against another. 2 the resistance encountered in so moving. 3 clash of wills, opinions, etc. frictional adj. [latin: related to *fricative]
Friday —n. Day of the week following thursday. —adv. Colloq. 1 on friday. 2 (fridays) on fridays; each friday. [old english]
Fridge n. Colloq. = *refrigerator. [abbreviation]
Fridge-freezer n. Combined refrigerator and freezer.
Friend n. 1 person one likes and chooses to spend time with (usu. Without sexual or family bonds). 2 sympathizer, helper. 3 ally or neutral person (friend or foe?). 4 person already mentioned (our friend at the bank). 5 regular supporter of an institution. 6 (friend) quaker. [old english]
Friendly —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 outgoing, well-disposed, kindly. 2 a (often foll. By with) on amicable terms. B not hostile. 3 (in comb.) Not harming; helping (ozone-friendly; user-friendly). 4 = user-friendly. —n. (pl. -ies) = friendly match. —adv. In a friendly manner. friendliness n.
Friendly match n. Match played for enjoyment rather than competition.
Friendly society n. Insurance society insuring against illness etc.
Friendship n. Friendly relationship or feeling.
Frier var. Of *fryer.
Friesian n. One of a breed of black and white dairy cattle orig. From friesland. [var. Of *frisian]
Frieze n. 1 part of an entablature between the architrave and cornice. 2 horizontal band of sculpture filling this. 3 band of decoration, esp. At the top of a wall. [latin phrygium (opus) phrygian (work)]
Frig v. (-gg-) coarse slang 1 = *fuck v. 2 masturbate. [perhaps imitative]
Frigate n. 1 naval escort-vessel. 2 hist. Warship. [french from italian]
Fright n. 1 a sudden or extreme fear. B instance of this (gave me a fright). 2 grotesque-looking person or thing. take fright become frightened. [old english]
Frighten v. 1 fill with fright (the bang frightened me; frightened of dogs). 2 (foll.
By away, off, out of, into) drive by fright. frightening adj. Frighteningly adv.
By away, off, out of, into) drive by fright. frightening adj. Frighteningly adv.
Frightful adj. 1 a dreadful, shocking. B ugly. 2 colloq. Extremely bad. 3 colloq.
Extreme (frightful rush). frightfully adv.
Frigid adj. 1 unfriendly, cold (frigid stare). 2 (of a woman) sexually unresponsive. 3 (esp. Of a climate or air) cold. frigidity n. [latin frigus (n.) Cold]
Frill —n. 1 strip of gathered or pleated material as an ornamental edging. 2 (in pl.) Unnecessary embellishments. —v. Decorate with a frill. frilly adj. (-ier, – iest). [origin unknown]
Fringe —n. 1 border of tassels or loose threads. 2 front hair hanging over the forehead. 3 outer limit of an area, population, etc. (often attrib.: fringe theatre). 4 unimportant area or part. —v. (-ging) 1 adorn with a fringe. 2 serve as a fringe to. [latin fimbria]
Fringe benefit n. Employee’s benefit additional to salary.
Frippery n. (pl. -ies) 1 showy finery, esp. In dress. 2 empty display in speech, literary style, etc. 3 (usu. In pl.) Knick-knacks. [french friperie]
Frisbee n. Propr. Concave plastic disc for skimming through the air as an outdoor game. [perhaps from frisbie bakery pie-tins]
Frisian —adj. Of friesland. —n. Native or language of friesland. [latin frisii (n.
Pl.) From old frisian frisa]
Frisk —v. 1 leap or skip playfully. 2 slang search (a person) for a weapon etc. By feeling. —n. 1 playful leap or skip. 2 slang frisking of a person. [french frisque lively]
Frisky adj. (-ier, -iest) lively, playful. friskily adv. Friskiness n.
Frisson n. Emotional thrill. [french]
Frith var. Of *firth.
Fritillary n. (pl. -ies) 1 plant with bell-like flowers. 2 butterfly with red-brown wings chequered with black. [latin fritillus dice-box]
Fritter1 v. (usu. Foll. By away) waste (money, time, etc.) Triflingly. [obsolete fritter(s) fragments]
Fritter2 n. Fruit, meat, etc. Coated in batter and fried. [french friture from latin frigo *fry1]
Frivolous adj. 1 not serious, silly, shallow. 2 paltry, trifling. frivolity n. (pl. -ies). Frivolously adv. Frivolousness n. [latin]
Frizz —v. Form (hair) into tight curls. —n. Frizzed hair or state. [french friser]
Frizzle1 v. (-ling) 1 fry or cook with a sizzling noise. 2 (often foll. By up) burn or shrivel. [obsolete frizz: related to *fry1, with imitative ending]
Frizzle2 —v. (-ling) form into tight curls. —n. Frizzled hair. [perhaps related to *frizz]
Frizzy adj. (-ier, -iest) in tight curls.
Fro adv. Back (now only in to and fro: see *to). [old norse: related to *from]
Frock n. 1 woman’s or girl’s dress. 2 monk’s or priest’s gown. 3 smock. [french from germanic]
Frock-coat n. Man’s long-skirted coat.
Frog1 n. 1 small smooth tailless leaping amphibian. 2 (frog) slang offens. Frenchman. frog in one’s throat colloq. Hoarseness. [old english]
Frog2 n. Horny substance in the sole of a horse’s foot. [origin uncertain: perhaps a use of *frog1]
Frog3 n. Ornamental coat-fastening of a button and loop. [origin unknown]
Frogman n. Person with a rubber suit, flippers, and an oxygen supply for underwater swimming.
Frogmarch v. Hustle forward with the arms pinned behind.
Frog-spawn n. Frog’s eggs.
Frolic —v. (-ck-) play about cheerfully. —n. 1 cheerful play. 2 prank. 3 merry party. [dutch vrolijk (adj.) From vro glad]
Frolicsome adj. Merry, playful.
From prep. Expressing separation or origin, followed by: 1 person, place, time, etc., that is the starting-point (dinner is served from 8; from start to finish). 2 place, object, etc. At a specified distance etc. (10 miles from rome; far from sure). 3 a source (gravel from a pit; quotations from shaw). B giver or sender (not heard from her). 4 thing or person avoided, deprived, etc. (released him from prison; took his gun from him). 5 reason, cause, motive (died from fatigue; did it from jealousy). 6 thing distinguished or unlike (know black from white). 7 lower limit (from 10 to 20 boats). 8 state changed for another (from being poor he became rich). 9 adverb or preposition of time or place (from long ago; from abroad; from under the bed). from time to time occasionally. [old english]
Fromage frais n. Smooth low-fat soft cheese.
Frond n. Leaflike part of a fern or palm. [latin frons frond-leaf]
Front —n. 1 side or part most prominent or important, or nearer the spectator or direction of motion (front of the house). 2 a line of battle. B ground towards an enemy. C scene of actual fighting. 3 a activity compared to a military front. B organized political group. 4 demeanour, bearing. 5 forward or conspicuous position. 6 a bluff. B pretext. 7 person etc. As a cover for subversive or illegal activities. 8 promenade. 9 forward edge of advancing cold or warm air. 10 auditorium of a theatre. 11 breast of a garment (spilt food down his front). — attrib. Adj. 1 of the front. 2 situated in front. —v. 1 (foll. By on, to, towards, upon) have the front facing or directed towards. 2 (foll. By for) slang act as a front or cover for. 3 provide with or have a front (fronted with stone). 4 lead (a band, organization, etc.). in front in an advanced or facing position. In front of 1 ahead of, in advance of. 2 in the presence of. [latin frons front-face]
Frontage n. 1 front of a building. 2 land next to a street or water etc. 3 extent of a front. 4 a the way a thing faces. B outlook.
Frontal adj. 1 of or on the front (frontal view; frontal attack). 2 of the forehead (frontal bone).
Front bench n. Seats in parliament occupied by leading members of the government and opposition.
Front-bencher n. Mp occupying the front bench.
Frontier n. 1 a border between two countries. B district on each side of this. 2 limits of attainment or knowledge in a subject. 3 us borders between settled and unsettled country. frontiersman n.
Frontispiece n. Illustration facing the title-page of a book. [latin: related to *front, specio look]
Front line n. Foremost part of an army or group under attack.
Front runner n. Favourite in a race etc.
Frost —n. 1 a frozen dew or vapour. B consistent temperature below freezing point. 2 cold dispiriting atmosphere. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By over, up) become covered with frost. 2 a cover with or as with frost. B injure (a plant etc.) With frost. 3 make (glass) non-transparent by roughening its surface. [old english: related to *freeze]
Frostbite n. Injury to body tissues due to freezing. frostbitten adj.
Frosting n. Icing.
Frosty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 cold with frost. 2 covered with or as with frost. 3 unfriendly in manner. frostily adv. Frostiness n.
Froth —n. 1 foam. 2 idle or amusing talk etc. —v. 1 emit or gather froth. 2 cause (beer etc.) To foam. frothy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old norse]
Frown —v. 1 wrinkle one’s brows, esp. In displeasure or concentration. 2 (foll.
Frown —v. 1 wrinkle one’s brows, esp. In displeasure or concentration. 2 (foll. By at, on) disapprove of. —n. 1 act of frowning. 2 look of displeasure or concentration. [french]
Frowsty adj. (-ier, -iest) fusty, stuffy. [var. Of *frowzy]
Fructify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 bear fruit. 2 make fruitful. [latin: related to *fruit]
Fructose n. Sugar in honey, fruits, etc. [latin: related to *fruit]
Frugal adj. 1 sparing or thrifty, esp. As regards food. 2 meagre, cheap. frugality n. Frugally adv. [latin]
Fruit —n. 1 a seed-bearing part of a plant or tree; this as food. B these
collectively. 2 (usu. In pl.) Vegetables, grains, etc. As food (fruits of the earth). 3 (usu. In pl.) Profits, rewards. —v. (cause to) bear fruit. [latin fructus from fruor enjoy]
Fruit machine n. Coin-operated gaming machine using symbols representing fruit.
Fruit sugar n. Fructose.
Fruity adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 a of fruit. B tasting or smelling like fruit. 2 (of a voice etc.) Deep and rich. 3 colloq. Slightly indecent or suggestive. fruitily adv. Fruitiness n.
Frustrate v. (-ting) 1 make (efforts) ineffective. 2 prevent (a person) from achieving a purpose. 3 (as frustrated adj.) A discontented because unable to achieve one’s aims. B sexually unfulfilled. frustrating adj. Frustratingly adv. Frustration n. [latin frustra in vain]
Frustum n. (pl. -ta or -s) geom. Remaining part of a decapitated cone or pyramid. [latin, = piece cut off]
Fry1 —v. (fries, fried) cook or be cooked in hot fat. —n. (pl. Fries) 1 offal, usu. Eaten fried (lamb’s fry). 2 fried food, esp. Meat. [latin frigo]
Fry2 n.pl. Young or newly hatched fishes. [old norse, = seed]
Fryer n. (also frier) 1 person who fries. 2 vessel for frying esp. Fish.
Frying-pan n. Shallow pan used in frying. out of the frying-pan into the fire from a bad situation to a worse one.
Fry-up n. Colloq. Fried bacon, eggs, etc.
Ft abbr. Foot, feet.
Ft-se abbr. Financial times stock exchange 100 share index (based on the share values of britain’s largest public companies).
Fuchsia n. Shrub with drooping red, purple, or white flowers. [fuchs, name of a botanist]
Fuck coarse slang —v. 1 (often absol. Or as int. Expressing annoyance) curse (a person or thing). 2 have sexual intercourse (with). 3 (foll. By about, around) mess about; fool around. 4 (as fucking adj., adv.) Expressing annoyance etc. —n. 1 a act of sexual intercourse. B partner in this. 2 slightest amount (don’t give a fuck). fuck-all nothing. Fuck off go away. Fuck up 1 bungle. 2 disturb emotionally. fucker n. (often as a term of abuse). [origin unknown]
Usage although widely used, fuck is still considered to be the most offensive word in the english language by many people. In discussions about bad language it is frequently referred to as the ‘f’ word.
Fuck-up n. Coarse slang bungle or muddle.
Fuddle —v. (-ling) confuse or stupefy, esp. With alcohol. —n. 1 confusion. 2 intoxication. [origin unknown]
Fuddy-duddy slang —adj. Old-fashioned or quaintly fussy. —n. (pl. -ies) such a person. [origin unknown]
Fudge —n. 1 soft toffee-like sweet made of milk, sugar, butter, etc. 2 piece of dishonesty or faking. —v. (-ging) make or do clumsily or dishonestly; fake (fudge the results). [origin uncertain]
Fuehrer var. Of *führer.
Fuel —n. 1 material for burning or as a source of heat, power, or nuclear energy. 2 food as a source of energy. 3 thing that sustains or inflames passion etc. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 supply with, take in, or get, fuel. 2 inflame (feeling etc.). [french from latin]
Fuel cell n. Cell producing electricity direct from a chemical reaction.
Fug n. Colloq. Close stuffy atmosphere. fuggy adj. [origin unknown]
Fugitive —n. (often foll. By from) person who flees, e.g. From justice or an enemy. —adj. 1 fleeing. 2 transient, fleeting. [latin fugio flee]
Fugue n. Piece of music in which a short melody or phrase is introduced by one part and taken up and developed by others. fugal adj. [latin fuga flight]
Führer n. (also fuehrer) tyrannical leader. [german]
-ful comb. Form forming: 1 adjectives from a nouns, meaning full of or having qualities of (beautiful; masterful). B adjectives (direful). C verbs, meaning ‘apt to’ (forgetful). 2 nouns (pl. -fuls) meaning ‘amount that fills’ (handful; spoonful).
Fulcrum n. (pl. -s or -cra) point on which a lever is supported. [latin fulcio to prop]
Fulfil v. (us fulfill) (-ll-) 1 carry out (a task, prophecy, promise, etc.). 2 a satisfy (conditions, a desire, prayer, etc.). B (as fulfilled adj.) Completely happy. 3 answer (a purpose). fulfil oneself realize one’s potential. fulfilment n. [old english: related to *full1, *fill]
Fulfill v. (brit. Fulfil) (-ll-) 1 carry out (a task, prophecy, promise, etc.). 2 a satisfy (conditions, a desire, prayer, etc.). B (as fulfilled adj.) Completely happy. 3 answer (a purpose). fulfil oneself realize one’s potential. fulfilment n. [old english: related to *full1, *fill]
Full1 —adj. 1 holding all it can (bucket is full; full of water). 2 having eaten all one can or wants. 3 abundant, copious, satisfying (a full life; full details). 4 (foll. By of) having an abundance of (full of vitality). 5 (foll. By of) engrossed in (full of himself). 6 complete, perfect (full membership; in full bloom). 7 (of tone) deep and clear. 8 plump, rounded (full figure). 9 (of clothes) ample, hanging in folds. —adv. 1 very (knows full well). 2 quite, fully (full six miles). 3 exactly (full on the nose). full up colloq. Completely full. In full 1 without abridgement. 2 to or for the full amount
Full2 v. Clean and thicken (cloth). [from *fuller]
Full back n. Defensive player near the goal in football, hockey, etc.
Full-blooded adj. 1 vigorous, hearty, sensual. 2 not hybrid.
Full-blown adj. Fully developed.
Full board n. Provision of bed and all meals at a hotel etc.
Full-bodied adj. Rich in quality, tone, etc.
Fuller n. Person who fulls cloth. fuller’s earth type of clay used in fulling. [latin fullo]
Full-frontal adj. 1 (of a nude figure) fully exposed at the front. 2 explicit, unrestrained.
Full house n. 1 maximum attendance at a theatre etc. 2 hand in poker with three of a kind and a pair.
Full-length adj. 1 not shortened. 2 (of a mirror, portrait, etc.) Showing the whole figure.
Full moon n. 1 moon with its whole disc illuminated. 2 time of this.
Fullness n. Being full. the fullness of time the appropriate or destined time.
Full-scale adj. Not reduced in size, complete.
Full stop n. 1 punctuation mark (.) At the end of a sentence or an abbreviation. 2 complete cessation.
Full term n. Completion of a normal pregnancy.
Full-time —adj. For or during the whole of the working week (full-time job). — adv. On a full-time basis (work full-time).
Full-timer n. Person who does a full-time job.
Fully adv. 1 completely, entirely (am fully aware). 2 at least (fully 60).
Fully-fashioned adj. (of women’s clothing) shaped to fit closely.
Fulmar n. Arctic sea bird related to the petrel. [old norse: related to *foul, mar gull]
Usage the phrase fulsome praise is sometimes wrongly used to mean generous praise rather than excessive praise.
Fumble —v. (-ling) 1 use the hands awkwardly, grope about. 2 handle clumsily or nervously (fumbled the ball). —n. Act of fumbling. [low german fummeln]
Fume —n. (usu. In pl.) Exuded gas, smoke, or vapour, esp. When harmful or unpleasant. —v. (-ming) 1 emit fumes or as fumes. 2 be very angry. 3 subject (oak, film, etc.) To fumes to darken. [latin fumus smoke]
Fumigate v. (-ting) disinfect or purify with fumes. fumigation n. Fumigator n. [latin: related to *fume]
Fun —n. 1 lively or playful amusement. 2 source of this. 3 mockery, ridicule (figure of fun). —attrib. Adj. Colloq. Amusing, enjoyable (a fun thing to do). for fun (or for the fun of it) not for a serious purpose. In fun as a joke, not seriously. Make fun of (or poke fun at) ridicule, tease. [obsolete fun, fon: related to *fond]
Usage the use of fun as an attributive adjective is common in informal use, but is considered incorrect by some people.
Function —n. 1 a proper or necessary role, activity, or purpose. B official or professional duty. 2 public or social occasion. 3 math. Quantity whose value depends on the varying values of others. —v. Fulfil a function, operate. [latin fungor funct-perform]
Functional adj. 1 of or serving a function. 2 practical rather than attractive. 3 affecting the function of a bodily organ but not its structure. functionally adv.
Functionalism n. Belief that a thing’s function should determine its design.
functionalist n. & adj.
Functionary n. (pl. -ies) official performing certain duties.
Fund —n. 1 permanently available stock (fund of knowledge). 2 sum of money, esp. Set apart for a purpose. 3 (in pl.) Money resources. —v. 1 provide with money. 2 make (a debt) permanent at fixed interest. in funds colloq. Having money to spend. [latin fundus bottom]
Fundamental —adj. Of or being a base or foundation; essential, primary. —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Fundamental principle. 2 mus. Fundamental note. fundamentally adv. [latin: related to *found2]
Fundamentalism n. Strict adherence to traditional religious beliefs or doctrines.
fundamentalist n. & adj.
Fundamental note n. Mus. Lowest note of a chord.
Fundamental particle n. Elementary particle.
Fund-raiser n. Person raising money for a cause, enterprise, etc. fund-raising n.
Funeral —n. 1 ceremonial burial or cremation of a corpse. 2 slang one’s (usu. Unpleasant) concern (that’s your funeral). —attrib. Adj. Of or used at funerals. [latin funus funer-]
Funeral director n. Undertaker.
Funeral parlour n. Establishment where corpses are prepared for funerals.
Funerary adj. Of or used at funerals.
Funereal adj. 1 of or appropriate to a funeral. 2 dismal, dark. funereally adv.
Funfair n. Fair with amusements and sideshows.
Fungicide n. Substance that kills fungus. fungicidal adj.
Fungoid —adj. Fungus-like. —n. Fungoid plant.
Fungus n. (pl. -gi or -guses) 1 mushroom, toadstool, or allied plant, including moulds, feeding on organic matter. 2 med. Spongy morbid growth. fungal adj. Fungous adj. [latin]
Funicular —adj. (of a mountain railway) operating by cable with ascending and descending cars counterbalanced. —n. Funicular railway. [latin funiculus diminutive of funis rope]
Funk1 slang —n. 1 fear, panic. 2 coward. —v. 1 evade through fear. 2 be afraid (of). [origin uncertain]
Funk2 n. Slang funky music. [origin uncertain]
Funky adj. (-ier, -iest) slang (esp. Of jazz or rock music) earthy, bluesy, with a heavy rhythm.
Funnel —n. 1 tube widening at the top, for pouring liquid etc. Into a small opening. 2 metal chimney on a steam engine or steamship. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) guide or move through or as through a funnel. [provençal fonilh from latin (in)fundibulum]
Funny adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 amusing, comical. 2 strange, peculiar. 3 colloq. A slightly unwell. B eccentric. funnily adv. Funniness n. [from *fun]
Funny-bone n. Part of the elbow over which a very sensitive nerve passes.
Fun run n. Colloq. Uncompetitive sponsored run for charity.
Fur —n. 1 a short fine soft animal hair. B hide with fur on it, used esp. For clothing. 2 garment of or lined with fur. 3 (collect.) Animals with fur. 4 fur-like coating on the tongue, in a kettle, etc. —v. (-rr-) 1 (esp. As furred adj.) Line or trim with fur. 2 (often foll. By up) (of a kettle etc.) Become coated with fur. make the fur fly colloq. Cause a disturbance, stir up trouble. [french from germanic]
Furbelow n. 1 (in pl.) Showy ornaments. 2 archaic gathered strip or border of a skirt or petticoat. [french falbala]
Furbish v. (often foll. By up) = *refurbish. [french from germanic]
Furious adj. 1 very angry. 2 raging, frantic. furiously adv. [latin: related to *fury]
Furl v. 1 roll up and secure (a sail etc.). 2 become furled. [french ferler]
Furlong n. Eighth of a mile. [old english: related to furrow, long1]
Furlough —n. Leave of absence, esp. Military. —v. Us 1 grant furlough to. 2 spend furlough. [dutch: related to for-, leave1]
Furnace n. 1 enclosed structure for intense heating by fire, esp. Of metals or water. 2 very hot place. [latin fornax from fornus oven]
Furnish v. 1 provide (a house, room, etc.) With furniture. 2 (often foll. By with) supply. [french from germanic]
Furnished adj. (of a house etc.) Let with furniture.
Furnisher n. 1 person who sells furniture. 2 person who furnishes.
Furnishings n.pl. Furniture and fitments in a house, room, etc.
Furniture n. 1 movable equipment of a house, room, etc., e.g. Tables, beds. 2 naut. Ship’s equipment. 3 accessories, e.g. The handles and lock on a door. [french: related to *furnish]
Furor n. (brit. Furore) 1 uproar; fury. 2 enthusiastic admiration. [latin: related to *fury]
Furore n. (us furor) 1 uproar; fury. 2 enthusiastic admiration. [latin: related to *fury]
Furrier n. Dealer in or dresser of furs. [french]
Furrow —n. 1 narrow trench made by a plough. 2 rut, groove, wrinkle. 3 ship’s track. —v. 1 plough. 2 make furrows in. [old english]
Furry adj. (-ier, -iest) like or covered with fur.
Further —adv. (also farther) 1 more distant in space or time. 2 to a greater extent, more (will enquire further). 3 in addition (i may add further). —adj. (also farther) 1 more distant or advanced. 2 more, additional (further details). —v. Promote or favour (a scheme etc.). [old english: related to *forth]
Usage the form farther is used esp. With reference to physical distance, although further is preferred by many people even in this sense.
Furtherance n. Furthering of a scheme etc.
Further education n. Education for those above school age.
Furthermore adv. In addition, besides.
Furthest (also farthest) —adj. Most distant. —adv. To or at the greatest distance.
Usage the form farthest is used esp. With reference to physical distance, although furthest is preferred by many people even in this sense.
Fury n. (pl. -ies) 1 a wild and passionate anger. B fit of rage. 2 violence of a storm, disease, etc. 3 (fury) (usu. In pl.) (in greek mythology) avenging goddess. 4 avenging spirit. 5 angry or malignant woman. like fury colloq. With great force or effort. [latin furia]
Furze n. = *gorse. furzy adj. [old english]
Fuse1 —v. (-sing) 1 melt with intense heat. 2 blend into one whole by melting. 3 provide (an electric circuit) with a fuse. 4 a (of an appliance) fail owing to the melting of a fuse. B cause to do this. —n. Device with a strip or wire of easily melted metal placed in an electric circuit so as to interrupt an excessive current by melting. [latin fundo fus-melt]
Fuse2 (also fuze) —n. 1 device of combustible matter for igniting a bomb or explosive charge. 2 component made of this in a shell, mine, etc. —v. (-sing) fit a fuse to. [latin fusus spindle]
Fuselage n. Body of an aeroplane. [french from fuseau spindle]
Fusible adj. That can be melted. fusibility n. [latin: related to *fuse1]
Fusil n. Hist. Light musket. [latin focus fire]
Fusilier n. Member of any of several british regiments formerly armed with fusils. [french: related to *fusil]
Fusillade n. 1 period of continuous discharge of firearms. 2 sustained outburst of criticism etc.
Fusion n. 1 fusing or melting. 2 blending. 3 coalition. 4 = *nuclear fusion. [latin:
related to *fuse1]
Fuss —n. 1 excited commotion, bustle. 2 excessive concern about a trivial thing. 3 sustained protest or dispute. —v. 1 behave with nervous concern. 2 agitate, worry. make a fuss complain vigorously.
Fusspot n. Colloq. Person given to fussing.
Fussy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 inclined to fuss. 2 over-elaborate. 3 fastidious. fussily adv. Fussiness n.
Fustian —n. 1 thick usu. Dark twilled cotton cloth. 2 bombast. —adj. 1 made of fustian. 2 bombastic. 3 worthless. [french]
Fusty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 musty, stuffy. 2 antiquated. fustiness n. [french fust cask, from latin fustis cudgel]
Futon n. Japanese quilted mattress used as a bed; this sold with a low wooden frame, often convertible into a couch. [japanese]
Future —adj. 1 about to happen, be, or become. 2 a of time to come. B gram. (of a tense) describing an event yet to happen. —n. 1 time to come. 2 future events. 3 future condition of a person, country, etc. 4 prospect of success etc. (no future in it). 5 gram. Future tense. 6 (in pl.) Stock exch. Goods etc. Sold for future delivery. in future from now onwards. [latin futurus future part. Of sum be]
Future perfect n. Gram. Tense giving the sense ‘will have done’.
Futurism n. 20th-century artistic movement departing from traditional forms and celebrating technology and dynamism. futurist n. & adj.
Futuristic adj. 1 suitable for the future; ultra-modern. 2 of futurism.
Futurity n. (pl. -ies) literary 1 future time. 2 (in sing. Or pl.) Future events.
Futurology n. Forecasting of the future, esp. From present trends.
Futurology n. Forecasting of the future, esp. From present trends.
Fuze var. Of *fuse2.
Fuzz n. 1 fluff. 2 fluffy or frizzed hair. 3 slang a (prec. By the) the police. B police officer. [probably low german or dutch]
-fy suffix forming: 1 verbs from nouns, meaning: a make, produce (pacify). B make into (deify; petrify). 2 verbs from adjectives, meaning ‘bring or come into a state’ (frenchify; solidify). 3 verbs in a causative sense (horrify; stupefy). [french -fier from latin facio make]
G
G1 n. (also g) (pl. Gs or g’s) 1 seventh letter of the alphabet. 2 mus. Fifth note of the diatonic scale of c major.
G7 attrib. Adj. Designating the world’s seven richest nations. [group of seven]
G abbr. (also g.) 1 gram(s). 2 a gravity. B acceleration due to gravity.
Ga symb. Gallium.
Gab n. Colloq. Talk, chatter. [var. Of *gob1]
Gabardine n. (also gaberdine) 1 twill-woven cloth, esp. Of worsted. 2 raincoat etc. Made of this. [french gauvardine]
Gabble —v. (-ling) talk or utter unintelligibly or too fast. —n. Fast unintelligible talk. [dutch, imitative]
Gaberdine var. Of *gabardine.
Gable n. 1 triangular upper part of a wall at the end of a ridged roof. 2 gable-topped wall. gabled adj. [old norse and french]
Gad v. (-dd-) (foll. By about) go about idly or in search of pleasure. [obsolete gadling companion]
Gadabout n. Person who gads about.
Gadfly n. 1 fly that bites cattle and horses. 2 irritating person. [obsolete gad spike]
Gadget n. Small mechanical device or tool. gadgetry n. [origin unknown]
Gadolinium n. Metallic element of the lanthanide series. [gadolin, name of a mineralogist]
Gadwall n. Brownish-grey freshwater duck. [origin unknown]
Gael n. 1 scottish celt. 2 gaelic-speaking celt. [gaelic gaidheal]
Gaelic —n. Celtic language of ireland and scotland. —adj. Of the celts or the celtic languages.
Gaff1 —n. 1 a stick with an iron hook for landing large fish. B barbed fishing-
Gaff1 —n. 1 a stick with an iron hook for landing large fish. B barbed fishing-spear. 2 spar to which the head of a fore-and-aft sail is bent. —v. Seize (a fish) with a gaff. [provençal gaf hook]
Gaff2 n. Slang blow the gaff reveal a plot or secret. [origin unknown]
Gaffe n. Blunder; indiscreet act or remark. [french]
Gaffer n. 1 old fellow. 2 colloq. Foreman, boss. 3 chief electrician in a film or television production unit. [probably from *godfather]
Gag —n. 1 thing thrust into or tied across the mouth, esp. To prevent speaking or crying out. 2 joke or comic scene. 3 parliamentary closure. 4 thing restricting free speech. —v. (-gg-) 1 apply a gag to. 2 silence; deprive of free speech. 3 choke, retch. 4 make gags as a comedian etc. [origin uncertain]
Gage1 n. 1 pledge; thing deposited as security. 2 symbol of a challenge to fight, esp. A glove thrown down. [germanic: related to *wed, *wage]
Gage2 (brit. Gauge: see also sense 6) —n. 1 standard measure, esp. Of the capacity or contents of a barrel, fineness of a textile, diameter of a bullet, or thickness of sheet metal. 2 instrument for measuring pressure, width, length, thickness, etc. 3 distance between rails or opposite wheels. 4 capacity, extent. 5 criterion, test. 6 (usu. Gage) naut. Position relative to the wind. —v. (-ging) 1 measure exactly. 2 measure the capacity or content of. 3 estimate (a person,
situation, etc.). [french]
Gaggle n. 1 flock of geese. 2 colloq. Disorganized group of people. [imitative]
Gaiety n. (us gayety) 1 being gay; mirth. 2 merrymaking. 3 bright appearance. [french: related to *gay]
Gaily adv. In a gay or careless manner (gaily decorated; gaily announced their departure).
Gain —v. 1 obtain or win (gain advantage; gain recognition). 2 acquire as profits etc., earn. 3 (often foll. By in) get more of, improve (gain momentum; gain in experience). 4 benefit, profit. 5 (of a clock etc.) Become fast; become fast by (a specified amount of time). 6 (often foll. By on, upon) come closer to a person or thing pursued. 7 a reclaim (land from the sea). B win (a battle). 8 reach (a desired place). —n. 1 increase of wealth etc.; profit, improvement. 2 (in pl.) Sums of money got by trade etc. 3 increase in amount. gain ground 1 advance. 2 (foll. By on) catch up (a person pursued). [french from germanic]
Gainsay v. Deny, contradict. [old norse: related to against, say]
Gait n. Manner of walking or forward motion. [old norse]
Gaiter n. Covering of cloth, leather, etc., for the lower leg. [french guêtre]
Gal n. Slang girl. [representing a variant pronunciation]
Gal. Abbr. (also gall.) Gallon(s).
Gala n. Festive occasion or gathering (swimming gala). [ultimately from french gale rejoicing from germanic]
Galactic adj. Of a galaxy or galaxies.
Galantine n. White meat boned, stuffed, spiced, etc., and served cold. [french from latin]
Galaxy n. (pl. -ies) 1 independent system of stars, gas, dust, etc., in space. 2 (the galaxy) milky way. 3 (foll. By of) brilliant company (galaxy of talent). [greek gala milk]
Gale n. 1 very strong wind or storm. 2 outburst, esp. Of laughter. [origin unknown]
Gall bladder n. Organ storing bile.
Galleon n. Hist. Warship (usu. Spanish). [french or spanish: related to *galley]
Galleria n. Collection of small shops under a single roof. [italian]
Gallery n. (pl. -ies) 1 room or building for showing works of art. 2 balcony, esp. In a church, hall, etc. (minstrels’ gallery). 3 highest balcony in a theatre. 4 a covered walk partly open at the side; colonnade. B narrow passage in the thickness of a wall or on corbels, open towards the interior of the building. 5 long narrow room or passage (shooting-gallery). 6 horizontal underground passage in a mine etc. 7 group of spectators at a golf-match etc. play to the gallery seek to win approval by appealing to popular taste. [french galerie]
Galley n. (pl. -s) 1 hist. A long flat single-decked vessel usu. Rowed by slaves or criminals. B ancient greek or roman warship. 2 ship’s or aircraft’s kitchen. 3 printing (in full galley proof) proof in continuous form before division into pages. [latin galea]
Galley-slave n. Drudge.
Gallic adj. 1 french or typically french. 2 of gaul or the gauls. [latin gallicus]
Gallicism n. French idiom. [related to *gallic]
Gallinaceous adj. Of the order including domestic poultry, pheasants, etc. [latin gallina hen]
Gallium n. Soft bluish-white metallic element. [latin gallia france: so named
patriotically by its discoverer lecoq]
Gallivant v. Colloq. Gad about. [origin uncertain]
Gallo-comb. Form french. [latin]
Gallon n. 1 measure of capacity equal to eight pints (4.5 litres; for wine, or us, 3.8 litres). 2 (in pl.) Colloq. Large amount. [french]
Gallop —n. 1 fastest pace of a horse etc., with all the feet off the ground together in each stride. 2 ride at this pace. —v. (-p-) 1 a (of a horse etc. Or its rider) go at a gallop. B make (a horse etc.) Gallop. 2 read, talk, etc., fast. 3 progress rapidly (galloping inflation). [french: related to *wallop]
Gallows n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Structure, usu. Of two uprights and a crosspiece, for hanging criminals. [old norse]
Gallstone n. Small hard mass forming in the gall-bladder.
Gallup poll n. = *opinion poll. [gallup, name of a statistician]
Galore adv. In plenty (whisky galore). [irish]
Galosh n. (also golosh) (usu. In pl.) Overshoe, usu. Of rubber. [french]
Galosh n. (also golosh) (usu. In pl.) Overshoe, usu. Of rubber. [french]
Galumph v. (esp. As galumphing adj.) Colloq. Move noisily or clumsily. [coined by lewis carroll, perhaps from gallop, triumph]
Galvanic adj. 1 a producing an electric current by chemical action. B (of electricity) produced by chemical action. 2 a sudden and remarkable (had a galvanic effect). B stimulating; full of energy. galvanically adv.
Galvanize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 (often foll. By into) rouse forcefully, esp. By shock or excitement (was galvanized into action). 2 stimulate by or as by electricity. 3 coat (iron) with zinc to protect against rust. galvanization n. [galvani, name of a physiologist]
Galvanometer n. Instrument for detecting and measuring small electric currents.
galvanometric adj.
Gambit n. 1 chess opening in which a player sacrifices a piece or pawn to secure an advantage. 2 opening move in a discussion etc. 3 trick or device. [italian gambetto tripping up]
Gamble —v. (-ling) 1 play games of chance for money. 2 a bet (a sum of money) in gambling. B (often foll. By away) lose by gambling. 3 risk much in the hope of great gain. 4 (foll. By on) act in the hope of. —n. 1 risky undertaking. 2 spell of gambling. gambler n.
Gamboge n. Gum resin used as a yellow pigment and as a purgative. [cambodia in se asia]
in se asia]
Gambol —v. (-ll-; us -l-) skip or jump about playfully. —n. Frolic, caper. [french gambade leap, from italian gamba leg]
Game1 —n. 1 form of play or sport, esp. A competitive one with rules. 2 portion of play forming a scoring unit, e.g. In bridge or tennis. 3 (in pl.) Series of athletic etc. Contests (olympic games). 4 a piece of fun, jest (didn’t mean to upset you; itwas only a game). B (in pl.) Dodges, tricks (none of your games!). 5 colloq. A scheme (so that’s your game). B type of activity or business (have been in the antiques game a long time). 6 a wild animals or birds hunted for sport or food. B their flesh as food. —adj. Spirited; eager and willing (are you game for a walk?). —v. (-ming) gamble for money stakes. the game is up scheme is revealed or foiled. On the game slang involved in prostitution. gamely adv. [old english]
Gamecock n. Cock bred and trained for cock-fighting.
Gamekeeper n. Person employed to breed and protect game.
Gamelan n. 1 se asian orchestra mainly of percussion instruments. 2 type of xylophone used in this. [javanese]
Gamesmanship n. Art of winning games by gaining psychological advantage.
Gamester n. Gambler.
Gamete n. Mature germ cell able to unite with another in sexual reproduction. gametic adj. [greek, = wife]
Gamin n. 1 street urchin. 2 impudent child. [french]
Gamine n. 1 girl gamin. 2 girl with mischievous charm. [french]
Gamma n. 1 third letter of the greek alphabet (g, g). 2 third-class mark for a piece of work etc. [greek]
Gamma radiation n. (also gamma rays) electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength than x-rays.
Gammon n. 1 bottom piece of a flitch of bacon including a hind leg. 2 ham of a pig cured like bacon. [french: related to *jamb]
Gammy adj. (-ier, -iest) slang = *game2. [dial. Form of *game2]
Gamut n. Entire range or scope. run the gamut of experience or perform the complete range of. [latin gamma ut, words arbitrarily taken as names of notes]
Gamy adj. (-ier, -iest) smelling or tasting like high game.
Gander n. 1 male goose. 2 slang look, glance (take a gander). [old english]
Gang n. 1 band of persons associating for some (usu. Antisocial or criminal) purpose. 2 set of workers, slaves, or prisoners. gang up colloq. 1 (often foll. By with) act together. 2 (foll. By on) combine against. [old norse]
Ganger n. Foreman of a gang of workers.
Gangling adj. (of a person) loosely built; lanky. [frequentative of old english gang go]
Ganglion n. (pl. -lia or -s) structure containing an assemblage of nerve cells. ganglionic adj. [greek]
Gangly adj. (-ier, -iest) = *gangling.
Gangplank n. Movable plank for boarding or disembarking from a ship etc.
Gangrene n. Death of body tissue, usu. Resulting from obstructed circulation. gangrenous adj. [greek gaggraina]
Gangster n. Member of a gang of violent criminals.
Gangue n. Valueless earth etc. In which ore is found. [german: related to *gang]
Gangway n. 1 passage, esp. Between rows of seats. 2 a opening in a ship’s bulwarks. B bridge from ship to shore.
Gannet n. 1 large diving sea bird. 2 slang greedy person. [old english]
Gantry n. (pl. -ies) structure supporting a travelling crane, railway or road signals, rocket-launching equipment, etc. [probably gawn, a dial. Form of *gallon, + *tree]
Gaol var. Of *jail.
Gaolbird var. Of *jailbird.
Gaolbreak var. Of *jailbreak.
Gaoler var. Of *jailer.
Gap n. 1 empty space, interval; deficiency. 2 breach in a hedge, fence, etc. 3 wide divergence in views etc. gappy adj. [old norse]
Gape —v. (-ping) 1 a open one’s mouth wide. B be or become wide open; split. 2 (foll. By at) stare at. —n. 1 open-mouthed stare; open mouth. 2 rent, opening. [old norse]
Garage —n. 1 building for housing a vehicle. 2 establishment selling petrol etc., or repairing and selling vehicles. —v. (-ging) put or keep in a garage. [french]
Garb —n. Clothing, esp. Of a distinctive kind. —v. (usu. In passive or refl.) Dress. [germanic: related to *gear]
Garbage n. 1 esp. Us refuse. 2 colloq. Nonsense. [anglo-french]
Garble v. (-ling) 1 (esp. As garbled adj.) Unintentionally distort or confuse (facts, messages, etc.). 2 make a (usu. Unfair) selection from (facts, statements, etc.). [italian from arabic]
Garden —n. 1 piece of ground for growing flowers, fruit, or vegetables, and as a place of recreation. 2 (esp. In pl.) Grounds laid out for public enjoyment. 3 (attrib.) Cultivated (garden plants). —v. Cultivate or tend a garden. gardening n. [germanic: related to *yard2]
Garden centre n. Place where plants and garden equipment are sold.
Garden city n. Town spaciously laid out with parks etc.
Gardener n. Person who gardens, esp. For a living.
Gardenia n. Tree or shrub with large fragrant flowers. [garden, name of a naturalist]
Garden party n. Party held on a lawn or in a garden.
Garfish n. (pl. Same or -es) fish with a long spearlike snout. [old english, = spear-fish]
Gargantuan adj. Gigantic. [from the name gargantua, a giant in rabelais]
Gargle —v. (-ling) wash (the throat) with a liquid kept in motion by breathing through it. —n. Liquid for gargling. [french: related to *gargoyle]
Gargoyle n. Grotesque carved face or figure, esp. As a spout from the gutter of a building. [french, = throat]
Garibaldi n. (pl. -s) biscuit containing a layer of currants. [garibaldi, name of an italian patriot]
Garland —n. Wreath of flowers etc., worn on the head or hung as a decoration. —v. Adorn or crown with a garland or garlands. [french]
—v. Adorn or crown with a garland or garlands. [french]
Garlic n. Plant of the onion family with a pungent bulb used in cookery. garlicky adj. [old english, = spear-leek]
Garment n. 1 article of dress. 2 outward covering. [french: related to *garnish]
Garner —v. 1 collect. 2 store. —n. Literary storehouse or granary. [latin: related to *granary]
Garnet n. Glassy silicate mineral, esp. A red kind used as a gem. [medieval latin granatum *pomegranate]
Garnish —v. Decorate (esp. Food). —n. Decoration, esp. To food. [french garnir from germanic]
Garotte var. Of *garrotte.
Garret n. Attic or room in a roof. [french, = watch-tower: related to *garrison]
Garrison —n. Troops stationed in a town etc. To defend it. —v. (-n-) 1 provide with or occupy as a garrison. 2 place on garrison duty. [french garir defend, from germanic]
Garrote (brit. Garrotte) —v. (-ting) execute or kill by strangulation, esp. With a wire collar. —n. Device used for this. [french or spanish]
Garrotte (also garotte; us garrote) —v. (-ting) execute or kill by strangulation, esp. With a wire collar. —n. Device used for this. [french or spanish]
Garrulous adj. Talkative. garrulity n. Garrulousness n. [latin]
Garter n. 1 band worn to keep a sock or stocking up. 2 (the garter) a highest order of english knighthood. B badge or membership of this. [french]
Garter stitch n. Plain knitting stitch.
Gas —n. (pl. -es) 1 any airlike substance (i.e. Not solid or liquid) moving freely to fill any space available. 2 such a substance (esp. Found naturally or extracted from coal) used as fuel (also attrib.: gas cooker; gas industry). 3 nitrous oxide or other gas as an anaesthetic. 4 poisonous gas used in war. 5 us colloq. Petrol, gasoline. 6 slang idle talk; boasting. 7 slang enjoyable or amusing thing or person. —v. (gases, gassed, gassing) 1 expose to gas, esp. To kill. 2 colloq. Talk idly or boastfully.
Gas chamber n. Room filled with poisonous gas to kill people or animals.
Gaseous adj. Of or like gas.
Gas fire n. Domestic heater burning gas.
Gas-fired adj. Using gas as fuel.
Gash —n. Long deep slash, cut, or wound. —v. Make a gash in; cut. [french]
Gasholder n. Large receptacle for storing gas; gasometer.
Gasify v. (-ies, -ied) convert into gas. gasification n.
Gasket n. Sheet or ring of rubber etc., shaped to seal the junction of metal surfaces. [french garcette]
Gaslight n. Light from burning gas.
Gasman n. Man who installs or services gas appliances, or reads gas meters.
Gas mask n. Respirator as a protection against poison gas.
Gasoline n. (also gasolene) us petrol.
Gasometer n. Large tank from which gas is distributed by pipes. [french gazomètre: related to *gas, *-meter]
Gasp —v. 1 catch one’s breath with an open mouth as in exhaustion or astonishment. 2 utter with gasps. —n. Convulsive catching of breath. [old norse]
Gas ring n. Hollow ring perforated with gas jets, for cooking etc.
Gassy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 a of or like gas. B full of gas. 2 colloq. Verbose.
Gasteropod var. Of *gastropod.
Gastric adj. Of the stomach. [french: related to *gastro-]
Gastric flu n. Colloq. Intestinal disorder of unknown cause.
Gastric juice n. Digestive fluid secreted by the stomach glands.
Gastritis n. Inflammation of the stomach.
Gastro-comb. Form stomach. [greek gaster stomach]
Gastro-enteritis n. Inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
Gastronome n. Gourmet. [greek gaster stomach, nomos law]
Gastronomy n. Science or art of good eating and drinking. gastronomic adj.
Gastronomical adj. Gastronomically adv.
Gastropod n. (also gasteropod) mollusc that moves by means of a ventral muscular organ, e.g. A snail. [from *gastro-, greek pous pod-foot]
Gasworks n. Place where gas is manufactured for lighting and heating.
Gate —n. 1 barrier, usu. Hinged, used to close an opening made for entrance and exit through a wall, fence, etc. 2 such an opening. 3 means of entrance or exit. 4 numbered place of access to aircraft at an airport. 5 device regulating the passage of water in a lock etc. 6 a number of people entering by payment at the gates of a sports ground etc. B amount of money taken thus. 7 a electrical signal that causes or controls the passage of other signals. B electrical circuit with an output that depends on the combination of several inputs. —v. (-ting) confine to college or school as a punishment. gated adj. [old english]
Gateau n. (pl. -s or -x) large rich cake filled with cream etc. [french]
Gatecrasher n. Uninvited guest at a party etc. gatecrash v.
Gatehouse n. House standing by or over a gateway, esp. To a large house or park.
Gateleg n. (in full gateleg table) table with folding flaps supported by legs swung open like a gate. gatelegged adj.
Gatepost n. Post at either side of a gate.
Gateway n. 1 opening which can be closed with a gate. 2 means of access (gateway to the south; gateway to success).
Gather —v. 1 bring or come together; accumulate. 2 pick or collect as harvest. 3 infer or deduce. 4 a increase (gather speed). B collect (gather dust). 5 summon up (energy etc.). 6 draw together in folds or wrinkles. 7 (often as gathering adj.) Come to a head (gathering storm).
Gall2 —n. 1 sore made by chafing. 2 mental soreness or its cause. 3 place rubbed bare. —v. 1 rub sore. 2 vex, humiliate. [low german or dutch galle]
Gall3 n. Growth produced by insects etc. On plants and trees, esp. On oak. [latin galla]
Gall. Abbr. Var. Of *gal.
Gallant —adj. 1 brave. 2 fine, stately. 3 very attentive to women. —n. Ladies’ man. gallantly adv. [french galer make merry]
Gallantry n. (pl. -ies) 1 bravery. 2 devotion to women. 3 polite act or speech.
Gathering n. 1 assembly. 2 purulent swelling. 3 group of leaves taken together in bookbinding.
Gatt abbr. General agreement on tariffs and trade.
Gaucherie n. Gauche manners or act. [french: related to *gauche]
Gaucho n. (pl. -s) cowboy from the s. American pampas. [spanish from quechua]
Gaudy adj. (-ier, -iest) tastelessly showy. gaudily adv. Gaudiness n. [obsolete gaud ornament, from latin gaudeo rejoice]
Gauge (us gage: see also sense 6) —n. 1 standard measure, esp. Of the capacity or contents of a barrel, fineness of a textile, diameter of a bullet, or thickness of sheet metal. 2 instrument for measuring pressure, width, length, thickness, etc. 3 distance between rails or opposite wheels. 4 capacity, extent. 5 criterion, test. 6 (usu. Gage) naut. Position relative to the wind. —v. (-ging) 1 measure exactly. 2 measure the capacity or content of. 3 estimate (a person, situation, etc.). [french]
Gaul n. Inhabitant of ancient gaul. [french from germanic]
Gauntlet1 n. 1 stout glove with a long loose wrist. 2 hist. Armoured glove. pick up (or take up) the gauntlet accept a challenge. Throw down the gauntlet issue a challenge. [french diminutive of gant glove]
Gauntlet2 n. run the gauntlet 1 undergo harsh criticism. 2 pass between two rows of people and receive blows from them, as a punishment or ordeal. [swedish gatlopp from gata lane, lopp course]
Gauss n. (pl. Same) unit of magnetic flux density. [gauss, name of a mathematician]
Gauze n. 1 thin transparent fabric of silk, cotton, etc. 2 fine mesh of wire etc. gauzy adj. (-ier, -iest). [french from gaza in palestine]
Gave past of *give.
Gavel n. Hammer used for calling attention by an auctioneer, chairman, or judge. [origin unknown]
[origin unknown]
Gavotte n. 1 old french dance. 2 music for this. [french from provençal]
Usage sense 3 is generally informal in tone, but is favoured by homosexual groups.
Gayety n. (brit. Gaiety) 1 being gay; mirth. 2 merrymaking. 3 bright appearance. [french: related to *gay]
Gaze —v. (-zing) (foll. By at, into, on, etc.) Look fixedly. —n. Intent look. [origin unknown]
Gazebo n. (pl. -s) summerhouse, turret, etc., with a wide view. [perhaps a fanciful formation from *gaze]
Gazelle n. (pl. Same or -s) small graceful antelope. [arabic gazal]
Gazette —n. 1 newspaper (used in the title). 2 official publication with announcements etc. —v. (-tting) announce or name in an official gazette. [french from italian]
Gazetteer n. Geographical index. [italian: related to *gazette]
Gazpacho n. (pl. -s) cold spanish soup. [spanish]
Gazump v. Colloq. 1 raise the price of a property after accepting an offer from (a buyer). 2 swindle. [origin unknown]
Gazunder v. Colloq. Lower an offer made to (a seller) for a property just before the exchange of contracts. [from gazump, under]
Gb abbr. Great britain.
Gbh abbr. Grievous bodily harm.
Gc abbr. George cross.
Gce abbr. General certificate of education.
Gchq abbr. Government communications headquarters.
Gcse abbr. General certificate of secondary education.
Gd symb. Gadolinium.
Gdp abbr. Gross domestic product.
Gdr abbr. Hist. German democratic republic.
Ge symb. Germanium.
Gear —n. 1 (often in pl.) A set of toothed wheels that work together, esp. Those connecting the engine of a vehicle to the road wheels. B particular setting of these (first gear). 2 equipment, apparatus, or tackle. 3 colloq. Clothing. —v. 1 (foll. By to) adjust or adapt to. 2 (often foll. By up) equip with gears. 3 (foll. By up) make ready or prepared. 4 put in gear. in gear with a gear engaged. Out of gear with no gear engaged. [old norse]
Gearbox n. 1 set of gears with its casing, esp. In a vehicle. 2 the casing itself.
Gearing n. Set or arrangement of gears.
Gear lever n. (also gear shift) lever used to engage or change gear.
Gearwheel n. Toothed wheel in a set of gears.
Gecko n. (pl. -s) tropical house-lizard. [malay]
Gee1 int. (also gee whiz) esp. Us colloq. Expression of surprise etc. [perhaps an abbreviation of *jesus]
Gee2 int. (usu. Foll. By up) command to a horse etc. To start or go faster. [origin unknown]
Gee-gee n. Colloq. (a child’s word for) a horse.
Geese pl. Of *goose.
Geezer n. Slang person, esp. An old man. [dial. Guiser mummer]
Geiger counter n. Device for detecting and measuring radioactivity. [geiger, name of a physicist]
name of a physicist]
Geisha n. (pl. Same or -s) japanese woman trained to entertain men. [japanese]
Gel —n. 1 semisolid jelly-like colloid. 2 jelly-like substance used for setting the hair. —v. (-ll-) 1 form a gel. 2 = jell 2. [from gelatin]
Gelatin n. (also gelatine) transparent tasteless substance from skin, tendons, etc., used in cookery, photography, etc. gelatinize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). [italian: related to *jelly]
Gelatinous adj. Of a jelly-like consistency.
Geld v. Castrate. [old norse]
Gelding n. Gelded animal, esp. A horse.
Gelignite n. Explosive made from nitroglycerine. [from *gelatin, *igneous]
Gem —n. 1 precious stone, esp. Cut and polished or engraved. 2 thing or person of great beauty or worth. —v. (-mm-) adorn with or as with gems. [latin gemma bud, jewel]
Geminate —adj. Combined in pairs. —v. (-ting) 1 double, repeat. 2 arrange in
pairs. gemination n. [latin: related to *gemini]
Gemini n. (pl. -s) 1 constellation and third sign of the zodiac (the twins). 2 person born when the sun is in this sign. [latin, = twins]
Gemma n. (pl. Gemmae) small cellular body in plants such as mosses, that separates from the mother-plant and starts a new one. gemmation n. [latin, see *gem]
Gemstone n. Precious stone used as a gem.
Gen. Abbr. General.
Gen slang —n. Information. —v. (-nn-) (foll. By up) gain or give information. [probably general information]
-gen comb. Form chem. That which produces (hydrogen; antigen). [greek -genes born]
Gendarme n. (in french-speaking countries) police officer. [french gens d’armes men of arms]
Gender n. 1 a classification roughly corresponding to the two sexes and sexlessness. B class of noun according to this classification (see *masculine, feminine, neuter). 2 a person’s sex. [latin *genus]
Gene n. Unit in a chromosome determining heredity. [german]
Genealogy n. (pl. -ies) 1 descent traced continuously from an ancestor, pedigree. 2 study of pedigrees. 3 organism’s line of development from earlier forms. genealogical adj. Genealogically adv. Genealogist n. [greek genea race]
Genera pl. Of *genus.
General —adj. 1 including or affecting all or most parts or cases of things. 2 prevalent, usual (the general feeling). 3 not partial or particular or local. 4 not limited in application, true of all or nearly all cases (as a general rule). 5 not restricted or specialized (general knowledge; general hospital). 6 not detailed (general idea). 7 vague (spoke only in general terms). 8 chief, head; having overall authority (general manager; secretary-general). —n. 1 a army officer next below field marshal. B = lieutenant general (see lieutenant colonel), major-general. 2 commander of an army. 3 strategist (a great general). 4 head of a religious order, e.g. Of jesuits etc. in general 1 as a normal rule; usually. 2 for the most part. [latin generalis]
General anaesthetic n. Anaesthetic affecting the whole body, usu. With loss of consciousness.
General certificate of education n. Examination set esp. For secondary-school pupils at advanced level (and, formerly, ordinary level) in england, wales and northern ireland.
General certificate of secondary education n. Examination replacing and combining the gce ordinary level and cse examinations.
General election n. National parliamentary election.
Generalissimo n. (pl. -s) commander of a combined military and naval and air force, or of combined armies. [italian superlative]
Generality n. (pl. -ies) 1 general statement or rule. 2 general applicability. 3 lack of detail. 4 (foll. By of) main body or majority.
Generalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 a speak in general or indefinite terms.
B form general notions. 2 reduce to a general statement. 3 infer (a rule etc.)
From particular cases. 4 bring into general use. generalization n.
Generally adv. 1 usually; in most respects or cases (generally get up early; was generally well-behaved). 2 in a general sense; without regard to particulars or exceptions (generally speaking). 3 for the most part (not generally known).
General meeting n. Meeting open to all the members of a society etc.
General practice n. Work of a general practitioner.
General practitioner n. Community doctor treating cases of all kinds in the first instance.
General staff n. Staff assisting a military commander at headquarters.
General staff n. Staff assisting a military commander at headquarters.
General strike n. Simultaneous strike of workers in all or most trades.
Generate v. (-ting) bring into existence; produce. [latin: related to *genus]
Generation n. 1 all the people born at about the same time. 2 single stage in a family history (three generations were present in the photograph). 3 stage in (esp. Technological) development (fourth-generation computers). 4 average time in which children are ready to take the place of their parents (about 30 years). 5 production, esp. Of electricity. 6 procreation. first- (or second-, third-, etc.) Generation (attrib.) Designating a person who emigrated to a place (or whose parents or grandparents etc. Emigrated). [latin: related to *generate]
Generation gap n. Differences of outlook between different generations.
Generative adj. 1 of procreation. 2 productive.
Generator n. 1 machine for converting mechanical into electrical energy. 2 apparatus for producing gas, steam, etc.
Generic adj. 1 characteristic of or relating to a class; general, not specific or special. 2 biol. Characteristic of or belonging to a genus. generically adv. [latin: related to *genus]
Generous adj. 1 giving or given freely. 2 magnanimous, unprejudiced. 3
Generous adj. 1 giving or given freely. 2 magnanimous, unprejudiced. 3 abundant, copious. generosity n. Generously adv. [latin: related to *genus]
Genesis n. 1 origin; mode of formation. 2 (genesis) first book of the old testament, with an account of the creation. [greek gen-be produced]
Gene therapy n. Introduction of normal genes into cells in place of defective or missing ones in order to correct genetic disorders.
Genetic adj. 1 of genetics or genes. 2 of or in origin. genetically adv. [from *genesis]
Genetic code n. Arrangement of genetic information in chromosomes.
Genetic engineering n. Manipulation of dna to modify hereditary features.
Genetic fingerprinting n. (also genetic profiling) identifying individuals by dna patterns.
Genetics n.pl. (treated as sing.) The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics. geneticist n.
Genial adj. 1 jovial, sociable, kindly. 2 (of the climate) mild and warm; conducive to growth. 3 cheering. geniality n. Genially adv. [latin: related to *genius]
Genie n. (pl. Genii) (in arabian tales) spirit or goblin with magical powers. [french génie genius: cf. jinnee]
Genital —adj. Of animal reproduction or the reproductive organs. —n. (in pl.) External reproductive organs. [latin gigno genit-beget]
Genitalia n.pl. Genitals. [latin, neuter pl. Of genitalis: see *genital]
Genitive gram. —n. Case expressing possession or close association, corresponding to of, from, etc. —adj. Of or in this case. [latin: related to *genital]
Genius n. (pl. Geniuses) 1 a exceptional intellectual or creative power or other natural ability or tendency. B person with this. 2 tutelary spirit of a person, place, etc. 3 person or spirit powerfully influencing a person for good or evil. 4prevalent feeling or association etc. Of a people or place. [latin]
Genocide n. Deliberate extermination of a people or nation. genocidal adj. [greek genos race, *-cide]
Genome n. 1 the haploid set of chromosomes of an organism. 2 the genetic material of an organism.
-genous comb. Form forming adjectives meaning ‘produced’ (endogenous).
Genre n. 1 kind or style of art etc. 2 painting of scenes from ordinary life. [french: related to *gender]
Gent n. Colloq. 1 gentleman. 2 (the gents) colloq. Men’s public lavatory. [shortening of *gentleman]
Genteel adj. 1 affectedly refined or stylish. 2 upper-class. genteelly adv. [french gentil: related to *gentle]
Gentian n. Mountain plant usu. With blue flowers. [latin gentiana from gentius, king of illyria]
Gentile —adj. Not jewish; heathen. —n. Person who is not jewish. [latin gentilis from gens family]
Gentility n. 1 social superiority. 2 genteel manners or behaviour. [french: related to *gentle]
Gentle adj. (gentler, gentlest) 1 not rough or severe; mild, kind (a gentle nature). 2 moderate (gentle breeze). 3 (of birth, pursuits, etc.) Honourable, of or fit for gentlefolk. 4 quiet; requiring patience (gentle art). gentleness n. Gently adv. [latin: related to *gentile]
Gentlefolk n.pl. People of good family.
Gentleman n. 1 man (in polite or formal use). 2 chivalrous well-bred man. 3 man of good social position (country gentleman). 4 man of gentle birth attached to a royal household (gentleman in waiting). 5 (in pl.) (as a form of address) male audience or part of this.
Gentlemanly adj. Like or befitting a gentleman.
Gentleman’s agreement n. (also gentlemen’s agreement) agreement binding in honour but not enforceable.
Gentlewoman n. Archaic woman of good birth or breeding.
Gentrification n. Upgrading of a working-class urban area by the arrival of more affluent residents. gentrify v. (-ies, -ied).
Gentry n.pl. 1 people next below the nobility. 2 derog. People (these gentry). [french: related to *gentle]
Genuflect v. Bend the knee, esp. In worship. genuflection n. (also genuflexion). [latin genu knee, flecto bend]
Genuine adj. 1 really coming from its reputed source etc. 2 properly so called; not sham; sincere. genuinely adv. Genuineness n. [latin]
Genus n. (pl. Genera) 1 taxonomic category of animals or plants with common structural characteristics, usu. Containing several species. 2 (in logic) kind of things including subordinate kinds or species. 3 colloq. Kind, class. [latin genus –
eris]
eris]
Geo-comb. Form earth. [greek ge]
Geocentric adj. 1 considered as viewed from the earth’s centre. 2 having the earth as the centre. geocentrically adv.
Geode n. 1 cavity lined with crystals. 2 rock containing this. [greek geodes earthy]
Geodesic adj. (also geodetic) of geodesy.
Geodesic line n. Shortest possible line between two points on a curved surface.
Geodesy n. The study of the shape and area of the earth. [greek geodaisia]
Geographical adj. (also geographic) of geography. geographically adv.
Geographical mile n. Distance of one minute of longitude or latitude at the equator (about 1.85 km).
Geography n. 1 science of the earth’s physical features, resources, climate, population, etc. 2 features or arrangement of an area, rooms, etc. geographer n.
[latin from greek]
Geology n. 1 science of the earth’s crust, strata, origin of its rocks, etc. 2 geological features of a district. geological adj. Geologically adv. Geologist n.
Geometric adj. (also geometrical) 1 of geometry. 2 (of a design etc.) With regular lines and shapes. geometrically adv.
Geometric progression n. Progression with a constant ratio between successive quantities (as 1, 3, 9, 27).
Geometry n. Science of the properties and relations of lines, surfaces, and solids. geometrician n. [from *geo-, *-metry]
Geophysics n.pl. (treated as sing.) Physics of the earth.
Geordie n. Native of tyneside. [name george]
George cross n. Decoration for bravery awarded esp. To civilians. [king george vi]
Georgette n. Thin dress-material similar to crêpe. [georgette de la plante, name of a dressmaker]
Georgian1 adj. Of the time of kings george i–iv or of george v and vi.
Georgian2 —adj. Of georgia in eastern europe or the us. —n. 1 native or language of georgia in eastern europe. 2 native of georgia in the us.
Geranium n. (pl. -s) 1 (in general use) cultivated pelargonium. 2 herb or shrub bearing fruit shaped like a crane’s bill. [greek geranos crane]
Gerbil n. (also jerbil) mouselike desert rodent with long hind legs. [french:
related to *jerboa]
Geriatric —adj. 1 of old people. 2 colloq. Old, outdated. —n. Old person. [greek geras old age, iatros doctor]
Geriatrics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Branch of medicine or social science dealing with the health and care of old people. geriatrician n.
Germ n. 1 micro-organism, esp. One causing disease. 2 portion of an organism capable of developing into a new one; rudiment of an animal or plant in seed (wheat germ). 3 thing that may develop; elementary principle. germy adj. (-ier, – iest). [latin germen sprout]
German —n. 1 a native or national of germany. B person of german descent. 2 language of germany. —adj. Of germany or its people or language. [latin germanus]
German adj. (placed after brother, sister, or cousin) having both parents the same, or both grandparents the same on one side (brother german; cousin german). [latin germanus]
Germander n. Plant of the mint family. [greek, = ground-oak]
Germane adj. (usu. Foll. By to) relevant (to a subject). [var. Of *german]
Germanic —adj. 1 having german characteristics. 2 hist. Of the germans. 3 of the scandinavians, anglo-saxons, or germans. —n. 1 the branch of indo-european languages which includes english, german, dutch, and the scandinavian languages. 2 the primitive language of germanic peoples.
Germanium n. Brittle greyish-white semi-metallic element. [related to *german]
German measles n.pl. Disease like mild measles; rubella.
German measles n.pl. Disease like mild measles; rubella.
Germano-comb. Form german.
German shepherd n. (also german shepherd dog) = *alsatian.
German silver n. White alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper.
Germicide n. Substance that destroys germs. germicidal adj.
Germinal adj. 1 of germs. 2 in the earliest stage of development. 3 productive of new ideas. germinally adv. [related to *germ]
Germinate v. (-ting) 1 sprout, bud, or develop. 2 cause to do this. germination n. Germinative adj. [latin: related to *germ]
Germ warfare n. Use of germs to spread disease in war.
Gerontology n. The study of old age and the process of ageing. [greek geron geront-old man]
Gerrymander —v. Manipulate the boundaries of (a constituency etc.) So as to give undue influence to some party or class. —n. This practice. [governor gerry of massachusetts]
Gerund n. Verbal noun, in english ending in -ing (e.g. Do you mind my asking you?). [latin]
Gesso n. (pl. -es) gypsum as used in painting or sculpture. [italian: related to *gypsum]
Gestapo n. Hist. Nazi secret police. [german, from geheime staatspolizei]
Gestapo n. Hist. Nazi secret police. [german, from geheime staatspolizei]
Gestation n. 1 a process of carrying or being carried in the uterus between conception and birth. B this period. 2 development of a plan, idea, etc. gestate v. (-ting). [latin gesto carry]
Gesticulate v. (-ting) 1 use gestures instead of, or to reinforce, speech. 2 express thus. gesticulation n. [latin: related to *gesture]
Gesture —n. 1 significant movement of a limb or the body. 2 use of such movements, esp. As a rhetorical device. 3 action to evoke a response or convey intention, usu. Friendly. —v. (-ring) gesticulate. [latin gestura from gero wield]
Get v. (getting; past got; past part. Got or us gotten) (and in comb.) 1 come into possession of; receive or earn (get a job; got £200 a week; got first prize). 2 fetch or procure (get my book for me; got a new car). 3 go to reach or catch (a bus, train, etc.). 4 prepare (a meal etc.). 5 (cause to) reach some state or become (get rich; get married; get to be famous; got them ready; got him into trouble). 6 obtain as a result of calculation. 7 contract (a disease etc.). 8 establish contact by telephone etc. With; receive (a broadcast signal). 9 experience or suffer; have inflicted on one; receive as one’s lot or penalty (got four years in prison). 10 a succeed in bringing, placing, etc. (get it round the corner; get it on to the agenda). B (cause to) succeed in coming or going (will get you there somehow; got absolutely nowhere; got home). 11 (prec. By have) a possess (have not got a penny). B (foll. By to + infin.) Be bound or obliged (have got to see you). 12 (foll. By to + infin.) Induce; prevail upon (got them to help me). 13 colloq. Understand (a person or an argument) (have you got that?; i get your point; do you get me?). 14 colloq. Harm, injure, kill, esp. In retaliation (i’ll get you for that). 15 colloq. A annoy. B affect emotionally. C attract. 16 (foll. By to + infin.) Develop an inclination (am getting to like it). 17 (foll. By verbal noun) begin (get going). 18 establish (an idea etc.) In one’s mind. 19 archaic beget. get about 1 travel extensively or fast; go from place to place. 2 begin walking etc. (esp.
After illness). Get across 1 communicate (an idea etc.). 2 (of an idea etc.) Be communicated. Get ahead make progress (esp. In a career etc.). Get along (or on) (foll. By together, with) live harmoniously. Get around = get about. Get at 1 reach; get hold of. 2 colloq. Imply. 3 colloq. Nag, criticize. Get away 1 escape, start. 2 (as int.) Colloq. Expressing disbelief or scepticism. 3 (foll. By with) escape blame or punishment for. Get back at colloq. Retaliate against. Get by colloq. Manage, even if with difficulty. Get cracking see *crack. Get down 1 alight, descend (from a vehicle, ladder, etc.). 2 record in writing.
Get-at-able adj. Colloq. Accessible.
Getaway n. Escape, esp. After a crime.
Get-out n. Means of avoiding something.
Get-together n. Colloq. Social gathering.
Get-up n. Colloq. Style or arrangement of dress etc.
Get-up-and-go n. Colloq. Energy, enthusiasm.
Geyser n. 1 intermittent hot spring. 2 apparatus for heating water. [icelandic geysir from geysa to gush]
Ghee n. Indian clarified butter. [hindi from sanskrit]
Gherkin n. Small pickled cucumber. [dutch]
Ghetto n. (pl. -s) 1 part of a city occupied by a minority group. 2 hist. Jewish quarter in a city. 3 segregated group or area. [italian]
Ghetto-blaster n. Slang large portable radio, esp. For playing loud pop music.
Ghillie var. Of *gillie.
Ghost —n. 1 supposed apparition of a dead person or animal; disembodied spirit. 2 shadow or semblance (not a ghost of a chance). 3 secondary image in a defective telescope or television picture. —v. (often foll. By for) act as ghost-writer of (a work). ghostliness n. Ghostly adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Ghosting n. Appearance of a ‘ghost’ image in a television picture.
Ghost town n. Town with few or no remaining inhabitants.
Ghost train n. (at a funfair) open-topped miniature railway in which the rider experiences ghoulish sights, sounds, etc.
Ghost-writer n. Person who writes on behalf of the credited author.
Ghoul n. 1 person morbidly interested in death etc. 2 evil spirit or phantom. 3 spirit in muslim folklore preying on corpses. ghoulish adj. Ghoulishly adv. [arabic]
Ghq abbr. General headquarters.
Ghyll var. Of *gill3.
Gi n. (often attrib.) Soldier in the us army. [abbreviation of government (or general) issue]
Giant —n. 1 (fem. Giantess) imaginary or mythical being of human form but superhuman size. 2 person or thing of great size, ability, courage, etc. —attrib. Adj. 1 gigantic. 2 of a very large kind. [greek gigas gigant-]
Gibber v. Jabber inarticulately. [imitative]
Gibberish n. Unintelligible or meaningless speech; nonsense.
Gibbet —n. Hist. 1 a gallows. B post with an arm on which an executed criminal was hung. 2 (prec. By the) death by hanging. —v. (-t-) 1 put to death by hanging. 2 expose or hang up on a gibbet. [french gibet]
hanging. 2 expose or hang up on a gibbet. [french gibet]
Gibbon n. Long-armed se asian anthropoid ape. [french]
Gibbous adj. 1 convex. 2 (of a moon or planet) having the bright part greater than a semicircle and less than a circle. 3 humpbacked. [latin gibbus hump]
Gibe (also jibe) —v. (-bing) (often foll. By at) jeer, mock. —n. Jeering remark, taunt. [perhaps from french giber handle roughly]
Giblets n.pl. Edible organs etc. Of a bird, removed and usu. Cooked separately. [french gibelet game stew]
Giddy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 dizzy, tending to fall or stagger. 2 a mentally intoxicated (giddy with success). B excitable, frivolous, flighty. 3 making dizzy (giddy heights). giddily adv. Giddiness n. [old english]
Gift n. 1 thing given; present. 2 natural ability or talent. 3 the power to give (in his gift). 4 giving. 5 colloq. Easy task. [old norse: related to *give]
Gifted adj. Talented; intelligent.
Gift of the gab n. Colloq. Eloquence, loquacity.
Gift token n. (also gift voucher) voucher used as a gift and exchangeable for goods.
Gift-wrap v. Wrap attractively as a gift.
Gig1 n. 1 light two-wheeled one-horse carriage. 2 light ship’s boat for rowing or sailing. 3 rowing-boat esp. For racing. [probably imitative]
Gig2 colloq. —n. Engagement to play music etc., usu. For one night. —v. (-gg-) perform a gig. [origin unknown]
Giga-comb. Form one thousand million (109). [greek: related to *giant]
Gigantic adj. Huge, giant-like. gigantically adv. [latin: related to *giant]
Giggle —v. (-ling) laugh in half-suppressed spasms. —n. 1 such a laugh. 2 colloq. Amusing person or thing; joke (did it for a giggle). giggly adj. (-ier, – iest). [imitative]
Gigolo n. (pl. -s) young man paid by an older woman to be her escort or lover. [french]
Gild1 v. (past part. Gilded or as adj. In sense 1 gilt) 1 cover thinly with gold. 2 tinge with a golden colour. 3 give a false brilliance to. gild the lily try to improve what is already satisfactory. [old english: related to *gold]
Gild2 var. Of *guild.
Gill1 n. (usu. In pl.) 1 respiratory organ in a fish etc. 2 vertical radial plate on the underside of a mushroom etc. 3 flesh below a person’s jaws and ears. [old norse]
Gill2 n. Unit of liquid measure equal to 1/4 pint. [french]
Gill3 n. (also ghyll) 1 deep usu. Wooded ravine. 2 narrow mountain torrent. [old norse]
Gillie n. (also ghillie) scot. Man or boy attending a person hunting or fishing. [gaelic]
Gillyflower n. Clove-scented flower, e.g. A wallflower or the clove-scented pink. [french gilofre]
Gilt-edged adj. (of securities, stocks, etc.) Having a high degree of reliability.
Gimbals n.pl. Contrivance of rings and pivots for keeping instruments horizontal in ships, aircraft, etc. [var. Of gimmal from french gemel double finger-ring]
Gimcrack —adj. Showy but flimsy and worthless. —n. Showy ornament; knick-knack. [origin unknown]
Gimlet n. Small tool with a screw-tip for boring holes. [french]
Gimlet eye n. Eye with a piercing glance.
Gimmick n. Trick or device, esp. To attract attention or publicity. gimmickry n. Gimmicky adj. [origin unknown]
Gimp n. (also gymp) 1 twist of silk etc. With cord or wire running through it. 2 fishing-line of silk etc. Bound with wire. [dutch]
Gin1 n. Spirit made from grain or malt and flavoured with juniper berries. [dutch geneva: related to *juniper]
Gin2 —n. 1 snare, trap. 2 machine separating cotton from its seeds. 3 a kind of crane and windlass. —v. (-nn-) 1 treat (cotton) in a gin. 2 trap. [french: related to *engine]
Ginger —n. 1 a hot spicy root usu. Powdered for use in cooking, or preserved in syrup, or candied. B plant having this root. 2 light reddish-yellow. 3 spirit,
mettle. —adj. Of a ginger colour. —v. 1 flavour with ginger. 2 (foll. By up) enliven. gingery adj. [old english and french, ultimately from sanskrit]
Ginger ale n. Ginger-flavoured non-alcoholic drink.
Ginger beer n. Mildly alcoholic or non-alcoholic cloudy drink made from fermented ginger and syrup.
Ginseng n. 1 plant found in e. Asia and n. America. 2 root of this used as a medicinal tonic. [chinese]
Gippy tummy n. Colloq. Diarrhoea affecting visitors to hot countries. [from *egyptian]
Gipsy var. Of *gypsy.
Giraffe n. (pl. Same or -s) large four-legged african animal with a long neck and forelegs. [french, ultimately from arabic]
Gird v. (past and past part. Girded or girt) 1 encircle, attach, or secure, with a belt or band. 2 enclose or encircle. 3 (foll. By round) place (a cord etc.) Round. gird (or gird up) one’s loins prepare for action. [old english]
Girder n. Iron or steel beam or compound structure for bridge-building etc.
Girdle1 —n. 1 belt or cord worn round the waist. 2 corset. 3 thing that
surrounds. 4 bony support for the limbs (pelvic girdle). —v. (-ling) surround with a girdle. [old english]
Girdle2 n. Scot. & n.engl. Var. Of *griddle.
Girl n. 1 female child, daughter. 2 colloq. Young woman. 3 colloq. Girlfriend. 4 female servant. girlhood n. Girlish adj. Girly adj. [origin uncertain]
Girl friday n. Female helper or follower.
Girlfriend n. 1 person’s regular female companion or lover. 2 female friend.
Girlie adj. Colloq. (of a magazine etc.) Depicting young women in erotic poses.
Girl scout n. = *scout n. 4.
Giro —n. (pl. -s) 1 system of credit transfer between banks, post offices, etc. 2 cheque or payment by giro. —v. (-es, -ed) pay by giro. [german from italian]
Girt see *gird.
Girth n. 1 distance round a thing. 2 band round the body of a horse to secure the saddle etc. [old norse: related to *gird]
Gismo n. (also gizmo) (pl. -s) slang gadget. [origin unknown]
Gist n. Substance or essence of a matter. [latin jaceo *lie1]
Git n. Slang silly or contemptible person. [get (noun), = fool]
Gîte n. Furnished holiday house in the french countryside. [french]
Give —v. (-ving; past gave; past part. Given) 1 transfer the possession of freely; hand over as a present; donate. 2 a transfer temporarily; provide with (gave him the dog to hold; gave her a new hip). B administer (medicine). C deliver (a message). 3 (usu. Foll. By for) make over in exchange or payment. 4 a confer; grant (a benefit, honour, etc.). B accord; bestow (love, time, etc.). C pledge (gave his word). 5 a perform (an action etc.) (gave a jump; gave a performance; gave an interview). B utter; declare (gave a shriek; gave the batsman out). 6 (in passive; foll. By to) be inclined to or fond of (is given to boasting; is given to strong drink). 7 yield to pressure; collapse. 8 yield as a product or result (gives an average of 7). 9 a consign, put (gave him into custody). B sanction the marriage of (a daughter etc.). 10 devote; dedicate (gave his life to the cause). 11 present; offer; show; hold out (gives no sign of life; gave her his arm; give me an example). 12 impart; be a source of; cause (gave me a cold; gave me trouble; gave much pain). 13 concede (i give you the benefit of the doubt). 14 deliver (a judgement etc.) Authoritatively. 15 provide (a party, meal, etc.) As host. 16 (in past part.) Assume or grant or specify (given the circumstances; in a given situation; given that we earn so little). 17 (absol.) Colloq. Tell what one knows. —n. Capacity to yield or comply; elasticity. give and take 1 exchange of words, ideas, blows, etc. 2 ability to compromise. Give away 1 transfer as a gift. 2 hand over (a bride) to a bridegroom. 3 reveal (a secret etc.). Give the game (or show) away reveal a secret or intention. Give in 1 yield; acknowledge defeat. 2 hand in (a document etc.) To an official etc. Give it to a person colloq. Scold or punish.
Give me i prefer (give me greece any day). Give off emit (fumes etc.). Give oneself up to 1 abandon oneself to (despair etc.). 2 addict oneself to. Give on to (or into) (of a window, corridor, etc.) Overlook or lead into. Give or take colloq. Accepting as a margin of error in estimating. Give out 1 announce; emit; distribute. 2 be exhausted. 3 run short. Give over 1 colloq. Stop or desist. 2 hand over. 3 devote. Give rise to cause. Give a person to understand inform or assure. Give up 1 resign; surrender. 2 part with.
Give-away n. Colloq. 1 unintentional revelation. 2 thing given as a gift or at a low price.
Gizmo var. Of *gismo.
Gizzard n. 1 second part of a bird’s stomach, for grinding food. 2 muscular stomach of some fish etc. [french]
Glacé icing n. Icing made with icing sugar and water.
Glacial adj. 1 of ice. 2 geol. Characterized or produced by ice. [latin glacies ice]
Glacial period n. Period when an exceptionally large area was covered by ice.
Glaciated adj. 1 marked or polished by the action of ice. 2 covered by glaciers or ice sheets. glaciation n. [glaciate freeze, from latin: related to *glacial]
Glacier n. Mass of land ice formed by the accumulation of snow on high ground. [french: related to *glacial]
Glad adj. (gladder, gladdest) 1 (predic.) Pleased. 2 expressing or causing pleasure (glad cry; glad news). 3 ready and willing (am glad to help). be glad of find useful. gladly adv. Gladness n. [old english]
Gladden v. Make or become glad.
Glade n. Open space in a forest. [origin unknown]
Glad eye n. (prec. By the) colloq. Amorous glance.
Glad hand n. Colloq. Hearty welcome.
Gladiator n. Hist. Trained fighter in ancient roman shows. gladiatorial adj. [latin gladius sword]
Gladiolus n. (pl. -li) plant of the lily family with sword-shaped leaves and flower-spikes. [latin, diminutive of gladius sword]
Glad rags n.pl. Colloq. Best clothes.
Gladsome adj. Poet. Cheerful, joyous.
Gladstone bag n. Bag with two compartments joined by a hinge. [gladstone, name of a statesman]
Glair n. 1 white of egg. 2 adhesive preparation made from this. [french]
Glam adj. Colloq. Glamorous. [abbreviation]
Glamor n. (brit. Glamour) 1 physical, esp. Cosmetic, attractiveness. 2 alluring or exciting beauty or charm. glamorous adj. Glamorously adv. [var. Of *grammar in obsolete sense ‘magic’]
Glamorize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make glamorous or attractive.
Glamour n. (us glamor) 1 physical, esp. Cosmetic, attractiveness. 2 alluring or exciting beauty or charm. glamorous adj. Glamorously adv. [var. Of *grammar in obsolete sense ‘magic’]
Glance —v. (-cing) 1 (often foll. By down, up, over, etc.) Look briefly, direct one’s eye. 2 strike at an angle and glide off an object (glancing blow; ball glanced off his bat). 3 (usu. Foll. By over) refer briefly or indirectly to a subject or subjects. 4 (of light etc.) Flash or dart. —n. 1 brief look. 2 flash or gleam. 3 glancing stroke in cricket. at a glance immediately upon looking. [origin uncertain]
Gland n. 1 organ or similar structure secreting substances for use in the body or for ejection. 2 bot. Similar organ in a plant. [latin glandulae pl.]
Glanders n.pl. Contagious disease of horses. [french glandre: related to *gland]
Glandular adj. Of a gland or glands.
Glandular fever n. Infectious disease with swelling of the lymph glands.
Glare —v. (-ring) 1 look fiercely or fixedly. 2 shine dazzlingly or oppressively. —n. 1 a strong fierce light, esp. Sunshine. B oppressive public attention (glare of publicity). 2 fierce or fixed look. 3 tawdry brilliance. [low german or dutch]
Glasnost n. (in the former soviet union) policy of more open government and access to information. [russian, = openness]
Glass —n. 1 a (often attrib.) Hard, brittle, usu. Transparent substance, made by fusing sand with soda and lime etc. B substance of similar properties. 2 glass objects collectively. 3 a glass drinking vessel. B its contents. 4 mirror. 5 glazed frame for plants. 6 barometer. 7 covering of a watch-face. 8 lens. 9 (in pl.) A spectacles. B binoculars. —v. (usu. As glassed adj.) Fit with glass. glassful n. (pl. -s). [old english]
Glass-blowing n. Blowing semi-molten glass to make glassware.
Glass fibre n. Filaments of glass made into fabric or embedded in plastic as reinforcement.
Glasshouse n. 1 greenhouse. 2 slang military prison.
Glass-paper n. Paper coated with glass particles, for smoothing and polishing.
Glassware n. Articles made of glass.
Glass wool n. Mass of fine glass fibres for packing and insulation.
Glassy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 like glass. 2 (of the eye, expression, etc.) Abstracted; dull; fixed.
Glaswegian —adj. Of glasgow. —n. Native of glasgow. [after norwegian]
Glaucoma n. Eye-condition with increased pressure in the eyeball and gradual loss of sight. glaucomatous adj. [greek glaukos greyish blue]
Glaze —v. (-zing) 1 fit (a window etc.) With glass or (a building) with windows. 2 a cover (pottery etc.) With a glaze. B fix (paint) on pottery thus. 3 cover
(pastry, cloth, etc.) With a glaze. 4 (often foll. By over) (of the eyes) become glassy. 5 give a glassy surface to. —n. 1 vitreous substance for glazing pottery. 2 smooth shiny coating on food etc. 3 thin coat of transparent paint to modify underlying tone. 4 surface formed by glazing. [from *glass]
Glazier n. Person whose trade is glazing windows etc.
Gleam —n. Faint or brief light or show. —v. Emit gleams, shine. [old english]
Glean v. 1 acquire (facts etc.) In small amounts. 2 gather (corn left by reapers). [french]
Gleanings n.pl. Things gleaned, esp. Facts.
Glebe n. Piece of land as part of a clergyman’s benefice and providing income. [latin gl(a)eba clod, soil]
Glee n. 1 mirth; delight. 2 part-song for three or more (esp. Male) voices. [old english]
Gleeful adj. Joyful. gleefully adv. Gleefulness n.
Glen n. Narrow valley. [gaelic]
Glengarry n. (pl. -ies) brimless scottish hat cleft down the centre and with ribbons at the back. [glengarry in scotland]
Glib adj. (glibber, glibbest) speaking or spoken quickly or fluently but without sincerity. glibly adv. Glibness n. [obsolete glibbery slippery, perhaps imitative]
Glide —v. (-ding) 1 move smoothly and continuously. 2 (of an aircraft or pilot) fly without engine-power. 3 pass gradually or imperceptibly. 4 go stealthily. 5 cause to glide. —n. Gliding movement. [old english]
Glide path n. Aircraft’s line of descent to land.
Glider n. Light aircraft without an engine.
Glimmer —v. Shine faintly or intermittently. —n. 1 feeble or wavering light. 2 (also glimmering) (usu. Foll. By of) small sign (of hope etc.). [probably scandinavian]
Glimpse —n. (often foll. By of, at) 1 brief view or look. 2 faint transient appearance (glimpses of the truth). —v. (-sing) have a brief view of (glimpsed his face in the crowd). [related to *glimmer]
Glissade —n. 1 controlled slide down a snow slope in mountaineering. 2 gliding
step in ballet. —v. (-ding) perform a glissade. [french]
Glissando n. (pl. -di or -s) mus. Continuous slide of adjacent notes. [french glissant sliding: related to *glissade]
Glisten —v. Shine like a wet or polished surface. —n. Glitter; sparkle. [old english]
Glitch n. Colloq. Sudden irregularity or malfunction (of equipment etc.). [origin unknown]
Glitter —v. 1 shine with a bright reflected light; sparkle. 2 (usu. Foll. By with) be showy or splendid. —n. 1 sparkle. 2 showiness. 3 tiny pieces of sparkling material as decoration etc. glittery adj. [old norse]
Global warming n. Increase in the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere caused by the greenhouse effect.
Globe n. 1 a (prec. By the) the earth. B spherical representation of it with a map on the surface. 2 spherical object, e.g. A fish-bowl, lamp, etc. [latin globus]
Globe artichoke n. The partly edible head of the artichoke plant.
Globe-trotter n. Colloq. Person who travels widely. globe-trotting n. & attrib.
Adj.
Globular adj. 1 globe-shaped. 2 composed of globules.
Globule n. Small globe or round particle or drop. [latin globulus]
Globulin n. Molecule-transporting protein in plant and animal tissues.
Glockenspiel n. Musical instrument with bells or metal bars or tubes struck by hammers. [german, = bell-play]
hammers. [german, = bell-play]
Gloom n. 1 darkness; obscurity. 2 melancholy; despondency. [origin unknown]
Glorify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make glorious. 2 make seem better or more splendid than it is. 3 (as glorified adj.) Invested with more attractiveness, importance, etc. Than it has in reality (glorified waitress). 4 extol. glorification n. [latin: related to *glory]
Glorious adj. 1 possessing or conferring glory; illustrious. 2 colloq. Often iron.
Glory —n. (pl. -ies) 1 renown, fame; honour. 2 adoring praise. 3 resplendent majesty, beauty, etc. 4 thing that brings renown, distinction, or pride. 5 heavenly bliss and splendour. 6 colloq. State of exaltation, prosperity, etc. 7 halo of a saint etc. —v. (-ies, -ied) (often foll. By in) pride oneself. [latin gloria]
Glory-hole n. Colloq. Untidy room, cupboard, etc.
Gloss1 —n. 1 surface shine or lustre. 2 deceptively attractive appearance. 3 (in full gloss paint) paint giving a glossy finish. —v. Make glossy. gloss over seek to conceal, esp. By mentioning only briefly. [origin unknown]
Gloss2 —n. 1 explanatory comment added to a text, e.g. In the margin. 2 interpretation or paraphrase. —v. Add a gloss to (a text, word, etc.). [latin glossa tongue]
Glossary n. (pl. -ies) 1 list or dictionary of technical or special words. 2 collection of glosses. [latin: related to *gloss2]
Glossy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 smooth and shiny (glossy paper). 2 printed on such paper. —n. (pl. -ies) colloq. Glossy magazine or photograph. glossily adv. Glossiness n.
Glottal adj. Of the glottis.
Glottal stop n. Sound produced by the sudden opening or shutting of the glottis.
Glottis n. Opening at the upper end of the windpipe and between the vocal cords. [greek]
Gloucester n. (usu. Double gloucester, orig. A richer kind) cheese made in gloucestershire. [gloucester in england]
Glove —n. 1 hand-covering for protection, warmth, etc., usu. With separate fingers. 2 boxing glove. —v. (-ving) cover or provide with gloves. [old english]
Glove compartment n. Recess for small articles in the dashboard of a car etc.
Glove puppet n. Small puppet fitted on the hand and worked by the fingers.
Glover n. Glove-maker.
Glow —v. 1 a emit light and heat without flame. B shine as if heated in this way. 2 (often foll. By with) a (of the body) be heated. B show or feel strong emotion (glowed with pride). 3 show a warm colour. 4 (as glowing adj.) Expressing pride or satisfaction (glowing report). —n. 1 glowing state. 2 bright warm colour. 3 feeling of satisfaction or well-being. [old english]
Glower —v. 1 (often foll. By at) look angrily. 2 look dark or threatening. —n. Glowering look. [origin uncertain]
Glow-worm n. Beetle whose wingless female emits light from the end of the abdomen.
Gloxinia n. American tropical plant with large bell-shaped flowers. [gloxin, name of a botanist]
Glucose n. Sugar found in the blood or in fruit juice etc., and as a constituent of starch, cellulose, etc. [greek gleukos sweet wine]
Glue —n. Adhesive substance. —v. (glues, glued, gluing or glueing) 1 fasten or join with glue. 2 keep or put very close (eye glued to the keyhole). gluey adj. (gluier, gluiest). [latin glus: related to *gluten]
Glue ear n. Blocking of the eustachian tube, esp. In children.
Glue-sniffing n. Inhalation of fumes from adhesives as an intoxicant. glue-sniffer n.
Glum adj. (glummer, glummest) dejected; sullen. glumly adv. Glumness n. [var. Of *gloom]
Glut —v. (-tt-) 1 feed (a person, one’s stomach, etc.) Or indulge (a desire etc.) To the full; satiate. 2 fill to excess. 3 overstock (a market). —n. 1 supply exceeding demand. 2 full indulgence; surfeit. [french gloutir swallow: related to *glutton]
Glutamate n. Salt or ester of glutamic acid, esp. A sodium salt used to enhance the flavour of food.
Glutamic acid n. Amino acid normally found in proteins. [from gluten, amine]
Gluten n. Mixture of proteins present in cereal grains; sticky protein substance left when starch is washed out of flour. [latin gluten -tin-glue]
Glutinous adj. Sticky; like glue. [latin: related to *gluten]
Glutton n. 1 greedy eater. 2 (often foll. By for) colloq. Person insatiably eager (glutton for work). 3 voracious animal of the weasel family. gluttonous adj.
Gluttonously adv. [latin gluttio *swallow1]
Glutton for punishment n. Person eager to take on hard or unpleasant tasks.
Gluttony n. Greed or excess in eating. [french: related to *glutton]
Glycerin n. (also glycerol, brit. Glycerine) thick sweet colourless liquid used as medicine, ointment, etc., and in explosives. [greek glukeros sweet]
Glycerine n. (also glycerol, us glycerin) thick sweet colourless liquid used as medicine, ointment, etc., and in explosives. [greek glukeros sweet]
Glycerol n. = *glycerine.
Glycogen n. Polysaccharide serving as a store of carbohydrates, esp. In animal tissues.
Glycolysis n. Breakdown of glucose by enzymes with the release of energy.
Gm abbr. George medal.
Gm abbr. Gram(s).
G-man n. Us colloq. Federal criminal-investigation officer. [from government]
Gms abbr. Grant maintained status.
Gmt abbr. Greenwich mean time.
Gnarled adj. (of a tree, hands, etc.) Knobbly, twisted, rugged. [var. Of knarled:
related to *knurl]
Gnash v. 1 grind (the teeth). 2 (of the teeth) strike together. [old norse]
Gnat n. Small two-winged biting fly. [old english]
Gnaw v. 1 a (usu. Foll. By away etc.) Wear away by biting. B (often foll. By at, into) bite persistently. 2 a corrode; wear away. B (of pain, fear, etc.) Torment. [old english]
Gneiss n. Coarse-grained metamorphic rock of feldspar, quartz, and mica. [german]
Gnome n. 1 a dwarfish legendary spirit or goblin living underground. B figure of this as a garden ornament. 2 (esp. In pl.) Colloq. Person with sinister influence, esp. Financial (gnomes of zurich). gnomish adj. [french]
Gnomic adj. Of aphorisms; sententious. [greek gnome opinion]
Gnomon n. Rod or pin etc. On a sundial, showing the time by its shadow. [greek, = indicator]
Gnostic —adj. 1 of knowledge; having special mystical knowledge. 2 (gnostic) concerning the gnostics. —n. (gnostic) (usu. In pl.) Early christian heretic claiming mystical knowledge. gnosticism n. [greek gnosis knowledge]
Gnp abbr. Gross national product.
Gnu n. (pl. Same or -s) oxlike antelope. [bushman nqu]
Go1 —v. (3rd sing. Present goes; past went; past part. Gone) 1 a start moving or be moving from one place or point in time to another; travel, proceed. B (foll. By and + verb) colloq. Expressing annoyance (you went and told him). 2 (foll. By verbal noun) make a special trip for; participate in (went skiing; goes running). 3 lie or extend in a certain direction (the road goes to london). 4 leave; depart (they had to go). 5 move, act, work, etc. (clock doesn’t go). 6 a make a specified movement (go like this with your foot). B make a sound (often of a specified kind) (gun went bang; door bell went). C (of an animal) make (its characteristic cry) (the cow went ‘moo’). D colloq. Say (so he goes to me ‘why didn’t you like it?’). 7 be in a specified state (go hungry; went in fear of his life). 8 a pass into a specified condition (gone bad; went to sleep). B colloq. Die. C proceed or escape in a specified condition (poet went unrecognized). 9 (of time or distance) pass, elapse; be traversed (ten days to go before easter; the last mile went quickly). 10 a (of a document, verse, song, etc.) Have a specified content or wording (the tune goes like this). B be current or accepted (so the story goes). C be suitable; fit; match (the shoes don’t go with the hat; those pinks don’t go). D be regularly kept or put (the forks go here). E find room; fit (this won’t go into the cupboard).
11 a turn out, proceed; take a course or view (things went well; liverpool went labour). B be successful (make the party go). 12 a be sold (went for £1; went cheap). B (of money) be spent. 13 a be relinquished or abolished (the car will have to go). B fail, decline; give way, collapse (his sight is going; the bulb has gone). 14 be acceptable or permitted; be accepted without question (anything goes; what i say goes). 15 (often foll. By by, with, on, upon) be guided by; judge or act on or in harmony with (have nothing to go on; a good rule to go by). 16 attend regularly (goes to school). 17 (foll. By pres. Part.) Colloq. Proceed (often foolishly) to do (went running to the police; don’t go making him angry). 18 act or proceed to a certain point (will go so far and no further; went as high as £100). 19 (of a number) be capable of being contained in another (6 into 5 won’t go). 20 (usu. Foll. By to) be allotted or awarded; pass (first prize went to the girl). 21 (foll. By to, towards) amount to; contribute to (12 inches go to make a foot; this will go towards your holiday). 22 (in imper.) Begin motion (a starter’s order in a race) (ready, steady, go!). 23 (usu. Foll. By by, under) be known or called (goes by the name of droopy). 24 colloq. Proceed to (go jump in the lake). 25 (foll. By for) apply to (that goes for me too). —n. (pl. Goes) 1 mettle; animation (has a lot of go in her). 2 vigorous activity (it’s all go). 3 colloq. Success (made a go of it). 4 colloq. Turn; attempt (i’ll have a go; it’s my go). — adj. Colloq. Functioning properly (all systems are go). go about 1 set to work at. 2 be socially active. 3 (foll. By pres. Part.) Make a habit of doing. Go ahead proceed without hesitation. Go along with agree to or with. Go back on fail to keep (a promise etc.). Go begging see *beg. Go down 1 a (of an amount) become less through use (coffee has gone down). B subside (the flood went down). C decrease in price. 2 a (of a ship) sink. B (of the sun) set. C (of a curtain) fall. 3 deteriorate; (of a computer system etc.) Cease to function. 4 be recorded in writing. 5 be swallowed. 6 (often foll. By with) find acceptance. 7 colloq. Leave university.
Goad —v. 1 urge on with a goad. 2 (usu. Foll. By on, into) irritate; stimulate. — n. 1 spiked stick used for urging cattle forward. 2 anything that torments or incites. [old english]
Go-ahead —n. Permission to proceed. —adj. Enterprising.
Goal n. 1 object of ambition or effort; destination. 2 a structure into or through
which the ball has to be sent to score in certain games. B point won. 3 point marking the finish of a race. [origin unknown]
Goalie n. Colloq. = *goalkeeper.
Goalkeeper n. Player defending a goal.
Goalpost n. Either of the two upright posts of a goal.
Goat n. 1 hardy domesticated mammal, with horns and (in the male) a beard. 2 lecherous man. 3 colloq. Foolish person. 4 (the goat) zodiacal sign or constellation capricorn. get a person’s goat colloq. Irritate a person. [old english]
Goatee n. Small pointed beard.
Goatherd n. Person who tends goats.
Goatskin n. 1 skin of a goat. 2 garment or bottle made of goatskin.
Gobbet n. 1 piece or lump of flesh, food, etc. 2 extract from a text, esp. One set for translation or comment. [french diminutive of gobe *gob2]
Gobble1 v. (-ling) eat hurriedly and noisily. [from *gob2]
Gobble2 v. (-ling) 1 (of a turkeycock) make a characteristic guttural sound. 2 make such a sound when speaking. [imitative]
Gobbledegook n. (also gobbledygook) colloq. Pompous or unintelligible jargon. [probably imitative of a turkeycock]
Go-between n. Intermediary.
Goblet n. Drinking-vessel with a foot and stem. [french diminutive of gobel cup]
Goblin n. Mischievous ugly dwarflike creature of folklore. [anglo-french]
Gobsmacked adj. Slang flabbergasted.
Gob-stopper n. Large hard sweet.
Goby n. (pl. -ies) small fish with ventral fins joined to form a disc or sucker.
Goby n. (pl. -ies) small fish with ventral fins joined to form a disc or sucker. [greek kobios *gudgeon1]
Go-cart n. Var. Of *go-kart.
God n. 1 a (in many religions) superhuman being or spirit worshipped as having power over nature, human fortunes, etc. B image, idol, etc., symbolizing a god. 2 (god) (in christian and other monotheistic religions) creator and ruler of the universe. 3 adored or greatly admired person. 4 (in pl.) Theatr. Gallery. god forbid may it not happen! God knows 1 it is beyond all knowledge. 2 i call god to witness that. God willing if providence allows. [old english]
Godchild n. Person in relation to his or her godparent.
God-daughter n. Female godchild.
Goddess n. 1 female deity. 2 adored woman.
Godfather n. 1 male godparent. 2 esp. Us person directing an illegal organization, esp. The mafia.
God-fearing adj. Earnestly religious.
God-forsaken adj. Dismal. Godhead n. (also godhead) 1 a state of being god or a god. B divine nature. 2 deity. 3 (the godhead) god.
Godless adj. 1 impious; wicked. 2 without a god. 3 not recognizing god.
godlessness n.
Godlike adj. Resembling god or a god.
Godly adj. (-ier, -iest) pious, devout. godliness n.
Godmother n. Female godparent.
Godparent n. Person who presents a child at baptism and responds on the child’s behalf.
Godsend n. Unexpected but welcome event or acquisition.
Godson n. Male godchild.
Godspeed int. Expression of good wishes to a person starting a journey.
Goer n. 1 person or thing that goes (slow goer). 2 (often in comb.) Person who
Goer n. 1 person or thing that goes (slow goer). 2 (often in comb.) Person who attends, esp. Regularly (churchgoer). 3 colloq. A lively or persevering person. B sexually promiscuous person.
Go-getter n. Colloq. Aggressively enterprising person.
Goggle —v. (-ling) 1 a (often foll. By at) look with wide-open eyes. B (of the eyes) be rolled about; protrude. 2 roll (the eyes). —adj. (usu. Attrib.) (of the eyes) protuberant or rolling. —n. (in pl.) Spectacles for protecting the eyes. [probably imitative]
Goggle-box n. Colloq. Television set.
Go-go adj. Colloq. (of a dancer, music, etc.) In modern style; lively, erotic, and rhythmic.
Going —n. 1 act or process of going. 2 a condition of the ground for walking, riding, etc. B progress affected by this. —adj. 1 in or into action (set the clock going). 2 existing, available (there’s cold beef going). 3 current, prevalent (the going rate). get going start steadily talking, working, etc. Going on fifteen etc. Esp. Us approaching one’s fifteenth etc. Birthday. Going on for approaching (a time, age, etc.). Going strong continuing vigorously. Going to intending to; about to. To be going on with to start with; for the time being. While the going is good while conditions are favourable.
Going concern n. Thriving business.
Going-over n. (pl. Goings-over) 1 colloq. Inspection or overhaul. 2 slang thrashing.
Goings-on n.pl. (esp. Morally suspect) behaviour.
Goiter n. (brit. Goitre) morbid enlargement of the thyroid gland. [latin guttur throat]
Goitre n. (us goiter) morbid enlargement of the thyroid gland. [latin guttur throat]
Go-kart n. (also go-cart) miniature racing car with a skeleton body.
Gold —n. 1 precious yellow metallic element. 2 colour of gold. 3 a coins or articles made of gold. B wealth. 4 something precious or beautiful. 5 = *gold medal. —adj. 1 made wholly or chiefly of gold. 2 coloured like gold. [old english]
Goldcrest n. Tiny bird with a golden crest.
Gold-digger n. Slang woman who cultivates men to obtain money from them.
Gold-dust n. Gold in fine particles as often found naturally.
Golden adj. 1 a made or consisting of gold. B yielding gold. 2 coloured or shining like gold (golden hair). 3 precious; excellent.
Golden age n. Period of a nation’s greatest prosperity, cultural merit, etc.
Golden eagle n. Large eagle with yellow-tipped head-feathers.
Golden handshake n. Colloq. Payment given on redundancy or early retirement.
Golden jubilee n. Fiftieth anniversary.
Golden mean n. The principle of moderation.
Golden retriever n. Retriever with a thick golden-coloured coat.
Golden rod n. Plant with a spike of yellow flowers.
Golden rule n. Basic principle of action, esp. ‘do as you would be done by’.
Golden wedding n. Fiftieth anniversary of a wedding.
Gold-field n. District in which gold occurs naturally.
Goldfinch n. Songbird with a yellow band across each wing.
Goldfish n. (pl. Same or -es) small reddish-golden chinese carp.
Gold foil n. Gold beaten into a thin sheet.
Gold leaf n. Gold beaten into a very thin sheet.
Gold medal n. Medal of gold, usu. Awarded as first prize.
Gold-mine n. 1 place where gold is mined. 2 colloq. Source of great wealth.
Gold plate n. 1 vessels made of gold. 2 material plated with gold.
Gold-plate v. Plate with gold.
Gold-rush n. Rush to a newly-discovered gold-field.
Goldsmith n. Worker in gold.
Gold standard n. System by which the value of a currency is defined in terms of gold.
Golf —n. Game in which a small hard ball is driven with clubs into a series of 18 or 9 holes with the fewest possible strokes. —v. Play golf. golfer n. [origin unknown]
Golf ball n. 1 ball used in golf. 2 colloq. Small ball used in some electric typewriters to carry the type.
Golf club n. 1 club used in golf. 2 association for playing golf. 3 premises of this.
Golf-course n. (also golf-links) course on which golf is played.
Golliwog n. Black-faced soft doll with fuzzy hair. [origin uncertain]
Golly1 int. Expressing surprise. [euphemism for *god]
Golly2 n. (pl. -ies) colloq. = *golliwog. [abbreviation]
Golosh var. Of *galosh.
Gonad n. Animal organ producing gametes, esp. The testis or ovary. [greek gone seed]
Gondola n. 1 light flat-bottomed boat used on venetian canals. 2 car suspended from an airship or balloon, or attached to a ski-lift. [italian]
Gondolier n. Oarsman on a gondola. [italian: related to *gondola]
Gone adj. 1 (of time) past (not until gone nine). 2 a lost; hopeless. B dead. 3 colloq. Pregnant for a specified time (already three months gone). 4 slang completely enthralled or entranced, esp. By rhythmic music, drugs, etc. be gone depart; leave temporarily (cf. begone). Gone on slang infatuated with. [past part. Of go1]
Goner n. Slang person or thing that is doomed or irrevocably lost.
Gong n. 1 metal disc with a turned rim, giving a resonant note when struck. 2 saucer-shaped bell. 3 slang medal. [malay]
Gonorrhea n. (brit. Gonorrhoea) venereal disease with inflammatory discharge from the urethra or vagina. [greek, = semen-flux]
Gonorrhoea n. (us gonorrhea) venereal disease with inflammatory discharge from the urethra or vagina. [greek, = semen-flux]
Goo n. Colloq. 1 sticky or slimy substance. 2 sickly sentiment. [origin unknown]
Good —adj. (better, best) 1 having the right or desired qualities; adequate. 2 a (of a person) efficient, competent (good at french; good driver). B effective, reliable (good brakes). 3 a kind. B morally excellent; virtuous (good deed). C well-behaved (good child). 4 enjoyable, agreeable (good party; good news). 5 thorough, considerable (a good wash). 6 a not less than (waited a good hour). B considerable in number, quality, etc. (a good many people). 7 beneficial (milk is good for you). 8 a valid, sound (good reason). B financially sound (his credit is good). 9 in exclamations of surprise (good heavens!). 10 (sometimes patronizing) commendable, worthy (good old george; my good man). 11 in courteous greetings and farewells (good morning). —n. 1 (only in sing.) That which is good; what is beneficial or morally right (only good can come of it; what good will it do?). 2 (in pl.) A movable property or merchandise. B things to be transported. C (prec. By the) colloq. What one has undertaken to supply (esp. Deliver the goods). —adv. Us colloq. Well (doing pretty good). as good as practically. Be (a certain amount) to the good have as net profit or advantage. For good (and all) finally, permanently. Good for 1 beneficial to; having a good effect on. 2 able to perform. 3 able to be trusted to pay. Good riddance see *riddance. Have the goods on a person slang have information about a person giving one an advantage over him or her. In good faith with honest or sincere intentions. In good time 1 with no risk of being late. 2 (also all in good time) in due course but without haste. To the good having as profit or benefit. [old english]
Good book n. (prec. By the) the bible.
Goodby (brit. Goodbye) —int. Expressing good wishes on parting, ending a telephone conversation, etc. —n. (pl. -byes or us -bys) parting; farewell. [from god be with you!]
Goodbye (us goodby) —int. Expressing good wishes on parting, ending a telephone conversation, etc. —n. (pl. -byes or us -bys) parting; farewell. [from god be with you!]
Goodness —n. 1 virtue; excellence. 2 kindness (had the goodness to wait). 3 what is beneficial in a thing. —int. (esp. As a substitution for ‘god’) expressing surprise, anger, etc. (goodness me!; goodness knows).
Good-tempered adj. Having a good temper; not easily annoyed.
Goodwill n. 1 kindly feeling. 2 established reputation of a business etc. As enhancing its value. 3 willingness to undertake unpaid duties.
Good will n. Intention that good will result (see also *goodwill).
Good works n.pl. Charitable acts.
Goody —n. (also goodie) (pl. -ies) 1 colloq. Good or favoured person. 2 (usu. In pl.) Something good or attractive, esp. To eat. —int. Expressing childish delight.
Goody-goody colloq. —n. (pl. -ies) smug or obtrusively virtuous person. —adj.
Goofy adj. (-ier, -iest) slang 1 stupid. 2 having protruding or crooked front teeth.
Googly n. (pl. -ies) cricket ball bowled so as to bounce in an unexpected direction. [origin unknown]
Goon n. Slang 1 stupid person. 2 esp. Us ruffian hired by racketeers etc. [origin uncertain]
Goose n. (pl. Geese) 1 a large water-bird with webbed feet and a broad bill. B female of this (opp. *gander 1). C flesh of a goose as food. 2 colloq. Simpleton. [old english]
Gooseberry n. (pl. -ies) 1 yellowish-green berry with juicy flesh. 2 thorny shrub bearing this. play gooseberry colloq. Be an unwanted extra person. [origin uncertain]
Goose-flesh n. (also goose-pimples; us goose-bumps) bristling state of the skin produced by cold, fright, etc.
Goose-step n. Military marching step in which the knees are kept stiff.
Gopher n. American burrowing rodent, ground-squirrel, or burrowing tortoise.
[origin uncertain]
Gordian adj. cut the gordian knot solve a problem by force or by evasion. [gordius king of phrygia, who tied a knot later cut by alexander the great]
Gore1 n. Blood shed and clotted. [old english, = dirt]
Gore2 v. (-ring) pierce with a horn, tusk, etc. [origin unknown]
Gore3 —n. 1 wedge-shaped piece in a garment. 2 triangular or tapering piece in an umbrella etc. —v. (-ring) shape (a garment) with a gore. [old english, = triangle of land]
Gorge —n. 1 narrow opening between hills. 2 act of gorging. 3 contents of the stomach. —v. (-ging) 1 feed greedily. 2 a (often refl.) Satiate. B devour greedily. one’s gorge rises at one is sickened by. [french, = throat]
Gorgon n. 1 (in greek mythology) each of three snake-haired sisters (esp. Medusa) with the power to turn anyone who looked at them to stone. 2 frightening or repulsive woman. [greek gorgos terrible]
Gorgonzola n. Type of rich cheese with bluish-green veins. [gorgonzola in italy]
Gorilla n. Largest anthropoid ape, native to africa. [greek, perhaps from african = wild man]
Gosh int. Expressing surprise. [euphemism for *god]
Goshawk n. Large short-winged hawk. [old english: related to goose, hawk1]
Gosling n. Young goose. [old norse: related to *goose]
Go-slow n. Working slowly, as a form of industrial action.
Gospel n. 1 teaching or revelation of christ. 2 (gospel) a record of christ’s life in the first four books of the new testament. B each of these books. C portion from
the first four books of the new testament. B each of these books. C portion from one of them read at a service. 3 (also gospel truth) thing regarded as absolutely true. 4 (in full gospel music) black american religious singing. [old english: related to *good, *spell1 = news]
Gossamer —n. 1 filmy substance of small spiders’ webs. 2 delicate filmy material. —adj. Light and flimsy as gossamer. [origin uncertain]
Gossip —n. 1 a unconstrained talk or writing, esp. About persons or social incidents. B idle talk. 2 person who indulges in gossip. —v. (-p-) talk or write gossip. gossipy adj. [old english, originally ‘godparent’, hence ‘familiar acquaintance’]
Gossip column n. Section of a newspaper devoted to gossip about well-known people. gossip columnist n.
Got past and past part. Of *get.
Goth n. 1 member of a germanic tribe that invaded the roman empire in the 3rd– 5th c. 2 uncivilized or ignorant person. [old english gota and greek gothoi]
Goth n. 1 style of rock music with an intense or droning blend of guitars, bass, and drums, often with apocalyptic or mystical lyrics. 2 performer or devotee of this music, or member of the subculture favouring black clothing and white-painted faces with black make-up.
Gothic —adj. 1 of the goths. 2 in the style of architecture prevalent in w. Europe in the 12th–16th c., characterized by pointed arches. 3 (of a novel etc.) In a style
in the 12th–16th c., characterized by pointed arches. 3 (of a novel etc.) In a style popular in the 18th–19th c., with supernatural or horrifying events. 4 barbarous, uncouth. —n. 1 gothic language. 2 gothic architecture. [latin: related to *goth]
Gotten us past part. Of *get.
Gouache n. 1 method of painting in opaque pigments ground in water and thickened with a gluelike substance. 2 these pigments. [french from italian]
Gouda n. Flat round usu. Dutch cheese. [gouda in holland]
Gouge —n. Chisel with a concave blade. —v. (-ging) 1 cut with or as with a gouge. 2 (foll. By out) force out (esp. An eye with the thumb) with or as with a gouge. [latin gubia]
Goulash n. Highly-seasoned hungarian stew of meat and vegetables. [magyar gulyás-hús, = herdsman’s meat]
Gourd n. 1 a fleshy usu. Large fruit with a hard skin. B climbing or trailing plant of the cucumber family bearing this. 2 dried skin of the gourd-fruit, used as a drinking-vessel etc. [latin cucurbita]
Gourmand n. 1 glutton. 2 gourmet. [french]
Usage the use of gourmand in sense 2 is considered incorrect by some people.
Gourmandise n. Gluttony.
Gourmet n. Connoisseur of good food. [french]
Gout n. Disease with inflammation of the smaller joints, esp. Of the toe. gouty adj. [latin gutta drop]
Govern v. 1 rule or control with authority; conduct the policy and affairs of. 2 influence or determine (a person or course of action). 3 be a standard or principle for. 4 check or control (esp. Passions). 5 gram. (esp. Of a verb or preposition) have (a noun or pronoun or its case) depending on it. [greek kubernao steer]
Governance n. 1 act or manner of governing. 2 function of governing. [french:
related to *govern]
Governess n. Woman employed to teach children in a private household.
Government n. 1 act or manner of governing. 2 system by which a state is governed. 3 a body of persons governing a state. B (usu. Government) particular ministry in office. 4 the state as an agent. governmental adj.
Governor n. 1 ruler. 2 a official governing a province, town, etc. B representative of the crown in a colony. 3 executive head of each state of the us. 4 officer commanding a fortress etc. 5 head or member of the governing body of an institution. 6 official in charge of a prison. 7 a slang one’s employer. B slang
one’s father. 8 mech. Automatic regulator controlling the speed of an engine etc.
governorship n.
Governor-general n. Representative of the crown in a commonwealth country that regards the queen as head of state.
Gown n. 1 loose flowing garment, esp. A woman’s long dress. 2 official robe of an alderman, judge, cleric, academic, etc. 3 surgeon’s overall. [latin gunna fur]
Goy n. (pl. -im or -s) jewish name for a non-jew. [hebrew, = people]
Gp abbr. General practitioner.
Gpo abbr. General post office.
Gr abbr. (also gr.) 1 gram(s). 2 grains. 3 gross.
Grab —v. (-bb-) 1 seize suddenly. 2 take greedily or unfairly. 3 slang attract the attention of, impress. 4 (foll. By at) snatch at. 5 (of brakes) act harshly or jerkily. —n. 1 sudden clutch or attempt to seize. 2 mechanical device for clutching. [low german or dutch]
Grace —n. 1 attractiveness, esp. In elegance of proportion or manner or movement. 2 courteous good will (had the grace to apologize). 3 attractive feature; accomplishment (social graces). 4 a (in christian belief) the unmerited favour of god. B state of receiving this. 5 goodwill, favour. 6 delay granted as a favour (a year’s grace). 7 short thanksgiving before or after a meal. 8 (grace) (in
greek mythology) each of three beautiful sister goddesses, bestowers of beauty and charm. 9 (grace) (prec. By his, her, your) forms of description or address for a duke, duchess, or archbishop. —v. (-cing) (often foll. By with) add grace to; confer honour on (graced us with his presence). with good (or bad) grace as if willingly (or reluctantly). [latin gratia]
Graceful adj. Having or showing grace or elegance. gracefully adv. Gracefulness n.
Graceless adj. Lacking grace, elegance, or charm.
Grace-note n. Mus. Extra note as an embellishment.
Gracious —adj. 1 kind; indulgent and beneficent to inferiors. 2 (of god) merciful, benign. —int. Expressing surprise. graciously adv. Graciousness n. [latin: related to *grace]
Gracious living n. Elegant way of life.
Gradate v. (-ting) 1 (cause to) pass gradually from one shade to another. 2 arrange in steps or grades of size etc.
Gradation n. (usu. In pl.) 1 stage of transition or advance. 2 a certain degree in rank, intensity, etc. B arrangement in such degrees. gradational adj. [latin: related to *grade]
Grade —n. 1 a certain degree in rank, merit, proficiency, etc. B class of persons or things of the same grade. 2 mark indicating the quality of a student’s work. 3 us class in school. 4 gradient, slope. —v. (-ding) 1 arrange in grades. 2 (foll. By up, down, off, into, etc.) Pass gradually between grades, or into a grade. 3 give a grade to (a student). 4 reduce (a road etc.) To easy gradients. [latin gradus step]
Gradient n. 1 stretch of road, railway, etc., that slopes. 2 amount of such a slope. [probably from *grade after salient]
Gradual adj. 1 progressing by degrees. 2 not rapid, steep, or abrupt. gradually adv. [latin: related to *grade]
Gradualism n. Policy of gradual reform.
Graduate —n. Person holding an academic degree. —v. (-ting) 1 obtain an academic degree. 2 (foll. By to) move up to (a higher grade of activity etc.). 3 mark out in degrees or parts. 4 arrange in gradations; apportion (e.g. Tax) according to a scale. graduation n. [medieval latin graduor take a degree: related to *grade]
Graeco-roman adj. Of the greeks and romans.
Graffiti n.pl. (sing. Graffito) writing or drawing scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface. [italian graffio a scratch]
Usage the singular or collective use of the form graffiti is considered incorrect by some people, but it is frequently found, e.g. Graffiti has appeared.
Graft1 —n. 1 bot. A shoot or scion inserted into a slit of stock, from which it receives sap. B place where a graft is inserted. 2 surgery piece of living tissue, organ, etc., transplanted surgically. 3 slang hard work. —v. 1 (often foll. By into, on, together, etc.) Insert (a scion) as a graft. 2 transplant (living tissue). 3 (foll. By in, on) insert or fix (a thing) permanently to another. 4 slang work hard. [greek graphion stylus]
Graft2 colloq. —n. 1 practices, esp. Bribery, used to secure illicit gains in politics or business. 2 such gains. —v. Seek or make such gains. [origin unknown]
Grail n. (in full holy grail) (in medieval legend) cup or platter used by christ at the last supper. [medieval latin gradalis dish]
Grain —n. 1 fruit or seed of a cereal. 2 (collect.) Wheat or any allied grass used as food; corn. 3 small hard particle of salt, sand, etc. 4 unit of weight, 0.0648 gram. 5 smallest possible quantity (not a grain of truth in it). 6 roughness of surface. 7 texture of skin, wood, stone, etc. 8 a pattern of lines of fibre in wood or paper. B lamination in stone etc. —v. 1 paint in imitation of the grain of wood etc. 2 give a granular surface to. 3 form into grains. against the grain contrary toone’s natural inclination or feeling. grainy adj. (-ier, -iest). [latin granum]
Gram n. (also gramme) metric unit of mass equal to one-thousandth of a kilogram. [greek gramma small weight]
-gram comb. Form forming nouns denoting a thing written or recorded (often in a certain way) (anagram; epigram; telegram). [greek gramma thing written]
Graminaceous adj. Of or like grass. [latin gramen grass]
Graminivorous adj. Feeding on grass, cereals, etc.
Grammar n. 1 the study or rules of a language’s inflections or other means of showing the relation between words. 2 observance or application of the rules of grammar (bad grammar). 3 book on grammar. [greek gramma letter]
Grammarian n. Expert in grammar or linguistics.
Grammar school n. Esp. Hist. Selective state secondary school with a mainly academic curriculum.
Grammatical adj. Of or conforming to the rules of grammar. grammatically adv.
Gramme var. Of *gram.
Gramophone n. = *record-player. [inversion of phonogram: as phono-, -gram]
Gramophone record = *record n. 3.
Grampus n. (pl. -puses) a kind of dolphin with a blunt snout. [latin crassus piscis
Grampus n. (pl. -puses) a kind of dolphin with a blunt snout. [latin crassus piscis fat fish]
Gran n. Colloq. Grandmother. [abbreviation]
Granadilla n. Passion-fruit. [spanish, diminutive of granada pomegranate]
Granary n. (pl. -ies) 1 storehouse for threshed grain. 2 region producing, and esp. Exporting, much corn. [latin: related to *grain]
Grand —adj. 1 splendid, magnificent, imposing, dignified. 2 main; of chief importance. 3 (grand) of the highest rank (grand duke). 4 colloq. Excellent, enjoyable. 5 belonging to high society. 6 (in comb.) (in names of family relationships) denoting the second degree of ascent or descent (granddaughter). —n. 1 = *grand piano. 2 (pl. Same) (usu. In pl.) Esp. Us slang a thousand dollars or pounds. grandly adv. Grandness n. [latin grandis full-grown]
Grandad n. (also grand-dad) colloq. 1 grandfather. 2 elderly man.
Grandchild n. Child of one’s son or daughter.
Granddaughter n. Female grandchild.
Grandee n. 1 spanish or portuguese nobleman of the highest rank. 2 person of high rank. [spanish and portuguese grande: related to *grand]
Grandeur n. 1 majesty, splendour; dignity of appearance or bearing. 2 high rank, eminence. 3 nobility of character. [french: related to *grand]
Grandfather n. Male grandparent.
Grandfather clock n. Clock in a tall wooden case, driven by weights.
Grandiloquent adj. Pompous or inflated in language. grandiloquence n. [latin:
related to *grand, -loquus from loquor speak]
Grandiose adj. 1 producing or meant to produce an imposing effect. 2 planned on an ambitious scale. grandiosity n. [italian: related to *grand]
Grand jury n. Esp. Us jury selected to examine the validity of an accusation prior to trial.
Grandma n. Colloq. Grandmother.
Grand mal n. Serious form of epilepsy with loss of consciousness. [french, = great sickness]
Grand master n. Chess-player of the highest class.
Grandmother n. Female grandparent.
Grandmother n. Female grandparent.
Grand national n. Steeplechase held annually at aintree, liverpool.
Grand opera n. Opera on a serious theme, or in which the entire libretto (including dialogue) is sung.
Grandpa n. Colloq. Grandfather.
Grandparent n. Parent of one’s father or mother.
Grand piano n. Large full-toned piano with horizontal strings.
Grand prix n. Any of several important international motor or motor-cycle racing events. [french, = great or chief prize]
Grandsire n. Archaic grandfather.
Grand slam n. 1 sport winning of all of a group of matches etc. 2 bridge winning of 13 tricks.
Grandson n. Male grandchild.
Grandstand n. Main stand for spectators at a racecourse etc.
Grand total n. Sum of other totals.
Grand tour n. Hist. Cultural tour of europe.
Grange n. Country house with farm-buildings. [latin granica: related to *grain]
Graniferous adj. Producing grain or a grainlike seed. [latin: related to *grain]
Granite n. Granular crystalline rock of quartz, mica, etc., used for building. [italian granito: related to *grain]
Granivorous adj. Feeding on grain. [latin: related to *grain]
Granny n. (also grannie) (pl. -ies) colloq. Grandmother. [diminutive of grannam from archaic grandam: related to *grand, *dame]
Granny flat n. Part of a house made into self-contained accommodation for an elderly relative.
Granny knot n. Reef-knot crossed the wrong way and therefore insecure.
Grant —v. 1 a consent to fulfil (a request etc.). B allow (a person) to have (a thing). 2 give formally; transfer legally. 3 (often foll. By that) admit as true; concede. —n. 1 process of granting. 2 sum of money given by the state. 3 legal conveyance by written instrument. take for granted 1 assume something to be true or valid. 2 cease to appreciate through familiarity. grantor n. (esp. In sense 2 of v.). [french gr(e)anter var. Of creanter from latin credo entrust]
Grant-maintained adj. (of a school) funded by central rather than local government.
Granular adj. Of or like grains or granules. granularity n. [latin: related to *granule]
Granulate v. (-ting) 1 form into grains. 2 roughen the surface of. granulation n.
Granule n. Small grain. [latin diminutive of granum: related to *grain]
Grape n. Berry (usu. Green, purple, or black) growing in clusters on a vine, used as fruit and in making wine. [french, probably from grappe hook]
Grapefruit n. (pl. Same) large round usu. Yellow citrus fruit.
Grape hyacinth n. Plant of the lily family with clusters of usu. Blue flowers.
Grapeshot n. Hist. Small balls used as charge in a cannon and scattering when fired.
Grapevine n. 1 vine. 2 colloq. The means of transmission of a rumour.
Graph —n. Diagram showing the relation between variable quantities, usu. Of two variables, each measured along one of a pair of axes. —v. Plot or trace on a graph. [abbreviation of graphic formula]
-graph comb. Form forming nouns and verbs meaning: 1 thing written or drawn etc. In a specified way (photograph). 2 instrument that records (seismograph).
-grapher comb. Form forming nouns denoting a person concerned with a subject (geographer; radiographer). [greek -grapho write]
Grape hyacinth n. Plant of the lily family with clusters of usu. Blue flowers.
Grapeshot n. Hist. Small balls used as charge in a cannon and scattering when fired.
Grapevine n. 1 vine. 2 colloq. The means of transmission of a rumour.
Graph —n. Diagram showing the relation between variable quantities, usu. Of two variables, each measured along one of a pair of axes. —v. Plot or trace on a graph. [abbreviation of graphic formula]
-graph comb. Form forming nouns and verbs meaning: 1 thing written or drawn etc. In a specified way (photograph). 2 instrument that records (seismograph).
-grapher comb. Form forming nouns denoting a person concerned with a subject (geographer; radiographer). [greek -grapho write]
Graphic adj. 1 of or relating to the visual or descriptive arts, esp. Writing and drawing. 2 vividly descriptive. graphically adv. [greek graphe writing]
-graphic comb. Form (also -graphical) forming adjectives corresponding to nouns in -graphy.
Graphic arts n.pl. Visual and technical arts involving design or the use of lettering.
Graphic novel n. Novel in comic-strip format.
Graphics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) 1 products of the graphic arts. 2 use of diagrams in calculation and design.
Graphite n. Crystalline allotropic form of carbon used as a lubricant, in pencils, etc. graphitic adj. [german graphit from greek grapho write]
Graphology n. The study of handwriting, esp. As a supposed guide to character. graphologist n. [greek: related to *graphic]
Graph paper n. Paper printed with a network of lines as a basis for drawing graphs.
-graphy comb. Form forming nouns denoting: 1 descriptive science (geography).
2 technique of producing images (photography). 3 style or method of writing etc.
(calligraphy).
Grapnel n. 1 device with iron claws, for dragging or grasping. 2 small anchor with several flukes. [french grapon: related to *grape]
Grapple —v. (-ling) 1 (often foll. By with) fight in close combat. 2 (foll. By with) try to manage (a difficult problem etc.). 3 a grip with the hands; come to close quarters with. B seize with or as with a grapnel. —n. 1 a hold or grip in or as in wrestling. B contest at close quarters. 2 clutching-instrument; grapnel. [french grapil: related to *grapnel]
Grappling-iron n. (also grappling-hook) = *grapnel.
Grasp —v. 1 a clutch at; seize greedily. B hold firmly. 2 (foll. By at) try to seize; accept avidly. 3 understand or realize (a fact or meaning). —n. 1 firm hold; grip. 2 (foll. By of) a mastery (a grasp of the situation). B mental hold. grasp the nettle tackle a difficulty boldly. [earlier grapse: related to *grope]
Grasping adj. Avaricious.
Grass —n. 1 a any of a group of wild plants with green blades that are eaten by ruminants. B plant of the family which includes cereals, reeds, and bamboos. 2 pasture land. 3 grass-covered ground, lawn. 4 grazing (out to grass). 5 slang marijuana. 6 slang informer. —v. 1 cover with turf. 2 us provide with pasture. 3 slang a betray, esp. To the police. B inform the police. grassy adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Grasshopper n. Jumping and chirping insect.
Grassland n. Large open area covered with grass, esp. Used for grazing.
Grass roots n.pl. 1 fundamental level or source. 2 ordinary people; rank and file of an organization, esp. A political party.
Grass snake n. Common harmless european snake.
Grass widow n. (also grass widower) person whose husband (or wife) is away for a prolonged period.
Grate1 v. (-ting) 1 reduce to small particles by rubbing on a serrated surface. 2 (often foll. By against, on) rub with a harsh scraping sound. 3 utter in a harsh tone. 4 (often foll. By on) a sound harshly. B have an irritating effect.
Grate2 n. 1 fireplace or furnace. 2 metal frame confining fuel in this. [latin cratis hurdle]
gratefully adv. [obsolete grate from latin gratus]
Gratify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 a please, delight. B please by compliance. 2 yield to (a feeling or desire). gratification n. [latin: related to *grateful]
Grating n. 1 framework of parallel or crossed metal bars. 2 optics set of parallel wires, lines ruled on glass, etc.
Gratis adv. & adj. Free; without charge. [latin]
Gratitude n. Being thankful; readiness to return kindness. [latin: related to *grateful]
Gratuitous adj. 1 given or done free of charge. 2 uncalled-for; lacking good reason. gratuitously adv. Gratuitousness n. [latin, = spontaneous]
Gratuity n. (pl. -ies) = tip3 n. 1. [latin: related to grateful]
Grave1 n. 1 trench dug in the ground for the burial of a corpse; mound or memorial stone placed over this. 2 (prec. By the) death. [old english]
Grave2 —adj. 1 a serious, weighty, important. B dignified, solemn, sombre. 2 extremely serious or threatening. —n. = *grave accent. gravely adv. [latin gravis heavy]
Grave3 v. (-ving; past part. Graven or graved) 1 (foll. By in, on) fix indelibly (on one’s memory). 2 archaic engrave, carve. [old english]
Grave accent n. A mark (`) placed over a vowel to denote pronunciation, length, etc.
Gravedigger n. Person who digs graves.
Gravel —n. 1 mixture of coarse sand and small stones, used for paths etc. 2 med. Aggregations of crystals formed in the urinary tract. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) lay or strew with gravel. [french diminutive, perhaps of grave shore]
Gravelly adj. 1 of or like gravel. 2 (of a voice) deep and rough-sounding.
Graven past part. Of *grave3.
Graven image n. Idol.
Graves n. Light usu. White wine from graves in france.
Gravestone n. Stone (usu. Inscribed) marking a grave.
Graveyard n. Burial ground.
Gravid adj. Pregnant. [latin gravidus: related to *grave2]
Gravimeter n. Instrument measuring the difference in the force of gravity between two places. [latin: related to *grave2]
Gravimetry n. Measurement of weight. gravimetric adj.
Gravitate v. (-ting) 1 (foll. By to, towards) move or be attracted to. 2 a move or tend by force of gravity towards. B sink by or as if by gravity. [related to *grave2]
Gravitation n. Physics 1 force of attraction between any particle of matter in the universe and any other. 2 effect of this, esp. The falling of bodies to the earth. gravitational adj.
Gravity n. 1 a force that attracts a body to the centre of the earth etc. B degree of intensity of this. C gravitational force. 2 property of having weight. 3 a importance, seriousness. B solemnity. [latin: related to *grave2]
Gravy n. (pl. -ies) 1 juices exuding from meat during and after cooking. 2 sauce for food, made from these etc. [perhaps from a misreading of french grané from grain spice, *grain]
Gravy-boat n. Boat-shaped vessel for serving gravy.
Gravy train n. Slang source of easy financial benefit.
Gray (brit. Grey) —adj. 1 of a colour intermediate between black and white. 2 dull, dismal. 3 a (of hair) turning white with age etc. B having grey hair. 4 anonymous, unidentifiable. —n. 1 a grey colour or pigment. B grey clothes or material (dressed in grey). 2 grey or white horse. —v. Make or become grey. greyish adj. Greyness n. [old english]
Grayling n. (pl. Same) silver-grey freshwater fish. [from *grey, *-ling]
Graze1 v. (-zing) 1 (of cattle, sheep, etc.) Eat growing grass. 2 a feed (cattle etc.) On growing grass. B feed on (grass). 3 pasture cattle. [old english: related to *grass]
Graze2 —v. (-zing) 1 rub or scrape (part of the body, esp. The skin). 2 a touch lightly in passing. B (foll. By against, along, etc.) Move with a light passing contact. —n. Abrasion. [perhaps from *graze1, as if ‘take off the grass close to the ground’]
Grazier n. 1 person who feeds cattle for market. 2 austral. Large-scale sheep-farmer etc. [from *grass]
Grazing n. Grassland suitable for pasturage.
Grease —n. 1 oily or fatty matter, esp. As a lubricant. 2 melted fat of a dead
animal. —v. (-sing) smear or lubricate with grease. grease the palm of colloq.
animal. —v. (-sing) smear or lubricate with grease. grease the palm of colloq. Bribe. [latin crassus (adj.) Fat]
Greasepaint n. Make-up used by actors.
Greaseproof adj. Impervious to grease.
Greaser n. Slang member of a gang of youths with long hair and motor cycles.
Greasy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 a of or like grease. B smeared or covered with grease. C containing or having too much grease. 2 a slippery. B (of a person or manner) unpleasantly unctuous. greasily adv. Greasiness n.
Great —adj. 1 a of a size, amount, extent, or intensity considerably above the normal or average (a great hole; great fun). B also with implied admiration, contempt, etc., esp. In exclamations (you great idiot!; great stuff!). C reinforcing other words denoting size, quantity, etc. (great big hole). 2 important, pre-eminent (the great thing is not to get caught). 3 grand, imposing (great occasion). 4 distinguished. 5 remarkable in ability, character, etc. (great men; great thinker). 6 (foll. By at, on) competent, well-informed. 7 fully deserving the name of; doing a thing extensively (great reader; great believer in tolerance). 8 (also greater) the larger of the name, species, etc. (great auk; greater celandine). 9 colloq. Very enjoyable or satisfactory (had a great time). 10 (in comb.) (in names of family relationships) denoting one degree further removed upwards or downwards (great-uncle; great-great-grandmother). —n. 1 great or outstanding person or thing. 2 (in pl.) (greats) colloq. (at oxford university) honours course or final examinations in classics and philosophy. greatness n. [old english]
Great bear see *bear2.
Great circle n. Circle on the surface of a sphere whose plane passes through the sphere’s centre.
Greatcoat n. Heavy overcoat.
Great dane n. Dog of a large short-haired breed.
Great deal n. = *deal1 n. 1.
Greatly adv. Much; by a considerable amount (greatly admired; greatly superior).
Great tit n. Eurasian songbird with black and white head markings.
Great war n. World war of 1914–18.
Greave n. (usu. In pl.) Armour for the shin. [french, = shin]
Grebe n. A kind of diving bird. [french]
Grecian adj. (of architecture or facial outline) greek. [latin graecia greece]
Grecian nose n. Straight nose that continues the line of the forehead without a dip.
Greed n. Excessive desire, esp. For food or wealth. [from *greedy]
Greedy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having or showing greed. 2 (foll. By for, or to + infin.) Very eager. greedily adv. Greediness n. [old english]
Greek —n. 1 a native or national of greece. B person of greek descent. 2 language of greece. —adj. Of greece or its people or language; hellenic. greek to me colloq. Incomprehensible to me. [old english ultimately from greek graikoi]
Greek cross n. Cross with four equal arms.
Green —adj. 1 of the colour between blue and yellow in the spectrum; coloured like grass. 2 covered with leaves or grass. 3 (of fruit etc. Or wood) unripe or unseasoned. 4 not dried, smoked, or tanned. 5 inexperienced, gullible. 6 a (of the complexion) pale, sickly-hued. B jealous, envious. 7 young, flourishing. 8 not withered or worn out (a green old age).
Green belt n. Area of open land round a city, designated for preservation.
Green card n. International insurance document for motorists.
Greenery n. Green foliage or growing plants.
Green-eyed adj. Colloq. Jealous.
Greenfinch n. Finch with green and yellow plumage.
Green fingers n. Colloq. Skill in growing plants.
Greenfly n. 1 green aphid. 2 these collectively.
Greengage n. Roundish green variety of plum. [sir w. Gage, name of a botanist]
Greengrocer n. Retailer of fruit and vegetables.
Greengrocery n. (pl. -ies) 1 greengrocer’s business. 2 goods sold by a greengrocer.
Greenhorn n. Inexperienced person; new recruit.
Greenhouse n. Light structure with the sides and roof mainly of glass, for rearing plants.
Greenhouse effect n. Trapping of the sun’s warmth in the lower atmosphere of the earth, caused by an increase in carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
Greenhouse gas n. Any of the gases, esp. Carbon dioxide and methane, that contribute to the greenhouse effect.
Green light n. 1 signal to proceed on a road, railway, etc. 2 colloq. Permission to proceed with a project.
Green paper n. Preliminary report of government proposals, for discussion.
Green pound n. Exchange rate for the pound for payments for agricultural produce in the ec.
Green revolution n. Greatly increased crop production in underdeveloped countries.
Green-room n. Room in a theatre for actors and actresses who are off stage.
Green-stick fracture n. Bone-fracture, esp. In children, in which one side of the bone is broken and one only bent.
Greenstuff n. Vegetation; green vegetables.
Greensward n. Expanse of grassy turf.
Green tea n. Tea made from steam-dried leaves.
Greenwich mean time n. Local time on the meridian of greenwich, used as an international basis of time-reckoning.
Greenwood n. A wood in summer.
Greeny adj. Greenish.
Greet1 v. 1 address politely or welcomingly on meeting or arrival. 2 receive or acknowledge in a specified way. 3 (of a sight, sound, etc.) Become apparent to or noticed by. [old english]
Greet2 v. Scot. Weep. [old english]
Greeting n. 1 act or instance of welcoming etc. 2 words, gestures, etc., used to greet a person. 3 (often in pl.) Expression of goodwill.
Greetings card n. Decorative card sent to convey greetings.
Gregarious adj. 1 fond of company. 2 living in flocks or communities. gregariousness n. [latin grex gregis flock]
gregariousness n. [latin grex gregis flock]
Gregorian calendar n. Calendar introduced in 1582 by pope gregory xiii.
Gregorian chant n. Plainsong ritual music, named after pope gregory i.
Gremlin n. Colloq. Imaginary mischievous sprite regarded as responsible for mechanical faults etc. [origin unknown]
Grenade n. Small bomb thrown by hand (hand-grenade) or shot from a rifle. [french: related to *pomegranate]
Grenadier n. 1 (grenadiers or grenadier guards) first regiment of the royal household infantry. 2 hist. Soldier armed with grenades.
Grew past of *grow.
Grey (us gray) —adj. 1 of a colour intermediate between black and white. 2 dull, dismal. 3 a (of hair) turning white with age etc. B having grey hair. 4 anonymous, unidentifiable. —n. 1 a grey colour or pigment. B grey clothes or material (dressed in grey). 2 grey or white horse. —v. Make or become grey. greyish adj. Greyness n. [old english]
Grey area n. Situation or topic not clearly defined.
Grey friar n. Franciscan friar.
Greyhound n. Dog of a tall slender breed capable of high speed. [old english, = bitch-hound]
Greylag n. (in full greylag goose) european wild goose. [from *grey]
Grey matter n. 1 the darker tissues of the brain and spinal cord. 2 colloq.
Intelligence.
Grey squirrel n. American squirrel brought to europe in the 19th c.
Grid n. 1 grating. 2 system of numbered squares printed on a map and forming the basis of map references. 3 network of lines, electric-power connections, gas-supply lines, etc. 4 pattern of lines marking the starting-places on a motor-racing track. 5 perforated electrode controlling the flow of electrons in a thermionic valve etc. 6 arrangement of town streets in a rectangular pattern. [from *gridiron]
Griddle n. Circular iron plate placed over a source of heat for baking etc. [latin cratis hurdle]
Gridiron n. Cooking utensil of metal bars for broiling or grilling. [related to *griddle]
Grief n. 1 intense sorrow. 2 cause of this. come to grief meet with disaster.
[french: related to *grieve]
Grievance n. Real or fancied cause for complaint. [french: related to *grief]
Grieve v. (-ving) 1 cause grief to. 2 suffer grief. [latin: related to *grave2]
Grievous bodily harm n. Law serious injury inflicted intentionally.
Griffin n. (also gryphon) fabulous creature with an eagle’s head and wings and a lion’s body. [latin gryphus from greek]
Griffon n. 1 dog of a small terrier-like breed. 2 large vulture. 3 = griffin. [french,
griffin]
Grill —n. 1 a device on a cooker for radiating heat downwards. B = gridiron. 2 food cooked on a grill. 3 (in full grill room) restaurant specializing in grilled food. —v. 1 cook or be cooked under a grill or on a gridiron. 2 subject or be subjected to extreme heat. 3 subject to severe questioning. [french: related to griddle]
Grille n. (also grill) 1 grating or latticed screen, used as a partition etc. 2 metal grid protecting the radiator of a vehicle.
Grilse n. (pl. Same or -s) young salmon that has returned to fresh water from the sea for the first time. [origin unknown]
Grim adj. (grimmer, grimmest) 1 of stern or forbidding appearance. 2 harsh, merciless. 3 ghastly, joyless (has a grim truth in it). 4 unpleasant, unattractive. grimly adv. Grimness n. [old english]
Grimace —n. Distortion of the face made in disgust etc. Or to amuse. —v. (-cing) make a grimace. [french from spanish]
Grime —n. Soot or dirt ingrained in a surface. —v. (-ming) blacken with grime; befoul. griminess n. Grimy adj. (-ier, -iest). [low german or dutch]
Grin —v. (-nn-) 1 a smile broadly, showing the teeth. B make a forced, unrestrained, or stupid smile. 2 express by grinning. —n. Act of grinning. grin and bear it take pain etc. Stoically. [old english]
Grind —v. (past and past part. Ground) 1 reduce to small particles or powder by crushing. 2 a sharpen or smooth by friction. B rub or rub together gratingly. 3 (often foll. By down) oppress; harass with exactions. 4 a (often foll. By away) work or study hard. B (foll. By out) produce with effort. —n. 1 act or instance of grinding. 2 colloq. Hard dull work (the daily grind). 3 size of ground particles. grind to a halt stop laboriously.
Grinder n. 1 person or thing that grinds, esp. A machine. 2 molar tooth.
Grindstone n. 1 thick revolving disc used for grinding, sharpening, and
polishing. 2 a kind of stone used for this. keep one’s nose to the grindstone work hard and continuously.
Grip —v. (-pp-) 1 a grasp tightly. B take a firm hold, esp. By friction. 2 compel the attention of. —n. 1 a firm hold; tight grasp. B manner of grasping or holding. 2 power of holding attention. 3 a intellectual mastery. B effective control of one’s behaviour etc. (lose one’s grip). 4 a part of a machine that grips. B part by which a weapon etc. Is held. 5 = *hairgrip. 6 travelling bag. come (or get) to grips with approach purposefully; begin to deal with. [old english]
Grit —n. 1 particles of stone or sand, esp. As irritating or hindering. 2 coarse sandstone. 3 colloq. Pluck, endurance. —v. (-tt-) 1 spread grit on (icy roads etc.). 2 clench (the teeth). 3 make a grating sound. gritter n. Gritty adj. (-ier, -iest). [old english]
Grits n.pl. 1 coarsely ground grain, esp. Oatmeal. 2 oats that have been husked but not ground. [old english]
Grizzle v. (-ling) colloq. 1 (esp. Of a child) cry fretfully. 2 complain whiningly. grizzly adj. [origin unknown]
Grizzled adj. 1 (of hair) grey or streaked with grey. 2 having grizzled hair. [grizzle grey from french grisel]
Grizzly —adj. (-ier, -iest) grey, grey-haired. —n. (pl. -ies) (in full grizzly bear) large variety of brown bear, found in n. America and n. Russia.
Groan —v. 1 a make a deep sound expressing pain, grief, or disapproval. B utter with groans. 2 (usu. Foll. By under, beneath, with) be loaded or oppressed. —n. Sound made in groaning. [old english]
Groat n. Hist. Silver coin worth four old pence. [low german or dutch: related to *great]
Groats n.pl. Hulled or crushed grain, esp. Oats. [old english]
Grocer n. Dealer in food and household provisions. [anglo-french grosser from latin grossus *gross]
Grocery n. (pl. -ies) 1 grocer’s trade or shop. 2 (in pl.) Goods, esp. Food, sold by a grocer.
Grog n. Drink of spirit (orig. Rum) and water. [origin uncertain]
Groggy adj. (-ier, -iest) incapable or unsteady. groggily adv. Grogginess n.
Groin1 —n. 1 depression between the belly and the thigh. 2 archit. A edge formed by intersecting vaults. B arch supporting a vault. —v. Archit. Build with groins. [origin uncertain]
Groin n. (brit. Groyne) timber, stone, or concrete wall built at right angles to the coast to check beach erosion. [dial. Groin snout, from french]
Grommet n. (also grummet) 1 metal, plastic, or rubber eyelet placed in a hole to protect or insulate a rope or cable etc. Passed through it. 2 tube passed through the eardrum to make a communication with the middle ear. [french]
Groom —n. 1 person employed to take care of horses. 2 = *bridegroom. 3 mil. Any of certain officers of the royal household. —v. 1 a curry or tend (a horse). B give a neat appearance to (a person etc.).
Groove —n. 1 channel or elongated hollow, esp. One made to guide motion or receive a corresponding ridge. 2 spiral track cut in a gramophone record. —v. (-ving) 1 make a groove or grooves in. 2 slang enjoy oneself. [dutch]
Groovy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 slang excellent. 2 of or like a groove.
Grope —v. (-ping) 1 (usu. Foll. By for) feel about or search blindly. 2 (foll. By for, after) search mentally. 3 feel (one’s way) towards something. 4 slang fondle clumsily for sexual pleasure. —n. Act of groping. [old english]
Grosgrain n. Corded fabric of silk etc. [french, = coarse grain: related to *gross, *grain]
Gros point n. Cross-stitch embroidery on canvas. [french: related to *gross, *point]
Gross —adj. 1 overfed, bloated. 2 (of a person, manners, or morals) coarse, unrefined, or indecent. 3 flagrant (gross negligence). 4 total; not net (gross tonnage). 5 (of the senses etc.) Dull. —v. Produce as gross profit. —n. (pl.
Same) amount equal to twelve dozen. grossly adv. Grossness n. [latin grossus]
Gross domestic product n. Total value of goods produced and services provided in a country in one year.
Gross national product n. Gross domestic product plus the total of net income from abroad.
Grotesque —adj. 1 comically or repulsively distorted. 2 incongruous, absurd. — n. 1 decorative form interweaving human and animal features. 2 comically distorted figure or design. grotesquely adv. Grotesqueness n. [italian: related to *grotto]
Grotto n. (pl. -es or -s) 1 picturesque cave. 2 artificial ornamental cave. [italian grotta from greek krupte *crypt]
Grouch colloq. —v. Grumble. —n. 1 discontented person. 2 fit of grumbling or the sulks. grouchy adj. (-ier, -iest). [related to *grudge]
Ground1 —n. 1 a surface of the earth, esp. As contrasted with the air around it. B part of this specified in some way (low ground). 2 a position, area, or distance on the earth’s surface. B extent of a subject dealt with (the book covers a lot of ground). 3 (often in pl.) Reason, justification. 4 area of a special kind or use (often in comb.: cricket-ground; fishing-grounds). 5 (in pl.) Enclosed land attached to a house etc. 6 area or basis for agreement etc. (common ground). 7 (in painting etc.) The surface giving the predominant colour. 8 (in pl.) Solid particles, esp. Of coffee, forming a residue. 9 us electr. = *earth n. 4. 10 bottom of the sea. 11 floor of a room etc. 12 (in full ground bass) mus. Short theme in the bass constantly repeated with the upper parts of the music varied. 13 (attrib.) (of animals) living on or in the ground; (of plants) dwarfish or trailing. —v. 1 refuse authority for (a pilot or an aircraft) to fly. 2 a run (a ship) aground; strand. B (of a ship) run aground. 3 (foll. By in) instruct thoroughly (in a subject). 4 (often as grounded adj.) (foll. By on) base (a principle, conclusion, etc.) On. 5 us electr. = *earth v. break new (or fresh) ground treat a subject previously not dealt with. Get off the ground colloq. Make a successful start. Give (or lose) ground retreat, decline. Go to ground 1 (of a fox etc.) Enter its earth etc. 2 (of a person) become inaccessible for a prolonged period. Hold one’s ground not retreat. On the grounds of because of. [old english]
Ground2 past and past part. Of *grind.
Ground control n. Personnel directing the landing etc. Of aircraft etc.
Ground cover n. Low-growing plants covering the surface of the earth.
Ground elder n. Garden weed spreading by means of underground stems.
Ground floor n. Floor of a building at ground level.
Ground frost n. Frost on the surface of the ground or in the top layer of soil.
Ground glass n. 1 glass made non-transparent by grinding etc. 2 glass ground to a powder.
Grounding n. Basic training or instruction.
Groundless adj. Without motive or foundation.
Groundnut n. = *peanut 1, 2.
Ground-plan n. 1 plan of a building at ground level. 2 general outline of a scheme.
Ground-rent n. Rent for land leased for building.
Groundsel n. Wild plant with small yellow flowers, used as a food for cage-birds etc. [old english]
Groundsheet n. Waterproof sheet for spreading on the ground.
Groundsman n. Person who maintains a sports ground.
Ground speed n. Aircraft’s speed relative to the ground.
Ground swell n. Heavy sea caused by a distant or past storm or an earthquake.
Groundwater n. Water found in soil or in pores, crevices, etc., in rock.
Groundwork n. Preliminary or basic work.
Group —n. 1 number of persons or things located close together, or considered or classed together. 2 number of people working together etc. 3 number of commercial companies under common ownership. 4 ensemble playing popular music. 5 division of an air force etc. —v. 1 form or be formed into a group. 2 (often foll. By with) place in a group or groups. [italian gruppo]
Group captain n. Raf officer next below air commodore.
Group captain n. Raf officer next below air commodore.
Groupie n. Slang ardent follower of touring pop groups, esp. A young woman seeking sexual relations with them.
Group therapy n. Therapy in which people are brought together to assist one another psychologically.
Grouse1 n. (pl. Same) 1 game-bird with a plump body and feathered legs. 2 its flesh as food. [origin uncertain]
Grout —n. Thin fluid mortar. —v. Provide or fill with grout. [origin uncertain]
Grove n. Small wood or group of trees. [old english]
Grovel v. (-ll-; us -l-) 1 behave obsequiously. 2 lie prone in abject humility. grovelling adj. [obsolete grovelling (adv.) From old norse á grúfu face down]
Grow v. (past grew; past part. Grown) 1 increase in size, height, quantity, degree, etc. 2 develop or exist as a living plant or natural product. 3 a produce (plants etc.) By cultivation. B allow (a beard etc.) To develop. 4 become gradually (grow rich). 5 (foll. By on) become gradually more favoured by. 6 (in
passive; foll. By over etc.) Be covered with a growth. grow out of 1 become too large to wear. 2 become too mature to retain (a habit etc.). 3 develop from. Grow up 1 advance to maturity. 2 (of a custom) arise. [old english]
Grower n. 1 (often in comb.) Person growing produce (fruit-grower). 2 plant that grows in a specified way (fast grower).
Growing pains n.pl. 1 early difficulties in the development of a project etc. 2 neuralgic pain in children’s legs due to fatigue etc.
Growl —v. 1 a (often foll. By at) make a low guttural sound, usu. Of anger. B murmur angrily. 2 rumble. 3 (often foll. By out) utter with a growl. —n. 1 growling sound. 2 angry murmur. 3 rumble. [probably imitative]
Grown past part. Of *grow.
Grown-up —adj. Adult. —n. Adult person.
Growth n. 1 act or process of growing. 2 increase in size or value. 3 something that has grown or is growing. 4 med. Morbid formation.
Growth industry n. Industry that is developing rapidly.
Groyne n. (us groin) timber, stone, or concrete wall built at right angles to the coast to check beach erosion. [dial. Groin snout, from french]
Grub —n. 1 larva of an insect. 2 colloq. Food. —v. (-bb-) 1 dig superficially. 2 (foll. By up, out) a extract by digging. B extract (information etc.) By searching in books etc. 3 rummage. [old english]
Grubby adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 dirty. 2 of or infested with grubs. grubbily adv.
Grubbiness n.
Grudge —n. Persistent feeling of ill will or resentment. —v. (-ging) 1 be resentfully unwilling to give or allow. 2 (foll. By verbal noun or to + infin.) Be reluctant to do. [french]
Gruel n. Liquid food of oatmeal etc. Boiled in milk or water. [french from germanic]
Grueling adj. (brit. Gruelling) extremely demanding or tiring.
Gruelling adj. (us grueling) extremely demanding or tiring.
Grunt —n. 1 low guttural sound made by a pig. 2 similar sound. —v. 1 make a grunt. 2 make a similar sound, esp. To express discontent. 3 utter with a grunt. [old english, imitative]
Gruyère n. A firm pale cheese. [gruyère in switzerland]
Gryphon var. Of *griffin.
Gstring n. 1 mus. String sounding the note g. 2 narrow strip of cloth etc.
Covering only the genitals and attached to a string round the waist.
G-suit n. Garment with inflatable pressurized pouches, worn by pilots and astronauts to enable them to withstand high acceleration. [g = gravity, *suit]
Gt n. High-performance saloon car. [italian gran turismo great touring]
Guano n. (pl. -s) 1 excrement of sea birds, used as manure. 2 artificial manure, esp. That made from fish. [spanish from quechua]
Guarantee —n. 1 a formal promise or assurance, esp. That something is of a specified quality and durability. B document giving such an undertaking. 2 = *guaranty. 3 person making a guaranty or giving a security. —v. (-tees, -teed) 1 a give or serve as a guarantee for. B provide with a guarantee. 2 give a promise or assurance. 3 (foll. By to) secure the possession of (a thing) for a person. [related to *warrant]
Guarantor n. Person who gives a guarantee or guaranty.
Guaranty n. (pl. -ies) 1 written or other undertaking to answer for the payment of a debt or for the performance of an obligation by another person liable in the first instance. 2 thing serving as security.
Guard —v. 1 (often foll. By from, against) watch over and defend or protect. 2 keep watch by (a door etc.) To control entry or exit. 3 supervise (prisoners etc.) And prevent from escaping. 4 keep (thoughts or speech) in check. 5 (foll. By against) take precautions. —n. 1 state of vigilance. 2 person who protects or keeps watch. 3 soldiers etc. Protecting a place or person; escort. 4 official in general charge of a train. 5 part of an army detached for some purpose (advance guard). 6 (in pl.) (usu. Guards) body of troops nominally employed to guard a monarch. 7 thing that protects (fire-guard). 8 us prison warder. 9 defensive posture or motion in boxing etc. be on (or keep or stand) guard keep watch. Off (or off one’s) guard unprepared for some surprise or difficulty. On (or on one’s) guard prepared for all contingencies. [germanic: related to *ward]
Guarded adj. (of a remark etc.) Cautious. guardedly adv.
Guardhouse n. Building used to accommodate a military guard or to detain prisoners.
prisoners.
Guardian n. 1 protector, keeper. 2 person having legal custody of another, esp. A minor. guardianship n. [french: related to ward, warden]
Guardroom n. Room serving the same purpose as a guardhouse.
Guardsman n. Soldier belonging to a body of guards or regiment of guards.
Guava n. 1 edible pale orange fruit with pink flesh. 2 tree bearing this. [spanish]
Gubernatorial adj. Esp. Us of or relating to a governor. [latin gubernator governor]
Gudgeon1 n. Small freshwater fish often used as bait. [french goujon from latin gobio *goby]
Gudgeon2 n. 1 a kind of pivot. 2 tubular part of a hinge. 3 socket for a rudder. 4 pin holding two blocks of stone etc. Together. [french diminutive: related to *gouge]
Guelder rose n. Shrub with round bunches of creamy-white flowers. [dutch from gelderland in the netherlands]
Guernsey n. (pl. -s) 1 one of a breed of dairy cattle from guernsey in the channel islands. 2 (guernsey) type of thick woollen sweater.
Guerrilla n. (also guerilla) member of a small independently acting (usu. Political) group taking part in irregular fighting. [spanish diminutive: related to *war]
Guess —v. 1 (often absol.) Estimate without calculation or measurement. 2 form a hypothesis or opinion about; conjecture; think likely. 3 conjecture or estimate correctly. 4 (foll. By at) make a conjecture about. —n. Estimate, conjecture. i guess colloq. I think it likely; i suppose. [origin uncertain]
Guesswork n. Process of or results got by guessing.
Guest n. 1 person invited to visit another’s house or to have a meal etc. At another’s expense. 2 person lodging at a hotel etc. 3 outside performer invited to take part with a regular body of performers. [old norse]
Guest-house n. Private house offering paid accommodation.
Guestimate n. (also guesstimate) colloq. Estimate based on a mixture of guesswork and calculation. [from *guess, *estimate]
Guff n. Slang empty talk. [imitative]
Guffaw —n. Boisterous laugh. —v. Utter a guffaw. [imitative]
Guidance n. 1 advice or direction for solving a problem etc. 2 guiding or being guided.
Guide —n. 1 person who leads or shows the way. 2 person who conducts tours. 3 adviser. 4 directing principle. 5 book with essential information on a subject, esp. = *guidebook. 6 thing marking a position or guiding the eye. 7 bar etc.
Directing the motion of something. 8 (guide) member of a girls’ organization similar to the scouts. —v. (-ding) 1 act as guide to. 2 be the principle or motive of. [french from germanic]
Guidebook n. Book of information about a place for tourists etc.
Guided missile n. Missile under remote control or directed by equipment within itself.
Guide-dog n. Dog trained to guide a blind person.
Guideline n. Principle directing action.
Guider n. Adult leader of guides.
Guild n. (also gild) 1 association of people for mutual aid or the pursuit of a common goal. 2 medieval association of craftsmen or merchants. [low german or dutch gilde]
Guilder n. Chief monetary unit of the netherlands. [alteration of dutch gulden golden]
Guildhall n. Meeting-place of a medieval guild; town hall.
Guile n. Cunning or sly behaviour; treachery, deceit. guileful adj. Guileless adj. [french from scandinavian]
Guillemot n. Fast-flying sea bird nesting on cliffs etc. [french]
Guillotine —n. 1 machine with a blade sliding vertically in grooves, used for beheading. 2 device for cutting paper etc. 3 method of preventing delay in the discussion of a legislative bill by fixing times at which various parts of it must be voted on. —v. (-ning) use a guillotine on. [guillotin, name of a physician]
Guilt n. 1 fact of having committed a specified or implied offence. 2 feeling of having done wrong. [old english]
Guiltless adj. (often foll. By of an offence) innocent.
Guilty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 culpable of or responsible for a wrong. 2 conscious of or affected by guilt. 3 causing a feeling of guilt (a guilty secret). 4 (often foll. By of) having committed a (specified) offence. guiltily adv. Guiltiness n. [old english: related to *guilt]
Guinea n. 1 hist. Sum of 21 old shillings (£1.05). 2 hist. Former british gold coin first coined for the african trade. [guinea in w. Africa]
Guineafowl n. African fowl with slate-coloured white-spotted plumage.
Guinea-pig n. 1 domesticated s. American cavy. 2 person used in an experiment.
Guipure n. Heavy lace of linen pieces joined by embroidery. [french]
Guise n. 1 assumed appearance; pretence. 2 external appearance. [germanic:
related to *wise2]
Guitar n. Usu. Six-stringed musical instrument played with the fingers or a plectrum. guitarist n. [greek kithara harp]
Gujarati (also gujerati) —n. (pl. -s) 1 native of gujarat. 2 language of gujarat. — adj. Of gujarat, its people, or language. [gujarat, state in india]
Gulch n. Us ravine, esp. One in which a torrent flows. [origin uncertain]
Gulf n. 1 stretch of sea consisting of a deep inlet with a narrow mouth. 2 deep hollow; chasm. 3 wide difference of feelings, opinion, etc. [greek kolpos]
Gulf stream n. Warm current flowing from the gulf of mexico to newfoundland
Gulf stream n. Warm current flowing from the gulf of mexico to newfoundland where it is deflected across the atlantic ocean.
Gull1 n. Long-winged web-footed sea bird. [probably welsh gwylan]
Gull2 v. Dupe, fool. [perhaps from obsolete gull yellow from old norse]
Gullet n. Food-passage extending from the mouth to the stomach. [latin gula throat]
Gullible adj. Easily persuaded or deceived. gullibility n. [from *gull2]
Gully n. (pl. -ies) 1 water-worn ravine. 2 gutter or drain. 3 cricket fielding position between point and slips. [french goulet: related to *gullet]
Gulp —v. 1 (often foll. By down) swallow hastily, greedily, or with effort. 2 swallow gaspingly or with difficulty; choke. 3 (foll. By down, back) suppress (esp. Tears). —n. 1 act of gulping. 2 large mouthful of a drink. [dutch gulpen, imitative]
Gum1 —n. 1 a viscous secretion of some trees and shrubs. B adhesive substance made from this. 2 us chewing gum. 3 = gumdrop. 4 = gum arabic. 5 = *gum-tree. —v. (-mm-) 1 (usu. Foll. By down, together, etc.) Fasten with gum. 2 apply gum to. gum up colloq. Interfere with the smooth running of. [greek kommi from egyptian kemai]
Gum2 n. (usu. In pl.) Firm flesh around the roots of the teeth. [old english]
Gum3 n. by gum! Colloq. By god! [corruption of god]
Gum arabic n. Gum exuded by some kinds of acacia.
Gumboil n. Small abscess on the gum.
Gumboot n. Rubber boot.
Gumdrop n. Hard translucent sweet made with gelatin etc.
Gumption n. Colloq. 1 resourcefulness, initiative. 2 common sense. [origin unknown]
Gum-tree n. Tree exuding gum, esp. A eucalyptus. up a gum-tree colloq. In great difficulties.
Gun —n. 1 weapon consisting of a metal tube from which bullets or other missiles are propelled with great force, esp. By a contained explosion. 2 starting pistol. 3 device for discharging insecticide, grease etc., in the required direction. 4 member of a shooting-party. 5 us gunman. —v. (-nn-) 1 a (usu. Foll. By down) shoot (a person) with a gun. B shoot at with a gun. 2 go shooting. 3 (foll. By for) seek out determinedly to attack or rebuke. go great guns colloq. Proceed vigorously or successfully. Stick to one’s guns colloq. Maintain one’s position under attack. [perhaps an abbreviation of the scandinavian woman’s name gunnhildr, applied to cannon etc.]
Gunboat n. Small vessel with heavy guns.
Gunboat diplomacy n. Political negotiation backed by the threat of force.
Gun-carriage n. Wheeled support for a gun.
Gun-cotton n. Explosive made by steeping cotton in acids.
Gun dog n. Dog trained to retrieve game shot by sportsmen.
Gunfight n. Us fight with firearms. gunfighter n.
Gunfire n. Firing of a gun or guns.
Gunge colloq. —n. Sticky or viscous matter. —v. (-ging) (usu. Foll. By up) clog
with gunge. gungy adj. [origin uncertain]
Gung-ho adj. Zealous, arrogantly eager. [chinese gonghe work together]
Gunman n. Man armed with a gun, esp. When committing a crime Gun-metal n. 1 a dull bluish-grey colour. 2 alloy formerly used for guns.
Gunnel var. Of *gunwale.
Gunner n. 1 artillery soldier (esp. As an official term for a private). 2 naut. Warrant-officer in charge of a battery, magazine, etc. 3 member of an aircraft crew who operates a gun.
Gunnery n. 1 construction and management of large guns. 2 firing of guns.
Gunny n. (pl. -ies) 1 coarse sacking, usu. Of jute fibre. 2 sack made of this. [hindi and marathi]
Gunpoint n. at gunpoint threatened with a gun or an ultimatum etc.
Gunpowder n. Explosive made of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal.
Gunrunner n. Person engaged in the illegal sale or importing of firearms.
gunrunning n.
Gunshot n. 1 shot fired from a gun. 2 range of a gun (within gunshot).
Gunslinger n. Esp. Us slang gunman.
Gunsmith n. Maker and repairer of small firearms.
Gunwale n. (also gunnel) upper edge of the side of a boat or ship. [from gun, wale, because it was formerly used to support guns]
Guppy n. (pl. -ies) freshwater fish of the w. Indies and s. America frequently kept in aquariums. [guppy, name of a clergyman]
Gurgle —v. (-ling) 1 make a bubbling sound as of water from a bottle. 2 utter with such a sound. —n. Gurgling sound. [probably imitative]
Gurkha n. 1 member of the dominant hindu race in nepal. 2 nepalese soldier serving in the british army. [sanskrit]
Gurnard n. (pl. Same or -s) marine fish with a large spiny head and finger-like pectoral rays. [french]
Guru n. (pl. -s) 1 hindu spiritual teacher or head of a religious sect. 2 influential
Guru n. (pl. -s) 1 hindu spiritual teacher or head of a religious sect. 2 influential or revered teacher. [hindi]
Gush —v. 1 emit or flow in a sudden and copious stream. 2 speak or behave effusively. —n. 1 sudden or copious stream. 2 effusive manner. [probably imitative]
Gusher n. 1 oil well from which oil flows without being pumped. 2 effusive person.
Gusset n. 1 piece let into a garment etc. To strengthen or enlarge it. 2 bracket strengthening an angle of a structure. [french]
Gust —n. 1 sudden strong rush of wind. 2 burst of rain, smoke, emotion, etc. — v. Blow in gusts. gusty adj. (-ier, -iest). [old norse]
Gusto n. Zest; enjoyment. [latin gustus taste]
Gut —n. 1 the intestine. 2 (in pl.) The bowel or entrails. 3 (in pl.) Colloq. Personal courage and determination; perseverance. 4 slang stomach, belly. 5 (in pl.) A contents. B essence. 6 a material for violin strings etc. B material for fishing-lines made from the silk-glands of silkworms. 7 (attrib.) A instinctive (a gut reaction). B fundamental (a gut issue). —v. (-tt-) 1 remove or destroy the internal fittings of (a house etc.). 2 remove the guts of (a fish). hate a person’s guts colloq. Dislike a person intensely. [old english]
Gutta-percha n. Tough rubbery substance obtained from latex. [malay]
Gutted adj. Slang utterly exhausted or fed-up.
Gutter —n. 1 shallow trough below the eaves of a house, or a channel at the side of a street, to carry off rainwater. 2 (prec. By the) poor or degraded background or environment. 3 open conduit. 4 groove. —v. (of a candle) burn unsteadily and melt away rapidly. [latin gutta drop]
Guttering n. 1 gutters of a building etc. 2 material for gutters.
Gutter press n. Sensational newspapers.
Guttersnipe n. Street urchin.
Guttural —adj. 1 throaty, harsh-sounding. 2 phonet. (of a consonant) produced in the throat or by the back of the tongue and palate. 3 of the throat. —n. Phonet. Guttural consonant (e.g. K, g). gutturally adv. [latin guttur throat]
Guv n. Slang = *governor 7. [abbreviation]
Guy1 —n. 1 colloq. Man; fellow. 2 effigy of guy fawkes burnt on 5 nov. —v. Ridicule. [guy fawkes, name of a conspirator]
Guy2 —n. Rope or chain to secure a tent or steady a crane-load etc. —v. Secure with a guy or guys. [probably low german]
Guzzle v. (-ling) eat or drink greedily. [probably french gosiller from gosier throat]
Gybe v. (us jibe) (-bing) 1 (of a fore-and-aft sail or boom) swing across. 2 cause (a sail) to do this. 3 (of a ship or its crew) change course so that this happens. [dutch]
Gym n. Colloq. 1 gymnasium. 2 gymnastics. [abbreviation]
Gymkhana n. Horse-riding competition. [hindustani gendkhana ball-house, assimilated to *gymnasium]
Gymnasium n. (pl. -s or -sia) room or building equipped for gymnastics. [greek gumnos naked]
Gymnast n. Person who does gymnastics, esp. An expert.
Gymnastic adj. Of or involving gymnastics. gymnastically adv.
Gymnastics n.pl. (also treated as sing.) 1 exercises performed in order to develop or display physical agility. 2 other forms of physical or mental agility.
Gymnosperm n. Any of a group of plants having seeds unprotected by an ovary, including conifers, cycads, and ginkgos. [greek gumnos naked]
Gymp var. Of *gimp.
Gymslip n. Sleeveless tunic worn by schoolgirls.
Gynae n. (also gynie) colloq. Gynaecology. [abbreviation]
Gynaecology n. (us gynecology) science of the physiological functions and diseases of women. gynaecological adj. Gynaecologist n. [greek gune gunaik-woman, *-logy]
Gynecology n. (brit. Gynaecology) science of the physiological functions and diseases of women. gynaecological adj. Gynaecologist n. [greek gune gunaik-woman, *-logy]
Gypsum n. Mineral used esp. To make plaster of paris. [greek gupsos]
Gypsy n. (also gipsy) (pl. -ies) member of a nomadic people of europe and n. America, of hindu origin with dark skin and hair. [from *egyptian]
America, of hindu origin with dark skin and hair. [from *egyptian]
Gyrate v. (-ting) move in a circle or spiral; revolve, whirl. gyration n. Gyratory adj. [greek: related to *gyro-]
Gyrfalcon n. Large falcon of the northern hemisphere. [french from old norse]
Gyro n. (pl. -s) colloq. = *gyroscope. [abbreviation]
Gyro-comb. Form rotation. [greek guros ring]
Gyrocompass n. Compass giving true north and bearings from it by means of a gyroscope. Gyroscope n. Rotating wheel whose axis is free to turn but maintains a fixed direction unless perturbed, esp. Used for stabilization or with the compass in an aircraft, ship, etc.
H
H1 n. (also h) (pl. Hs or h’s) 1 eighth letter of the alphabet (see *aitch). 2 anything having the form of an h (esp. In comb.: h-girder).
Ha1 (also hah) —int. Expressing surprise, derision, triumph, etc. (cf. *ha ha). — v. In hum and ha: see *hum. [imitative]
Ha2 abbr. Hectare(s).
Habeas corpus n. Writ requiring a person to be brought before a judge or into court, esp. To investigate the lawfulness of his or her detention. [latin, = you must have the body]
Haberdasher n. Dealer in dress accessories and sewing-goods. haberdashery n. (pl. -ies). [probably anglo-french]
Habiliment n. (usu. In pl.) Archaic clothes. [french from habiller fit out]
Habit n. 1 settled or regular tendency or practice (often foll. By of + verbal noun: has a habit of ignoring me). 2 practice that is hard to give up. 3 mental constitution or attitude. 4 dress, esp. Of a religious order. [latin habeo habit-have]
Habitable adj. Suitable for living in. habitability n. [latin habito inhabit]
Habitat n. Natural home of an animal or plant. [latin, = it dwells]
Habitation n. 1 inhabiting (fit for habitation). 2 house or home.
Habit-forming adj. Causing addiction.
Habitual adj. 1 done constantly or as a habit. 2 regular, usual. 3 given to a (specified) habit (habitual smoker). habitually adv.
Habituate v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) accustom. habituation n. [latin: related to *habit]
Habitué n. Habitual visitor or resident. [french]
Hácek n. Diacritic ( ) placed over a letter to modify its sound in some languages. [czech, diminutive of hák hook]
Hachures n.pl. Parallel lines on a map indicating the degree of steepness of hills. [french: related to *hatch3]
Hacienda n. (in spanish-speaking countries) estate with a dwelling-house. [spanish, from latin facienda things to be done]
Hack1 —v. 1 cut or chop roughly. 2 football etc. Kick the shin of (an opponent). 3 (often foll. By at) deliver cutting blows. 4 cut (one’s way) through foliage etc. 5 colloq. Gain unauthorized access to (data in a computer). 6 slang manage, cope with; tolerate. 7 (as hacking adj.) (of a cough) short, dry, and frequent. —n. 1 kick with the toe of a boot. 2 gash or wound, esp. From a kick. 3 a mattock. B miner’s pick. [old english]
Hack2 —n. 1 a = *hackney. B horse let out for hire. 2 person hired to do dull routine work, esp. Writing. —attrib. Adj. 1 used as a hack. 2 typical of a hack; commonplace (hack work). —v. Ride on horseback on a road at an ordinary pace. [abbreviation of *hackney]
Hacker n. 1 person or thing that hacks or cuts roughly. 2 colloq. A person whose hobby is computing or computer programming. B person who uses a computer to gain unauthorized access to a computer network.
Hackle n. 1 a (in pl.) Erectile hairs on an animal’s neck, rising when it is angry
or alarmed. B feather(s) on the neck of a domestic cock etc. 2 steel comb for dressing flax. make one’s hackles rise cause one to be angry or indignant. [old english]
Hackney n. (pl. -s) horse for ordinary riding. [hackney in london]
Hackney carriage n. Taxi.
Hackneyed adj. (of a phrase etc.) Made trite by overuse.
Hacksaw n. Saw with a narrow blade set in a frame, for cutting metal.
Had past and past part. Of *have.
Haddock n. (pl. Same) n. Atlantic marine fish used as food. [probably french]
Hades n. (in greek mythology) the underworld. [greek, originally a name of pluto]
Hadj var. Of *hajj.
Hadji var. Of *hajji.
Hadn’t contr. Had not.
Haemal adj. (us hem-) of the blood. [greek haima blood]
Haematite n. (us hem-) a ferric oxide ore. [latin: related to *haemal]
Haematology n. (us hem-) the study of the blood. haematologist n.
Haemoglobin n. (us hem-) oxygen-carrying substance in the red blood cells of vertebrates. [from *globulin]
Haemophilia n. (us hem-) hereditary failure of the blood to clot normally with the tendency to bleed severely from even a slight injury. [greek haima blood, philia loving]
Haemophiliac n. (us hem-) person with haemophilia.
Haemorrhage (us hem-) —n. 1 profuse loss of blood from a ruptured blood-vessel. 2 damaging loss, esp. Of people or assets. —v. (-ging) suffer a haemorrhage. [greek haima blood, rhegnumi burst]
Haemorrhoids n.pl. (us hem-) swollen veins in the wall of the anus; piles. [greek haima blood, -rhoos -flowing]
Hafnium n. Silvery lustrous metallic element. [latin hafnia copenhagen]
Haft n. Handle of a dagger, knife, etc. [old english]
Hag n. 1 ugly old woman. 2 witch. [old english]
Haggard adj. Looking exhausted and distraught. [french hagard]
Haggis n. Scottish dish of offal boiled in a sheep’s stomach with suet, oatmeal, etc. [origin unknown]
Hagiography n. Writing about saints’ lives. hagiographer n.
Hagiology n. Literature dealing with the lives and legends of saints.
Hagridden adj. Afflicted by nightmares or anxieties.
Hah var. Of *ha1.
Ha ha int. Representing laughter (iron. When spoken). [old english]
Ha-ha n. Ditch with a wall in it, forming a boundary or fence without interrupting the view. [french]
Hahnium n. Artificially produced radioactive element. [hahn, name of a chemist]
Haiku n. (pl. Same) japanese three-part poem of usu. 17 syllables. [japanese]
Hail1 —n. 1 pellets of frozen rain. 2 (foll. By of) barrage or onslaught. —v. 1 a (prec. By it as subject) hail falls. B come down forcefully. 2 pour down (blows, words, etc.). [old english]
Hail2 —v. 1 signal to (a taxi etc.) To stop. 2 greet enthusiastically. 3 acclaim (hailed him king). 4 (foll. By from) originate or come (hails from leeds). —int. Archaic or joc. Expressing greeting. —n. Act of hailing. [old norse heill: related to *wassail]
Hail-fellow-well-met adj. Friendly, esp. Too friendly towards strangers.
Hail mary n. The ave maria (see *ave).
Hailstone n. Pellet of hail.
Hailstorm n. Period of heavy hail.
Hair n. 1 a any of the fine threadlike strands growing from the skin of mammals, esp. From the human head. B these collectively (has long hair). 2 thing resembling a hair. 3 elongated cell growing from a plant. 4 very small quantity or extent (also attrib.: hair crack). get in a person’s hair colloq. Annoy a person. Keep one’s hair on colloq. Keep calm; not get angry. Let one’s hair down colloq. Enjoy oneself by abandoning restraint. Make one’s hair stand on end colloq. Horrify one. Not turn a hair remain unmoved or unaffected. hairless adj. [old english]
Hairbrush n. Brush for tidying the hair.
Haircloth n. Stiff cloth woven from hair.
Haircut n. 1 act of cutting the hair (needs a haircut). 2 style in which the hair is cut.
Hairdo n. (pl. -s) style of or act of styling the hair.
Hairdresser n. 1 person who cuts and styles the hair, esp. For a living. 2 hairdresser’s shop. hairdressing n.
Hairdrier n. (also hair-dryer) device for drying the hair with warm air.
Hairgrip n. Flat hairpin with the ends close together.
Hairline n. 1 edge of a person’s hair, esp. On the forehead. 2 very narrow line, crack (usu. Hairline crack), etc.
Hairnet n. Piece of netting for confining the hair.
Hair of the dog n. Further alcoholic drink taken to cure the effects of drink.
Hairpiece n. Quantity of hair augmenting a person’s natural hair.
Hairpin n. U-shaped pin for fastening the hair.
Hairpin bend n. Sharp u-shaped bend in a road.
Hair-raising adj. Terrifying.
Hair’s breadth n. A tiny amount or margin.
Hair shirt n. Shirt of haircloth, worn formerly by penitents and ascetics.
Hair-slide n. Clip for keeping the hair in place.
Hair-splitting adj. & n. Quibbling.
Hairspray n. Liquid sprayed on the hair to keep it in place.
Hairspring n. Fine spring regulating the balance-wheel in a watch.
Hairstyle n. Particular way of arranging the hair. hairstylist n.
Hair-trigger n. Trigger of a firearm set for release at the slightest pressure.
Hajj n. (also hadj) islamic pilgrimage to mecca. [arabic]
Hajji n. (also hadji) (pl. -s) muslim who has made the pilgrimage to mecca. [persian from arabic]
Haka n. Nz 1 maori ceremonial war dance with chanting. 2 imitation of this by a
sports team before a match. [maori]
Hake n. (pl. Same) marine fish resembling the cod, used as food. [origin uncertain]
Halal n. (also hallal) (often attrib.) Meat from an animal killed according to muslim law. [arabic]
Halberd n. Hist. Combined spear and battleaxe. [french from german]
Halcyon adj. Calm, peaceful, happy (halcyon days). [greek, = kingfisher, because it was reputed to calm the sea at midwinter]
Hale adj. Strong and healthy (esp. In hale and hearty). [var. Of *whole]
Half —n. (pl. Halves) 1 either of two (esp. Equal) parts into which a thing is divided. 2 colloq. Half a pint, esp. Of beer. 3 sport either of two equal periods of play. 4 colloq. Half-price fare or ticket, esp. For a child. 5 colloq. = half-back. — adj. 1 amounting to half (half the men). 2 forming a half (a half share). —adv. 1 (often in comb.) To the extent of half; partly (half cooked). 2 to some extent (esp. In idiomatic phrases: half dead; am half convinced). 3 (in reckoning time) by the amount of half (an hour etc.) (half past two). at half cock see cock1. By half(prec. By too + adj.) Excessively (too clever by half). By halves imperfectly or incompletely (does nothing by halves). Half a mind see mind. Half the time see time. Not half 1 slang extremely, violently (he didn’t half swear). 2 not nearly (not half long enough). 3 colloq. Not at all (not half bad). [old english]
Usage in sense 3 of the adverb, the word ‘past’ is often omitted in colloquial
usage, e.g. Came at half two. In some parts of scotland and ireland this means ‘half past one’.
Half-and-half adj. Being half one thing and half another.
Half-back n. Sport player between the forwards and full backs.
Half-baked adj. Colloq. 1 not thoroughly thought out; foolish. 2 (of enthusiasm etc.) Only partly committed.
Half board n. Provision of bed, breakfast, and one main meal at a hotel etc.
Half-breed n. Offens. = *half-caste.
Half-brother n. Brother with whom one has only one parent in common.
Half-caste n. Offens. Person of mixed race.
Half-crown n. (also half a crown) former coin and monetary unit worth 2s. 6d.
(121/2p).
Half-cut adj. Slang fairly drunk.
Half-dozen n. (also half a dozen) colloq. Six, or about six.
Half-duplex n. Computing (of a circuit) allowing the two-way transmission of signals but not simultaneously.
Half-hardy adj. (of a plant) able to grow in the open except in severe frost.
Half-hearted adj. Lacking enthusiasm. half-heartedly adv. Half-heartedness n.
Half hitch n. Knot formed by passing the end of a rope round its standing part and then through the loop.
Half holiday n. Half a day as holiday.
Half-hour n. 1 (also half an hour) period of 30 minutes. 2 point of time 30 minutes after any hour o’clock. half-hourly adj. & adv.
Half-life n. Time taken for radioactivity etc. To fall to half its original value.
Half-light n. Dim imperfect light.
Half-mast n. Position of a flag halfway down a mast, as a mark of respect for a
Half-mast n. Position of a flag halfway down a mast, as a mark of respect for a deceased person.
Half measures n.pl. Unsatisfactory compromise or inadequate policy.
Half moon n. 1 moon when only half its surface is illuminated. 2 time when this occurs. 3 semicircular object.
Half nelson see *nelson.
Halfpenny n. (pl. -pennies or -pence) former coin worth half a penny.
Usage the halfpenny was withdrawn from circulation in 1984.
Half-sister n. Sister with whom one has only one parent in common.
Half-term n. Short holiday halfway through a school term.
Half-timbered adj. Having walls with a timber frame and a brick or plaster filling.
Half-time n. 1 mid-point of a game or contest. 2 short break occurring at this time.
Half-title n. Title or short title of a book printed on the front of the leaf preceding the title-page.
Halftone n. Photographic illustration in which various tones of grey are produced from small and large black dots.
Half-truth n. Statement that (esp. Deliberately) conveys only part of the truth.
Half-volley n. (in ball games) playing of the ball as soon as it bounces off the ground.
Halfway —adv. 1 at a point midway between two others (halfway to rome). 2 to some extent, more or less (is halfway acceptable). —adj. Situated halfway (reached a halfway point).
Halfway house n. 1 compromise. 2 halfway point in a progression. 3 centre for rehabilitating ex-prisoners etc. 4 inn midway between two towns.
Halfwit n. Foolish or stupid person. halfwitted adj.
Halibut n. (pl. Same) large marine flat-fish used as food. [from *holy (perhaps because eaten on holy days), butt flat-fish]
Halitosis n. = *bad breath. [latin halitus breath]
Hall n. 1 area into which the front entrance of a house etc. Opens. 2 large room or building for meetings, concerts, etc. 3 large country house or estate. 4 (in full hall of residence) residence for students. 5 (in a college etc.) Dining-room. 6 premises of a guild (fishmongers’ hall). 7 large public room in a palace etc. [old english]
Hallal var. Of *halal.
Hallelujah var. Of *alleluia.
Halliard var. Of *halyard.
Hallmark —n. 1 mark indicating the standard of gold, silver, and platinum. 2 distinctive feature. —v. Stamp with a hallmark.
Hallo var. Of *hello.
Halloo int. Inciting dogs to the chase or calling attention. [perhaps from hallow pursue with shouts]
Hallow v. 1 make holy, consecrate. 2 honour as holy. [old english: related to *holy]
Hallowe’en n. Eve of all saints’ day, 31 oct.
Hallowe’en n. Eve of all saints’ day, 31 oct.
Hallucinate v. (-ting) experience hallucinations. hallucinant adj. & n. [greek alusso be uneasy]
Hallucination n. Illusion of seeing or hearing something not actually present.
hallucinatory adj.
Hallucinogen n. Drug causing hallucinations. hallucinogenic adj.
Hallway n. Entrance-hall or corridor.
Halm var. Of *haulm.
Halo —n. (pl. -es) 1 disc or circle of light shown surrounding the head of a sacred person. 2 glory associated with an idealized person etc. 3 circle of white or coloured light round a luminous body, esp. The sun or moon. —v. (-es, -ed) surround with a halo. [greek halos threshing-floor, disc of the sun or moon]
Halogen n. Any of the non-metallic elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine) which form a salt (e.g. Sodium chloride) when combined with a metal. [greek hals halos salt, *-gen]
Halon n. Any of various gaseous compounds of carbon, bromine, and other halogens, used to extinguish fires. [related to *halogen]
Halt1 —n. 1 stop (usu. Temporary) (come to a halt). 2 minor stopping-place on a local railway line. —v. Stop; come or bring to a halt. call a halt (to) decide to stop. [german: related to *hold1]
Halter n. 1 headstall and rope for leading or tying up a horse etc. 2 a strap round the neck holding a dress etc. Up and leaving the shoulders and back bare. B (also halterneck) dress etc. Held by this. [old english]
Halva n. Confection of sesame flour and honey etc. [yiddish from turkish helva from arabic halwa]
Halve v. (-ving) 1 divide into two halves or parts; share equally between two. 2 reduce by half. 3 golf use the same number of strokes as one’s opponent in (a hole or match).
Halves pl. Of *half.
Halyard n. (also halliard) rope or tackle for raising or lowering a sail, yard, etc. [archaic hale drag forcibly]
Ham —n. 1 a upper part of a pig’s leg salted and dried or smoked for food. B meat from this. 2 back of the thigh; thigh and buttock. 3 colloq. (often attrib.)
Inexpert or unsubtle actor or piece of acting. 4 colloq. Operator of an amateur radio station. —v. (-mm-) (usu. In ham it up) colloq. Overact. [old english]
Hamburger n. Cake of minced beef, usu. Eaten in a soft bread roll. [hamburg in germany]
Ham-fisted adj. (also ham-handed) colloq. Clumsy.
Hamitic —n. Group of african languages including ancient egyptian and berber. —adj. Of this group. [from the name ham (gen. 10:6 ff.)]
Hamlet n. Small village, esp. Without a church. [french hamelet diminutive]
Hammer —n. 1 a tool with a heavy metal head at right angles to its handle, used for driving nails etc. B similar device, as for exploding the charge in a gun, striking the strings of a piano, etc. 2 auctioneer’s mallet. 3 metal ball attached to a wire for throwing in an athletic contest. —v. 1 a hit or beat with or as with a hammer. B strike loudly. 2 a drive in (nails) with a hammer. B fasten or secure by hammering (hammered the lid down). 3 (usu. Foll. By in) inculcate (ideas, knowledge, etc.) Forcefully or repeatedly. 4 colloq. Defeat utterly; beat up. 5 (foll. By at, away at) work hard or persistently at. come under the hammer be sold at auction. Hammer out 1 make flat or smooth by hammering. 2 work out details of (a plan etc.) Laboriously. 3 play (a tune, esp. On the piano) loudly or clumsily. hammering n. (esp. In sense 4 of v.). [old english]
Hammer and sickle n. Symbols of the industrial worker and peasant used as an emblem of the former ussr and international communism.
Hammer and tongs adv. Colloq. With great vigour and commotion.
Hammerhead n. Shark with a flattened head and with eyes in lateral extensions of it.
Hammerlock n. Wrestling hold in which the arm is twisted and bent behind the back.
Hammer-toe n. Toe bent permanently downwards.
Hammock n. Bed of canvas or rope network suspended by cords at the ends. [spanish from carib]
Hammy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. Over-theatrical.
Hamper1 n. Large basket, usu. With a hinged lid and containing food. [french hanap goblet]
Hamper2 v. Prevent the free movement of; hinder. [origin unknown]
Hamster n. Mouselike rodent with a short tail and large cheek-pouches for storing food. [german]
Hamstring —n. 1 each of five tendons at the back of the knee. 2 great tendon at the back of the hock in quadrupeds. —v. (past and past part. -strung or -stringed)
the back of the hock in quadrupeds. —v. (past and past part. -strung or -stringed) 1 cripple by cutting the hamstrings of (a person or animal). 2 impair the activity or efficiency of.
Hand —n. 1 a end part of the human arm beyond the wrist. B (in other primates) end part of a forelimb. 2 a (often in pl.) Control, management, custody, disposal (is in good hands). B agency or influence (suffered at their hands). C share in an action; active support (had a hand in it; give me a hand). 3 thing like a hand, esp. The pointer of a clock. 4 right or left side or direction relative to a person or thing. 5 a skill (has a hand for making pastry). B person skilful in some respect.
6 person who does or makes something, esp. Distinctively (picture by the same hand). 7 person’s writing or its style. 8 person etc. As a source (at first hand). 9 pledge of marriage. 10 manual worker, esp. At a factory or farm; member of a ship’s crew. 11 a playing-cards dealt to a player. B round of play. 12 colloq. Burst of applause. 13 unit of measure of a horse’s height, 4 inches (10.16 cm).
14 forehock of pork. 15 (attrib.) A operated by or held in the hand (hand-drill). B done by hand, not machine (hand-knitted). —v. 1 (foll. By in, to, over, etc.) Deliver; transfer by hand or otherwise. 2 colloq. Give away too readily (handed them the advantage). all hands entire crew or workforce. At hand 1 close by. 2 about to happen. By hand 1 by a person, not a machine. 2 delivered privately, not by post. From hand to mouth satisfying only one’s immediate needs. Get (or have or keep) one’s hand in become (or be or remain) in practice. Hand down 1 pass ownership or use of to a later generation etc. 2 a transmit (a decision) from a higher court etc. B us express (an opinion or verdict). Hand it to colloq. Award deserved praise to. Hand on pass (a thing) to the next in a series. Hand out 1 serve, distribute.
Handbag n. Small bag carried esp. By a woman.
Handball n. 1 game with a ball thrown by hand among players or against a wall.
2 football intentional touching of the ball, constituting a foul.
Handbell n. Small bell for ringing by hand, esp. One of a set.
Handbill n. Printed notice distributed by hand.
Handbook n. Short manual or guidebook.
Handbrake n. Brake operated by hand.
H. & c. Abbr. Hot and cold (water).
Handcart n. Small cart pushed or drawn by hand.
Handclap n. Clapping of the hands.
Handcraft —n. = *handicraft. —v. Make by handicraft.
Handcuff —n. Each of a pair of linked metal rings for securing a prisoner’s wrist(s). —v. Put handcuffs on.
Handful n. (pl. -s) 1 quantity that fills the hand. 2 small number or amount. 3 colloq. Troublesome person or task.
Hand-grenade see *grenade.
Handgun n. Small firearm held in and fired with one hand.
Handhold n. Something for the hand to grip on (in climbing etc.).
Handicap —n. 1 physical or mental disability. 2 thing that makes progress or success difficult. 3 a disadvantage imposed on a superior competitor to make chances more equal. B race etc. In which this is imposed. 4 number of strokes by which a golfer normally exceeds par for a course. —v. (-pp-) 1 impose a handicap on. 2 place at a disadvantage. [hand i’ (= in) cap describing a kind of sporting lottery]
Handicapped adj. Suffering from a physical or mental disability.
Handicraft n. Work requiring manual and artistic skill. [from earlier *handcraft]
Hand in glove adj. In collusion or association.
Hand in hand adv. 1 in close association (power and money go hand in hand). 2 (hand-in-hand) holding hands.
Handiwork n. Work done or a thing made by hand, or by a particular person. [old english]
Handkerchief n. (pl. -s or -chieves) square of cloth for wiping one’s nose etc.
Handle —n. 1 part by which a thing is held, carried, or controlled. 2 fact that may be taken advantage of (gave a handle to his critics). 3 colloq. Personal title. —v. (-ling) 1 touch, feel, operate, or move with the hands. 2 manage, deal with (can handle people). 3 deal in (goods). 4 treat (a subject). [old english: related to *hand]
Handlebar n. (usu. In pl.) Steering-bar of a bicycle etc.
Handlebar moustache n. Thick moustache with curved ends.
Handler n. 1 person who handles or deals in something. 2 person who trains and looks after an animal (esp. A police dog).
Handmade adj. Made by hand (as opposed to machine).
Handmaid n. (also handmaiden) archaic female servant.
Hand-me-down n. Article of clothing etc. Passed on from another person.
Hand-out n. 1 thing given free to a needy person. 2 statement given to the press etc.; notes given out in a class etc.
Hand-over n. Handing over.
Hand-over-fist adv. Colloq. With rapid progress.
Hand-pick v. Choose carefully or personally.
Handrail n. Narrow rail for holding as a support.
Handsaw n. Saw worked by one hand.
Handset n. Telephone mouthpiece and earpiece as one unit.
Handshake n. Clasping of a person’s hand as a greeting etc.
Hands off —int. Warning not to touch or interfere with something. —adj. & adv.
(also hands-off) not requiring the manual use of controls.
Handsome adj. (handsomer, handsomest) 1 (usu. Of a man) good-looking. 2 (of an object) imposing, attractive. 3 a generous, liberal (handsome present). B (of a price, fortune, etc.) Considerable. handsomely adv.
Hands on (also hands-on) —adj. & adv. Of or requiring personal operation at a keyboard. —attrib. Adj. Practical rather than theoretical (lacks hands-on experience).
experience).
Handspring n. Gymnastic feat consisting of a handstand, somersaulting, and landing in a standing position.
Handstand n. Supporting oneself on one’s hands with one’s feet in the air.
Hand-to-hand adj. (of fighting) at close quarters.
Handwork n. Work done with the hands. handworked adj.
Handwriting n. 1 writing done with a pen, pencil, etc. 2 person’s particular style of this. handwritten adj.
Handy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 convenient to handle or use; useful. 2 ready to hand. 3 clever with the hands. handily adv. Handiness n.
Handyman n. Person able to do occasional repairs etc.; odd-job man.
Hang —v. (past and past part. Hung except in sense 7) 1 a secure or cause to be supported from above, esp. With the lower part free. B (foll. By up, on, on to, etc.) Attach by suspending from the top. 2 set up (a door etc.) On hinges. 3 place (a picture) on a wall or in an exhibition. 4 attach (wallpaper) to a wall. 5 (foll. By on) colloq. Blame (a thing) on (a person) (can’t hang that on me). 6 (foll. By with) decorate by suspending pictures etc. (hall hung with tapestries). 7 (past and past part. Hanged) a suspend or be suspended by the neck with a noosed rope until dead, esp. As a form of capital punishment. B as a mild oath (hang the
expense). 8 let droop (hang one’s head). 9 suspend (meat or game) from a hook and leave until dry, tender, or high. 10 be or remain hung (in various senses). 11 remain static in the air. 12 (often foll. By over) be present or imminent, esp.
Oppressively or threateningly (a hush hung over the room). 13 (foll. By on) a be contingent or dependent on (everything hangs on his reply). B listen closely to (hangs on my every word). —n. Way a thing hangs or falls. get the hang of colloq. Understand the technique or meaning of. Hang about (or around) 1 a stand about or spend time aimlessly; not move away. B linger near (a person or place). 2 (often foll. By with) colloq. Associate with. Hang back show reluctance to act or move. Hang fire be slow in taking action or in progressing. Hang heavily (or heavy) (of time) seem to pass slowly. Hang in us colloq. 1 persist, persevere. 2 linger. Hang on 1 (often foll. By to) continue to hold or grasp. 2 (foll. By to) retain; fail to give back. 3 colloq. A wait for a short time. B (in telephoning) not ring off during a pause in the conversation. 4 colloq. Continue; persevere. Hang out 1 suspend from a window, clothes-line, etc. 2 a protrude downwards (shirt hanging out). B (foll. By of) lean out of (a window etc.). 3 slang frequent or live in a place. Hang together 1 make sense. 2 remain associated. Hang up 1 hang from a hook etc. 2 (often foll. By on) end a telephone conversation by replacing the receiver (he hung up on me). 3 (usu. In passive, foll. By on) slang be a psychological problem or obsession for (is hung up on her father). Not care (or give) a hang colloq. Not care at all. [old english]
Hangar n. Building for housing aircraft etc. [french]
Hangdog adj. Shamefaced.
Hanger n. 1 person or thing that hangs. 2 (in full coat-hanger) shaped piece of wood etc. For hanging clothes on.
Hanger-on n. (pl. Hangers-on) follower or dependant, esp. An unwelcome one.
Hang-glider n. Glider with a fabric wing on a light frame, from which the operator is suspended. hang-glide v. Hang-gliding n.
Hanging n. 1 execution by suspending by the neck. 2 (usu. In pl.) Draperies hung on a wall etc.
Hangman n. 1 executioner who hangs condemned persons. 2 word-game for two players, with failed guesses recorded by drawing a representation of a gallows.
Hangnail n. = *agnail.
Hang-out n. Slang place frequented by a person; haunt.
Hangover n. 1 severe headache etc. From drinking too much alcohol. 2 survival from the past.
Hang-up n. Slang emotional problem or inhibition.
Hank n. Coil or skein of wool or thread etc. [old norse]
Hanker v. (foll. By for, after, or to + infin.) Long for; crave. hankering n. [from obsolete hank]
Hanky n. (also hankie) (pl. -ies) colloq. Handkerchief. [abbreviation]
Hanky n. (also hankie) (pl. -ies) colloq. Handkerchief. [abbreviation]
Hanoverian adj. Of british sovereigns from george i to victoria. [hanover in germany]
Hansard n. Official verbatim record of debates in the british parliament. [hansard, name of its first printer]
Hansen’s disease n. Leprosy. [hansen, name of a physician]
Hansom n. (in full hansom cab) hist. Two-wheeled horse-drawn cab. [hansom, name of an architect]
Hanukkah n. Jewish festival of lights, commemorating the purification of the temple in 165 bc. [hebrew hanukkah consecration]
Haphazard adj. Done etc. By chance; random. haphazardly adv. [archaic hap chance, luck, from old norse happ]
Hapless adj. Unlucky.
Haploid adj. (of an organism or cell) with a single set of chromosomes. [greek haplous single, eidos form]
Happen v. 1 occur (by chance or otherwise). 2 (foll. By to + infin.) Have the (good or bad) fortune to (i happened to meet her). 3 (foll. By to) be the (esp. Unwelcome) fate or experience of (what happened to you?). 4 (foll. By on) encounter or discover by chance. as it happens in fact; in reality. [related to *haphazard]
Happening n. 1 event. 2 improvised or spontaneous theatrical etc. Performance.
Happy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 feeling or showing pleasure or contentment. 2 a fortunate; characterized by happiness. B (of words, behaviour, etc.) Apt, pleasing. happily adv. Happiness n.
Happy-go-lucky adj. Cheerfully casual.
Happy hour n. Time of the day when goods, esp. Drinks, are sold at reduced prices.
Happy medium n. Compromise; avoidance of extremes.
Hara-kiri n. Ritual suicide by disembowelment with a sword, formerly practised by samurai to avoid dishonour. [japanese hara belly, kiri cutting]
Harangue —n. Lengthy and earnest speech. —v. (-guing) make a harangue to; lecture. [french arenge from medieval latin]
Harass v. 1 trouble and annoy continually. 2 make repeated attacks on. harassment n. [french]
Usage the second pronunciation given, with the stress on the second syllable, is common, but is considered incorrect by some people.
Harbinger n. 1 person or thing that announces or signals the approach of another. 2 forerunner. [germanic: related to *harbour]
Harbor (brit. Harbour) —n. 1 place of shelter for ships. 2 shelter; refuge. —v. 1 give shelter to (esp. A criminal). 2 keep in one’s mind (esp. Resentment etc.). [old english, = army shelter]
Harbour (us harbor) —n. 1 place of shelter for ships. 2 shelter; refuge. —v. 1 give shelter to (esp. A criminal). 2 keep in one’s mind (esp. Resentment etc.). [old english, = army shelter]
Harbour-master n. Official in charge of a harbour.
Hard —adj. 1 (of a substance etc.) Firm and solid. 2 a difficult to understand, explain, or accomplish. B (foll. By to + infin.) Not easy to (hard to please). 3 difficult to bear (a hard life). 4 unfeeling; severely critical. 5 (of a season or the weather) severe. 6 unpleasant to the senses, harsh (hard colours). 7 a strenuous, enthusiastic, intense (a hard worker). B severe, uncompromising (a hard bargain). C polit. Extreme; most radical (the hard right). 8 a (of liquor) strongly alcoholic. B (of drugs) potent and addictive. C (of pornography) highly obscene.
9 (of water) containing mineral salts that make lathering difficult. 10 established; not disputable (hard facts). 11 (of currency, prices, etc.) High; not likely to fall in value. 12 (of a consonant) guttural (as c in cat, g in go). —adv. Strenuously, intensely, copiously (try hard; raining hard). be hard on 1 be difficult for. 2 be severe in one’s treatment or criticism of. 3 be unpleasant to (the senses). Be hard put to it (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Find it difficult. Hard by close by. Hard on (or upon) close to in pursuit etc. hardish adj. Hardness n. [old english]
Hard and fast adj. (of a rule or distinction) definite, unalterable, strict.
Hardback —adj. Bound in boards covered with cloth etc. —n. Hardback book.
Hardbitten adj. Colloq. Tough and cynical.
Hardboard n. Stiff board made of compressed and treated wood pulp.
Hard-boiled adj. 1 (of an egg) boiled until the white and yolk are solid. 2 colloq.
(of a person) tough, shrewd.
Hard cash n. Negotiable coins and banknotes.
Hard copy n. Material printed by a computer on paper.
Hardcore n. Solid material, esp. Rubble, as road-foundation.
Hard core n. 1 irreducible nucleus. 2 colloq. A the most committed members of a society etc. B conservative or reactionary minority (see also *hardcore).
Hard disk n. Computing large-capacity rigid usu. Magnetic storage disk.
Hard-done-by adj. Unfairly treated.
Harden v. 1 make or become hard or harder. 2 become, or make (one’s attitude etc.), less sympathetic. 3 (of prices etc.) Cease to fall or fluctuate. harden off inure (a plant) to the cold by gradually increasing its exposure.
Hardening of the arteries n. = *arteriosclerosis.
Hard-headed adj. Practical; not sentimental. hard-headedness n.
Hard-hearted adj. Unfeeling. hard-heartedness n.
Hardihood n. Boldness, daring.
Hard labour n. Heavy manual work as a punishment, esp. In a prison.
Hard line n. Unyielding adherence to a policy. hard-liner n.
Hard luck n. Worse fortune than one deserves.
Hardly adv. 1 scarcely; only just (hardly knew me). 2 only with difficulty (can hardly see). 3 surely not (can hardly have realised). hardly any almost no; almost none. Hardly ever very seldom.
Hard-pressed adj. 1 closely pursued. 2 burdened with urgent business.
Hard roe see *roe1.
Hard sell n. Aggressive salesmanship.
Hardship n. 1 severe suffering or privation. 2 circumstance causing this.
Hard shoulder n. Hard surface alongside a motorway for stopping on in an emergency.
Hard tack n. Naut. Ship’s biscuit.
Hardtop n. Car with a rigid (usu. Detachable) roof.
Hard up adj. Short of money.
Hardware n. 1 tools and household articles of metal etc. 2 heavy machinery or armaments. 3 mechanical and electronic components of a computer etc.
Hard-wearing adj. Able to stand much wear.
Hardwood n. Wood from a deciduous broad-leaved tree.
Hard-working adj. Diligent.
Hardy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 robust; capable of enduring difficult conditions. 2 (of a plant) able to grow in the open air all year. hardiness n. [french hardi made bold]
Hardy annual n. Annual plant that may be sown in the open.
Hare —n. Mammal like a large rabbit, with long ears, short tail, and long hind legs. —v. (-ring) run rapidly. [old english]
Harebell n. Plant with pale-blue bell-shaped flowers.
Hare-brained adj. Rash, wild.
Harelip n. Often offens. Congenital cleft in the upper lip.
Harem n. 1 women of a muslim household. 2 their quarters. [arabic, = sanctuary]
Haricot n. (in full haricot bean) variety of french bean with small white seeds dried and used as a vegetable. [french]
Hark v. (usu. In imper.) Archaic listen attentively. hark back revert to earlier topic. [old english]
Harlequin —n. (harlequin) name of a mute character in pantomime, usu. Masked and dressed in a diamond-patterned costume. —attrib. Adj. In varied colours. [french]
Harlequinade n. 1 part of a pantomime featuring harlequin. 2 piece of buffoonery.
Harlot n. Archaic prostitute. harlotry n. [french, = knave]
Harm —n. Hurt, damage. —v. Cause harm to. out of harm’s way in safety. [old english]
Harmful adj. Causing or likely to cause harm. harmfully adv. Harmfulness n.
Harmless adj. 1 not able or likely to cause harm. 2 inoffensive. harmlessly adv.
Harmlessness n.
Harmonic —adj. Of or relating to harmony; harmonious. —n. Mus. Overtone accompanying (and forming a note with) a fundamental at a fixed interval. harmonically adv.
Harmonica n. Small rectangular musical instrument played by blowing and sucking air through it.
Harmonious adj. 1 sweet-sounding; tuneful. 2 forming a pleasing or consistent whole. 3 free from disagreement or dissent. harmoniously adv.
Harmonium n. Keyboard instrument in which the notes are produced by air driven through metal reeds by foot-operated bellows. [latin: related to *harmony]
Harmonize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 add notes to (a melody) to produce harmony. 2 bring into or be in harmony. 3 make or form a pleasing or consistent whole. harmonization n.
Harmony n. (pl. -ies) 1 combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes to produce chords and chord progressions, esp. As creating a pleasing effect. 2 a apt or aesthetic arrangement of parts. B pleasing effect of this. 3 agreement, concord. in harmony 1 in agreement. 2 (of singing etc.) Producing chords; not discordant. [greek harmonia joining]
Harness —n. 1 equipment of straps etc. By which a horse is fastened to a cart etc. And controlled. 2 similar arrangement for fastening a thing to a person’sbody. —v. 1 a put a harness on. B (foll. By to) attach by harness to. 2 make use of (natural resources), esp. To produce energy. in harness in the routine of daily work. [french harneis military equipment]
Harp —n. Large upright stringed instrument plucked with the fingers. —v. (foll. By on, on about) talk repeatedly and tediously about. harpist n. [old english]
Harpoon —n. Barbed spearlike missile with a rope attached, for catching whales etc. —v. Spear with a harpoon. [greek harpe sickle]
Harpsichord n. Keyboard instrument with horizontal strings plucked
mechanically. harpsichordist n. [latin harpa harp, chorda string]
Harpy n. (pl. -ies) 1 mythological monster with a woman’s head and body and a bird’s wings and claws. 2 grasping unscrupulous person. [greek harpuiai snatchers]
Harridan n. Bad-tempered old woman. [origin uncertain]
Harrier n. 1 hound used for hunting hares. 2 group of cross-country runners. 3 hawklike bird of prey. [from *hare, *harry]
Harrow —n. Heavy frame with iron teeth dragged over ploughed land to break up clods etc. —v. 1 draw a harrow over (land). 2 (usu. As harrowing adj.) Distress greatly. [old norse hervi]
Harry v. (-ies, -ied) 1 ravage or despoil. 2 harass. [old english]
Harsh adj. 1 unpleasantly rough or sharp, esp. To the senses. 2 severe, cruel. harshen v. Harshly adv. Harshness n. [low german]
Hart n. (pl. Same or -s) male of the (esp. Red) deer, esp. After its 5th year. [old english]
Hartebeest n. Large african antelope with curving horns. [afrikaans]
Harum-scarum colloq. —adj. Wild and reckless. —n. Such a person. [rhyming formation on *hare, *scare]
Harvest —n. 1 a process of gathering in crops etc. B season of this. 2 season’s yield. 3 product of any action. —v. Gather as harvest, reap. [old english]
Harvester n. 1 reaper. 2 reaping-machine, esp. With sheaf-binding.
Harvest festival n. Christian thanksgiving service for the harvest.
Harvest moon n. Full moon nearest to the autumn equinox (22 or 23 sept.).
Harvest mouse n. Small mouse nesting in the stalks of growing grain.
Has 3rd sing. Present of *have.
Has-been n. Colloq. Person or thing of declined importance.
Hash1 —n. 1 dish of cooked meat cut into small pieces and reheated. 2 a mixture; jumble. B mess. 3 recycled material. —v. (often foll. By up) recycle (old material). make a hash of colloq. Make a mess of; bungle.
Hash2 n. Colloq. Hashish. [abbreviation]
Hashish n. Resinous product of hemp, smoked or chewed as a narcotic. [arabic]
Haslet n. Pieces of (esp. Pig’s) offal cooked together, usu. As a meat loaf. [french hastelet]
Hasn’t contr. Has not.
Hasp n. Hinged metal clasp fitting over a staple and secured by a padlock. [old english]
Hassock n. Thick firm cushion for kneeling on. [old english]
Haste —n. Urgency of movement or action; excessive hurry. —v. (-ting) archaic
*hasten 1. in haste quickly, hurriedly. Make haste hurry; be quick. [french from germanic]
Hasten v. 1 make haste; hurry. 2 cause to occur or be ready or be done sooner.
Hasty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 hurried; acting too quickly. 2 said, made, or done too quickly or too soon; rash. hastily adv. Hastiness n.
Hat n. 1 (esp. Outdoor) covering for the head. 2 colloq. Person’s present capacity (wearing his managerial hat). keep it under one’s hat colloq. Keep it secret. Pass the hat round collect contributions of money. Take one’s hat off to colloq. Acknowledge admiration for. [old english]
Hatband n. Band of ribbon etc. Round a hat above the brim.
Hatbox n. Box to hold a hat, esp. For travelling.
Hatch1 n. 1 opening in a wall between a kitchen and dining-room for serving food. 2 opening or door in an aircraft etc. 3 a = *hatchway. B cover for this. [old english]
Hatch2 —v. 1 a (often foll. By out) (of a young bird or fish etc.) Emerge from the egg. B (of an egg) produce a young animal. 2 incubate (an egg). 3 (also foll. By up) devise (a plot etc.). —n. 1 act of hatching. 2 brood hatched. [earlier hacche, from germanic]
Hatch3 v. Mark with close parallel lines. hatching n. [french hacher: related to *hash1]
Hatchback n. Car with a sloping back hinged at the top to form a door.
Hatchet n. Light short-handled axe. [french hachette]
Hatchet man n. Colloq. Person hired to kill, dismiss, or otherwise harm another.
Hatchway n. Opening in a ship’s deck for raising and lowering cargo.
Hate —v. (-ting) 1 dislike intensely. 2 colloq. A dislike. B be reluctant (to do something) (i hate to disturb you; i hate fighting). —n. 1 hatred. 2 colloq. Hated person or thing. [old english]
Hateful adj. Arousing hatred.
Hatpin n. Long pin for securing a hat to the hair.
Hatred n. Extreme dislike or ill will.
Hatstand n. Stand with hooks for hanging hats etc. On.
Hatter n. Maker or seller of hats.
Hat trick n. 1 cricket taking of three wickets by the same bowler with three successive balls. 2 three consecutive successes etc.
Haughty adj. (-ier, -iest) arrogant and disdainful. haughtily adv. Haughtiness n.
Haughty adj. (-ier, -iest) arrogant and disdainful. haughtily adv. Haughtiness n. [haught, haut from french, = high]
Haul —v. 1 pull or drag forcibly. 2 transport by lorry, cart, etc. 3 turn a ship’s course. 4 colloq. (usu. Foll. By up) bring for reprimand or trial. —n. 1 hauling. 2 amount gained or acquired. 3 distance to be traversed (a short haul). haul over the coals see *coal. [french haler from old norse hala]
Haulage n. 1 commercial transport of goods. 2 charge for this.
Haulier n. Person or firm engaged in the transport of goods.
Haulm n. (also halm) 1 stalk or stem. 2 stalks or stems of peas, beans, etc., collectively. [old english]
Haunch n. 1 fleshy part of the buttock with the thigh. 2 leg and loin of a deer etc. As food. [french from germanic]
Haunt —v. 1 (of a ghost) visit (a place) regularly. 2 frequent (a place). 3 linger in the mind of. —n. Place frequented by a person or animal. [french from germanic]
Haunting adj. (of a memory, melody, etc.) Tending to linger in the mind; poignant, evocative.
Haute couture n. High fashion; leading fashion houses or their products. [french]
Haute cuisine n. High-class cookery. [french]
Hauteur n. Haughtiness. [french]
Have —v. (-ving; 3rd sing. Present has; past and past part. Had) 1 as an auxiliary verb with past part. Or ellipt., to form the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses, and the conditional mood (has, had, will have, seen; had i known, i would have gone; yes, i have). 2 own or be able to use; be provided with (has a car; had no time). 3 hold in a certain relationship (has a sister; had no equals). 4 contain as a part or quality (box has a lid; has big eyes). 5 a experience (had a good time, a shock, a pain). B be subjected to a specified state (had my car stolen; book has a page missing). C cause (a person or thing) to be in a particular state or take particular action (had him sacked; had us worried; had my hair cut; had a copy made; had them to stay). 6 a engage in (an activity) (have an argument, sex). B hold (a meeting, party, etc.). 7 eat or drink (had a beer). 8 (usu. In neg.) Accept or tolerate; permit to (i won’t have it; won’t have you say that). 9 a feel (have no doubt; has nothing against me). B show (mercy, pity, etc.). C (foll. By to + infin.) Show by action that one is influenced by (a feeling, quality, etc.) (have the sense to stop). 10 a give birth to (offspring). B conceive mentally (an idea etc.). 11 receive, obtain (had a letter from him; not a ticket to be had). 12 be burdened with or committed to (has a job to do). 13 a have obtained (a qualification) (has six o levels). B know (a language) (has no latin). 14 slang a get the better of (i had him there). B (usu. In passive) cheat, deceive (you were had). 15 coarse slang have sexual intercourse with. —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Person with wealth or resources. 2 slang swindle. had best see best. Had better see better. Have got to colloq. = have to. Have had it colloq. 1 have missed one’schance. 2 have passed one’s prime. 3 have been killed, defeated, etc. Have it 1 (foll. By that) maintain that. 2 win a decision in a vote etc. 3 colloq. Have found the answer etc. Have it away (or off) coarse slang have sexual intercourse. Have it in for colloq. Be hostile or ill-disposed towards. Have it out (often foll. By with) colloq. Attempt to settle a dispute by argument. Have on 1 wear (clothes).
2 have (an engagement). 3 colloq. Tease, hoax. Have to be obliged to, must. Have up colloq. Bring (a person) before a judge, interviewer, etc. [old english]
Haven n. 1 refuge. 2 harbour, port. [old english]
Have-not n. (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Person lacking wealth or resources.
Haven’t contr. Have not.
Haver v. 1 vacillate, hesitate. 2 dial. Talk foolishly. [origin unknown]
Haversack n. Stout canvas bag carried on the back or over the shoulder. [german habersack, = oats-sack]
Havoc n. Widespread destruction; great disorder. [french havo(t)]
Haw1 n. Hawthorn berry. [old english]
Haw2 see *hum.
Hawfinch n. Large finch with a thick beak for cracking seeds. [from *haw1, *finch]
Hawk1 —n. 1 bird of prey with a curved beak, rounded short wings, and a long tail. 2 polit. Person who advocates aggressive policies. —v. Hunt with a hawk.
tail. 2 polit. Person who advocates aggressive policies. —v. Hunt with a hawk. hawkish adj. [old english]
Hawk2 v. Carry about or offer (goods) for sale. [back-formation from *hawker]
Hawk3 v. 1 clear the throat noisily. 2 (foll. By up) bring (phlegm etc.) Up from the throat. [imitative]
Hawker n. Person who travels about selling goods. [low german or dutch]
Hawk-eyed adj. Keen-sighted.
Hawser n. Thick rope or cable for mooring or towing a ship. [french, haucier hoist, from latin altus high]
Hawthorn n. Thorny shrub with small dark-red berries. [related to *haw1]
Health service n. Public service providing medical care.
Health visitor n. Trained nurse who visits mothers and babies, or the sick or elderly, at home.
Healthy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having, showing, or promoting good health. 2 indicative of (esp. Moral or financial) health (a healthy sign). 3 substantial (won by a healthy 40 seconds). healthily adv. Healthiness n.
Heap —n. 1 disorderly pile. 2 (esp. In pl.) Colloq. Large number or amount. 3 slang dilapidated vehicle. —v. 1 (foll. By up, together, etc.) Collect or be collected in a heap. 2 (foll. By with) load copiously with. 3 (foll. By on, upon) give or offer copiously (heaped insults on them). [old english]
Hear v. (past and past part. Heard) 1 (also absol.) Perceive with the ear. 2 listen to (heard them on the radio). 3 listen judicially to (a case etc.). 4 be told or informed. 5 (foll. By from) be contacted by, esp. By letter or telephone. 6 be ready to obey (an order). 7 grant (a prayer). have heard of be aware of the existence of. Hear! Hear! Int. Expressing agreement. Hear a person out listen to all a person says. Will not hear of will not allow. hearer n. [old english]
Hearing n. 1 faculty of perceiving sounds. 2 range within which sounds may be heard (within hearing). 3 opportunity to state one’s case (a fair hearing). 4 trial of a case before a court.
Hearing-aid n. Small device to amplify sound, worn by a partially deaf person.
Hearken v. Archaic (often foll. By to) listen. [old english: related to *hark]
Hearsay n. Rumour, gossip.
Hearse n. Vehicle for conveying the coffin at a funeral. [french herse harrow, from latin hirpex large rake]
Heart n. 1 hollow muscular organ maintaining the circulation of blood by rhythmic contraction and dilation. 2 region of the heart; the breast. 3 a centre of
thought, feeling, and emotion (esp. Love). B capacity for feeling emotion (has no heart). 4 a courage or enthusiasm (take heart). B mood or feeling (change of heart). 5 a central or innermost part of something. B essence (heart of the matter). 6 compact tender inner part of a lettuce etc. 7 a heart-shaped thing. B conventional representation of a heart with two equal curves meeting at a point at the bottom and a cusp at the top. 8 a playing-card of the suit denoted by a red figure of a heart. B (in pl.) This suit. at heart 1 in one’s inmost feelings. 2 basically. Break a person’s heart overwhelm a person with sorrow. By heart from memory. Give (or lose) one’s heart (often foll. By to) fall in love (with). Have the heart (usu. With neg.; foll. By to + infin.) Be insensitive or hard-hearted enough (didn’t have the heart to ask him). Take to heart be much affected by. To one’s heart’s content see *content1. With all one’s heart sincerely; with all goodwill. [old english]
Heartache n. Mental anguish.
Heart attack n. Sudden occurrence of coronary thrombosis.
Heartbeat n. Pulsation of the heart.
Heartbreak n. Overwhelming distress. heartbreaking adj. Heartbroken adj.
Heartburn n. Burning sensation in the chest from indigestion.
Hearten v. Make or become more cheerful. heartening adj.
Heart failure n. Failure of the heart to function properly, esp. As a cause of
death.
Heartfelt adj. Sincere; deeply felt.
Hearth n. 1 floor of a fireplace. 2 the home. [old english]
Hearthrug n. Rug laid before a fireplace.
Heartily adv. 1 in a hearty manner. 2 very (am heartily sick of it).
Heart-lung machine n. Machine that temporarily takes over the functions of the heart and lungs.
Heart-rending adj. Very distressing.
Heart-searching n. Examination of one’s own feelings and motives.
Heartsick adj. Despondent.
Heartstrings n.pl. One’s deepest feelings.
Heartthrob n. Colloq. Person for whom one has (esp. Immature) romantic feelings.
Heart-to-heart —attrib. Adj. (of a conversation etc.) Candid, intimate. —n.
Candid or personal conversation.
Heart-warming adj. Emotionally rewarding or uplifting.
Heartwood n. Dense inner part of a tree-trunk, yielding the hardest timber.
Hearty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 strong, vigorous. 2 (of a meal or appetite) large. 3 warm, friendly. heartiness n.
Heat —n. 1 condition of being hot. 2 physics form of energy arising from the motion of bodies’ molecules. 3 hot weather. 4 warmth of feeling; anger or excitement. 5 (foll. By of) most intense part or period of activity (heat of battle). 6 (usu. Preliminary or trial) round in a race etc. —v. 1 make or become hot or warm. 2 inflame. on heat (of mammals, esp. Females) sexually receptive. [old english]
Heated adj. Angry; impassioned. heatedly adv.
Heater n. Stove or other heating device.
Heath n. 1 area of flattish uncultivated land with low shrubs. 2 plant growing on a heath, esp. Heather. [old english]
Heathen —n. 1 person not belonging to a predominant religion, esp. Not a christian, jew, or muslim. 2 person regarded as lacking culture or moral principles. —adj. 1 of heathens. 2 having no religion. [old english]
Heather n. Any of various shrubs growing esp. On moors and heaths. [origin unknown]
Heath robinson adj. Absurdly ingenious and impracticable. [name of a cartoonist]
Heating n. 1 imparting or generation of heat. 2 equipment used to heat a building etc.
Heatproof —adj. Able to resist great heat. —v. Make heatproof.
Heat shield n. Device to protect (esp. A spacecraft) from excessive heat.
Heatwave n. Period of unusually hot weather.
Heave —v. (-ving; past and past part. Heaved or esp. Naut. Hove) 1 lift or haul with great effort. 2 utter with effort (heaved a sigh). 3 colloq. Throw. 4 rise and fall rhythmically or spasmodically. 5 naut. Haul by rope. 6 retch. —n. Heaving. heave in sight come into view. Heave to esp. Naut. Bring or be brought to a standstill. [old english]
Heaven n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of god and the angels, and of the blessed after death. 2 place or state of supreme bliss. 3 colloq. Delightful thing. 4 (usu. Heaven) god, providence (often as an exclamation or mild oath: heavens). 5 (the heavens) esp. Poet. The sky as seen from the earth, in which the sun, moon, and stars appear. heavenward adv. (also heavenwards). [old english]
Heavenly adj. 1 of heaven; divine. 2 of the heavens or sky. 3 colloq. Very pleasing; wonderful.
Heavenly bodies n.pl. The sun, stars, planets, etc.
Heavensent adj. Providential.
Heavier-than-air attrib. Adj. (of an aircraft) weighing more than the air it displaces.
Heavy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of great or unusually high weight; difficult to lift. 2 of great density (heavy metal). 3 abundant, considerable (heavy crop; heavy traffic). 4 severe, intense, extensive (heavy fighting; a heavy sleep). 5 doing a thing to excess (heavy drinker). 6 striking or falling with force; causing strong impact (heavy blows; heavy rain; heavy sea; a heavy fall). 7 (of machinery,
artillery, etc.) Very large of its kind; large in calibre etc. 8 needing much physical effort (heavy work). 9 carrying heavy weapons (the heavy brigade). 10 serious or sombre in tone or attitude; dull, tedious. 11 a hard to digest. B hard to read or understand. 12 (of bread etc.) Too dense from not having risen. 13 (of ground) difficult to traverse or work. 14 oppressive; hard to endure (heavy demands). 15 a coarse, ungraceful (heavy features). B unwieldy. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 colloq. Large violent person; thug (esp. Hired). 2 villainous or tragic role or actor. 3 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Serious newspaper. 4 anything large or heavy of its kind, e.g. A vehicle. —adv. Heavily (esp. In comb.: heavy-laden).
Heavy industry n. Industry producing metal, machinery, etc.
Heavy metal n. 1 heavy guns. 2 metal of high density. 3 colloq. Loud kind of rock music with a pounding rhythm.
Heavy petting n. Erotic fondling that stops short of intercourse.
Heavy water n. Water composed of deuterium and oxygen.
Heavyweight n. 1 a weight in certain sports, in amateur boxing over 81 kg. B sportsman of this weight. 2 person etc. Of above average weight. 3 colloq. Person of influence or importance.
Hebe n. Evergreen flowering shrub from new zealand. [greek goddess hebe]
Hebraic adj. Of hebrew or the hebrews.
Hebrew —n. 1 member of a semitic people orig. Centred in ancient palestine. 2 a their language. B modern form of this, used esp. In israel. —adj. 1 of or in hebrew. 2 of the hebrews or the jews. [hebrew, = one from the other side of the river]
Heck int. Colloq. Mild exclamation of surprise or dismay. [a form of *hell]
Heckle —v. (-ling) interrupt and harass (a public speaker). —n. Act of heckling. heckler n. [var. Of *hackle]
Hectare n. Metric unit of square measure, 100 ares (2.471 acres or 10,000 square
Hectogram n. (also hectogramme) metric unit of mass equal to 100 grams.
Hector —v. Bully, intimidate. —n. Bully. [from the name hector in the iliad]
He’d contr. 1 he had. 2 he would.
Hedge —n. 1 fence or boundary of dense bushes or shrubs. 2 protection against possible loss. —v. (-ging) 1 surround or bound with a hedge. 2 (foll. By in) enclose. 3 a reduce one’s risk of loss on (a bet or speculation) by compensating transactions on the other side. B avoid committing oneself. [old english]
Hedgehog n. Small insect-eating mammal with a piglike snout and a coat of spines, rolling itself up into a ball when attacked.
Hedge-hop v. Fly at a very low altitude.
Hedgerow n. Row of bushes etc. Forming a hedge.
Hedge sparrow n. Common grey and brown bird; the dunnock.
Hedonism n. 1 belief in pleasure as mankind’s proper aim. 2 behaviour based on this. hedonist n. Hedonistic adj. [greek hedone pleasure]
Hee-haw —n. Bray of a donkey. —v. Make a braying sound. [imitative]
Heel1 —n. 1 back of the foot below the ankle. 2 a part of a sock etc. Covering this. B part of a shoe etc. Supporting this. 3 thing like a heel in form or position. 4 crust end of a loaf of bread. 5 colloq. Scoundrel. 6 (as int.) Command to a dog to walk close to its owner’s heel. —v. 1 fit or renew a heel on (a shoe etc.). 2 touch the ground with the heel as in dancing. 3 (foll. By out) rugby pass the ball with the heel. at heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. At (or on) the heels of following closely after (a person or event). Cool (or kick) one’s heels be kept waiting. Down at heel 1 (of a shoe) with the heel worn down. 2 (of a person) shabby. Take to one’s heels run away. To heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. Turn on one’s heel turn sharply round. [old english]
Heel2 —v. (often foll. By over) 1 (of a ship etc.) Lean over. 2 cause (a ship etc.) To do this. —n. Act or amount of heeling. [obsolete heeld, from germanic]
Heel3 var. Of *hele.
Heelball n. 1 mixture of hard wax and lampblack used by shoemakers for polishing. 2 this or a similar mixture used in brass-rubbing.
Hefty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a person) big and strong. 2 (of a thing) large, heavy, powerful. heftily adv. Heftiness n. [heft weight: related to *heave]
Hegemony n. Leadership, esp. By one state of a confederacy. [greek hegemon leader]
Hegira n. (also hejira) 1 muhammad’s flight from mecca in ad 622. 2 muslim era reckoned from this date. [arabic hijra departure]
Heifer n. Young cow, esp. One that has not had more than one calf. [old english]
Height n. 1 measurement from base to top or head to foot. 2 elevation above the ground or a recognized level. 3 considerable elevation (situated at a height). 4 high place or area. 5 top. 6 a most intense part or period (battle was at its height). B extreme example (the height of fashion). [old english]
Heighten v. Make or become higher or more intense.
Heinous adj. Utterly odious or wicked. [french haïr hate]
Heir n. (fem. Heiress) person entitled to property or rank as the legal successor of its former holder. [latin heres hered-]
Heir apparent n. Heir whose claim cannot be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Heirloom n. 1 piece of personal property that has been in a family for several generations. 2 piece of property as part of an inheritance.
Heir presumptive n. Heir whose claim may be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Hejira var. Of *hegira.
Held past and past part. Of *hold1.
Hele v. (-ling) (also heel) (foll. By in) set (a plant) in the ground temporarily and cover its roots. [old english]
Helical adj. Having the form of a helix.
Helices pl. Of *helix.
Helices pl. Of *helix.
Helicopter n. Wingless aircraft obtaining lift and propulsion from horizontally revolving overhead blades. [greek: related to *helix, pteron wing]
Helio-comb. Form sun. [greek helios sun]
Heliocentric adj. 1 regarding the sun as centre. 2 considered as viewed from the sun’s centre.
Heliograph —n. 1 signalling apparatus reflecting sunlight in flashes. 2 message sent by means of this. —v. Send (a message) by heliograph.
Heliotrope n. Plant with fragrant purple flowers. [greek: related to *helio-, trepo turn]
Heliport n. Place where helicopters take off and land.
Helium n. Light inert gaseous element used in airships and as a refrigerant. [related to *helio-]
Helix n. (pl. Helices) spiral curve (like a corkscrew) or coiled curve (like a watch spring). [latin from greek]
Hell —n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of the dead, or of
devils and condemned sinners. 2 place or state of misery or wickedness. —int. Expressing anger, surprise, etc. the hell (usu. Prec. By what, where, who, etc.) Expressing anger, disbelief, etc. (who the hell is this?; the hell you are!). Beat etc. The hell out of colloq. Beat etc. Without restraint. Come hell or high waterno matter what the difficulties. For the hell of it colloq. Just for fun. Get hell colloq. Be severely scolded or punished. Give a person hell colloq. Scold or punish a person. A (or one) hell of a colloq. Outstanding example of (a hell of a mess; one hell of a party). Like hell colloq. 1 not at all. 2 recklessly, exceedingly. [old english]
He’ll contr. He will; he shall.
Hell-bent adj. (foll. By on) recklessly determined.
Hellebore n. Evergreen plant with usu. White, purple, or green flowers, e.g. The christmas rose. [greek (h)elleborus]
Hellene n. 1 native of modern greece. 2 ancient greek. hellenic adj. [greek]
Hellenism n. (esp. Ancient) greek character or culture. hellenist n.
Hellenistic adj. Of greek history, language, and culture of the late 4th to the late 1st c. Bc.
Hell-fire n. Fire(s) regarded as existing in hell.
Hell for leather adv. At full speed.
Hell-hole n. Oppressive or unbearable place.
Hellish —adj. 1 of or like hell. 2 colloq. Extremely difficult or unpleasant. — adv. Colloq. Extremely (hellish expensive). hellishly adv.
Hello (also hallo, hullo) —int. Expression of informal greeting, or of surprise, or to call attention. —n. (pl. -s) cry of ‘hello’. [var. Of earlier hollo]
Hell’s angel n. Member of a gang of male motor-cycle enthusiasts notorious for outrageous and violent behaviour.
Helm n. Tiller or wheel for controlling a ship’s rudder. at the helm in control; at the head of an organization etc. [old english]
Helmet n. Protective head-covering worn by a policeman, motor cyclist, etc. [french from germanic]
Helmsman n. Person who steers a ship.
Helot n. Serf, esp. (helot) of a class in ancient sparta. [latin from greek]
Help —v. 1 provide with the means towards what is needed or sought (helped
Help —v. 1 provide with the means towards what is needed or sought (helped me with my work; helped me (to) pay my debts; helped him on with his coat). 2 (often absol.) Be of use or service to (does that help?). 3 contribute to alleviating (a pain or difficulty). 4 prevent or remedy (it can’t be helped). 5 (usu. With neg.) A refrain from (can’t help it; could not help laughing). B refl. Refrain from acting (couldn’t help himself). 6 (often foll. By to) serve (a person with food). — n. 1 helping or being helped (need your help; came to our help). 2 person or thing that helps. 3 colloq. Domestic assistant or assistance. 4 remedy or escape (there is no help for it). help oneself (often foll. By to) 1 serve oneself (with food etc.). 2 take without permission. Help a person out give a person help, esp. In difficulty. helper n.
Helpful adj. Giving help; useful. helpfully adv. Helpfulness n.
Helping n. Portion of food at a meal.
Helpless adj. 1 lacking help or protection; defenceless. 2 unable to act without help. helplessly adv. Helplessness n.
Helpline n. Telephone service providing help with problems.
Helpmate n. Helpful companion or partner.
Helter-skelter —adv. & adj. In disorderly haste. —n. (at a fairground) external spiral slide round a tower. [imitative]
Hem1 —n. Border of cloth where the edge is turned under and sewn down. —v. (-mm-) turn down and sew in the edge of (cloth etc.). hem in confine; restrict the movement of. [old english]
Hem2 —int. Calling attention or expressing hesitation by a slight cough. —n. Utterance of this. —v. (-mm-) say hem; hesitate in speech. hem and haw = hum and haw (see *hum). [imitative]
Hemal adj. (brit. Haem-) of the blood. [greek haima blood]
He-man n. Masterful or virile man.
Hematite n. (brit. Haem-) a ferric oxide ore. [latin: related to *haemal]
Hematology n. (brit. Haem-) the study of the blood. haematologist n.
Hemi-comb. Form half. [greek, = latin semi-]
Hemipterous adj. Of the insect order including aphids, bugs, and cicadas, with piercing or sucking mouthparts. [greek pteron wing]
Hemisphere n. 1 half a sphere. 2 half of the earth, esp. As divided by the equator (into northern and southern hemisphere) or by a line passing through the poles (into eastern and western hemisphere). hemispherical adj. [greek: related to hemi-, sphere]
Hemline n. Lower edge of a skirt etc.
Hemlock n. 1 poisonous plant with fernlike leaves and small white flowers. 2 poison made from this. [old english]
Hemoglobin n. (brit. Haem-) oxygen-carrying substance in the red blood cells of vertebrates. [from *globulin]
Hemophilia n. (brit. Haem-) hereditary failure of the blood to clot normally with the tendency to bleed severely from even a slight injury. [greek haima blood, philia loving]
Hemophiliac n. (brit. Haem-) person with haemophilia.
Hemorrhage (brit. Haem-) —n. 1 profuse loss of blood from a ruptured blood-vessel. 2 damaging loss, esp. Of people or assets. —v. (-ging) suffer a haemorrhage. [greek haima blood, rhegnumi burst]
Hemorrhoids n.pl. (brit. Haem-) swollen veins in the wall of the anus; piles. [greek haima blood, -rhoos -flowing]
Hemp n. 1 (in full indian hemp) asian herbaceous plant. 2 its fibre used to make rope and stout fabrics. 3 narcotic drug made from the hemp plant. [old english]
Hempen adj. Made of hemp.
Hemstitch —n. Decorative stitch. —v. Hem with this stitch.
Hen n. Female bird, esp. Of a domestic fowl. [old english]
Henbane n. Poisonous hairy plant with an unpleasant smell.
Hence adv. 1 from this time (two years hence). 2 for this reason (hence we seem to be wrong). 3 archaic from here. [old english]
Henceforth adv. (also henceforward) from this time onwards.
Henchman n. Usu. Derog. Trusted supporter. [old english hengst horse, *man]
Henge n. Prehistoric monument consisting of a circle of stone or wood uprights. [stonehenge in s. England]
Henna —n. 1 tropical shrub. 2 reddish dye made from it and used to colour hair. —v. (hennaed, hennaing) dye with henna. [arabic]
Hen-party n. Colloq. Social gathering of women only.
Henpeck v. (usu. In passive) (of a wife) constantly nag her husband.
Henry n. (pl. -s or -ies) electr. Si unit of inductance. [henry, name of a physicist]
Henry n. (pl. -s or -ies) electr. Si unit of inductance. [henry, name of a physicist]
Hep var. Of *hip4.
Hepatic adj. Of the liver. [greek hepar -atos liver]
Hepatitis n. Inflammation of the liver. [related to *hepatic]
Hepta-comb. Form seven. [greek]
Heptagon n. Plane figure with seven sides and angles. heptagonal adj. [greek:
related to *hepta-, -gonos angled]
Her —pron. 1 objective case of she (i like her). 2 colloq. She (it’s her all right; am older than her). —poss. Pron. (attrib.) Of or belonging to her or herself (her house; her own business). [old english dative and genitive of she]
Herald —n. 1 official messenger bringing news. 2 forerunner, harbinger. 3 a hist. Officer responsible for state ceremonial and etiquette. B official concerned with pedigrees and coats of arms. —v. Proclaim the approach of; usher in. heraldic adj. [french from germanic]
Heraldry n. 1 art or knowledge of a herald. 2 coats of arms.
Herb n. 1 any non-woody seed-bearing plant. 2 plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavouring, food, medicine, scent, etc. herby adj. (-ier, -iest). [latin herba]
Herbaceous adj. Of or like herbs.
Herbaceous border n. Garden border containing esp. Perennial flowering plants.
Herbage n. Vegetation collectively, esp. As pasture.
Herbal —adj. Of herbs in medicinal and culinary use. —n. Book describing the medicinal and culinary uses of herbs.
Herbalist n. 1 dealer in medicinal herbs. 2 writer on herbs.
Herbarium n. (pl. -ria) 1 systematically arranged collection of dried plants. 2 book, room, etc. For these.
Herbicide n. Poison used to destroy unwanted vegetation.
Herbivore n. Animal that feeds on plants. herbivorous adj. [latin voro devour]
Herculean adj. Having or requiring great strength or effort. [from the name hercules, latin alteration of greek herakles]
hercules, latin alteration of greek herakles]
Herd —n. 1 a number of animals, esp. Cattle, feeding or travelling or kept together. 2 (prec. By the) derog. Large number of people; mob (tends to follow the herd). —v. 1 (cause to) go in a herd (herded together for warmth; herded the cattle into the field). 2 look after (sheep, cattle, etc.). [old english]
Herd instinct n. (prec. By the) tendency to think and act as a crowd.
Herdsman n. Man who owns or tends a herd.
Here —adv. 1 in or at or to this place or position (come here; sit here). 2 indicating a person’s presence or a thing offered (my son here will show you; here is your coat). 3 at this point in the argument, situation, etc. (here i have a question). —n. This place (get out of here; lives near here; fill it up to here). — int. 1 calling attention: short for come here, look here, etc. (here, where are you going with that?). 2 indicating one’s presence in a roll-call: short for i am here. here goes! Colloq. Expression indicating the start of a bold act. Here’s to i drink to the health of. Here we are colloq. Said on arrival at one’s destination. Here we go again colloq. The same, usu. Undesirable, events are recurring. Here you are said on handing something to somebody. Neither here nor there of no importance. [old english]
Hereabouts adv. (also hereabout) near this place.
Hereafter —adv. From now on; in the future. —n. 1 the future. 2 life after death.
Here and now adv. At this very moment; immediately.
Here and now adv. At this very moment; immediately.
Here and there adv. In various places.
Hereby adv. By this means; as a result of this.
Hereditable adj. That can be inherited. [latin: related to *heir]
Hereditary adj. 1 (of a disease, instinct, etc.) Able to be passed down genetically from one generation to another. 2 a descending by inheritance. B holding a position by inheritance. [latin: related to *heir]
Heredity n. 1 a passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically. B these characteristics. 2 genetic constitution.
Hereford n. Animal of a breed of red and white beef cattle. [hereford in england]
Herein adv. Formal in this matter, book, etc.
Hereinafter adv. Esp. Law formal 1 from this point on. 2 in a later part of this document etc.
Hereof adv. Formal of this.
Heresy n. (pl. -ies) 1 esp. Rc ch. Religious belief or practice contrary to orthodox doctrine. 2 opinion contrary to what is normally accepted or maintained. [greek hairesis choice]
Heretic n. 1 person believing in or practising religious heresy. 2 holder of an unorthodox opinion. heretical adj.
Hereto adv. Formal to this matter.
Heretofore adv. Formal before this time.
Hereupon adv. After this; in consequence of this.
Herewith adv. With this (esp. Of an enclosure in a letter etc.).
Heritable adj. 1 law capable of being inherited or of inheriting. 2 biol. Genetically transmissible from parent to offspring. [french: related to *heir]
Heritage n. 1 what is or may be inherited. 2 inherited circumstances, benefits, etc. 3 a nation’s historic buildings, monuments, countryside, etc., esp. Whenregarded as worthy of preservation.
Hermaphrodite —n. Person, animal, or plant having both male and female reproductive organs. —adj. Combining both sexes. hermaphroditic adj. [from hermaphroditus, son of hermes and aphrodite who became joined in one body to
a nymph]
Hermetic adj. With an airtight closure. hermetically adv. [from the greek god hermes, regarded as the founder of alchemy]
Hermit n. Person (esp. An early christian) living in solitude and austerity. hermitic adj. [greek eremos solitary]
Hermitage n. 1 hermit’s dwelling. 2 secluded dwelling.
Hermit-crab n. Crab that lives in a mollusc’s cast-off shell.
Hernia n. Protrusion of part of an organ through the wall of the body cavity containing it. [latin]
Hero n. (pl. -es) 1 person noted or admired for nobility, courage, outstanding achievements, etc. 2 chief male character in a play, story, etc. [greek heros]
Heroic —adj. Of, fit for, or like a hero; very brave. —n. (in pl.) 1 high-flown language or sentiments. 2 unduly bold behaviour. heroically adv.
Heroin n. Addictive analgesic drug derived from morphine, often used as a narcotic. [german: related to *hero, from the effect on the user’s self-esteem]
Heroine n. 1 woman noted or admired for nobility, courage, outstanding achievements, etc. 2 chief female character in a play, story, etc. [greek: related to *hero]
Heroism n. Heroic conduct or qualities. [french héroïsme: related to *hero]
Heron n. Long-legged wading bird with a long sshaped neck. [french from germanic]
Hero-worship —n. Idealization of an admired person. —v. Idolize.
Herpes n. Virus disease causing skin blisters. [greek herpo creep]
Herr n. (pl. Herren) 1 title of a german man; mr. 2 german man. [german]
Herring n. (pl. Same or -s) n. Atlantic fish used as food. [old english]
Herring-bone n. Stitch or weave consisting of a series of small ‘v’ shapes making a zigzag pattern.
Herring-gull n. Large gull with dark wing-tips.
Hers poss. Pron. The one or ones belonging to or associated with her (it is hers; hers are over there). of hers of or belonging to her (friend of hers).
hers are over there). of hers of or belonging to her (friend of hers).
Herself pron. 1 a emphat. Form of *she or her (she herself will do it). B refl. Form of her (she has hurt herself). 2 in her normal state of body or mind (doesnot feel quite herself today). be herself see oneself. By herself see by oneself. [old english: related to her, *self]
Hertz n. (pl. Same) si unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second. [hertz, name of a physicist]
He’s contr. 1 he is. 2 he has.
Hesitant adj. Hesitating; irresolute. hesitance n. Hesitancy n. Hesitantly adv.
Hesitate v. (-ting) 1 show or feel indecision or uncertainty; pause in doubt (hesitated over her choice). 2 be reluctant (i hesitate to say so). hesitation n. [latin haereo haes-stick fast]
Hessian n. Strong coarse sacking made of hemp or jute. [hesse in germany]
Hetero-comb. Form other, different. [greek heteros other]
Heterodox adj. Not orthodox. heterodoxy n. [from *hetero-, greek doxa opinion]
Heterodyne adj. Radio relating to the production of a lower frequency from the combination of two almost equal high frequencies. [from *hetero-, greek
dunamis force]
Heterogeneous adj. 1 diverse in character. 2 varied in content. heterogeneity n. [latin from greek genos kind]
Heteromorphic adj. (also heteromorphous) biol. Of dissimilar forms.
heteromorphism n.
Heterosexual —adj. Feeling or involving sexual attraction to the opposite sex. — n. Heterosexual person. heterosexuality n.
Het up predic. Adj. Colloq. Excited, overwrought. [het, a dial. Word = heated]
Heuristic adj. 1 allowing or assisting to discover. 2 proceeding to a solution by trial and error. [greek heurisko find]
Hew v. (past part. Hewn or hewed) 1 chop or cut with an axe, sword, etc. 2 cut into shape. [old english]
Hexadecimal adj. Esp. Computing of a system of numerical notation that has 16
Hexadecimal adj. Esp. Computing of a system of numerical notation that has 16 (the figures 0 to 9 and the letters a to f) rather than 10 as a base.
Hexagon n. Plane figure with six sides and angles. hexagonal adj. [greek: related to *hexa-, -gonos angled]
Hexagram n. Figure formed by two intersecting equilateral triangles.
Hexameter n. Line of verse with six metrical feet.
Hey int. Calling attention or expressing joy, surprise, inquiry, etc. [imitative]
Heyday n. Time of greatest success or prosperity. [low german]
Hey presto! Int. Conjuror’s phrase on completing a trick.
Hezbollah n. (also hiz-) extreme shiite muslim group, active esp. In lebanon. [arabic hisbullah party of god]
Hf abbr. High frequency.
Hf symb. Hafnium.
Hg symb. Mercury.
Hg abbr. Hectogram(s).
Hgv abbr. Heavy goods vehicle.
Hh abbr. 1 her or his highness. 2 his holiness. 3 (of pencil-lead) double-hard.
Hi int. Calling attention or as a greeting.
Hiatus n. (pl. -tuses) 1 break or gap in a series or sequence. 2 break between two vowels coming together but not in the same syllable, as in though oft the ear. [latin hio gape]
Hibernate v. (-ting) (of an animal) spend the winter in a dormant state. hibernation n. [latin hibernus wintry]
Hibernian archaic poet. —adj. Of ireland. —n. Native of ireland. [latin hibernia ireland]
Hibiscus n. (pl. -cuses) cultivated shrub with large bright-coloured flowers. [greek hibiskos marsh mallow]
Hiccup (also hiccough) —n. 1 involuntary spasm of the diaphragm causing a characteristic sound ‘hic’. 2 temporary or minor stoppage or difficulty. —v. (-p-) make a hiccup. [imitative]
Hick n. (often attrib.) Esp. Us colloq. Country bumpkin, provincial. [familiar form of richard]
Hickory n. (pl. -ies) 1 n. American tree yielding wood and nutlike edible fruits. 2 the tough heavy wood of this. [virginian pohickery]
Hid past of *hide1.
Hidden past part. Of *hide1.
Hidden agenda n. Secret motivation behind a policy, statement, etc.; ulterior motive.
Hide1 —v. (-ding; past hid; past part. Hidden) 1 put or keep out of sight. 2 conceal oneself. 3 (usu. Foll. By from) keep (a fact) secret. 4 conceal. —n. Camouflaged shelter used for observing wildlife. hider n. [old english]
Hide2 n. 1 animal’s skin, esp. When tanned or dressed. 2 colloq. The human skin, esp. The backside. [old english]
Hide-and-seek n. Game in which players hide and another searches for them.
Hideaway n. Hiding-place or place of retreat.
Hidebound adj. 1 narrow-minded. 2 constricted by tradition.
Hideous adj. 1 very ugly, revolting. 2 colloq. Unpleasant. hideosity n. (pl. -ies). Hideously adv. [anglo-french hidous]
Hide-out n. Colloq. Hiding-place.
Hiding1 n. Colloq. A thrashing. on a hiding to nothing with no chance of succeeding. [from *hide2]
Hiding2 n. 1 act of hiding. 2 state of remaining hidden (go into hiding). [from *hide1]
Hiding-place n. Place of concealment.
Hierarchy n. (pl. -ies) system of grades of status or authority ranked one above the other. hierarchical adj. [greek hieros sacred, arkho rule]
Hieratic adj. 1 of priests. 2 of the ancient egyptian hieroglyphic writing as used by priests. [greek hiereus priest]
Hieroglyph n. Picture representing a word, syllable, or sound, as used in ancient egyptian etc. [greek hieros sacred, glupho carve]
Hieroglyphic —adj. Of or written in hieroglyphs. —n. (in pl.) Hieroglyphs; hieroglyphic writing.
Hi-fi colloq. —adj. Of high fidelity. —n. (pl. -s) set of high-fidelity equipment. [abbreviation]
Higgledy-piggledy adv. & adj. In confusion or disorder. [origin uncertain]
High —adj. 1 a of great vertical extent (high building). B (predic.; often in comb.) Of a specified height (one inch high; waist-high). 2 a far above ground or sea level etc. (high altitude). B inland, esp. When raised (high asia). 3 extending above the normal level (jersey with a high neck). 4 a of exalted quality (high minds). B lavish; superior (high living; high fashion). 5 of exalted rank (high society; is high in the government). 6 a great; intense; extreme; powerful (high praise; high temperature). B greater than normal (high prices). C extreme or very traditional in religious or political opinion (high tory). 7 performed at, to, or from a considerable height (high diving; high flying). 8 (often foll. By on) colloq. Intoxicated by alcohol or esp. Drugs. 9 (of a sound etc.) Of high frequency; shrill. 10 (of a period, age, time, etc.) At its peak (high noon; high summer; high renaissance). 11 a (of meat etc.) Beginning to go bad; off. B (of game) well-hung and slightly decomposed. —n. 1 high, or the highest, level or figure. 2 area of high pressure; anticyclone. 3 slang euphoric state, esp. Drug-induced (am on a high). —adv. 1 far up; aloft (flew the flag high). 2 in or to a high degree. 3 at a high price. 4 (of a sound) at or to a high pitch. high opinion of favourable opinion of. On high in or to heaven or a high place. On one’s high horse colloq. Acting arrogantly. [old english]
High altar n. Chief altar in a church.
High and dry adj. Stranded; aground.
High and low adv. Everywhere (searched high and low).
High and mighty adj. Colloq. Arrogant.
Highball n. Us drink of spirits and soda etc., served with ice in a tall glass.
Highbrow colloq. —adj. Intellectual; cultural. —n. Intellectual or cultured person.
High chair n. Infant’s chair with long legs and a tray for meals.
High church n. Section of the church of england emphasizing ritual, priestly authority, and sacraments.
High-class adj. Of high quality.
High colour n. Flushed complexion.
High command n. Army commander-in-chief and associated staff.
High commission n. Embassy from one commonwealth country to another. high commissioner n.
High court n. (also in england high court of justice) supreme court of justice for civil cases.
High day n. Festal day.
Higher animal n. (also higher plant) animal or plant evolved to a high degree.
Higher education n. Education at university etc.
High explosive n. Extremely explosive substance used in shells, bombs, etc.
High jump n. 1 athletic event consisting of jumping over a high bar. 2 colloq.
Drastic punishment (he’s for the high jump).
Highland —n. (usu. In pl.) 1 area of high land. 2 (the highlands) mountainous part of scotland. —adj. Of or in a highland or the highlands. highlander n. (also highlander). [old english, = promontory: related to *high]
Highland cattle n. Cattle of a shaggy-haired breed with long curved horns.
Highland fling see *fling n. 3.
High-level adj. 1 (of negotiations etc.) Conducted by high-ranking people. 2 computing (of a programming language) not machine-dependent and usu. At a level of abstraction close to natural language.
Highlight —n. 1 moment or detail of vivid interest; outstanding feature. 2 (in a painting etc.) Bright area. 3 (usu. In pl.) Light streak in the hair produced by bleaching. —v. 1 bring into prominence; draw attention to. 2 mark with a highlighter.
Highlighter n. Marker pen for emphasizing a printed word etc. By overlaying it with colour.
Highly adv. 1 in a high degree (highly amusing; commend it highly). 2 favourably (think highly of him).
Highly-strung adj. Very sensitive or nervous.
High-minded adj. Having high moral principles. high-mindedly adv. High-mindedness n.
Highness n. 1 state of being high (highness of taxation). 2 (highness) title used when addressing or referring to a prince or princess (her highness; your royal highness).
High-octane adj. (of fuel used in internal-combustion engines) not detonating readily during the power stroke.
High-pitched adj. 1 (of a sound) high. 2 (of a roof) steep.
High point n. The maximum or best state reached.
High-powered adj. 1 having great power or energy. 2 important or influential.
High pressure n. 1 high degree of activity or exertion. 2 atmospheric condition with the pressure above average.
High priest n. (fem. High priestess) 1 chief priest, esp. Jewish. 2 head of a cult.
High-ranking adj. Of high rank, senior.
High-rise —attrib. Adj. (of a building) having many storeys. —n. Such a building.
High-risk attrib. Adj. Involving or exposed to danger (high-risk sports).
High road n. Main road.
High road n. Main road.
High school n. 1 grammar school. 2 us & scot. Secondary school.
High sea n. (also high seas) open seas not under any country’s jurisdiction.
High season n. Busiest period at a resort etc.
High-speed attrib. Adj. Operating at great speed.
High-spirited adj. Vivacious; cheerful; lively.
High spot n. Important place or feature.
High street n. Principal shopping street of a town.
High table n. Dining-table for the most important guests or members.
High tea n. Evening meal usu. Consisting of a cooked dish, bread and butter, tea, etc.
High-tech adj. 1 employing, requiring, or involved in high technology. 2
imitating styles more usual in industry etc.
High technology n. Advanced technological development, esp. In electronics.
High tension n. = *high voltage.
High tide n. Time or level of the tide at its peak.
High time n. Time that is overdue (it is high time they arrived).
High treason n. = *treason.
High-up n. Colloq. Person of high rank.
High voltage n. Electrical potential large enough to injure or damage.
High water n. = *high tide.
High-water mark n. Level reached at high water.
Highway n. 1 a public road. B main route. 2 direct course of action (on the highway to success).
Highway code n. Official booklet of guidance for road-users.
Highwayman n. Hist. Robber of travellers etc., usu. Mounted.
High wire n. High tightrope.
Hijack —v. 1 seize control of (a vehicle etc.), esp. To force it to a different destination. 2 seize (goods) in transit. 3 take control of (talks etc.) By force or subterfuge. —n. A hijacking. hijacker n. [origin unknown]
Hike —n. 1 long walk, esp. In the country for pleasure. 2 rise in prices etc. —v. (-king) 1 go for a hike. 2 walk laboriously. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) hitch up (clothing etc.); become hitched up. 4 (usu. Foll. By up) raise (prices etc.). hiker n. [origin unknown]
Hill n. 1 naturally raised area of land, lower than a mountain. 2 (often in comb.) Heap, mound (anthill). 3 sloping piece of road. over the hill colloq. Past the prime of life. [old english]
Hill-billy n. Us colloq., often derog. Person from a remote rural area in a southern state.
Hillock n. Small hill, mound.
Hillside n. Sloping side of a hill.
Hilltop n. Top of a hill.
Hillwalking n. Hiking in hilly country. hillwalker n.
Hilly adj. (-ier, -iest) having many hills. hilliness n.
Hilt n. Handle of a sword, dagger, etc. up to the hilt completely. [old english]
Him pron. 1 objective case of he (i saw him). 2 colloq. He (it’s him again; taller than him). [old english, dative of he]
Himself pron. 1 a emphat. Form of *he or him (he himself will do it). B refl. Form of him (he has hurt himself). 2 in his normal state of body or mind (doesnot feel quite himself today). be himself see oneself. By himself see by oneself. [old english: related to him, *self]
Hind1 adj. At the back (hind leg). [old english hindan from behind]
Hind2 n. Female (esp. Red) deer, esp. In and after the third year. [old english]
Hinder1 v. Impede; delay. [old english]
Hinder2 adj. Rear, hind (the hinder part). [old english]
Hindi n. 1 group of spoken dialects of n. India. 2 literary form of hindustani, an official language of india. [urdu hind india]
Hindmost adj. Furthest behind.
Hindquarters n.pl. Hind legs and rump of a quadruped.
Hindrance n. 1 hindering; being hindered. 2 thing that hinders.
Hindsight n. Wisdom after the event.
Hindu —n. (pl. -s) follower of hinduism. —adj. Of hindus or hinduism. [urdu hind india]
Hinduism n. Main religious and social system of india, including the belief in reincarnation, several gods, and a caste system.
reincarnation, several gods, and a caste system.
Hindustani n. Language based on hindi, used as a lingua franca in much of india. [from *hindu, stan country]
Hinge —n. 1 movable joint on which a door, lid, etc., turns or swings. 2 principle on which all depends. —v. (-ging) 1 (foll. By on) depend (on a principle, an event, etc.). 2 attach or be attached by a hinge. [related to *hang]
Hinny n. (pl. -ies) offspring of a female donkey and a male horse. [greek hinnos]
Hint —n. 1 slight or indirect indication or suggestion. 2 small piece of practical information. 3 very small trace; suggestion (a hint of perfume). —v. Suggest slightly or indirectly. hint at give a hint of; refer indirectly to. Take a hint heed a hint. [obsolete hent grasp]
Hinterland n. 1 district beyond a coast or river’s banks. 2 area served by a port or other centre. [german]
Hip1 n. Projection of the pelvis and the upper part of the thigh-bone. [old english]
Hip2 n. Fruit of a rose, esp. Wild. [old english]
Hip3 int. Introducing a united cheer (hip, hip, hooray). [origin unknown]
Hip-bath n. Portable bath in which one sits immersed to the hips.
Hip-bone n. Bone forming the hip.
Hip-flask n. Small flask for spirits etc.
Hip hop n. (also hip-hop) subculture combining rap music, graffiti art, and break-dancing. [from *hip4]
Hippie n. (also hippy) (pl. -ies) colloq. (esp. In the 1960s) person rejecting convention, typically with long hair, jeans, beads, etc., and taking hallucinogenic drugs. [from *hip4]
Hippo n. (pl. -s) colloq. Hippopotamus. [abbreviation]
Hip-pocket n. Trouser-pocket just behind the hip.
Hippocratic oath n. Statement of ethics of the medical profession. [hippocrates, name of a greek physician]
Hippodrome n. 1 music-hall or dancehall. 2 (in classical antiquity) course for
chariot races etc. [greek hippos horse, dromos race]
Hippopotamus n. (pl. -muses or -mi) large african mammal with short legs and thick skin, living by rivers, lakes, etc. [greek hippos horse, potamos river]
Hippy1 var. Of *hippie.
Hippy2 adj. Having large hips.
Hipster1 —attrib. Adj. (of a garment) hanging from the hips rather than the waist. —n. (in pl.) Such trousers.
Hipster2 n. Slang hip person.
Hire —v. (-ring) 1 purchase the temporary use of (a thing) (hired a van). 2 esp. Us employ (a person). —n. 1 hiring or being hired. 2 payment for this. for (or on) hire ready to be hired. Hire out grant the temporary use of (a thing) for payment. hireable adj. Hirer n. [old english]
Hireling n. Usu. Derog. Person who works (only) for money.
Hire purchase n. System of purchase by paying in instalments.
Hirsute adj. Hairy. [latin]
Hirsute adj. Hairy. [latin]
His poss. Pron. 1 (attrib.) Of or belonging to him or himself (his house; his own business). 2 the one or ones belonging to or associated with him (it is his; his are over there). of his of or belonging to him (friend of his). [old english, genitive of *he]
Hispanic —adj. 1 of spain or spain and portugal. 2 of spain and other spanish-speaking countries. —n. Spanish-speaking person living in the us. [latin hispania spain]
Hiss —v. 1 make a sharp sibilant sound, as of the letter s. 2 express disapproval of by hisses. 3 whisper urgently or angrily. —n. 1 sharp sibilant sound as of the letter s. 2 electronics interference at audio frequencies. [imitative]
Histamine n. Chemical compound in body tissues etc., associated with allergic reactions. [from histology, amine]
Histogram n. Statistical diagram of rectangles with areas proportional to the value of a number of variables. [greek histos mast]
Histology n. The study of tissue structure. [greek histos web]
Historian n. 1 writer of history. 2 person learned in history.
Historic adj. 1 famous or important in history or potentially so (historic
moment). 2 gram. (of a tense) used to narrate past events.
Historical adj. 1 of or concerning history (historical evidence). 2 (of the study of a subject) showing its development over a period. 3 factual, not fictional or legendary. 4 belonging to the past, not the present. 5 (of a novel etc.) Dealing with historical events. historically adv.
Historicism n. 1 theory that social and cultural phenomena are determined by history. 2 belief that historical events are governed by laws.
Historicity n. Historical truth or authenticity.
Historiography n. 1 the writing of history. 2 the study of this. historiographer n.
History n. (pl. -ies) 1 continuous record of (esp. Public) events. 2 a the study of past events, esp. Human affairs. B total accumulation of past events, esp. Relating to human affairs or a particular nation, person, thing, etc. 3 eventful past (this house has a history). 4 (foll. By of) past record (had a history of illness). 5 a systematic or critical account of or research into past events etc. B similar record or account of natural phenomena. 6 historical play. make history do something memorable. [greek historia inquiry]
Histrionic —adj. (of behaviour) theatrical, dramatic. —n. (in pl.) Insincere and dramatic behaviour designed to impress. [latin histrio actor]
Hit —v. (-tt-; past and past part. Hit) 1 a strike with a blow or missile. B (of a moving body) strike with force (the plane hit the ground). C reach (a target etc.) With a directed missile (hit the wicket). 2 cause to suffer; affect adversely. 3
(often foll. By at, against) direct a blow. 4 (often foll. By against, on) knock (a part of the body) (hit his head). 5 achieve, reach (hit the right tone; can’t hit the high notes). 6 colloq. A encounter (hit a snag). B arrive at (hit town). C indulge heavily in, esp. Liquor etc. (hit the bottle). 7 esp. Us slang rob or kill. 8 occur forcefully to (it only hit him later). 9 a propel (a ball etc.) With a bat etc. To score runs or points. B score in this way (hit a six). —n. 1 a blow, stroke. B collision. 2 shot etc. That hits its target. 3 colloq. Popular success. hit back retaliate. Hit below the belt 1 esp. Boxing give a foul blow. 2 treat or behave unfairly. Hit the hay (or sack) colloq. Go to bed. Hit it off (often foll. By with, together) colloq. Get on well (with a person). Hit the nail on the head state the truth exactly. Hit on (or upon) find by chance. Hit out deal vigorous physical or verbal blows. Hit the road slang depart. Hit the roof see *roof. [old english from old norse]
Hit-and-run attrib. Adj. 1 (of a driver, raider, etc.) Causing damage or injury and leaving the scene immediately. 2 (of an accident, attack, etc.) Perpetrated by such a person or people.
Hitch —v. 1 fasten or be fastened with a loop, hook, etc.; tether. 2 move (a thing) slightly or with a jerk. 3 colloq. A = *hitchhike. B obtain (a lift) by hitchhiking. —n. 1 temporary obstacle or snag. 2 abrupt pull or push. 3 noose or knot of various kinds. 4 colloq. Free ride in a vehicle. get hitched colloq. Marry. Hitch up lift (esp. Clothing) with a jerk. [origin uncertain]
Hitchhike v. (-king) travel by seeking free lifts in passing vehicles. hitchhiker n.
Hi-tech adj. = *high-tech. [abbreviation]
Hither adv. Formal to or towards this place. [old english]
Hither and thither adv. To and fro.
Hitherto adv. Until this time, up to now.
Hit list n. Slang list of prospective victims.
Hit man n. Slang hired assassin.
Hit-or-miss adj. Liable to error, random.
Hit parade n. Colloq. List of the current best-selling pop records.
Hittite —n. Member or language of an ancient people of asia minor and syria. — adj. Of the hittites. [hebrew]
Hiv abbr. Human immunodeficiency virus, either of two viruses causing aids.
Hive n. Beehive. hive off (-ving) separate from a larger group. [old english]
Hmi abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s inspector (of schools).
Hms abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s ship.
Hmso abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s stationery office.
Hnc abbr. Higher national certificate.
Hnd abbr. Higher national diploma.
Ho symb. Holmium.
Ho int. Expressing triumph, derision, etc., or calling attention. [natural exclamation]
He abbr. 1 his or her excellency. 2 his eminence. 3 high explosive.
He symb. Helium.
He —pron. (obj. Him; poss. His; pl. They) 1 the man, boy, or male animal previously named or in question. 2 person etc. Of unspecified sex (if anyone comes he will have to wait; he who hesitates). —n. 1 male; man. 2 (in comb.) Male (he-goat). [old english]
Head —n. 1 upper part of the human body, or foremost or upper part of an animal’s body, containing the brain, mouth, and sense-organs. 2 a seat of intellect (use your head). B mental aptitude or tolerance (a good head for business; no head for heights). 3 thing like a head in form or position, esp.: a the operative part of a tool. B the top of a nail. C the leaves or flowers at the top of a stem. D foam on the top of a glass of beer etc. 4 a person in charge, esp. The principal teacher of a school. B position of command. 5 front part of a queue etc. 6 upper end of a table or bed etc. 7 top or highest part of a page, stairs, etc. 8 a individual person as a unit (£10 per head). B (pl. Same) individual animal as a unit (20 head). 9 a side of a coin bearing the image of a head. B (usu. In pl.) This as a choice when tossing a coin. 10 a source of a river etc. B end of a lake at which a river enters it. 11 height or length of a head as a measure. 12 part of a machine in contact with or very close to what is being worked on, esp.: a the part of a tape recorder that touches the moving tape and converts signals. B the part of a record-player that holds the playing cartridge and stylus. 13 (usu. In phr. Come to a head) climax, crisis. 14 a confined body of water or steam in an engine etc. B pressure exerted by this. 15 promontory (esp. In place-names) (beachy head). 16 heading or headline. 17 fully developed top of a boil etc. 18 colloq. Headache. 19 (attrib.) Chief, principal. —v. 1 be at the head or front of. 2 be in charge of. 3 provide with a head or heading. 4 (often foll. By for) face, move, or direct in a specified direction (is heading for trouble). 5 hit (a ball etc.) With the head. above (or over) one’s head beyond one’s understanding. Come to a head reach a crisis. Get it into one’s head (foll. By that) 1 adopt a mistaken idea. 2 form a definite plan. Give a person his (or her) head allow a person to act freely. Go to one’s head 1 make one slightly drunk. 2 make one conceited. Head
off 1 get ahead of so as to intercept and turn aside. 2 forestall. Keep (or lose) one’s head remain (or fail to remain) calm. Off one’s head slang crazy. Off the top of one’s head colloq. Impromptu. On one’s (or one’s own) head as one’s own responsibility. Out of one’s head slang crazy. Over one’s head 1 beyond one’s understanding. 2 without one’s rightful knowledge or involvement, esp. Of action taken by a subordinate consulting one’s own superior. 3 with disregard for one’s own (stronger) claim (was promoted over my head). Put heads together consult together. Take it into one’s head (foll. By that + clause or to + infin.) Decide, esp. Impetuously. Turn a person’s head make a person conceited. [old english]
Headache n. 1 continuous pain in the head. 2 colloq. Worrying problem.
headachy adj.
Headband n. Band worn round the head as decoration or to confine the hair.
Headbanger n. Slang 1 person who shakes his or her head violently to the rhythm of music; fan of loud music. 2 crazy or eccentric person.
Headboard n. Upright panel at the head of a bed.
Head-butt —n. Thrust with the head into the chin or body of another person. — v. Attack with a head-butt.
Headcount n. 1 counting of individual people. 2 total number of people, esp.
Employees.
Headdress n. Covering for the head.
Header n. 1 football shot or pass made with the head. 2 colloq. Headlong fall or dive. 3 brick etc. Laid at right angles to the face of a wall. 4 (in full header-tank) tank of water etc. Maintaining pressure in a plumbing system.
Head first adv. 1 with the head foremost. 2 precipitately.
Headgear n. Hat or headdress.
Head-hunting n. 1 collecting of the heads of dead enemies as trophies. 2 seeking of (esp. Senior) staff by approaching people employed elsewhere. head-hunt v. Head-hunter n.
Heading n. 1 a title at the head of a page or section of a book etc. B section of a subject of discourse etc. 2 horizontal passage made in preparation for building a tunnel, or in a mine.
Head in the sand n. Refusal to acknowledge danger or difficulty.
Headlamp n. = *headlight.
Headland n. Promontory.
Headlight n. 1 strong light at the front of a vehicle. 2 beam from this.
Headline n. 1 heading at the top of an article or page, esp. In a newspaper. 2 (in pl.) Summary of the most important items in a news bulletin.
Headlock n. Wrestling hold with an arm round the opponent’s head.
Headlong adv. & adj. 1 with the head foremost. 2 in a rush.
Headman n. Chief man of a tribe etc.
Headmaster n. (fem. Headmistress) = *head teacher.
Head-on adj. & adv. 1 with the front foremost (head-on crash). 2 in direct confrontation.
Head over heels —n. Turning over completely in forward motion as in a somersault etc. —adv. Utterly (head over heels in love).
Headphones n.pl. Set of earphones fitting over the head, for listening to audio equipment etc.
Headquarters n. (as sing. Or pl.) Administrative centre of an organization.
Headrest n. Support for the head, esp. On a seat.
Headroom n. Space or clearance above a vehicle, person’s head, etc.
Headscarf n. Scarf worn round the head and tied under the chin.
Headset n. Headphones, often with a microphone attached.
Headship n. Position of head or chief, esp. In a school.
Headshrinker n. Slang psychiatrist.
Headstall n. Part of a halter or bridle fitting round a horse’s head.
Head start n. Advantage granted or gained at an early stage.
Headstone n. Stone set up at the head of a grave.
Headstrong adj. Self-willed.
Head teacher n. Teacher in charge of a school.
Headwaters n.pl. Streams flowing from the sources of a river.
Headway n. 1 progress. 2 ship’s rate of progress. 3 headroom.
Heal v. 1 (often foll. By up) become sound or healthy again. 2 cause to heal. 3 put right (differences etc.). 4 alleviate (sorrow etc.). healer n. [old english: related to *whole]
Health n. 1 state of being well in body or mind. 2 person’s mental or physical condition. 3 soundness, esp. Financial or moral. [old english: related to *whole]
Health centre n. Building containing various local medical services and doctors’ practices.
Health farm n. Establishment offering improved health by a regime of dieting, exercise, etc.
Health food n. Natural food, thought to promote good health.
Healthful adj. Conducive to good health; beneficial.
Health service n. Public service providing medical care.
Health visitor n. Trained nurse who visits mothers and babies, or the sick or elderly, at home.
Healthy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having, showing, or promoting good health. 2 indicative of (esp. Moral or financial) health (a healthy sign). 3 substantial (won by a healthy 40 seconds). healthily adv. Healthiness n.
Heap —n. 1 disorderly pile. 2 (esp. In pl.) Colloq. Large number or amount. 3 slang dilapidated vehicle. —v. 1 (foll. By up, together, etc.) Collect or be collected in a heap. 2 (foll. By with) load copiously with. 3 (foll. By on, upon) give or offer copiously (heaped insults on them). [old english]
Hear v. (past and past part. Heard) 1 (also absol.) Perceive with the ear. 2 listen to (heard them on the radio). 3 listen judicially to (a case etc.). 4 be told or informed. 5 (foll.
Hearing n. 1 faculty of perceiving sounds. 2 range within which sounds may be heard (within hearing). 3 opportunity to state one’s case (a fair hearing). 4 trial of a case before a court.
Hearing-aid n. Small device to amplify sound, worn by a partially deaf person.
Hearken v. Archaic (often foll. By to) listen. [old english: related to *hark]
Hearsay n. Rumour, gossip.
Hearse n. Vehicle for conveying the coffin at a funeral. [french herse harrow, from latin hirpex large rake]
Heart n. 1 hollow muscular organ maintaining the circulation of blood by rhythmic contraction and dilation. 2 region of the heart; the breast. 3 a centre of thought, feeling, and emotion (esp. Love). B capacity for feeling emotion (has no heart). 4 a courage or enthusiasm (take heart). B mood or feeling (change of heart). 5 a central or innermost part of something. B essence (heart of the matter). 6 compact tender inner part of a lettuce etc. 7 a heart-shaped thing. B conventional representation of a heart with two equal curves meeting at a point at the bottom and a cusp at the top. 8 a playing-card of the suit denoted by a red figure of a heart. B (in pl.) This suit. at heart 1 in one’s inmost feelings. 2 basically. Break a person’s heart overwhelm a person with sorrow. By heart from memory. Give (or lose) one’s heart (often foll. By to) fall in love (with). Have the heart (usu. With neg.; foll. By to + infin.) Be insensitive or hard-hearted enough (didn’t have the heart to ask him). Take to heart be much affected by. To one’s heart’s content see *content1. With all one’s heart sincerely; with all goodwill. [old english]
Heartache n. Mental anguish.
Heart attack n. Sudden occurrence of coronary thrombosis.
Heartbeat n. Pulsation of the heart.
Heartbreak n. Overwhelming distress. heartbreaking adj. Heartbroken adj.
Heartburn n. Burning sensation in the chest from indigestion.
Hearten v. Make or become more cheerful. heartening adj.
Heart failure n. Failure of the heart to function properly, esp. As a cause of death.
Heartfelt adj. Sincere; deeply felt.
Hearth n. 1 floor of a fireplace. 2 the home. [old english]
Hearthrug n. Rug laid before a fireplace.
Heartily adv. 1 in a hearty manner. 2 very (am heartily sick of it).
Heart-lung machine n. Machine that temporarily takes over the functions of the heart and lungs.
Heart-rending adj. Very distressing.
Heart-searching n. Examination of one’s own feelings and motives.
Heartsick adj. Despondent.
Heartstrings n.pl. One’s deepest feelings.
Heartthrob n. Colloq. Person for whom one has (esp. Immature) romantic feelings.
Heart-to-heart —attrib. Adj. (of a conversation etc.) Candid, intimate. —n.
Candid or personal conversation.
Heart-warming adj. Emotionally rewarding or uplifting.
Heartwood n. Dense inner part of a tree-trunk, yielding the hardest timber.
Heartwood n. Dense inner part of a tree-trunk, yielding the hardest timber.
Hearty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 strong, vigorous. 2 (of a meal or appetite) large. 3 warm, friendly. heartiness n.
Heat —n. 1 condition of being hot. 2 physics form of energy arising from the motion of bodies’ molecules. 3 hot weather. 4 warmth of feeling; anger or excitement. 5 (foll. By of) most intense part or period of activity (heat of battle). 6 (usu. Preliminary or trial) round in a race etc. —v. 1 make or become hot or warm. 2 inflame. on heat (of mammals, esp.
Heated adj. Angry; impassioned. heatedly adv.
Heater n. Stove or other heating device.
Heath n. 1 area of flattish uncultivated land with low shrubs. 2 plant growing on a heath, esp. Heather. [old english]
Heathen —n. 1 person not belonging to a predominant religion, esp. Not a christian, jew, or muslim. 2 person regarded as lacking culture or moral principles. —adj. 1 of heathens. 2 having no religion. [old english]
Heather n. Any of various shrubs growing esp. On moors and heaths. [origin unknown]
Heath robinson adj. Absurdly ingenious and impracticable. [name of a cartoonist]
Heating n. 1 imparting or generation of heat. 2 equipment used to heat a building etc.
Heatproof —adj. Able to resist great heat. —v. Make heatproof.
Heat shield n. Device to protect (esp. A spacecraft) from excessive heat.
Heatwave n. Period of unusually hot weather.
Heave —v. (-ving; past and past part. Heaved or esp. Naut. Hove) 1 lift or haul with great effort. 2 utter with effort (heaved a sigh). 3 colloq. Throw. 4 rise and fall rhythmically or spasmodically. 5 naut. Haul by rope. 6 retch. —n. Heaving. heave in sight come into view. Heave to esp. Naut. Bring or be brought to a standstill. [old english]
Heaven n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of god and the angels, and of the blessed after death. 2 place or state of supreme bliss. 3 colloq. Delightful thing. 4 (usu. Heaven) god, providence (often as an exclamation or mild oath: heavens). 5 (the heavens) esp. Poet. The sky as seen from the earth, in which the sun, moon, and stars appear. heavenward adv. (also heavenwards). [old english]
Heavenly adj. 1 of heaven; divine. 2 of the heavens or sky. 3 colloq. Very pleasing; wonderful.
Heavenly bodies n.pl. The sun, stars, planets, etc.
Heavensent adj. Providential.
Heavier-than-air attrib. Adj. (of an aircraft) weighing more than the air it displaces.
Heavy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of great or unusually high weight; difficult to lift. 2 of great density (heavy metal). 3 abundant, considerable (heavy crop; heavy traffic). 4 severe, intense, extensive (heavy fighting; a heavy sleep). 5 doing a thing to excess (heavy drinker). 6 striking or falling with force; causing strong impact (heavy blows; heavy rain; heavy sea; a heavy fall). 7 (of machinery, artillery, etc.) Very large of its kind; large in calibre etc. 8 needing much physical effort (heavy work). 9 carrying heavy weapons (the heavy brigade). 10 serious or sombre in tone or attitude; dull, tedious. 11 a hard to digest. B hard to read or understand. 12 (of bread etc.) Too dense from not having risen. 13 (of ground) difficult to traverse or work. 14 oppressive; hard to endure (heavy demands). 15 a coarse, ungraceful (heavy features). B unwieldy. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 colloq. Large violent person; thug (esp. Hired). 2 villainous or tragic role or actor. 3 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Serious newspaper. 4 anything large or heavy of its kind, e.g. A vehicle. —adv. Heavily (esp. In comb.: heavy-laden). heavy on using a lot of (heavy on petrol). Make heavy weather of see *weather. heavily adv. Heaviness n. Heavyish adj. [old english]
Heavy industry n. Industry producing metal, machinery, etc.
Heavy metal n. 1 heavy guns. 2 metal of high density. 3 colloq. Loud kind of rock music with a pounding rhythm.
Heavy petting n. Erotic fondling that stops short of intercourse.
Heavy water n. Water composed of deuterium and oxygen.
Heavyweight n. 1 a weight in certain sports, in amateur boxing over 81 kg. B sportsman of this weight. 2 person etc. Of above average weight. 3 colloq. Person of influence or importance.
Hebe n. Evergreen flowering shrub from new zealand. [greek goddess hebe]
Hebraic adj. Of hebrew or the hebrews.
Hebraic adj. Of hebrew or the hebrews.
Hebrew —n. 1 member of a semitic people orig. Centred in ancient palestine. 2 a their language. B modern form of this, used esp. In israel. —adj. 1 of or in hebrew. 2 of the hebrews or the jews. [hebrew, = one from the other side of the river]
Heck int. Colloq. Mild exclamation of surprise or dismay. [a form of *hell]
Heckle —v. (-ling) interrupt and harass (a public speaker). —n. Act of heckling. heckler n. [var. Of *hackle]
Hectare n. Metric unit of square measure, 100 ares (2.471 acres or 10,000 square metres). [french: related to hecto-, are2]
Hectogram n. (also hectogramme) metric unit of mass equal to 100 grams.
Hector —v. Bully, intimidate. —n. Bully. [from the name hector in the iliad]
He’d contr. 1 he had. 2 he would.
Hedge —n. 1 fence or boundary of dense bushes or shrubs. 2 protection against possible loss. —v. (-ging) 1 surround or bound with a hedge. 2 (foll. By in) enclose. 3 a reduce one’s risk of loss on (a bet or speculation) by compensating transactions on the other side. B avoid committing oneself. [old english]
Hedgehog n. Small insect-eating mammal with a piglike snout and a coat of spines, rolling itself up into a ball when attacked.
Hedge-hop v. Fly at a very low altitude.
Hedgerow n. Row of bushes etc. Forming a hedge.
Hedge sparrow n. Common grey and brown bird; the dunnock.
Hedonism n. 1 belief in pleasure as mankind’s proper aim. 2 behaviour based on this. hedonist n. Hedonistic adj. [greek hedone pleasure]
Hee-haw —n. Bray of a donkey. —v. Make a braying sound. [imitative]
Heel1 —n. 1 back of the foot below the ankle. 2 a part of a sock etc. Covering this. B part of a shoe etc. Supporting this. 3 thing like a heel in form or position. 4 crust end of a loaf of bread. 5 colloq. Scoundrel. 6 (as int.) Command to a dog to walk close to its owner’s heel. —v. 1 fit or renew a heel on (a shoe etc.). 2 touch the ground with the heel as in dancing. 3 (foll. By out) rugby pass the ball with the heel. at heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. At (or on) the heels of following closely after (a person or event). Cool (or kick) one’s heels be kept waiting. Down at heel 1 (of a shoe) with the heel worn down. 2 (of a person) shabby. Take to one’s heels run away. To heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. Turn on one’s heel turn sharply round. [old english]
Heel2 —v. (often foll. By over) 1 (of a ship etc.) Lean over. 2 cause (a ship etc.) To do this. —n. Act or amount of heeling. [obsolete heeld, from germanic]
Heel3 var. Of *hele.
Heelball n. 1 mixture of hard wax and lampblack used by shoemakers for polishing. 2 this or a similar mixture used in brass-rubbing.
Hefty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a person) big and strong. 2 (of a thing) large, heavy, powerful. heftily adv. Heftiness n. [heft weight: related to *heave]
Hegemony n. Leadership, esp. By one state of a confederacy. [greek hegemon leader]
Hegira n. (also hejira) 1 muhammad’s flight from mecca in ad 622. 2 muslim era reckoned from this date. [arabic hijra departure]
Heifer n. Young cow, esp. One that has not had more than one calf. [old english]
Height n. 1 measurement from base to top or head to foot. 2 elevation above the ground or a recognized level. 3 considerable elevation (situated at a height). 4 high place or area. 5 top. 6 a most intense part or period (battle was at its height). B extreme example (the height of fashion). [old english]
Heighten v. Make or become higher or more intense.
Heinous adj. Utterly odious or wicked. [french haïr hate]
Heir n. (fem. Heiress) person entitled to property or rank as the legal successor of its former holder. [latin heres hered-]
Heir apparent n. Heir whose claim cannot be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Heirloom n. 1 piece of personal property that has been in a family for several generations. 2 piece of property as part of an inheritance.
Heir presumptive n. Heir whose claim may be set aside by the birth of another
Heir presumptive n. Heir whose claim may be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Hejira var. Of *hegira.
Held past and past part. Of *hold1.
Hele v. (-ling) (also heel) (foll. By in) set (a plant) in the ground temporarily and cover its roots. [old english]
Helical adj. Having the form of a helix.
Helices pl. Of *helix.
Helicopter n. Wingless aircraft obtaining lift and propulsion from horizontally revolving overhead blades. [greek: related to *helix, pteron wing]
Helio-comb. Form sun. [greek helios sun]
Heliocentric adj. 1 regarding the sun as centre. 2 considered as viewed from the sun’s centre.
Heliograph —n. 1 signalling apparatus reflecting sunlight in flashes. 2 message sent by means of this. —v. Send (a message) by heliograph.
Heliotrope n. Plant with fragrant purple flowers. [greek: related to *helio-, trepo turn]
Heliport n. Place where helicopters take off and land.
Helium n. Light inert gaseous element used in airships and as a refrigerant. [related to *helio-]
Helix n. (pl. Helices) spiral curve (like a corkscrew) or coiled curve (like a watch spring). [latin from greek]
Hell —n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of the dead, or of devils and condemned sinners. 2 place or state of misery or wickedness. —int. Expressing anger, surprise, etc. the hell (usu. Prec. By what, where, who, etc.) Expressing anger, disbelief, etc. (who the hell is this?; the hell you are!). Beat etc. The hell out of colloq. Beat etc. Without restraint. Come hell or high waterno matter what the difficulties. For the hell of it colloq. Just for fun. Get hell colloq. Be severely scolded or punished. Give a person hell colloq. Scold or punish a person. A (or one) hell of a colloq. Outstanding example of (a hell of a mess; one hell of a party). Like hell colloq. 1 not at all. 2 recklessly, exceedingly. [old english]
He’ll contr. He will; he shall.
Hell-bent adj. (foll. By on) recklessly determined.
Hellebore n. Evergreen plant with usu. White, purple, or green flowers, e.g. The christmas rose. [greek (h)elleborus]
Hellene n. 1 native of modern greece. 2 ancient greek. hellenic adj. [greek]
Hellenism n. (esp. Ancient) greek character or culture. hellenist n.
Hellenistic adj. Of greek history, language, and culture of the late 4th to the late 1st c. Bc.
Hell-fire n. Fire(s) regarded as existing in hell.
Hell for leather adv. At full speed.
Hell-hole n. Oppressive or unbearable place.
Hellish —adj. 1 of or like hell. 2 colloq. Extremely difficult or unpleasant. — adv. Colloq. Extremely (hellish expensive). hellishly adv.
Hello (also hallo, hullo) —int. Expression of informal greeting, or of surprise, or to call attention. —n. (pl. -s) cry of ‘hello’. [var. Of earlier hollo]
Hell’s angel n. Member of a gang of male motor-cycle enthusiasts notorious for outrageous and violent behaviour.
outrageous and violent behaviour.
Helm n. Tiller or wheel for controlling a ship’s rudder. at the helm in control; at the head of an organization etc. [old english]
Helmet n. Protective head-covering worn by a policeman, motor cyclist, etc. [french from germanic]
Helmsman n. Person who steers a ship.
Helot n. Serf, esp. (helot) of a class in ancient sparta. [latin from greek]
Help —v. 1 provide with the means towards what is needed or sought (helped me with my work; helped me (to) pay my debts; helped him on with his coat). 2 (often absol.) Be of use or service to (does that help?). 3 contribute to alleviating (a pain or difficulty). 4 prevent or remedy (it can’t be helped). 5 (usu. With neg.) A refrain from (can’t help it; could not help laughing). B refl. Refrain from acting (couldn’t help himself). 6 (often foll. By to) serve (a person with food). — n. 1 helping or being helped (need your help; came to our help). 2 person or thing that helps. 3 colloq. Domestic assistant or assistance. 4 remedy or escape (there is no help for it). help oneself (often foll. By to) 1 serve oneself (with food etc.). 2 take without permission. Help a person out give a person help, esp. In difficulty. helper n. [old english]
Helpful adj. Giving help; useful. helpfully adv. Helpfulness n.
Helping n. Portion of food at a meal.
Helpless adj. 1 lacking help or protection; defenceless. 2 unable to act without help. helplessly adv. Helplessness n.
Helpline n. Telephone service providing help with problems.
Helpmate n. Helpful companion or partner.
Helter-skelter —adv. & adj. In disorderly haste. —n. (at a fairground) external spiral slide round a tower. [imitative]
Hem1 —n. Border of cloth where the edge is turned under and sewn down. —v. (-mm-) turn down and sew in the edge of (cloth etc.). hem in confine; restrict the movement of. [old english]
Hem2 —int. Calling attention or expressing hesitation by a slight cough. —n. Utterance of this. —v. (-mm-) say hem; hesitate in speech. hem and haw = hum and haw (see *hum). [imitative]
Hemal adj. (brit. Haem-) of the blood. [greek haima blood]
He-man n. Masterful or virile man.
Hematite n. (brit. Haem-) a ferric oxide ore. [latin: related to *haemal]
Hematology n. (brit. Haem-) the study of the blood. haematologist n.
Hemi-comb. Form half. [greek, = latin semi-]
Hemipterous adj. Of the insect order including aphids, bugs, and cicadas, with piercing or sucking mouthparts. [greek pteron wing]
Hemisphere n. 1 half a sphere. 2 half of the earth, esp. As divided by the equator (into northern and southern hemisphere) or by a line passing through the poles (into eastern and western hemisphere). hemispherical adj. [greek: related to hemi-, sphere]
Hemline n. Lower edge of a skirt etc.
Hemlock n. 1 poisonous plant with fernlike leaves and small white flowers. 2 poison made from this. [old english]
Hemoglobin n. (brit. Haem-) oxygen-carrying substance in the red blood cells of vertebrates. [from *globulin]
Hemophilia n. (brit. Haem-) hereditary failure of the blood to clot normally with the tendency to bleed severely from even a slight injury. [greek haima blood, philia loving]
Hemophiliac n. (brit. Haem-) person with haemophilia.
Hemorrhage (brit. Haem-) —n. 1 profuse loss of blood from a ruptured blood-vessel. 2 damaging loss, esp. Of people or assets. —v. (-ging) suffer a haemorrhage. [greek haima blood, rhegnumi burst]
Hemorrhoids n.pl. (brit. Haem-) swollen veins in the wall of the anus; piles. [greek haima blood, -rhoos -flowing]
Hemp n. 1 (in full indian hemp) asian herbaceous plant. 2 its fibre used to make rope and stout fabrics. 3 narcotic drug made from the hemp plant. [old english]
Hempen adj. Made of hemp.
Hemstitch —n. Decorative stitch. —v. Hem with this stitch.
Hen n. Female bird, esp. Of a domestic fowl. [old english]
Henbane n. Poisonous hairy plant with an unpleasant smell.
Hence adv. 1 from this time (two years hence). 2 for this reason (hence we seem to be wrong). 3 archaic from here. [old english]
Henceforth adv. (also henceforward) from this time onwards.
Henchman n. Usu. Derog. Trusted supporter. [old english hengst horse, *man]
Henge n. Prehistoric monument consisting of a circle of stone or wood uprights. [stonehenge in s. England]
Henna —n. 1 tropical shrub. 2 reddish dye made from it and used to colour hair. —v. (hennaed, hennaing) dye with henna. [arabic]
Hen-party n. Colloq. Social gathering of women only.
Henpeck v. (usu. In passive) (of a wife) constantly nag her husband.
Henry n. (pl. -s or -ies) electr. Si unit of inductance. [henry, name of a physicist]
Hep var. Of *hip4.
Hepatic adj. Of the liver. [greek hepar -atos liver]
Hepatitis n. Inflammation of the liver. [related to *hepatic]
Hepta-comb. Form seven. [greek]
Heptagon n. Plane figure with seven sides and angles. heptagonal adj. [greek:
related to *hepta-, -gonos angled]
Her —pron. 1 objective case of she (i like her). 2 colloq. She (it’s her all right; am older than her). —poss. Pron. (attrib.) Of or belonging to her or herself (her house; her own business). [old english dative and genitive of she]
Herald —n. 1 official messenger bringing news. 2 forerunner, harbinger. 3 a hist. Officer responsible for state ceremonial and etiquette. B official concerned with pedigrees and coats of arms. —v. Proclaim the approach of; usher in. heraldic adj. [french from germanic]
Heraldry n. 1 art or knowledge of a herald. 2 coats of arms.
Herb n. 1 any non-woody seed-bearing plant. 2 plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavouring, food, medicine, scent, etc. herby adj. (-ier, -iest). [latin herba]
Herbaceous adj. Of or like herbs.
Herbaceous border n. Garden border containing esp. Perennial flowering plants.
Herbage n. Vegetation collectively, esp. As pasture.
Herbal —adj. Of herbs in medicinal and culinary use. —n. Book describing the medicinal and culinary uses of herbs.
Herbalist n. 1 dealer in medicinal herbs. 2 writer on herbs.
Herbarium n. (pl. -ria) 1 systematically arranged collection of dried plants. 2 book, room, etc. For these.
Herbicide n. Poison used to destroy unwanted vegetation.
Herbivore n. Animal that feeds on plants. herbivorous adj. [latin voro devour]
Herculean adj. Having or requiring great strength or effort. [from the name hercules, latin alteration of greek herakles]
Herd —n. 1 a number of animals, esp. Cattle, feeding or travelling or kept together. 2 (prec. By the) derog. Large number of people; mob (tends to follow the herd). —v. 1 (cause to) go in a herd (herded together for warmth; herded the cattle into the field). 2 look after (sheep, cattle, etc.). [old english]
Herd instinct n. (prec. By the) tendency to think and act as a crowd.
Herdsman n. Man who owns or tends a herd.
Here —adv. 1 in or at or to this place or position (come here; sit here). 2 indicating a person’s presence or a thing offered (my son here will show you; here is your coat). 3 at this point in the argument, situation, etc. (here i have a question). —n.
Hereabouts adv. (also hereabout) near this place.
Hereafter —adv. From now on; in the future. —n. 1 the future. 2 life after death.
Here and now adv. At this very moment; immediately.
Here and there adv. In various places.
Hereby adv. By this means; as a result of this.
Hereditable adj. That can be inherited. [latin: related to *heir]
Hereditary adj. 1 (of a disease, instinct, etc.) Able to be passed down genetically from one generation to another. 2 a descending by inheritance. B holding a position by inheritance. [latin: related to *heir]
Heredity n. 1 a passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically. B these characteristics. 2 genetic constitution.
Hereford n. Animal of a breed of red and white beef cattle. [hereford in england]
Herein adv. Formal in this matter, book, etc.
Hereinafter adv. Esp. Law formal 1 from this point on. 2 in a later part of this document etc.
Hereof adv. Formal of this.
Heresy n. (pl. -ies) 1 esp. Rc ch. Religious belief or practice contrary to orthodox doctrine. 2 opinion contrary to what is normally accepted or maintained. [greek hairesis choice]
Heretic n. 1 person believing in or practising religious heresy. 2 holder of an unorthodox opinion. heretical adj.
Hereto adv. Formal to this matter.
Heretofore adv. Formal before this time.
Hereupon adv. After this; in consequence of this.
Herewith adv. With this (esp. Of an enclosure in a letter etc.).
Heritable adj. 1 law capable of being inherited or of inheriting. 2 biol. Genetically transmissible from parent to offspring. [french: related to *heir]
Heritage n. 1 what is or may be inherited. 2 inherited circumstances, benefits, etc. 3 a nation’s historic buildings, monuments, countryside, etc., esp. Whenregarded as worthy of preservation.
Hermaphrodite —n. Person, animal, or plant having both male and female reproductive organs. —adj. Combining both sexes. hermaphroditic adj. [from hermaphroditus, son of hermes and aphrodite who became joined in one body to a nymph]
Hermetic adj. With an airtight closure. hermetically adv. [from the greek god hermes, regarded as the founder of alchemy]
Hermit n. Person (esp. An early christian) living in solitude and austerity. hermitic adj. [greek eremos solitary]
Hermitage n. 1 hermit’s dwelling. 2 secluded dwelling.
Hermit-crab n. Crab that lives in a mollusc’s cast-off shell.
Hernia n. Protrusion of part of an organ through the wall of the body cavity containing it. [latin]
Hero n. (pl. -es) 1 person noted or admired for nobility, courage, outstanding achievements, etc. 2 chief male character in a play, story, etc. [greek heros]
Heroic —adj. Of, fit for, or like a hero; very brave. —n. (in pl.) 1 high-flown language or sentiments. 2 unduly bold behaviour. heroically adv.
Heroin n. Addictive analgesic drug derived from morphine, often used as a narcotic. [german: related to *hero, from the effect on the user’s self-esteem]
Hay n. Grass mown and dried for fodder. make hay (while the sun shines) seize opportunities. [old english]
Haycock n. Conical heap of hay.
Hay fever n. Allergy with asthmatic symptoms etc., caused by pollen or dust.
Haymaking n. Mowing grass and spreading it to dry. haymaker n.
Haystack n. (also hayrick) packed pile of hay with a pointed or ridged top.
Haywire adj. Colloq. Badly disorganized, out of control.
Hazard —n. 1 danger or risk. 2 source of this. 3 golf obstacle, e.g. A bunker. —
v. 1 venture (hazard a guess). 2 risk. [arabic az-zahr chance, luck]
Hazardous adj. Risky.
Haze n. 1 thin atmospheric vapour. 2 mental obscurity or confusion. [back-formation from *hazy]
Hazel n. 1 hedgerow shrub bearing round brown edible nuts. 2 greenish-brown. [old english]
He abbr. 1 his or her excellency. 2 his eminence. 3 high explosive.
He symb. Helium.
He —pron. (obj. Him; poss. His; pl. They) 1 the man, boy, or male animal previously named or in question. 2 person etc. Of unspecified sex (if anyone comes he will have to wait; he who hesitates). —n. 1 male; man. 2 (in comb.) Male (he-goat). [old english]
Head —n. 1 upper part of the human body, or foremost or upper part of an animal’s body, containing the brain, mouth, and sense-organs. 2 a seat of intellect (use your head). B mental aptitude or tolerance (a good head for business; no head for heights). 3 thing like a head in form or position, esp.: a the operative part of a tool. B the top of a nail. C the leaves or flowers at the top of a stem. D foam on the top of a glass of beer etc. 4 a person in charge, esp. The principal teacher of a school. B position of command. 5 front part of a queue etc. 6 upper end of a table or bed etc. 7 top or highest part of a page, stairs, etc. 8 a individual person as a unit (£10 per head). B (pl. Same) individual animal as a unit (20 head). 9 a side of a coin bearing the image of a head. B (usu. In pl.) This as a choice when tossing a coin. 10 a source of a river etc. B end of a lake at which a river enters it. 11 height or length of a head as a measure. 12 part of a machine in contact with or very close to what is being worked on, esp.: a the part of a tape recorder that touches the moving tape and converts signals. B the part of a record-player that holds the playing cartridge and stylus. 13 (usu. In phr. Come to a head) climax, crisis. 14 a confined body of water or steam in an engine etc. B pressure exerted by this. 15 promontory (esp. In place-names) (beachy head). 16 heading or headline. 17 fully developed top of a boil etc. 18 colloq. Headache. 19 (attrib.) Chief, principal. —v. 1 be at the head or front of. 2 be in charge of. 3 provide with a head or heading. 4 (often foll. By for) face, move, or direct in a specified direction (is heading for trouble). 5 hit (a ball etc.) With the head. above (or over) one’s head beyond one’s understanding. Come to a head reach a crisis. Get it into one’s head (foll. By that) 1 adopt a mistaken idea. 2 form a definite plan. Give a person his (or her) head allow a person to act freely. Go to one’s head 1 make one slightly drunk. 2 make one conceited. Head off 1 get ahead of so as to intercept and turn aside. 2 forestall. Keep (or lose)
one’s head remain (or fail to remain) calm. Off one’s head slang crazy. Off the top of one’s head colloq. Impromptu. On one’s (or one’s own) head as one’s own responsibility. Out of one’s head slang crazy. Over one’s head 1 beyond one’s understanding.
Headache n. 1 continuous pain in the head. 2 colloq. Worrying problem.
headachy adj.
Headband n. Band worn round the head as decoration or to confine the hair.
Headbanger n. Slang 1 person who shakes his or her head violently to the rhythm of music; fan of loud music. 2 crazy or eccentric person.
Headboard n. Upright panel at the head of a bed.
Head-butt —n. Thrust with the head into the chin or body of another person. — v. Attack with a head-butt.
Headcount n. 1 counting of individual people. 2 total number of people, esp.
Employees.
Headdress n. Covering for the head.
Header n. 1 football shot or pass made with the head. 2 colloq. Headlong fall or dive. 3 brick etc. Laid at right angles to the face of a wall. 4 (in full header-tank) tank of water etc. Maintaining pressure in a plumbing system.
Head first adv. 1 with the head foremost. 2 precipitately.
Headgear n. Hat or headdress.
Head-hunting n. 1 collecting of the heads of dead enemies as trophies. 2 seeking of (esp. Senior) staff by approaching people employed elsewhere. head-hunt v. Head-hunter n.
Heading n. 1 a title at the head of a page or section of a book etc. B section of a subject of discourse etc. 2 horizontal passage made in preparation for building a tunnel, or in a mine.
Head in the sand n. Refusal to acknowledge danger or difficulty.
Headlamp n. = *headlight.
Headland n. Promontory.
Headlight n. 1 strong light at the front of a vehicle. 2 beam from this.
Headline n. 1 heading at the top of an article or page, esp. In a newspaper. 2 (in pl.) Summary of the most important items in a news bulletin.
Headlock n. Wrestling hold with an arm round the opponent’s head.
Headlong adv. & adj. 1 with the head foremost. 2 in a rush.
Headman n. Chief man of a tribe etc.
Headmaster n. (fem. Headmistress) = *head teacher.
Head-on adj. & adv. 1 with the front foremost (head-on crash). 2 in direct confrontation.
Head over heels —n. Turning over completely in forward motion as in a somersault etc. —adv. Utterly (head over heels in love).
Headphones n.pl. Set of earphones fitting over the head, for listening to audio equipment etc.
Headquarters n. (as sing. Or pl.) Administrative centre of an organization.
Headrest n. Support for the head, esp. On a seat.
Headroom n. Space or clearance above a vehicle, person’s head, etc.
Headscarf n. Scarf worn round the head and tied under the chin.
Headset n. Headphones, often with a microphone attached.
Headship n. Position of head or chief, esp. In a school.
Headshrinker n. Slang psychiatrist.
Headstall n. Part of a halter or bridle fitting round a horse’s head.
Head start n. Advantage granted or gained at an early stage.
Headstone n. Stone set up at the head of a grave.
Headstrong adj. Self-willed.
Head teacher n. Teacher in charge of a school.
Headwaters n.pl. Streams flowing from the sources of a river.
Headway n. 1 progress. 2 ship’s rate of progress. 3 headroom.
Heal v. 1 (often foll. By up) become sound or healthy again. 2 cause to heal. 3 put right (differences etc.). 4 alleviate (sorrow etc.). healer n. [old english: related to *whole]
Health n. 1 state of being well in body or mind. 2 person’s mental or physical condition. 3 soundness, esp. Financial or moral. [old english: related to *whole]
Health centre n. Building containing various local medical services and doctors’ practices.
Health farm n. Establishment offering improved health by a regime of dieting, exercise, etc.
Health food n. Natural food, thought to promote good health.
Healthful adj. Conducive to good health; beneficial.
Health service n. Public service providing medical care.
Health visitor n. Trained nurse who visits mothers and babies, or the sick or elderly, at home.
Healthy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 having, showing, or promoting good health. 2 indicative of (esp. Moral or financial) health (a healthy sign). 3 substantial (won by a healthy 40 seconds). healthily adv. Healthiness n.
Heap —n. 1 disorderly pile. 2 (esp. In pl.) Colloq. Large number or amount. 3 slang dilapidated vehicle. —v. 1 (foll. By up, together, etc.) Collect or be collected in a heap. 2 (foll. By with) load copiously with. 3 (foll. By on, upon) give or offer copiously (heaped insults on them). [old english]
Hear v. (past and past part. Heard) 1 (also absol.) Perceive with the ear. 2 listen to (heard them on the radio). 3 listen judicially to (a case etc.). 4 be told or informed. 5 (foll. By from) be contacted by, esp. By letter or telephone. 6 be ready to obey (an order). 7 grant (a prayer). have heard of be aware of the existence of. Hear! Hear! Int. Expressing agreement. Hear a person out listen to all a person says. Will not hear of will not allow. hearer n. [old english]
Hearing n. 1 faculty of perceiving sounds. 2 range within which sounds may be heard (within hearing). 3 opportunity to state one’s case (a fair hearing). 4 trial of a case before a court.
Hearing-aid n. Small device to amplify sound, worn by a partially deaf person.
Hearken v. Archaic (often foll. By to) listen. [old english: related to *hark]
Hearsay n. Rumour, gossip.
Hearse n. Vehicle for conveying the coffin at a funeral. [french herse harrow, from latin hirpex large rake]
Heart n. 1 hollow muscular organ maintaining the circulation of blood by rhythmic contraction and dilation. 2 region of the heart; the breast. 3 a centre of thought, feeling, and emotion (esp. Love). B capacity for feeling emotion (has no heart). 4 a courage or enthusiasm (take heart). B mood or feeling (change of heart). 5 a central or innermost part of something. B essence (heart of the matter). 6 compact tender inner part of a lettuce etc. 7 a heart-shaped thing. B conventional representation of a heart with two equal curves meeting at a point at the bottom and a cusp at the top. 8 a playing-card of the suit denoted by a red figure of a heart. B (in pl.) This suit. at heart 1 in one’s inmost feelings. 2 basically. Break a person’s heart overwhelm a person with sorrow. By heart from memory. Give (or lose) one’s heart (often foll. By to) fall in love (with). Have the heart (usu. With neg.; foll. By to + infin.) Be insensitive or hard-hearted enough (didn’t have the heart to ask him). Take to heart be much affected by. To one’s heart’s content see *content1. With all one’s heart sincerely; with all goodwill. [old english]
Heartache n. Mental anguish.
Heart attack n. Sudden occurrence of coronary thrombosis.
Heartbeat n. Pulsation of the heart.
Heartbreak n. Overwhelming distress. heartbreaking adj. Heartbroken adj.
Heartburn n. Burning sensation in the chest from indigestion.
Hearten v. Make or become more cheerful. heartening adj.
Heart failure n. Failure of the heart to function properly, esp. As a cause of death.
Heartfelt adj. Sincere; deeply felt.
Hearth n. 1 floor of a fireplace. 2 the home. [old english]
Hearthrug n. Rug laid before a fireplace.
Heartily adv. 1 in a hearty manner. 2 very (am heartily sick of it).
Heart-lung machine n. Machine that temporarily takes over the functions of the heart and lungs.
Heart-rending adj. Very distressing.
Heart-searching n. Examination of one’s own feelings and motives.
Heartsick adj. Despondent.
Heartstrings n.pl. One’s deepest feelings.
Heartthrob n. Colloq. Person for whom one has (esp. Immature) romantic feelings.
Heart-to-heart —attrib. Adj. (of a conversation etc.) Candid, intimate. —n.
Candid or personal conversation.
Heart-warming adj. Emotionally rewarding or uplifting.
Heartwood n. Dense inner part of a tree-trunk, yielding the hardest timber.
Hearty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 strong, vigorous. 2 (of a meal or appetite) large. 3 warm, friendly. heartiness n.
Heat —n. 1 condition of being hot. 2 physics form of energy arising from the motion of bodies’ molecules. 3 hot weather. 4 warmth of feeling; anger or excitement. 5 (foll. By of) most intense part or period of activity (heat of battle). 6 (usu. Preliminary or trial) round in a race etc. —v. 1 make or become hot or warm. 2 inflame. on heat (of mammals, esp. Females) sexually receptive. [old english]
Heated adj. Angry; impassioned. heatedly adv.
Heater n. Stove or other heating device.
Heath n. 1 area of flattish uncultivated land with low shrubs. 2 plant growing on a heath, esp. Heather. [old english]
Heathen —n. 1 person not belonging to a predominant religion, esp. Not a christian, jew, or muslim. 2 person regarded as lacking culture or moral principles. —adj. 1 of heathens. 2 having no religion. [old english]
Heather n. Any of various shrubs growing esp. On moors and heaths. [origin unknown]
Heath robinson adj. Absurdly ingenious and impracticable. [name of a
cartoonist]
Heating n. 1 imparting or generation of heat. 2 equipment used to heat a building etc.
Heatproof —adj. Able to resist great heat. —v. Make heatproof.
Heat shield n. Device to protect (esp. A spacecraft) from excessive heat.
Heatwave n. Period of unusually hot weather.
Heave —v. (-ving; past and past part. Heaved or esp. Naut. Hove) 1 lift or haul with great effort. 2 utter with effort (heaved a sigh). 3 colloq. Throw. 4 rise and fall rhythmically or spasmodically. 5 naut. Haul by rope. 6 retch. —n. Heaving. heave in sight come into view. Heave to esp. Naut. Bring or be brought to a standstill. [old english]
Heaven n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of god and the angels, and of the blessed after death. 2 place or state of supreme bliss. 3 colloq. Delightful thing. 4 (usu. Heaven) god, providence (often as an exclamation or mild oath: heavens). 5 (the heavens) esp. Poet. The sky as seen from the earth, in which the sun, moon, and stars appear. heavenward adv. (also heavenwards). [old english]
Heavenly adj. 1 of heaven; divine. 2 of the heavens or sky. 3 colloq. Very pleasing; wonderful.
Heavenly bodies n.pl. The sun, stars, planets, etc.
Heavensent adj. Providential.
Heavier-than-air attrib. Adj. (of an aircraft) weighing more than the air it displaces.
Heavy —adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of great or unusually high weight; difficult to lift. 2 of great density (heavy metal). 3 abundant, considerable (heavy crop; heavy traffic). 4 severe, intense, extensive (heavy fighting; a heavy sleep). 5 doing a thing to excess (heavy drinker). 6 striking or falling with force; causing strong impact (heavy blows; heavy rain; heavy sea; a heavy fall). 7 (of machinery, artillery, etc.) Very large of its kind; large in calibre etc. 8 needing much physical effort (heavy work). 9 carrying heavy weapons (the heavy brigade). 10 serious or sombre in tone or attitude; dull, tedious. 11 a hard to digest. B hard to read or understand. 12 (of bread etc.) Too dense from not having risen. 13 (of ground) difficult to traverse or work. 14 oppressive; hard to endure (heavy demands). 15 a coarse, ungraceful (heavy features). B unwieldy. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 colloq. Large violent person; thug (esp. Hired). 2 villainous or tragic role or actor. 3 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Serious newspaper. 4 anything large or heavy of its kind, e.g. A vehicle. —adv. Heavily (esp. In comb.: heavy-laden).
Heavy industry n. Industry producing metal, machinery, etc.
Heavy metal n. 1 heavy guns. 2 metal of high density. 3 colloq. Loud kind of rock music with a pounding rhythm.
Heavy petting n. Erotic fondling that stops short of intercourse.
Heavy water n. Water composed of deuterium and oxygen.
Heavyweight n. 1 a weight in certain sports, in amateur boxing over 81 kg. B sportsman of this weight. 2 person etc. Of above average weight. 3 colloq. Person of influence or importance.
Hebe n. Evergreen flowering shrub from new zealand. [greek goddess hebe]
Hebraic adj. Of hebrew or the hebrews.
Hebraic adj. Of hebrew or the hebrews.
Hebrew —n. 1 member of a semitic people orig. Centred in ancient palestine. 2 a their language. B modern form of this, used esp. In israel. —adj. 1 of or in hebrew. 2 of the hebrews or the jews. [hebrew, = one from the other side of the river]
Heck int. Colloq. Mild exclamation of surprise or dismay. [a form of *hell]
Heckle —v. (-ling) interrupt and harass (a public speaker). —n. Act of heckling. heckler n. [var. Of *hackle]
Hectare n. Metric unit of square measure, 100 ares (2.471 acres or 10,000 square metres). [french: related to hecto-, are2]
Hectogram n. (also hectogramme) metric unit of mass equal to 100 grams.
Hector —v. Bully, intimidate. —n. Bully. [from the name hector in the iliad]
He’d contr. 1 he had. 2 he would.
Hedge —n. 1 fence or boundary of dense bushes or shrubs. 2 protection against possible loss. —v. (-ging) 1 surround or bound with a hedge. 2 (foll. By in) enclose. 3 a reduce one’s risk of loss on (a bet or speculation) by compensating transactions on the other side. B avoid committing oneself. [old english]
Hedgehog n. Small insect-eating mammal with a piglike snout and a coat of spines, rolling itself up into a ball when attacked.
Hedge-hop v. Fly at a very low altitude.
Hedgerow n. Row of bushes etc. Forming a hedge.
Hedge sparrow n. Common grey and brown bird; the dunnock.
Hedonism n. 1 belief in pleasure as mankind’s proper aim. 2 behaviour based on this. hedonist n. Hedonistic adj. [greek hedone pleasure]
Hee-haw —n. Bray of a donkey. —v. Make a braying sound. [imitative]
Heel1 —n. 1 back of the foot below the ankle. 2 a part of a sock etc. Covering this. B part of a shoe etc. Supporting this. 3 thing like a heel in form or position. 4 crust end of a loaf of bread. 5 colloq. Scoundrel. 6 (as int.) Command to a dog to walk close to its owner’s heel. —v. 1 fit or renew a heel on (a shoe etc.). 2 touch the ground with the heel as in dancing. 3 (foll. By out) rugby pass the ball with the heel. at heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. At (or on) the heels of following closely after (a person or event). Cool (or kick) one’s heels be kept waiting. Down at heel 1 (of a shoe) with the heel worn down. 2 (of a person) shabby. Take to one’s heels run away. To heel 1 (of a dog) close behind. 2 (of a person etc.) Under control. Turn on one’s heel turn sharply round. [old english]
Heel2 —v. (often foll. By over) 1 (of a ship etc.) Lean over. 2 cause (a ship etc.) To do this. —n. Act or amount of heeling. [obsolete heeld, from germanic]
Heel3 var. Of *hele.
Heel3 var. Of *hele.
Heelball n. 1 mixture of hard wax and lampblack used by shoemakers for polishing. 2 this or a similar mixture used in brass-rubbing.
Hefty adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a person) big and strong. 2 (of a thing) large, heavy, powerful. heftily adv. Heftiness n. [heft weight: related to *heave]
Hegemony n. Leadership, esp. By one state of a confederacy. [greek hegemon leader]
Hegira n. (also hejira) 1 muhammad’s flight from mecca in ad 622. 2 muslim era reckoned from this date. [arabic hijra departure]
Heifer n. Young cow, esp. One that has not had more than one calf. [old english]
Height n. 1 measurement from base to top or head to foot. 2 elevation above the ground or a recognized level. 3 considerable elevation (situated at a height). 4 high place or area. 5 top. 6 a most intense part or period (battle was at its height). B extreme example (the height of fashion). [old english]
Heighten v. Make or become higher or more intense.
Heinous adj. Utterly odious or wicked. [french haïr hate]
Heir n. (fem. Heiress) person entitled to property or rank as the legal successor of its former holder. [latin heres hered-]
Heir apparent n. Heir whose claim cannot be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Heirloom n. 1 piece of personal property that has been in a family for several generations. 2 piece of property as part of an inheritance.
Heir presumptive n. Heir whose claim may be set aside by the birth of another heir.
Hejira var. Of *hegira.
Held past and past part. Of *hold1.
Hele v. (-ling) (also heel) (foll. By in) set (a plant) in the ground temporarily and cover its roots. [old english]
Helical adj. Having the form of a helix.
Helices pl. Of *helix.
Helicopter n. Wingless aircraft obtaining lift and propulsion from horizontally revolving overhead blades. [greek: related to *helix, pteron wing]
Helio-comb. Form sun. [greek helios sun]
Heliocentric adj. 1 regarding the sun as centre. 2 considered as viewed from the sun’s centre.
Heliograph —n. 1 signalling apparatus reflecting sunlight in flashes. 2 message sent by means of this. —v. Send (a message) by heliograph.
Heliotrope n. Plant with fragrant purple flowers. [greek: related to *helio-, trepo turn]
Heliport n. Place where helicopters take off and land.
Helium n. Light inert gaseous element used in airships and as a refrigerant. [related to *helio-]
Helix n. (pl. Helices) spiral curve (like a corkscrew) or coiled curve (like a watch spring). [latin from greek]
Hell —n. 1 place regarded in some religions as the abode of the dead, or of devils and condemned sinners. 2 place or state of misery or wickedness. —int. Expressing anger, surprise, etc. the hell (usu. Prec. By what, where, who, etc.) Expressing anger, disbelief, etc. (who the hell is this?; the hell you are!). Beat etc. The hell out of colloq. Beat etc. Without restraint.
He’ll contr. He will; he shall.
Hell-bent adj. (foll. By on) recklessly determined.
Hellebore n. Evergreen plant with usu. White, purple, or green flowers, e.g. The christmas rose. [greek (h)elleborus]
Hellene n. 1 native of modern greece. 2 ancient greek. hellenic adj. [greek]
Hellenism n. (esp. Ancient) greek character or culture. hellenist n.
Hellenistic adj. Of greek history, language, and culture of the late 4th to the late 1st c. Bc.
Hell-fire n. Fire(s) regarded as existing in hell.
Hell for leather adv. At full speed.
Hell-hole n. Oppressive or unbearable place.
Hellish —adj. 1 of or like hell. 2 colloq. Extremely difficult or unpleasant. — adv. Colloq. Extremely (hellish expensive). hellishly adv.
Hello (also hallo, hullo) —int. Expression of informal greeting, or of surprise, or to call attention. —n. (pl. -s) cry of ‘hello’. [var. Of earlier hollo]
Hell’s angel n. Member of a gang of male motor-cycle enthusiasts notorious for outrageous and violent behaviour.
Helm n. Tiller or wheel for controlling a ship’s rudder. at the helm in control; at the head of an organization etc. [old english]
Helmet n. Protective head-covering worn by a policeman, motor cyclist, etc. [french from germanic]
Helmsman n. Person who steers a ship.
Helot n. Serf, esp. (helot) of a class in ancient sparta. [latin from greek]
Help —v. 1 provide with the means towards what is needed or sought (helped me with my work; helped me (to) pay my debts; helped him on with his coat). 2 (often absol.) Be of use or service to (does that help?). 3 contribute to alleviating (a pain or difficulty). 4 prevent or remedy (it can’t be helped). 5 (usu. With neg.) A refrain from (can’t help it; could not help laughing). B refl. Refrain from acting (couldn’t help himself). 6 (often foll. By to) serve (a person with food). — n. 1 helping or being helped (need your help; came to our help). 2 person or thing that helps. 3 colloq. Domestic assistant or assistance. 4 remedy or escape (there is no help for it). help oneself (often foll. By to) 1 serve oneself (with food etc.). 2 take without permission. Help a person out give a person help, esp. In difficulty. helper n. [old english]
Helpful adj. Giving help; useful. helpfully adv. Helpfulness n.
Helping n. Portion of food at a meal.
Helpless adj. 1 lacking help or protection; defenceless. 2 unable to act without
help. helplessly adv. Helplessness n.
Helpline n. Telephone service providing help with problems.
Helpmate n. Helpful companion or partner.
Helter-skelter —adv. & adj. In disorderly haste. —n. (at a fairground) external spiral slide round a tower. [imitative]
Hem1 —n. Border of cloth where the edge is turned under and sewn down. —v. (-mm-) turn down and sew in the edge of (cloth etc.). hem in confine; restrict the movement of. [old english]
Hem2 —int. Calling attention or expressing hesitation by a slight cough. —n. Utterance of this. —v. (-mm-) say hem; hesitate in speech. hem and haw = hum and haw (see *hum). [imitative]
Hemal adj. (brit. Haem-) of the blood. [greek haima blood]
He-man n. Masterful or virile man.
Hematite n. (brit. Haem-) a ferric oxide ore. [latin: related to *haemal]
Hematology n. (brit. Haem-) the study of the blood. haematologist n.
Hemi-comb. Form half. [greek, = latin semi-]
Hemipterous adj. Of the insect order including aphids, bugs, and cicadas, with piercing or sucking mouthparts. [greek pteron wing]
Hemisphere n. 1 half a sphere. 2 half of the earth, esp. As divided by the equator (into northern and southern hemisphere) or by a line passing through the poles (into eastern and western hemisphere). hemispherical adj. [greek: related to hemi-, sphere]
Hemline n. Lower edge of a skirt etc.
Hemlock n. 1 poisonous plant with fernlike leaves and small white flowers. 2 poison made from this. [old english]
Hemoglobin n. (brit. Haem-) oxygen-carrying substance in the red blood cells of vertebrates. [from *globulin]
Hemophilia n. (brit. Haem-) hereditary failure of the blood to clot normally with the tendency to bleed severely from even a slight injury. [greek haima blood, philia loving]
Hemophiliac n. (brit. Haem-) person with haemophilia.
Hemorrhage (brit. Haem-) —n. 1 profuse loss of blood from a ruptured blood-vessel. 2 damaging loss, esp. Of people or assets. —v. (-ging) suffer a haemorrhage. [greek haima blood, rhegnumi burst]
Hemorrhoids n.pl. (brit. Haem-) swollen veins in the wall of the anus; piles. [greek haima blood, -rhoos -flowing]
Hemp n. 1 (in full indian hemp) asian herbaceous plant. 2 its fibre used to make rope and stout fabrics. 3 narcotic drug made from the hemp plant. [old english]
Hempen adj. Made of hemp.
Hemstitch —n. Decorative stitch. —v. Hem with this stitch.
Hen n. Female bird, esp. Of a domestic fowl. [old english]
Henbane n. Poisonous hairy plant with an unpleasant smell.
Hence adv. 1 from this time (two years hence). 2 for this reason (hence we seem to be wrong). 3 archaic from here. [old english]
Henceforth adv. (also henceforward) from this time onwards.
Henchman n. Usu. Derog. Trusted supporter. [old english hengst horse, *man]
Henchman n. Usu. Derog. Trusted supporter. [old english hengst horse, *man]
Henge n. Prehistoric monument consisting of a circle of stone or wood uprights. [stonehenge in s. England]
Henna —n. 1 tropical shrub. 2 reddish dye made from it and used to colour hair. —v. (hennaed, hennaing) dye with henna. [arabic]
Hen-party n. Colloq. Social gathering of women only.
Henpeck v. (usu. In passive) (of a wife) constantly nag her husband.
Henry n. (pl. -s or -ies) electr. Si unit of inductance. [henry, name of a physicist]
Hep var. Of *hip4.
Hepatic adj. Of the liver. [greek hepar -atos liver]
Hepatitis n. Inflammation of the liver. [related to *hepatic]
Hepta-comb. Form seven. [greek]
Heptagon n. Plane figure with seven sides and angles. heptagonal adj. [greek:
related to *hepta-, -gonos angled]
Her —pron. 1 objective case of she (i like her). 2 colloq. She (it’s her all right; am older than her). —poss. Pron. (attrib.) Of or belonging to her or herself (her house; her own business). [old english dative and genitive of she]
Herald —n. 1 official messenger bringing news. 2 forerunner, harbinger. 3 a hist. Officer responsible for state ceremonial and etiquette. B official concerned with pedigrees and coats of arms. —v. Proclaim the approach of; usher in. heraldic adj. [french from germanic]
Heraldry n. 1 art or knowledge of a herald. 2 coats of arms.
Herb n. 1 any non-woody seed-bearing plant. 2 plant with leaves, seeds, or flowers used for flavouring, food, medicine, scent, etc. herby adj. (-ier, -iest). [latin herba]
Herbaceous adj. Of or like herbs.
Herbaceous border n. Garden border containing esp. Perennial flowering plants.
Herbage n. Vegetation collectively, esp. As pasture.
Herbal —adj. Of herbs in medicinal and culinary use. —n. Book describing the medicinal and culinary uses of herbs.
Herbalist n. 1 dealer in medicinal herbs. 2 writer on herbs.
Herbarium n. (pl. -ria) 1 systematically arranged collection of dried plants. 2 book, room, etc. For these.
Herbicide n. Poison used to destroy unwanted vegetation.
Herbivore n. Animal that feeds on plants. herbivorous adj. [latin voro devour]
Herculean adj. Having or requiring great strength or effort. [from the name hercules, latin alteration of greek herakles]
Herd —n. 1 a number of animals, esp. Cattle, feeding or travelling or kept together. 2 (prec. By the) derog. Large number of people; mob (tends to follow the herd). —v. 1 (cause to) go in a herd (herded together for warmth; herded the cattle into the field). 2 look after (sheep, cattle, etc.). [old english]
Herd instinct n. (prec. By the) tendency to think and act as a crowd.
Herdsman n. Man who owns or tends a herd.
Here —adv. 1 in or at or to this place or position (come here; sit here). 2 indicating a person’s presence or a thing offered (my son here will show you;
here is your coat). 3 at this point in the argument, situation, etc. (here i have a question). —n. This place (get out of here; lives near here; fill it up to here). — int. 1 calling attention: short for come here, look here, etc. (here, where are you going with that?). 2 indicating one’s presence in a roll-call: short for i am here. here goes! Colloq. Expression indicating the start of a bold act. Here’s to i drink to the health of. Here we are colloq. Said on arrival at one’s destination. Here we go again colloq. The same, usu. Undesirable, events are recurring. Here you are said on handing something to somebody. Neither here nor there of no importance. [old english]
Hereabouts adv. (also hereabout) near this place.
Hereafter —adv. From now on; in the future. —n. 1 the future. 2 life after death.
Here and now adv. At this very moment; immediately.
Here and there adv. In various places.
Hereby adv. By this means; as a result of this.
Hereditable adj. That can be inherited. [latin: related to *heir]
Hereditary adj. 1 (of a disease, instinct, etc.) Able to be passed down genetically from one generation to another. 2 a descending by inheritance. B holding a position by inheritance. [latin: related to *heir]
Heredity n. 1 a passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically. B these characteristics. 2 genetic constitution.
Hereford n. Animal of a breed of red and white beef cattle. [hereford in england]
Herein adv. Formal in this matter, book, etc.
Hereinafter adv. Esp. Law formal 1 from this point on. 2 in a later part of this document etc.
Hereof adv. Formal of this.
Heresy n. (pl. -ies) 1 esp. Rc ch. Religious belief or practice contrary to orthodox doctrine. 2 opinion contrary to what is normally accepted or maintained. [greek hairesis choice]
Heretic n. 1 person believing in or practising religious heresy. 2 holder of an unorthodox opinion. heretical adj.
Hereto adv. Formal to this matter.
Heretofore adv. Formal before this time.
Hereupon adv. After this; in consequence of this.
Hereupon adv. After this; in consequence of this.
Herewith adv. With this (esp. Of an enclosure in a letter etc.).
Heritable adj. 1 law capable of being inherited or of inheriting. 2 biol. Genetically transmissible from parent to offspring. [french: related to *heir]
Heritage n. 1 what is or may be inherited. 2 inherited circumstances, benefits, etc. 3 a nation’s historic buildings, monuments, countryside, etc., esp. Whenregarded as worthy of preservation.
Hermaphrodite —n. Person, animal, or plant having both male and female reproductive organs. —adj. Combining both sexes. hermaphroditic adj. [from hermaphroditus, son of hermes and aphrodite who became joined in one body to a nymph]
Hermetic adj. With an airtight closure. hermetically adv. [from the greek god hermes, regarded as the founder of alchemy]
Hermit n. Person (esp. An early christian) living in solitude and austerity. hermitic adj. [greek eremos solitary]
Hermitage n. 1 hermit’s dwelling. 2 secluded dwelling.
Hermit-crab n. Crab that lives in a mollusc’s cast-off shell.
Hernia n. Protrusion of part of an organ through the wall of the body cavity containing it. [latin]
Hero n. (pl. -es) 1 person noted or admired for nobility, courage, outstanding achievements, etc. 2 chief male character in a play, story, etc. [greek heros]
Heroic —adj. Of, fit for, or like a hero; very brave. —n. (in pl.) 1 high-flown language or sentiments. 2 unduly bold behaviour. heroically adv.
Heroin n. Addictive analgesic drug derived from morphine, often used as a narcotic. [german: related to *hero, from the effect on the user’s self-esteem]
Heroine n. 1 woman noted or admired for nobility, courage, outstanding achievements, etc. 2 chief female character in a play, story, etc. [greek: related to *hero]
Heroism n. Heroic conduct or qualities. [french héroïsme: related to *hero]
Heron n. Long-legged wading bird with a long sshaped neck. [french from germanic]
Hero-worship —n. Idealization of an admired person. —v. Idolize.
Herpes n. Virus disease causing skin blisters. [greek herpo creep]
Herr n. (pl. Herren) 1 title of a german man; mr. 2 german man. [german]
Herring n. (pl. Same or -s) n. Atlantic fish used as food. [old english]
Herring-bone n. Stitch or weave consisting of a series of small ‘v’ shapes making a zigzag pattern.
Herring-gull n. Large gull with dark wing-tips.
Hers poss. Pron. The one or ones belonging to or associated with her (it is hers; hers are over there). of hers of or belonging to her (friend of hers).
Herself pron. 1 a emphat. Form of *she or her (she herself will do it). B refl. Form of her (she has hurt herself). 2 in her normal state of body or mind (doesnot feel quite herself today). be herself see oneself. By herself see by oneself. [old english: related to her, *self]
Hertz n. (pl. Same) si unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second. [hertz, name of a physicist]
He’s contr. 1 he is. 2 he has.
Hesitant adj. Hesitating; irresolute. hesitance n. Hesitancy n. Hesitantly adv.
Hesitate v. (-ting) 1 show or feel indecision or uncertainty; pause in doubt (hesitated over her choice). 2 be reluctant (i hesitate to say so). hesitation n. [latin haereo haes-stick fast]
Hessian n. Strong coarse sacking made of hemp or jute. [hesse in germany]
Hetero-comb. Form other, different. [greek heteros other]
Heterodox adj. Not orthodox. heterodoxy n. [from *hetero-, greek doxa opinion]
Heterodyne adj. Radio relating to the production of a lower frequency from the combination of two almost equal high frequencies. [from *hetero-, greek dunamis force]
Heterogeneous adj. 1 diverse in character. 2 varied in content. heterogeneity n. [latin from greek genos kind]
Heteromorphic adj. (also heteromorphous) biol. Of dissimilar forms.
heteromorphism n.
Heterosexual —adj. Feeling or involving sexual attraction to the opposite sex. — n. Heterosexual person. heterosexuality n.
Het up predic. Adj. Colloq. Excited, overwrought. [het, a dial. Word = heated]
Het up predic. Adj. Colloq. Excited, overwrought. [het, a dial. Word = heated]
Heuristic adj. 1 allowing or assisting to discover. 2 proceeding to a solution by trial and error. [greek heurisko find]
Hew v. (past part. Hewn or hewed) 1 chop or cut with an axe, sword, etc. 2 cut into shape. [old english]
Hexadecimal adj. Esp. Computing of a system of numerical notation that has 16 (the figures 0 to 9 and the letters a to f) rather than 10 as a base.
Hexagon n. Plane figure with six sides and angles. hexagonal adj. [greek: related to *hexa-, -gonos angled]
Hexagram n. Figure formed by two intersecting equilateral triangles.
Hexameter n. Line of verse with six metrical feet.
Hey int. Calling attention or expressing joy, surprise, inquiry, etc. [imitative]
Heyday n. Time of greatest success or prosperity. [low german]
Hey presto! Int. Conjuror’s phrase on completing a trick.
Hezbollah n. (also hiz-) extreme shiite muslim group, active esp. In lebanon. [arabic hisbullah party of god]
Hf abbr. High frequency.
Hf symb. Hafnium.
Hg symb. Mercury.
Hg abbr. Hectogram(s).
Hgv abbr. Heavy goods vehicle.
Hh abbr. 1 her or his highness. 2 his holiness. 3 (of pencil-lead) double-hard.
Hi int. Calling attention or as a greeting.
Hiatus n. (pl. -tuses) 1 break or gap in a series or sequence. 2 break between two
vowels coming together but not in the same syllable, as in though oft the ear. [latin hio gape]
Hibernate v. (-ting) (of an animal) spend the winter in a dormant state. hibernation n. [latin hibernus wintry]
Hibernian archaic poet. —adj. Of ireland. —n. Native of ireland. [latin hibernia ireland]
Hibiscus n. (pl. -cuses) cultivated shrub with large bright-coloured flowers. [greek hibiskos marsh mallow]
Hiccup (also hiccough) —n. 1 involuntary spasm of the diaphragm causing a characteristic sound ‘hic’. 2 temporary or minor stoppage or difficulty. —v. (-p-) make a hiccup. [imitative]
Hick n. (often attrib.) Esp. Us colloq. Country bumpkin, provincial. [familiar form of richard]
Hickory n. (pl. -ies) 1 n. American tree yielding wood and nutlike edible fruits. 2 the tough heavy wood of this. [virginian pohickery]
Hid past of *hide1.
Hidden past part. Of *hide1.
Hidden agenda n. Secret motivation behind a policy, statement, etc.; ulterior motive.
Hide1 —v. (-ding; past hid; past part. Hidden) 1 put or keep out of sight. 2 conceal oneself. 3 (usu. Foll. By from) keep (a fact) secret. 4 conceal. —n. Camouflaged shelter used for observing wildlife. hider n. [old english]
Hide2 n. 1 animal’s skin, esp. When tanned or dressed. 2 colloq. The human skin, esp. The backside. [old english]
Hide-and-seek n. Game in which players hide and another searches for them.
Hideaway n. Hiding-place or place of retreat.
Hidebound adj. 1 narrow-minded. 2 constricted by tradition.
Hideous adj. 1 very ugly, revolting. 2 colloq. Unpleasant. hideosity n. (pl. -ies). Hideously adv. [anglo-french hidous]
Hide-out n. Colloq. Hiding-place.
Hiding1 n. Colloq. A thrashing. on a hiding to nothing with no chance of succeeding. [from *hide2]
succeeding. [from *hide2]
Hiding2 n. 1 act of hiding. 2 state of remaining hidden (go into hiding). [from *hide1]
Hiding-place n. Place of concealment.
Hierarchy n. (pl. -ies) system of grades of status or authority ranked one above the other. hierarchical adj. [greek hieros sacred, arkho rule]
Hieratic adj. 1 of priests. 2 of the ancient egyptian hieroglyphic writing as used by priests. [greek hiereus priest]
Hieroglyph n. Picture representing a word, syllable, or sound, as used in ancient egyptian etc. [greek hieros sacred, glupho carve]
Hieroglyphic —adj. Of or written in hieroglyphs. —n. (in pl.) Hieroglyphs; hieroglyphic writing.
Hi-fi colloq. —adj. Of high fidelity. —n. (pl. -s) set of high-fidelity equipment. [abbreviation]
Higgledy-piggledy adv. & adj. In confusion or disorder. [origin uncertain]
High —adj. 1 a of great vertical extent (high building). B (predic.; often in comb.) Of a specified height (one inch high; waist-high). 2 a far above ground or sea level etc. (high altitude). B inland, esp. When raised (high asia).
High altar n. Chief altar in a church.
High and dry adj. Stranded; aground.
High and low adv. Everywhere (searched high and low).
High and mighty adj. Colloq. Arrogant.
Highball n. Us drink of spirits and soda etc., served with ice in a tall glass.
Highbrow colloq. —adj. Intellectual; cultural. —n. Intellectual or cultured person.
High chair n. Infant’s chair with long legs and a tray for meals.
High church n. Section of the church of england emphasizing ritual, priestly authority, and sacraments.
High-class adj. Of high quality.
High colour n. Flushed complexion.
High command n. Army commander-in-chief and associated staff.
High commission n. Embassy from one commonwealth country to another. high commissioner n.
High court n. (also in england high court of justice) supreme court of justice for civil cases.
High day n. Festal day.
Higher animal n. (also higher plant) animal or plant evolved to a high degree.
Higher education n. Education at university etc.
High explosive n. Extremely explosive substance used in shells, bombs, etc.
High jump n. 1 athletic event consisting of jumping over a high bar. 2 colloq.
Drastic punishment (he’s for the high jump).
Highland —n. (usu. In pl.) 1 area of high land. 2 (the highlands) mountainous part of scotland. —adj. Of or in a highland or the highlands. highlander n. (also highlander). [old english, = promontory: related to *high]
Highland cattle n. Cattle of a shaggy-haired breed with long curved horns.
Highland fling see *fling n. 3.
High-level adj. 1 (of negotiations etc.) Conducted by high-ranking people. 2 computing (of a programming language) not machine-dependent and usu. At a level of abstraction close to natural language.
Highlight —n. 1 moment or detail of vivid interest; outstanding feature. 2 (in a painting etc.) Bright area. 3 (usu. In pl.) Light streak in the hair produced by bleaching. —v. 1 bring into prominence; draw attention to. 2 mark with a highlighter.
Highlighter n. Marker pen for emphasizing a printed word etc. By overlaying it with colour.
Highly adv. 1 in a high degree (highly amusing; commend it highly). 2 favourably (think highly of him).
Highly-strung adj. Very sensitive or nervous.
High-minded adj. Having high moral principles. high-mindedly adv. High-mindedness n.
Highness n. 1 state of being high (highness of taxation). 2 (highness) title used when addressing or referring to a prince or princess (her highness; your royal highness).
High-octane adj. (of fuel used in internal-combustion engines) not detonating readily during the power stroke.
High-pitched adj. 1 (of a sound) high. 2 (of a roof) steep.
High point n. The maximum or best state reached.
High-powered adj. 1 having great power or energy. 2 important or influential.
High pressure n. 1 high degree of activity or exertion. 2 atmospheric condition with the pressure above average.
High priest n. (fem. High priestess) 1 chief priest, esp. Jewish. 2 head of a cult.
High-ranking adj. Of high rank, senior.
High-rise —attrib. Adj. (of a building) having many storeys. —n. Such a building.
High-risk attrib. Adj. Involving or exposed to danger (high-risk sports).
High-risk attrib. Adj. Involving or exposed to danger (high-risk sports).
High road n. Main road.
High school n. 1 grammar school. 2 us & scot. Secondary school.
High sea n. (also high seas) open seas not under any country’s jurisdiction.
High season n. Busiest period at a resort etc.
High-speed attrib. Adj. Operating at great speed.
High-spirited adj. Vivacious; cheerful; lively.
High spot n. Important place or feature.
High street n. Principal shopping street of a town.
High table n. Dining-table for the most important guests or members.
High tea n. Evening meal usu. Consisting of a cooked dish, bread and butter, tea, etc.
High-tech adj. 1 employing, requiring, or involved in high technology. 2 imitating styles more usual in industry etc.
High technology n. Advanced technological development, esp. In electronics.
High tension n. = *high voltage.
High tide n. Time or level of the tide at its peak.
High time n. Time that is overdue (it is high time they arrived).
High treason n. = *treason.
High-up n. Colloq. Person of high rank.
High voltage n. Electrical potential large enough to injure or damage.
High water n. = *high tide.
High-water mark n. Level reached at high water.
Highway n. 1 a public road. B main route. 2 direct course of action (on the highway to success).
Highway code n. Official booklet of guidance for road-users.
Highwayman n. Hist. Robber of travellers etc., usu. Mounted.
High wire n. High tightrope.
Hijack —v. 1 seize control of (a vehicle etc.), esp. To force it to a different destination. 2 seize (goods) in transit. 3 take control of (talks etc.) By force or subterfuge. —n. A hijacking. hijacker n. [origin unknown]
Hike —n. 1 long walk, esp. In the country for pleasure. 2 rise in prices etc. —v. (-king) 1 go for a hike. 2 walk laboriously. 3 (usu. Foll. By up) hitch up (clothing etc.); become hitched up. 4 (usu. Foll. By up) raise (prices etc.). hiker n. [origin unknown]
Hill n. 1 naturally raised area of land, lower than a mountain. 2 (often in comb.) Heap, mound (anthill). 3 sloping piece of road. over the hill colloq. Past the prime of life. [old english]
Hill-billy n. Us colloq., often derog. Person from a remote rural area in a southern state.
Hillock n. Small hill, mound.
Hillside n. Sloping side of a hill.
Hilltop n. Top of a hill.
Hillwalking n. Hiking in hilly country. hillwalker n.
Hilly adj. (-ier, -iest) having many hills. hilliness n.
Hilt n. Handle of a sword, dagger, etc. up to the hilt completely. [old english]
Him pron. 1 objective case of he (i saw him). 2 colloq. He (it’s him again; taller than him). [old english, dative of he]
Himself pron. 1 a emphat. Form of *he or him (he himself will do it). B refl. Form of him (he has hurt himself). 2 in his normal state of body or mind (doesnot feel quite himself today). be himself see oneself. By himself see by oneself. [old english: related to him, *self]
Hind1 adj. At the back (hind leg). [old english hindan from behind]
Hind2 n. Female (esp. Red) deer, esp. In and after the third year. [old english]
Hinder1 v. Impede; delay. [old english]
Hinder2 adj. Rear, hind (the hinder part). [old english]
Hindi n. 1 group of spoken dialects of n. India. 2 literary form of hindustani, an official language of india. [urdu hind india]
Hindmost adj. Furthest behind.
Hindquarters n.pl. Hind legs and rump of a quadruped.
Hindrance n. 1 hindering; being hindered. 2 thing that hinders.
Hindsight n. Wisdom after the event.
Hindu —n. (pl. -s) follower of hinduism. —adj. Of hindus or hinduism. [urdu hind india]
Hinduism n. Main religious and social system of india, including the belief in
Hinduism n. Main religious and social system of india, including the belief in reincarnation, several gods, and a caste system.
Hindustani n. Language based on hindi, used as a lingua franca in much of india. [from *hindu, stan country]
Hinge —n. 1 movable joint on which a door, lid, etc., turns or swings. 2 principle on which all depends. —v. (-ging) 1 (foll. By on) depend (on a principle, an event, etc.). 2 attach or be attached by a hinge. [related to *hang]
Hinny n. (pl. -ies) offspring of a female donkey and a male horse. [greek hinnos]
Hint —n. 1 slight or indirect indication or suggestion. 2 small piece of practical information. 3 very small trace; suggestion (a hint of perfume). —v. Suggest slightly or indirectly. hint at give a hint of; refer indirectly to. Take a hint heed a hint. [obsolete hent grasp]
Hinterland n. 1 district beyond a coast or river’s banks. 2 area served by a port or other centre. [german]
Hip1 n. Projection of the pelvis and the upper part of the thigh-bone. [old english]
Hip2 n. Fruit of a rose, esp. Wild. [old english]
Hip3 int. Introducing a united cheer (hip, hip, hooray). [origin unknown]
Hip3 int. Introducing a united cheer (hip, hip, hooray). [origin unknown]
Hip-bath n. Portable bath in which one sits immersed to the hips.
Hip-bone n. Bone forming the hip.
Hip-flask n. Small flask for spirits etc.
Hip hop n. (also hip-hop) subculture combining rap music, graffiti art, and break-dancing. [from *hip4]
Hippie n. (also hippy) (pl. -ies) colloq. (esp. In the 1960s) person rejecting convention, typically with long hair, jeans, beads, etc., and taking hallucinogenic drugs. [from *hip4]
Hippo n. (pl. -s) colloq. Hippopotamus. [abbreviation]
Hip-pocket n. Trouser-pocket just behind the hip.
Hippocratic oath n. Statement of ethics of the medical profession. [hippocrates, name of a greek physician]
Hippodrome n. 1 music-hall or dancehall. 2 (in classical antiquity) course for chariot races etc. [greek hippos horse, dromos race]
Hippopotamus n. (pl. -muses or -mi) large african mammal with short legs and thick skin, living by rivers, lakes, etc. [greek hippos horse, potamos river]
Hippy1 var. Of *hippie.
Hippy2 adj. Having large hips.
Hippy2 adj. Having large hips.
Hipster1 —attrib. Adj. (of a garment) hanging from the hips rather than the waist. —n. (in pl.) Such trousers.
Hipster2 n. Slang hip person.
Hire —v. (-ring) 1 purchase the temporary use of (a thing) (hired a van). 2 esp. Us employ (a person). —n. 1 hiring or being hired. 2 payment for this. for (or on) hire ready to be hired. Hire out grant the temporary use of (a thing) for payment. hireable adj. Hirer n. [old english]
Hireling n. Usu. Derog. Person who works (only) for money.
Hire purchase n. System of purchase by paying in instalments.
Hirsute adj. Hairy. [latin]
His poss. Pron. 1 (attrib.) Of or belonging to him or himself (his house; his own business). 2 the one or ones belonging to or associated with him (it is his; his are over there). of his of or belonging to him (friend of his). [old english, genitive of *he]
Hispanic —adj. 1 of spain or spain and portugal. 2 of spain and other spanish-speaking countries. —n. Spanish-speaking person living in the us. [latin hispania spain]
Hiss —v. 1 make a sharp sibilant sound, as of the letter s. 2 express disapproval of by hisses. 3 whisper urgently or angrily. —n. 1 sharp sibilant sound as of the letter s. 2 electronics interference at audio frequencies. [imitative]
Histamine n. Chemical compound in body tissues etc., associated with allergic reactions. [from histology, amine]
Histogram n. Statistical diagram of rectangles with areas proportional to the value of a number of variables. [greek histos mast]
Histology n. The study of tissue structure. [greek histos web]
Historian n. 1 writer of history. 2 person learned in history.
Historic adj. 1 famous or important in history or potentially so (historic moment). 2 gram. (of a tense) used to narrate past events.
Historical adj. 1 of or concerning history (historical evidence). 2 (of the study of a subject) showing its development over a period. 3 factual, not fictional or legendary. 4 belonging to the past, not the present. 5 (of a novel etc.) Dealing with historical events. historically adv.
Historicism n. 1 theory that social and cultural phenomena are determined by history. 2 belief that historical events are governed by laws.
Historicity n. Historical truth or authenticity.
Historiography n. 1 the writing of history. 2 the study of this. historiographer n.
History n. (pl. -ies) 1 continuous record of (esp. Public) events. 2 a the study of past events, esp. Human affairs. B total accumulation of past events, esp. Relating to human affairs or a particular nation, person, thing, etc. 3 eventful past (this house has a history). 4 (foll. By of) past record (had a history of illness). 5 a systematic or critical account of or research into past events etc. B similar record or account of natural phenomena. 6 historical play. make history do something memorable. [greek historia inquiry]
Histrionic —adj. (of behaviour) theatrical, dramatic. —n. (in pl.) Insincere and dramatic behaviour designed to impress. [latin histrio actor]
Hit —v. (-tt-; past and past part. Hit) 1 a strike with a blow or missile. B (of a moving body) strike with force (the plane hit the ground). C reach (a target etc.) With a directed missile (hit the wicket). 2 cause to suffer; affect adversely. 3 (often foll. By at, against) direct a blow. 4 (often foll. By against, on) knock (a part of the body) (hit his head). 5 achieve, reach (hit the right tone; can’t hit the high notes). 6 colloq. A encounter (hit a snag). B arrive at (hit town). C indulge heavily in, esp. Liquor etc. (hit the bottle). 7 esp. Us slang rob or kill. 8 occur forcefully to (it only hit him later). 9 a propel (a ball etc.) With a bat etc. To score runs or points. B score in this way (hit a six). —n. 1 a blow, stroke. B collision. 2 shot etc. That hits its target. 3 colloq. Popular success. hit back retaliate. Hit below the belt 1 esp.
Hit-and-run attrib. Adj. 1 (of a driver, raider, etc.) Causing damage or injury and leaving the scene immediately. 2 (of an accident, attack, etc.) Perpetrated by such a person or people.
Hitch —v. 1 fasten or be fastened with a loop, hook, etc.; tether. 2 move (a thing) slightly or with a jerk. 3 colloq. A = *hitchhike. B obtain (a lift) by hitchhiking. —n. 1 temporary obstacle or snag. 2 abrupt pull or push. 3 noose or knot of various kinds. 4 colloq. Free ride in a vehicle. get hitched colloq. Marry. Hitch up lift (esp. Clothing) with a jerk. [origin uncertain]
Hitchhike v. (-king) travel by seeking free lifts in passing vehicles. hitchhiker n.
Hi-tech adj. = *high-tech. [abbreviation]
Hither adv. Formal to or towards this place. [old english]
Hither and thither adv. To and fro.
Hitherto adv. Until this time, up to now.
Hit list n. Slang list of prospective victims.
Hit man n. Slang hired assassin.
Hit-or-miss adj. Liable to error, random.
Hit parade n. Colloq. List of the current best-selling pop records.
Hittite —n. Member or language of an ancient people of asia minor and syria. — adj. Of the hittites. [hebrew]
Hiv abbr. Human immunodeficiency virus, either of two viruses causing aids.
Hive n. Beehive. hive off (-ving) separate from a larger group. [old english]
Hmi abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s inspector (of schools).
Hms abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s ship.
Hmso abbr. Her (or his) majesty’s stationery office.
Hnc abbr. Higher national certificate.
Hnd abbr. Higher national diploma.
Ho symb. Holmium.
Ho int. Expressing triumph, derision, etc., or calling attention. [natural exclamation]
Hoard —n. Stock or store (esp. Of money or food). —v. Amass and store. hoarder n. [old english]
Hoarding n. 1 large, usu. Wooden, structure used to carry advertisements etc. 2 temporary fence round a building site etc. [obsolete hoard from french: hourd]
Hoar-frost n. Frozen water vapour on vegetation etc. [old english]
Hoarse adj. 1 (of the voice) rough and deep; husky, croaking. 2 having such a voice. hoarsely adv. Hoarseness n. [old norse]
Hoary adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 a (of hair) grey or white with age. B having such hair; aged. 2 old and trite (hoary joke). [old english]
Hoax —n. Humorous or malicious deception. —v. Deceive (a person) with a hoax. [probably a shortening of hocus in *hocus-pocus]
Hob n. 1 flat heating surface with hotplates or burners, on a cooker or as a separate unit. 2 flat metal shelf at the side of a fireplace for heating a pan etc. [perhaps var. Of *hub]
Hobble —v. (-ling) 1 walk lamely; limp. 2 tie together the legs of (a horse etc.) To prevent it from straying. —n. 1 uneven or infirm gait. 2 rope etc. For hobbling a horse etc. [probably low german]
Hobby n. (pl. -ies) leisure-time activity pursued for pleasure. [from the name robin]
Hobby-horse n. 1 child’s toy consisting of a stick with a horse’s head. 2 favourite subject or idea.
Hobgoblin n. Mischievous imp; bogy. [from *hobby, *goblin]
Hobnail n. Heavy-headed nail for boot-soles. [from *hob]
Hobnob v. (-bb-) (usu. Foll. By with) mix socially or informally. [hab nab have or not have]
Hobo n. (pl. -es or -s) us wandering worker; tramp. [origin unknown]
Hobson’s choice n. Choice of taking the thing offered or nothing. [hobson, name of a carrier who let out horses thus]
Hock1 n. Joint of a quadruped’s hind leg between the knee and the fetlock. [old english]
Hock2 n. German white wine from the rhineland. [hochheim in germany]
Hock3 v. Esp. Us colloq. Pawn; pledge. in hock 1 in pawn. 2 in debt. 3 in prison. [dutch]
Hockey n. Team game with hooked sticks and a small hard ball. [origin unknown]
Hocus-pocus n. Deception; trickery. [sham latin]
Hod n. 1 v-shaped trough on a pole used for carrying bricks etc. 2 portable receptacle for coal. [french hotte pannier]
Hodgepodge var. Of *hotchpotch.
Hodgkin’s disease n. Malignant disease of lymphatic tissues, usu. Characterized by enlargement of the lymph nodes. [hodgkin, name of a physician]
Hoe —n. Long-handled tool with a blade, used for weeding etc. —v. (hoes, hoed, hoeing) weed (crops); loosen (earth); dig up with a hoe. [french from germanic]
Hog —n. 1 castrated male pig. 2 colloq. Greedy person. —v. (-gg-) colloq. Take greedily; hoard selfishly; monopolize. go the whole hog colloq. Do something completely or thoroughly. hoggish adj. [old english]
Hogmanay n. Scot. New year’s eve. [probably french]
Hogshead n. 1 large cask. 2 liquid or dry measure (about 50 gallons). [from *hog: the reason for the name is unknown]
Hogwash n. Colloq. Nonsense, rubbish.
Ho-ho int. 1 representing a deep jolly laugh. 2 expressing surprise, triumph, or derision. [reduplication of *ho]
Hoick v. Colloq. (often foll. By out) lift or pull, esp. With a jerk. [perhaps var. Of *hike]
Hoi polloi n. The masses; the common people. [greek, = the many]
Usage this phrase is often preceded by the, which is, strictly speaking, unnecessary, since hoi means ‘the’.
Hoist —v. 1 raise or haul up. 2 raise by means of ropes and pulleys etc. —n. 1 act of hoisting, lift. 2 apparatus for hoisting. hoist with one’s own petard caught by one’s own trick etc. [earlier hoise, probably from low german]
Hoity-toity adj. Haughty. [obsolete hoit romp]
Hokum n. Esp. Us slang 1 sentimental, sensational, or unreal material in a film or play etc. 2 bunkum; rubbish. [origin unknown]
Hold1 —v. (past and past part. Held) 1 a keep fast; grasp (esp. In the hands or
arms). B (also refl.) Keep or sustain (a thing, oneself, one’s head, etc.) In a particular position. C grip so as to control (hold the reins). 2 have the capacity for, contain (holds two pints). 3 possess, gain, or have, esp.: a be the owner or tenant of (land, property, stocks, etc.). B gain or have gained (a qualification, record, etc.). C have the position of (a job or office). D keep possession of (a place etc.), esp. Against attack. 4 remain unbroken; not give way (roof held under the storm). 5 celebrate or conduct (a meeting, festival, conversation, etc.). 6 a keep (a person etc.) In a place or condition (held him in suspense). B detain, esp. In custody. 7 a engross (book held him for hours). B dominate (held the stage). 8 (foll. By to) keep (a person etc.) To (a promise etc.). 9 (of weather) continue fine. 10 think, believe; assert (held it to be plain; held that the earth was flat). 11 regard with a specified feeling (held him in contempt). 12 cease; restrain (hold your fire). 13 keep or reserve (please hold our seats). 14 be able to drink (alcohol) without effect (can’t hold his drink). 15 (of a court etc.) Lay down; decide. 16 mus. Sustain (a note). 17 = hold the line. —n. 1 (foll. By on, over) influence or power over (has a strange hold over me). 2 manner of holding in wrestling etc. 3 grasp (take hold of him). 4 (often in comb.) Thing to hold by (seized the handhold). hold (a thing) against (a person) resent or regard it as discreditable to (a person). Hold back 1 impede the progress of; restrain. 2 keep for oneself. 3 (often foll. By from) hesitate; refrain. Hold one’s breath see breath. Hold down 1 repress. 2 colloq. Be competent enough to keep (one’s job etc.). Hold the fort 1 act as a temporary substitute. 2 cope in an emergency. Hold forth speak at length or tediously. Hold one’s ground see ground1. Holdhands grasp one another by the hand as a sign of affection or for support or guidance. Hold it cease action or movement. Hold the line not ring off (in a telephone connection).
Hold2 n. Cavity in the lower part of a ship or aircraft for cargo. [old english:
related to *hollow]
Holdall n. Large soft travelling bag.
Holding n. 1 tenure of land. 2 stocks, property, etc. Held.
Holding company n. Company created to hold the shares of other companies, which it then controls.
Hold-up n. 1 stoppage or delay. 2 robbery by force.
Hole n. 1 a empty space in a solid body. B opening in or through something. 2 animal’s burrow. 3 (in games) cavity or receptacle for a ball. 4 colloq. Small or dingy place. 5 colloq. Awkward situation. 6 golf a point scored by a player who gets the ball from tee to hole with the fewest strokes. B terrain or distance from tee to hole. hole up us colloq. Hide oneself. Make a hole in use a large amount of. holey adj. [old english]
Hole-and-corner adj. Secret; underhand.
Hole in the heart n. Colloq. Congenital defect in the heart membrane.
Holiday —n. 1 (often in pl.) Extended period of recreation, esp. Spent away from home or travelling; break from work. 2 day of festivity or recreation when no work is done, esp. A religious festival etc. —v. Spend a holiday. [old english: related to *holy, *day]
Holiday camp n. Place for holiday-makers with facilities on site.
Holiday-maker n. Person on holiday.
Holier-than-thou adj. Colloq. Self-righteous.
Holiness n. 1 being holy or sacred. 2 (holiness) title used when addressing or referring to the pope. [old english: related to *holy]
Holism n. (also wholism) 1 philos. Theory that certain wholes are greater than the sum of their parts. 2 med. Treating of the whole person rather than the symptoms of a disease. holistic adj. [greek holos whole]
Hollandaise sauce n. Creamy sauce of melted butter, egg-yolks, vinegar, etc. [french]
Holler v. & n. Us colloq. Shout. [french holà hello!]
Hollow —adj. 1 a having a cavity; not solid. B sunken (hollow cheeks). 2 (of a sound) echoing. 3 empty; hungry. 4 meaningless (hollow victory). 5 insincere (hollow laugh). —n. 1 hollow place; hole. 2 valley; basin. —v. (often foll. By out) make hollow; excavate. —adv. Colloq. Completely (beaten hollow). hollowly adv. Hollowness n. [old english]
Holly n. (pl. -ies) evergreen shrub with prickly leaves and red berries. [old english]
Hollyhock n. Tall plant with showy flowers. [from *holy, obsolete hock mallow]
Holm n. (in full holm-oak) evergreen oak with holly-like young leaves. [dial. Holm holly]
Holmium n. Metallic element of the lanthanide series. [latin holmia stockholm]
Holocaust n. 1 large-scale destruction, esp. By fire or nuclear war. 2 (the holocaust) mass murder of the jews by the nazis 1939–45. [greek holos whole, kaustos burnt]
Hologram n. Photographic pattern that gives a three-dimensional image when illuminated by coherent light. [greek holos whole, *-gram]
Holograph —adj. Wholly written by hand by the person named as the author. — n. Holograph document. [greek holos whole, *-graph]
Holography n. The study or production of holograms.
Hols n.pl. Colloq. Holidays. [abbreviation]
Holster n. Leather case for a pistol or revolver, worn on a belt etc. [dutch]
Holy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 morally and spiritually excellent or perfect, and to be revered. 2 belonging to or devoted to god. 3 consecrated, sacred. [old english: related to *whole]
Holy communion see *communion.
Holy ghost n. = *holy spirit.
Holy grail see *grail.
Holy land n. Area between the river jordan and the mediterranean sea.
Holy of holies n. 1 sacred inner chamber of the jewish temple. 2 thing regarded as most sacred.
Holy orders n.pl. The status of a bishop, priest, or deacon.
Holy roman empire n. Western part of the roman empire as revived by charlemagne in 800 ad.
Holy see n. Papacy or papal court.
Holy spirit n. Third person of the trinity, god as spiritually acting.
Holy week n. Week before easter.
Holy writ n. Holy writings, esp. The bible.
Homage n. Tribute, expression of reverence (pay homage to). [latin homo man]
Homburg n. Man’s felt hat with a narrow curled brim and a lengthwise dent in the crown. [homburg in germany]
Home —n. 1 a place where one lives; fixed residence. B dwelling-house. 2 family circumstances (comes from a good home). 3 native land. 4 institution caring for people or animals. 5 place where a thing originates, is kept, or is native or most common. 6 a finishing-point in a race. B (in games) place where one is safe; goal. 7 sport home match or win. —attrib. Adj. 1 a of or connected with one’s home. B carried on, done, or made, at home. 2 in one’s own country (home industries; the home market). 3 sport played on one’s own ground etc. (home match). —adv. 1 to, at, or in one’s home or country (go home; is he home yet?).
Home and dry predic. Adj. Having achieved one’s aim.
Home-brew n. Beer or other alcoholic drink brewed at home.
Home-coming n. Arrival at home.
Home counties n.pl. The counties closest to london.
Home economics n.pl. The study of household management.
Home farm n. Principal farm on an estate, providing produce for the owner.
Home-grown adj. Grown or produced at home.
Home guard n. Hist. British citizen army organized for defence in 1940.
Home help n. Person helping with housework etc., esp. One provided by a local authority.
Homeland n. 1 one’s native land. 2 any of several partially self-governing areas in s. Africa reserved for black south africans (the official name for a bantustan).
Homeless adj. Lacking a home. homelessness n.
Homely adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 simple, plain, unpretentious. 2 us (of facial appearance) plain, unattractive. 3 comfortable, cosy. homeliness n.
Home-made adj. Made at home.
Home office n. British government department dealing with law and order, immigration, etc., in england and wales.
Homeopathy n. (brit. Homoeopathy) treatment of disease by minute doses of drugs that in a healthy person would produce symptoms of the disease.
homoeopath n. Homoeopathic adj. [greek homoios like: related to *pathos]
Homeric adj. 1 of, or in the style of, homer. 2 of bronze age greece as described in homer’s poems.
Home rule n. Government of a country or region by its own citizens.
Home secretary n. Secretary of state in charge of the home office.
Homesick adj. Depressed by absence from home. homesickness n.
Homespun —adj. 1 made of yarn spun at home. 2 plain, simple. —n. Homespun cloth.
Homestead n. House, esp. A farmhouse, and outbuildings.
Home truth n. Basic but unwelcome information about oneself.
Homeward —adv. (also homewards) towards home. —adj. Going towards home.
Homework n. 1 work to be done at home, esp. By a school pupil. 2 preparatory work or study.
Homicide n. 1 killing of a human being by another. 2 person who kills a human being. homicidal adj. [latin homo man]
Homily n. (pl. -ies) 1 sermon. 2 tedious moralizing discourse. homiletic adj. [greek homilia]
Homing attrib. Adj. 1 (of a pigeon) trained to fly home. 2 (of a device) for guiding to a target etc.
Hominid —adj. Of the primate family including humans and their fossil ancestors. —n. Member of this family. [latin homo homin-man]
Hominoid —adj. Like a human. —n. Animal resembling a human.
Homo n. (pl. -s) colloq. Offens. Homosexual. [abbreviation]
Homo-comb. Form same. [greek homos same]
Homoeopathy n. (us homeopathy) treatment of disease by minute doses of drugs that in a healthy person would produce symptoms of the disease. homoeopath n. Homoeopathic adj. [greek homoios like: related to *pathos]
Homogeneous adj. 1 of the same kind. 2 consisting of parts all of the same kind; uniform. homogeneity n. Homogeneously adv. [from *homo-, greek genos kind]
Usage homogeneous is often confused with homogenous which is a term in biology meaning ‘similar owing to common descent’.
Homogenize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make homogeneous. 2 treat (milk) so that the fat droplets are emulsified and the cream does not separate.
Homograph n. Word spelt like another but of different meaning or origin (e.g.
pole1, pole2).
Homologous adj. 1 a having the same relation, relative position, etc. B corresponding. 2 biol. (of organs etc.) Similar in position and structure but not necessarily in function. [from *homo-, greek logos ratio]
Homology n. Homologous state or relation; correspondence.
Homonym n. 1 word spelt or pronounced like another but of different meaning; homograph or homophone. 2 namesake. [from *homo-, onoma name]
Homophobia n. Hatred or fear of homosexuals. homophobe n. Homophobic adj.
Homophone n. Word pronounced like another but of different meaning or origin (e.g. Pair, pear). [from *homo-, greek phone sound]
Homo sapiens n. Modern humans regarded as a species. [latin, = wise man]
Homosexual —adj. Feeling or involving sexual attraction only to people of the same sex. —n. Homosexual person. homosexuality n. [from *homo-, *sexual]
Homy var. Of *homey.
Hon. Abbr. 1 honorary. 2 honourable.
Hone —n. Whetstone, esp. For razors. —v. (-ning) sharpen on or as on a hone. [old english]
Honest —adj. 1 fair and just; not cheating or stealing. 2 free of deceit and untruthfulness; sincere. 3 fairly earned (an honest living). 4 blameless but undistinguished. —adv. Colloq. Genuinely, really. [latin honestus]
Honestly adv. 1 in an honest way. 2 really (i don’t honestly know).
Honesty n. 1 being honest. 2 truthfulness. 3 plant with purple or white flowers and flat round semi-transparent seed-pods.
Honey n. (pl. -s) 1 sweet sticky yellowish fluid made by bees from nectar. 2 colour of this. 3 a sweetness. B sweet thing. 4 esp. Us (usu. As a form of address) darling. [old english]
address) darling. [old english]
Honey-bee n. Common hive-bee.
Honeycomb —n. 1 bees’ wax structure of hexagonal cells for honey and eggs. 2 pattern arranged hexagonally. —v. 1 fill with cavities or tunnels, undermine. 2 mark with a honeycomb pattern. [old english]
Honeydew n. 1 sweet sticky substance excreted by aphids on leaves and stems. 2 variety of melon.
Honeymoon —n. 1 holiday taken by a newly married couple. 2 initial period of enthusiasm or goodwill. —v. Spend a honeymoon. honeymooner n.
Honeysuckle n. Climbing shrub with fragrant yellow or pink flowers.
Honk —n. 1 sound of a car horn. 2 cry of a wild goose. —v. (cause to) make a honk. [imitative]
Honky-tonk n. Colloq. 1 ragtime piano music. 2 cheap or disreputable nightclub etc. [origin unknown]
Honor (brit. Honour) —n. 1 high respect, public regard. 2 adherence to what is right or an accepted standard of conduct. 3 nobleness of mind, magnanimity (honour among thieves). 4 thing conferred as a distinction, esp. An official award for bravery or achievement. 5 privilege, special right (had the honour of being invited). 6 a exalted position. B (honour) (prec. By your, his, etc.) Title of a circuit judge etc. 7 (foll. By to) person or thing that brings honour (an honour to her profession). 8 a chastity (of a woman). B reputation for this. 9 (in pl.) Specialized degree course or special distinction in an examination. 10 (in card-games) the four or five highest-ranking cards. 11 golf the right of driving off first. —v. 1 respect highly.
Honorable adj. (brit. Honourable) 1 deserving, bringing, or showing honour. 2 (honourable) title indicating distinction, given to certain high officials, the children of certain ranks of the nobility, and (in the house of commons) to mps. honourably adv.
Honorarium n. (pl. -s or -ria) fee, esp. A voluntary payment for professional services rendered without the normal fee. [latin: related to *honour]
Honorary adj. 1 conferred as an honour (honorary degree). 2 (of an office or its holder) unpaid.
Honour (us honor) —n. 1 high respect, public regard. 2 adherence to what is right or an accepted standard of conduct. 3 nobleness of mind, magnanimity (honour among thieves). 4 thing conferred as a distinction, esp. An official award for bravery or achievement. 5 privilege, special right (had the honour of being invited). 6 a exalted position. B (honour) (prec. By your, his, etc.) Title of a circuit judge etc. 7 (foll. By to) person or thing that brings honour (an honour to her profession). 8 a chastity (of a woman). B reputation for this. 9 (in pl.) Specialized degree course or special distinction in an examination. 10 (in card-
games) the four or five highest-ranking cards. 11 golf the right of driving off first. —v. 1 respect highly. 2 confer honour on. 3 accept or pay (a bill or cheque) when due. do the honours perform the duties of a host to guests etc. In honour of as a celebration of. On one’s honour (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Under a moral obligation. [latin honor repute]
Honourable adj. (us honorable) 1 deserving, bringing, or showing honour. 2 (honourable) title indicating distinction, given to certain high officials, the children of certain ranks of the nobility, and (in the house of commons) to mps. honourably adv.
Hooch n. Us colloq. Alcoholic liquor, esp. Inferior or illicit whisky. [alaskan]
Hood1 —n. 1 a covering for the head and neck, esp. As part of a garment. B separate hoodlike garment. 2 folding top of a car etc. 3 us bonnet of a car etc. 4 protective cover. —v. Cover with or as with a hood. [old english]
Hood2 n. Us slang gangster, gunman. [abbreviation of *hoodlum]
-hood suffix forming nouns: 1 of condition or state (childhood; falsehood). 2 designating a group (sisterhood; neighbourhood). [old english]
Hooded adj. 1 having a hood. 2 (of an animal) having a hoodlike part (hooded crow).
Hoodlum n. 1 street hooligan, young thug. 2 gangster. [origin unknown]
Hoodoo n. Esp. Us 1 a bad luck. B thing or person that brings this. 2 voodoo. [alteration of *voodoo]
Hoodwink v. Deceive, delude. [from *hood1: originally = ‘blindfold’]
Hoof n. (pl. -s or hooves) horny part of the foot of a horse etc. hoof it slang go on foot. [old english]
Hoo-ha n. Slang commotion. [origin unknown]
Hook —n. 1 a bent or curved piece of metal etc. For catching hold or for hanging things on. B (in full fish-hook) bent piece of wire for catching fish. 2 curved cutting instrument (reaping-hook). 3 bend in a river, curved strip of land, etc. 4 a hooking stroke. B boxing short swinging blow. —v. 1 grasp or securewith hook(s). 2 catch with or as with a hook. 3 slang steal. 4 (in sports) send (the ball) in a curve or deviating path. 5 rugby secure (the ball) and pass it backward with the foot in the scrum. by hook or by crook by one means or another. Off the hook 1 colloq. Out of difficulty or trouble. 2 (of a telephone receiver) not on its rest. [old english]
Hookah n. Oriental tobacco-pipe with a long tube passing through water for cooling the smoke as it is drawn through. [urdu from arabic, = casket]
Hook and eye n. Small metal hook and loop as a fastener on a garment.
Hooked adj. 1 hook-shaped. 2 (often foll. By on) slang addicted or captivated.
Hooker n. 1 rugby player in the front row of the scrum who tries to hook the ball. 2 slang prostitute.
Hookey n. Us play hookey slang play truant. [origin unknown]
Hook, line, and sinker adv. Entirely.
Hook-up n. Connection, esp. Of broadcasting equipment.
Hookworm n. Worm with hooklike mouthparts, infesting humans and animals.
Hooligan n. Young ruffian. hooliganism n. [origin unknown]
Hoop —n. 1 circular band of metal, wood, etc., esp. As part of a framework. 2 ring bowled along by a child, or for circus performers to jump through. 3 arch through which balls are hit in croquet. —v. Bind or encircle with hoop(s). be put (or go) through the hoop (or hoops) undergo rigorous testing. [old english]
Hoop-la n. Fairground game with rings thrown to encircle a prize.
Hoopoe n. Salmon-pink bird with black and white wings and a large erectile crest. [latin upupa (imitative of its cry)]
Hooray int. = *hurrah.
Hooray henry n. Slang loud upper-class young man.
Hoot —n. 1 owl’s cry. 2 sound made by a car’s horn etc. 3 shout expressing scorn or disapproval. 4 colloq. A laughter. B cause of this. 5 (also two hoots) slang anything at all, in the slightest degree (don’t care a hoot; doesn’t matter two hoots). —v. 1 utter or make hoot(s). 2 greet or drive away with scornful hoots. 3 sound (a car horn etc.). [imitative]
Hooter n. 1 thing that hoots, esp. A car’s horn or a siren. 2 slang nose.
Hoover —n. Propr. Vacuum cleaner. —v. (hoover) 1 (also absol.) Clean with a vacuum cleaner. 2 (foll. By up) a suck up with a vacuum cleaner. B clean a room etc. With a vacuum cleaner. [name of the manufacturer]
Hooves pl. Of *hoof.
Hop1 —v. (-pp-) 1 (of a bird, frog, etc.) Spring with two or all feet at once. 2 (of a person) jump on one foot. 3 move or go quickly (hopped over the fence). 4 cross (a ditch etc.) By hopping. —n. 1 hopping movement. 2 colloq. Informal dance. 3 short journey, esp. A flight. hop in (or out) colloq. Get into (or out of) a car etc. Hop it slang go away. On the hop colloq. Unprepared (caught on the hop). [old english]
Hop2 n. 1 climbing plant bearing cones. 2 (in pl.) Its ripe cones, used to flavour beer. [low german or dutch]
Hope —n. 1 expectation and desire for a thing. 2 person or thing giving cause for hope. 3 what is hoped for. —v. (-ping) 1 feel hope. 2 expect and desire. 3 feel fairly confident. hope against hope cling to a mere possibility. [old english]
Hopeful —adj. 1 feeling hope. 2 causing or inspiring hope. 3 likely to succeed, promising. —n. Person likely to succeed.
Hopefully adv. 1 in a hopeful manner. 2 it is to be hoped (hopefully, we will succeed).
Usage the use of hopefully in sense 2 is common, but is considered incorrect by some people.
Hopeless adj. 1 feeling no hope. 2 admitting no hope (hopeless case). 3 incompetent. hopelessly adv. Hopelessness n.
Hopper1 n. 1 container tapering downward to an opening for discharging its contents. 2 hopping insect.
Hopper2 n. Hop-picker.
Hopping mad predic. Adj. Colloq. Very angry.
Hopscotch n. Children’s game of hopping over squares marked on the ground to retrieve a stone etc. [from hop1, scotch]
Horde n. Usu. Derog. Large group, gang. [turkish ordu camp]
Horehound n. Herbaceous plant yielding a bitter aromatic juice used against coughs etc. [old english, = hoary herb]
Horizon n. 1 line at which the earth and sky appear to meet. 2 limit of mental perception, experience, interest, etc. on the horizon (of an event) just imminent or becoming apparent. [greek horizo bound]
Horizontal —adj. 1 parallel to the plane of the horizon, at right angles to the vertical. 2 of or concerned with the same work, status, etc. (it was a horizontal move rather than promotion). —n. Horizontal line, plane, etc. horizontality n. Horizontally adv.
Hormone n. 1 regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids to stimulate cells or tissues into action. 2 similar synthetic substance. hormonal adj. [greek hormao impel]
Hormone replacement therapy n. Treatment to relieve menopausal symptoms by boosting a woman’s oestrogen levels.
Horn n. 1 a hard outgrowth, often curved and pointed, on the head of esp. Hoofed animals. B each of two branched appendages on the head of (esp. Male)
deer. C hornlike projection on animals, e.g. A snail’s tentacle. 2 substance of which horns are made. 3 mus. A = *french horn. B wind instrument played by lip vibration, orig. Made of horn, now usu. Of brass. 4 instrument sounding a warning. 5 receptacle or instrument made of horn. 6 horn-shaped projection. 7 extremity of the moon or other crescent. 8 arm of a river etc. horn in slang intrude, interfere. horned adj. Hornist n. (in sense 3 of n.). [old english]
Hornbeam n. Tree with a hard tough wood.
Hornbill n. Bird with a hornlike excrescence on its large curved bill.
Hornblende n. Dark-brown, black, or green mineral occurring in many rocks. [german]
Hornet n. Large wasp capable of inflicting a serious sting. [low german or dutch]
Horn of plenty n. A cornucopia.
Hornpipe n. 1 lively dance (esp. Associated with sailors). 2 music for this.
Horn-rimmed adj. (esp. Of spectacles) having rims made of horn or a similar substance.
Horny adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like horn. 2 hard like horn. 3 slang sexually excited. horniness n.
Horology n. Art of measuring time or making clocks, watches, etc. horological adj. [greek hora time]
Horoscope n. 1 forecast of a person’s future from a diagram showing the relative positions of the stars and planets at his or her birth. 2 such a diagram. [greek hora time, skopos observer]
Horrendous adj. Horrifying. horrendously adv. [latin: related to *horrible]
Horrible adj. 1 causing or likely to cause horror. 2 colloq. Unpleasant. horribly adv. [latin horreo bristle, shudder at]
Horrify v. (-ies, -ied) arouse horror in; shock. horrifying adj.
Horror —n. 1 painful feeling of loathing and fear. 2 a (often foll. By of) intense dislike. B (often foll. By at) colloq. Intense dismay. 3 a person or thing causing horror. B colloq. Bad or mischievous person etc. 4 (in pl.; prec. By the) fit of depression, nervousness, etc. —attrib. Adj. (of films etc.) Designed to interest by arousing feelings of horror.
Hors d’œuvre n. Food served as an appetizer at the start of a meal. [french, = outside the work]
Horse —n. 1 a large four-legged mammal with flowing mane and tail, used for riding and to carry and pull loads. B adult male horse; stallion or gelding. C (collect.; as sing.) Cavalry. 2 vaulting-block. 3 supporting frame (clothes-horse). —v. (-sing) (foll. By around) fool about. from the horse’s mouth colloq. (of information etc.) From the original or an authoritative source. [old english]
Horseback n. on horseback mounted on a horse.
Horsebox n. Closed vehicle for transporting horse(s).
Horse-brass n. Brass ornament orig. For a horse’s harness.
Horse chestnut n. 1 large tree with upright conical clusters of flowers. 2 dark brown fruit of this.
Horse-drawn adj. (of a vehicle) pulled by a horse or horses.
Horseflesh n. 1 flesh of a horse, esp. As food. 2 horses collectively.
Horsefly n. Any of various biting insects troublesome esp. To horses.
Horse guards n.pl. Cavalry brigade of the household troops.
Horsehair n. Hair from the mane or tail of a horse, used for padding etc.
Horseman n. 1 rider on horseback. 2 skilled rider. horsemanship n.
Horseplay n. Boisterous play.
Horsepower n. (pl. Same) imperial unit of power (about 750 watts), esp. For measuring the power of an engine.
Horse-race n. Race between horses with riders. horse-racing n.
Horseradish n. Plant with a pungent root used to make a sauce.
Horse sense n. Colloq. Plain common sense.
Horseshoe n. 1 u-shaped iron shoe for a horse. 2 thing of this shape.
Horsetail n. 1 horse’s tail. 2 plant resembling it.
Horsewhip —n. Whip for driving horses. —v. (-pp-) beat with a horsewhip.
Horsewoman n. 1 woman who rides on horseback. 2 skilled woman rider.
Horsy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 of or like a horse. 2 concerned with or devoted to horses.
Horticulture n. Art of garden cultivation. horticultural adj. Horticulturist n. [latin hortus garden, *culture]
Hosanna n. & int. Shout of adoration (matt. 21:9, 15, etc.). [hebrew]
Hose —n. 1 (also hose-pipe) flexible tube for conveying water. 2 a (collect.; as pl.) Stockings and socks. B hist. Breeches (doublet and hose). —v. (-sing) (often foll. By down) water, spray, or drench with a hose. [old english]
Hosier n. Dealer in hosiery.
Hosiery n. Stockings and socks.
Hospice n. 1 home for people who are ill (esp. Terminally) or destitute. 2 lodging for travellers, esp. One kept by a religious order. [latin: related to *host2]
Hospital n. 1 institution providing medical and surgical treatment and nursing care for ill and injured people. 2 hist. Hospice. [latin: related to *host2]
Hospitality n. Friendly and generous reception and entertainment of guests or strangers.
Hospitalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) send or admit (a patient) to hospital.
hospitalization n.
Host1 n. (usu. Foll. By of) large number of people or things. [latin hostis enemy, army]
Host2 —n. 1 person who receives or entertains another as a guest. 2 compère. 3 biol. Animal or plant having a parasite. 4 recipient of a transplanted organ etc. 5 landlord of an inn. —v. Be host to (a person) or of (an event). [latin hospes hospitis host, guest]
Host3 n. (usu. Prec. By the; often host) bread consecrated in the eucharist. [latin hostia victim]
Hostage n. Person seized or held as security for the fulfilment of a condition. [latin obses obsidis hostage]
Hostel n. 1 house of residence or lodging for students, nurses, etc. 2 = youth hostel. [medieval latin: related to hospital]
Hosteling n. (brit. Hostelling) practice of staying in youth hostels. hosteller n.
Hostelling n. (us hosteling) practice of staying in youth hostels. hosteller n.
Hostelry n. (pl. -ies) archaic inn.
Hostess n. 1 woman who receives or entertains a guest. 2 woman employed to entertain customers at a nightclub etc. 3 stewardess on an aircraft etc. [related to *host2]
Hostile adj. 1 of an enemy. 2 (often foll. By to) unfriendly, opposed. hostilely adv. [latin: related to *host1]
Hostility n. (pl. -ies) 1 being hostile, enmity. 2 state of warfare. 3 (in pl.) Acts of warfare.
Hot —adj. (hotter, hottest) 1 having a high temperature. 2 causing a sensation of heat (hot flush). 3 (of pepper, spices, etc.) Pungent. 4 (of a person) feeling heat.
5 a ardent, passionate, excited. B (often foll. By for, on) eager, keen (in hot pursuit). C angry or upset. 6 (of news etc.) Fresh, recent. 7 hunting (of the scent) fresh, recent. 8 a (of a player, competitor, or feat) very skilful, formidable. B (foll. By on) knowledgeable about. 9 (esp. Of jazz) strongly rhythmical. 10 slang (of stolen goods) difficult to dispose of because identifiable. 11 slang radioactive. —v. (-tt-) (usu. Foll. By up) colloq. 1 make or become hot. 2 make or become more active, exciting, or dangerous. have the hots for slang be sexually attracted to. Hot under the collar angry, resentful, embarrassed. Like hot cakes see *cake. Make it (or things) hot for a person persecute a person. hotly adv. Hotness n. Hottish adj. [old english]
Hot air n. Slang empty or boastful talk.
Hot-air balloon n. Balloon containing air heated by burners below it, causing it to rise.
Hotbed n. 1 (foll. By of) environment conducive to (vice, intrigue, etc.). 2 bed of earth heated by fermenting manure.
Hot-blooded adj. Ardent, passionate.
Hotchpotch n. (also hodgepodge) confused mixture or jumble, esp. Of ideas. [french hochepot shake pot]
Hot cross bun n. Bun marked with a cross and traditionally eaten on good friday.
Hot dog n. Colloq. Hot sausage in a soft roll.
Hotel n. (usu. Licensed) establishment providing accommodation and meals for payment. [french: related to *hostel]
Hot gospeller n. Colloq. Eager preacher of the gospel.
Hothead n. Impetuous person. hotheaded adj. Hotheadedness n.
Hothouse n. 1 heated (mainly glass) building for rearing tender plants. 2 environment conducive to the rapid growth or development of something.
Hot line n. Direct exclusive telephone etc. Line, esp. For emergencies.
Hot money n. Capital frequently transferred.
Hotplate n. Heated metal plate etc. (or a set of these) for cooking food or keeping it hot.
Hotpot n. Casserole of meat and vegetables topped with potato.
Hot potato n. Colloq. Contentious matter.
Hot rod n. Vehicle modified to have extra power and speed.
Hot seat n. Slang 1 position of difficult responsibility. 2 electric chair.
Hot spot n. 1 small region that is relatively hot. 2 lively or dangerous place.
Hot stuff n. Colloq. 1 formidably capable or important person or thing. 2 sexually attractive person. 3 erotic book, film, etc.
Hot-tempered adj. Impulsively angry.
Hottentot n. 1 member of a sw african negroid people. 2 their language. [afrikaans]
Hot water n. Colloq. Difficulty or trouble.
Hot-water bottle n. (usu. Rubber) container filled with hot water to warm a bed.
Houmous var. Of *hummus.
Hound —n. 1 dog used in hunting. 2 colloq. Despicable man. —v. Harass or pursue. [old english]
Hour n. 1 twenty-fourth part of a day and night, 60 minutes. 2 time of day, point in time (a late hour; what is the hour?). 3 (in pl. With preceding numerals in form 18.00, 20.30, etc.) This number of hours and minutes past midnight on the 24-hour clock (will assemble at 20.00 hours). 4 a period for a specific purpose (lunch hour; keep regular hours). B (in pl.) Fixed working or open period (office hours; opening hours). 5 short period of time (an idle hour).
Hourglass n. Two vertically connected glass bulbs containing sand taking an hour to pass from upper to lower bulb.
Houri n. (pl. -s) beautiful young woman of the muslim paradise. [persian from arabic, = dark-eyed]
Hourly —adj. 1 done or occurring every hour. 2 frequent. 3 reckoned hour by hour (hourly wage). —adv. 1 every hour. 2 frequently.
House —n. (pl.) 1 building for human habitation. 2 building for a special purpose or for animals or goods (opera-house; summerhouse; hen-house). 3 a religious community. B its buildings. 4 a body of pupils living in the same building at a boarding-school. B such a building. C division of a day-school for games, competitions, etc. 5 royal family or dynasty (house of york). 6 a firm or institution. B its premises. 7 a legislative or deliberative assembly. B building for this. 8 audience or performance in a theatre etc. 9 astrol. Twelfth part of the heavens. —v. (-sing) 1 provide with a house or other accommodation. 2 store (goods etc.). 3 enclose or encase (a part or fitting). 4 fix in a socket, mortise, etc. keep house provide for or manage a household. Like a house on fire 1 vigorously, fast. 2 successfully, excellently. On the house free. Put (or set) one’s house in order make necessary reforms. [old english]
House-agent n. Agent for the sale and letting of houses.
House arrest n. Detention in one’s own house, not in prison.
Houseboat n. Boat equipped for living in.
Housebound adj. Confined to one’s house through illness etc.
Housebreaking n. Act of breaking into a building, esp. In daytime, to commit a crime. housebreaker n.
Usage in 1968 housebreaking was replaced as a statutory crime in english law by burglary.
Housecoat n. Woman’s informal indoor coat or gown.
Housefly n. Common fly often entering houses.
Household n. 1 occupants of a house as a unit. 2 house and its affairs.
Householder n. 1 person who owns or rents a house. 2 head of a household.
Household troops n.pl. Troops nominally guarding the sovereign.
Household word n. (also household name) 1 familiar name or saying. 2 familiar person or thing.
House-hunting n. Seeking a house to buy or rent.
House-husband n. Man who does a wife’s traditional household duties.
Housekeeper n. Person, esp. A woman, employed to manage a household.
Housekeeping n. 1 management of household affairs. 2 money allowed for this.
3 operations of maintenance, record-keeping, etc., in an organization.
House lights n.pl. Lights in a theatre auditorium.
Housemaid n. Female servant in a house.
Housemaid’s knee n. Inflammation of the kneecap.
Houseman n. Resident junior doctor at a hospital etc.
House-martin n. Black and white bird nesting on house walls etc.
Housemaster n. (fem. Housemistress) teacher in charge of a house, esp. At a boarding-school.
House music n. Style of pop music, typically using drum machines and synthesized bass lines with sparse repetitive vocals and a fast beat.
House of cards n. Insecure scheme etc.
House of commons n. Elected chamber of parliament.
House of keys n. (in the isle of man) elected chamber of the tynwald.
House of lords n. Chamber of parliament that is mainly hereditary.
House party n. Group of guests staying at a country house etc.
House-plant n. Plant grown indoors.
House-proud adj. Attentive to the care and appearance of the home.
Houseroom n. Space or accommodation in one’s house. not give houseroom to not have in any circumstances.
Housetop n. Roof of a house. shout etc. From the housetops announce publicly.
House-trained adj. 1 (of animals) trained to be clean in the house. 2 colloq. Well-mannered.
House-warming n. Party celebrating a move to a new home.
Housewife n. 1 woman who manages a household and usu. Does not have a full-time paid job. 2 case for needles, thread, etc. housewifely adj. [from house, wife = woman]
Housework n. Regular housekeeping work, e.g. Cleaning and cooking.
Housey-housey n. (also housie-housie) slang gambling form of lotto.
Housing n. 1 a dwelling-houses collectively. B provision of these. 2 shelter, lodging. 3 rigid casing for machinery etc. 4 hole or niche cut in one piece of wood for another to fit into.
Housing estate n. Residential area planned as a unit.
Hove past of *heave.
Hovel n. Small miserable dwelling. [origin unknown]
Hover —v. 1 (of a bird etc.) Remain in one place in the air. 2 (often foll. By about, round) wait close at hand, linger. —n. 1 hovering. 2 state of suspense. [obsolete hove hover]
Hovercraft n. (pl. Same) vehicle travelling on a cushion of air provided by a downward blast.
Hoverport n. Terminal for hovercraft.
How —interrog. Adv. 1 by what means, in what way (how do you do it?; tell me how you do it; how could you?). 2 in what condition, esp. Of health (how are you?; how do things stand?). 3 a to what extent (how far is it?; how would you like to take my place?; how we laughed!). B to what extent good or well, what
like (how was the film?; how did they play?). —rel. Adv. In whatever way, as (do it how you can). —conj. Colloq. That (told us how he’d been in india). how about colloq. Would you like (how about a quick swim?). How do you do? A formal greeting. How many what number. How much 1 what amount. 2 what price. How’s that? 1 what is your opinion or explanation of that? 2 cricket (said to an umpire) is the batsman out or not? [old english]
Howbeit adv. Archaic nevertheless.
Howdah n. (usu. Canopied) seat for riding on an elephant or camel. [urdu hawda]
However adv. 1 a in whatever way (do it however you want). B to whatever extent (must go however inconvenient). 2 nevertheless.
Howitzer n. Short gun for the high-angle firing of shells. [czech houfnice catapult]
Howl —n. 1 long loud doleful cry of a dog etc. 2 prolonged wailing noise. 3 loud cry of pain, rage, derision, or laughter. —v. 1 make a howl. 2 weep loudly. 3 utter with a howl. howl down prevent (a speaker) from being heard by howls of derision. [imitative]
Howler n. Colloq. Glaring mistake.
Howsoever adv. Formal 1 in whatsoever way. 2 to whatsoever extent.
Hoy int. Used to call attention. [natural cry]
Hoyden n. Boisterous girl. [dutch heiden: related to *heathen]
H.p. Abbr. (also hp) 1 horsepower. 2 hire purchase.
Hq abbr. Headquarters.
Hr. Abbr. Hour.
Hrh abbr. Her or his royal highness.
Hrs. Abbr. Hours.
Hrt abbr. Hormone replacement therapy.
Ht abbr. High tension.
Hub n. 1 central part of a wheel, rotating on or with the axle. 2 centre of interest, activity, etc. [origin uncertain]
Huddle —v. (-ling) 1 (often foll. By up) crowd together; nestle closely. 2 (often foll. By up) curl one’s body into a small space. 3 heap together in a muddle. —n. 1 confused or crowded mass. 2 colloq. Close or secret conference (esp. In go into a huddle). [perhaps from low german]
Hue n. 1 colour, tint. 2 variety or shade of colour. [old english]
Hue and cry n. Loud outcry. [french huer shout]
Huff —n. Colloq. Fit of petty annoyance. —v. 1 blow air, steam, etc. 2 (esp. Huff and puff) bluster self-importantly but ineffectually. 3 draughts remove (an opponent’s piece) as a forfeit. in a huff colloq. Annoyed and offended. [imitative of blowing]
Huffy adj. (-ier, -iest) colloq. 1 apt to take offence. 2 offended. huffily adv.
Huffiness n.
Hug —v. (-gg-) 1 squeeze tightly in one’s arms, esp. With affection. 2 (of a bear) squeeze (a person) between its forelegs. 3 keep close to; fit tightly around. —n. 1 strong clasp with the arms. 2 squeezing grip in wrestling. [probably scandinavian]
Huge adj. 1 extremely large; enormous. 2 (of an abstract thing) very great. hugeness n. [french ahuge]
Hugely adv. 1 extremely (hugely successful). 2 very much (enjoyed it hugely).
Hugger-mugger —adj. & adv. 1 in secret. 2 confused; in confusion. —n. 1 secrecy. 2 confusion. [origin uncertain]
Huguenot n. Hist. French protestant. [french]
Huh int. Expressing disgust, surprise, etc. [imitative]
Hula n. (also hula-hula) polynesian dance performed by women, with flowing arm movements. [hawaiian]
Hula hoop n. Large hoop spun round the body.
Hulk n. 1 body of a dismantled ship. 2 colloq. Large clumsy-looking person or thing. [old english]
Hulking adj. Colloq. Bulky; clumsy.
Hull1 n. Body of a ship, airship, etc. [perhaps related to *hold2]
Hull2 —n. Outer covering of a fruit, esp. The pod of peas and beans, the husk of grain, or the green calyx of a strawberry. —v. Remove the hulls from (fruit etc.). [old english]
Hullabaloo n. Uproar. [reduplication of hallo, hullo, etc.]
Hullo var. Of *hello.
Hum —v. (-mm-) 1 make a low steady continuous sound like a bee. 2 sing with closed lips. 3 utter a slight inarticulate sound. 4 colloq. Be active (really made things hum). 5 colloq. Smell unpleasantly. —n. 1 humming sound. 2 colloq. Bad smell. hum and haw (or ha) hesitate; be indecisive. [imitative]
Human —adj. 1 of or belonging to the species homo sapiens. 2 consisting of human beings (the human race). 3 of or characteristic of humankind, esp. As being weak, fallible, etc. (is only human). 4 showing warmth, sympathy, etc. (is very human). —n. Human being. [latin humanus]
Human being n. Man, woman, or child.
Human chain n. Line of people formed for passing things along, as a protest, etc.
Humane adj. 1 benevolent, compassionate. 2 inflicting the minimum of pain. 3 (of learning) tending to civilize. humanely adv. Humaneness n.
Humane killer n. Instrument for the painless slaughter of animals.
Humanism n. 1 non-religious philosophy based on liberal human values. 2 (often humanism) literary culture, esp. That of the renaissance. humanist n. Humanistic adj.
Humanitarian —n. Person who seeks to promote human welfare. —adj. Of humanitarians. humanitarianism n.
Humanity n. (pl. -ies) 1 a the human race. B human beings collectively. C being human. 2 humaneness, benevolence. 3 (in pl.) Subjects concerned with human culture, e.g. Language, literature, and history.
Humanize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make human or humane. humanization n. [french: related to *human]
Humankind n. Human beings collectively.
Humanly adv. 1 by human means (if it is humanly possible). 2 in a human manner.
Human nature n. General characteristics and feelings of mankind.
Human rights n.pl. Rights held to be common to all.
Human shield n. Person(s) placed in the line of fire in order to discourage attack.
Humble —adj. 1 having or showing low self-esteem. 2 of low social or political rank. 3 modest in size, pretensions, etc. —v. (-ling) 1 make humble; abase. 2 lower the rank or status of. eat humble pie apologize humbly; accept humiliation. humbleness n. Humbly adv. [latin humilis: related to *humus]
Humbug —n. 1 lying or deception; hypocrisy. 2 impostor. 3 hard boiled striped peppermint sweet. —v. (-gg-) 1 be or behave like an impostor. 2 deceive, hoax. [origin unknown]
Humdinger n. Slang excellent or remarkable person or thing. [origin unknown]
Humdrum adj. Commonplace, dull, monotonous. [a reduplication of *hum]
Humerus n. (pl. -ri) bone of the upper arm. humeral adj. [latin, = shoulder]
Humid adj. (of the air or climate) warm and damp. [latin humidus]
Humidifier n. Device for keeping the atmosphere moist in a room etc.
Humidify v. (-ies, -ied) make (air etc.) Humid.
Humidify v. (-ies, -ied) make (air etc.) Humid.
Humidity n. (pl. -ies) 1 dampness. 2 degree of moisture, esp. In the atmosphere.
Humiliate v. (-ting) injure the dignity or self-respect of. humiliating adj. Humiliation n. [latin: related to *humble]
Humility n. 1 humbleness, meekness. 2 humble condition. [french: related to *humiliate]
Hummingbird n. Small tropical bird that makes a humming sound with its wings when it hovers.
Hummock n. Hillock or hump. [origin unknown]
Hummus n. (also houmous) dip or appetizer made from ground chick-peas, sesame oil, lemon, and garlic. [turkish]
Humor (brit. Humour) —n. 1 a quality of being amusing or comic. B the expression of humour in literature, speech, etc. 2 (in full sense of humour) ability to perceive or express humour. 3 state of mind; inclination (bad humour). 4 (in full cardinal humour) hist. Each of the four fluids (blood, phlegm, choler, melancholy), thought to determine a person’s physical and mental qualities. —v. Gratify or indulge (a person or taste etc.). out of humour displeased. humourless adj. [latin humor moisture]
Humoresque n. Short lively piece of music. [german humoreske]
Humorist n. Humorous writer, talker, or actor.
Humorous adj. Showing humour or a sense of humour. humorously adv.
Humour (us humor) —n. 1 a quality of being amusing or comic. B the expression of humour in literature, speech, etc. 2 (in full sense of humour) ability to perceive or express humour. 3 state of mind; inclination (bad humour). 4 (in full cardinal humour) hist. Each of the four fluids (blood, phlegm, choler, melancholy), thought to determine a person’s physical and mental qualities. —v. Gratify or indulge (a person or taste etc.). out of humour displeased. humourless adj. [latin humor moisture]
Hump —n. 1 rounded protuberance on a camel’s back, or as an abnormality on a person’s back. 2 rounded raised mass of earth etc. 3 critical point in an undertaking. 4 (prec. By the) slang fit of depression or vexation (gave me the hump). —v. 1 (often foll. By about) colloq. Lift or carry (heavy objects etc.) With difficulty. 2 make hump-shaped. [probably low german or dutch]
Humpback n. 1 a deformed back with a hump. B person with this. 2 whale with a dorsal fin forming a hump. humpbacked adj.
Humpback bridge n. Small bridge with a steep ascent and descent.
Humph int. & n. Inarticulate sound of doubt or dissatisfaction. [imitative]
Humus n. Organic constituent of soil formed by the decomposition of vegetation. [latin, = soil]
Hun n. 1 offens. German (esp. In military contexts). 2 member of a warlike asiatic nomadic people who ravaged europe in the 4th–5th c. 3 vandal. hunnish adj. [old english]
Hunch —v. Bend or arch into a hump. —n. 1 intuitive feeling or idea. 2 hump. [origin unknown]
Hunchback n. = *humpback 1. hunchbacked adj.
Hundred adj. & n. (pl. Hundreds or (in sense 1) hundred) (in sing., prec. By a or one) 1 ten times ten. 2 symbol for this (100, c, c). 3 (in sing. Or pl.) Colloq. A large number. 4 (in pl.) The years of a specified century (the seventeen hundreds). 5 hist. Subdivision of a county or shire, having its own court. hundredfold adj. & adv. Hundredth adj. & n. [old english]
Hundreds and thousands n.pl. Tiny coloured sweets for decorating cakes etc.
Hundredweight n. (pl. Same or -s) 1 unit of weight equal to 112 lb, or us equal to 100 lb. 2 unit of weight equal to 50 kg.
Hung past and past part. Of *hang.
Hungarian —n. 1 a native or national of hungary. B person of hungarian descent. 2 language of hungary. —adj. Of hungary or its people or language. [medieval latin]
Hunger —n. 1 a lack of food. B feeling of discomfort or exhaustion caused by this. 2 (often foll. By for, after) strong desire. —v. 1 (often foll. By for, after) crave or desire. 2 feel hunger. [old english]
Hunger strike n. Refusal of food as a protest.
Hung-over adj. Colloq. Suffering from a hangover.
Hung parliament n. Parliament in which no party has a clear majority.
Hunk n. 1 large piece cut off (hunk of bread). 2 colloq. Sexually attractive man. hunky adj. (-ier, -iest). [probably dutch]
Hunky-dory adj. Esp. Us colloq. Excellent. [origin unknown]
Hunt —v. 1 (also absol.) A pursue and kill (wild animals, esp. Foxes, or game) for sport or food. B use (a horse or hounds) for hunting. C (of an animal) chase (its prey). 2 (foll. By after, for) seek, search. 3 (of an engine etc.) Run alternately too fast and too slow. 4 scour (a district) for game. 5 (as hunted adj.) (of a look
too fast and too slow. 4 scour (a district) for game. 5 (as hunted adj.) (of a look etc.) Terrified as if being hunted. —n. 1 practice or instance of hunting. 2 a association of people hunting with hounds. B area for hunting. hunt down pursue and capture. hunting n. [old english]
Hunter n. 1 a (fem. Huntress) person or animal that hunts. B horse used in hunting. 2 person who seeks something. 3 pocket-watch with a hinged cover protecting the glass.
Hunter’s moon n. Next full moon after the harvest moon.
Huntsman n. 1 hunter. 2 hunt official in charge of hounds.
Hurdle —n. 1 a each of a series of light frames to be cleared by athletes in a race. B (in pl.) Hurdle-race. 2 obstacle or difficulty. 3 portable rectangular frame used as a temporary fence etc. —v. (-ling) 1 run in a hurdle-race. 2 fence off etc. With hurdles. [old english]
Hurdler n. 1 athlete who runs in hurdle-races. 2 maker of hurdles.
Hurdy-gurdy n. (pl. -ies) 1 droning musical instrument played by turning a handle. 2 colloq. Barrel-organ. [imitative]
Hurl —v. 1 throw with great force. 2 utter (abuse etc.) Vehemently. —n. Forceful throw. [imitative]
Hurley n. 1 (also hurling) irish game resembling hockey. 2 stick used in this.
Hurly-burly n. Boisterous activity; commotion. [a reduplication of *hurl]
Hurrah int. & n. (also hurray) exclamation of joy or approval. [earlier huzza, origin uncertain]
Hurricane n. 1 storm with a violent wind, esp. A w. Indian cyclone. 2 meteorol. Wind of 65 knots (75 m.p.h.) Or more, force 12 on the beaufort scale. [spanish and portuguese from carib]
Hurricane-lamp n. Oil-lamp designed to resist a high wind.
Hurry —n. 1 great or eager haste. 2 (with neg. Or interrog.) Need for haste (there is no hurry; what’s the hurry?). —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 move or act hastily. 2 cause to hurry.
Hurt —v. (past and past part. Hurt) 1 (also absol.) Cause pain or injury to. 2 cause mental pain or distress to. 3 suffer pain (my arm hurts). —n. 1 injury. 2 harm, wrong. [french hurter knock]
Hurtle v. (-ling) 1 move or hurl rapidly or noisily. 2 come with a crash. [from *hurt in the obsolete sense ‘strike hard’]
Husband —n. Married man, esp. In relation to his wife. —v. Use (resources) economically; eke out. [old english, = house-dweller]
Husbandry n. 1 farming. 2 management of resources.
Hush —v. Make or become silent or quiet. —int. Calling for silence. —n. Expectant stillness or silence. hush up suppress public mention of (an affair). [husht, an obsolete exclamation, taken as a past part.]
Hush money n. Slang money paid to ensure discretion.
Husk —n. 1 dry outer covering of some fruits or seeds. 2 worthless outside part of a thing. —v. Remove husk(s) from. [probably low german]
Husky1 adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 (of a person or voice) dry in the throat; hoarse. 2 of or full of husks. 3 dry as a husk. 4 tough, strong, hefty. huskily adv. Huskiness n.
Husky2 n. (pl. -ies) dog of a powerful breed used in the arctic for pulling sledges. [perhaps from corruption of *eskimo]
Huss n. Dogfish as food. [origin unknown]
Hussar n. Soldier of a light cavalry regiment. [magyar huszár]
Hussy n. (pl. -ies) derog. Impudent or promiscuous girl or woman. [contraction of *housewife]
Hustings n. Election campaign or proceedings. [old english, = house of assembly, from old norse]
Hustle —v. (-ling) 1 jostle, bustle. 2 (foll. By into, out of, etc.) Force, coerce, or hurry (hustled them out of the room; was hustled into agreeing). 3 slang a solicit business. B engage in prostitution. 4 slang obtain by energetic activity. —n. Act or instance of hustling. hustler n. [dutch]
Hut n. Small simple or crude house or shelter. [french hutte from germanic]
Hutch n. Box or cage for rabbits etc. [french huche]
Hyacinth n. 1 bulbous plant with racemes of bell-shaped (esp. Purplish-blue) fragrant flowers. 2 purplish-blue. [greek huakinthos]
Hyaena var. Of *hyena.
Hybrid —n. 1 offspring of two plants or animals of different species or varieties. 2 thing composed of diverse elements, e.g. A word with parts taken from different languages. —adj. 1 bred as a hybrid. 2 heterogeneous. hybridism n.
[latin]
Hybridize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 subject (a species etc.) To crossbreeding. 2 a produce hybrids. B (of an animal or plant) interbreed. hybridization n.
Hydra n. 1 freshwater polyp with a tubular body and tentacles. 2 something hard to destroy. [greek, a mythical snake with many heads that grew again when cut off]
Hydrangea n. Shrub with globular clusters of white, pink, or blue flowers. [greek hudor water, aggos vessel]
Hydrant n. Outlet (esp. In a street) with a nozzle for a hose, for drawing water from the main. [as *hydro-]
Hydrate —n. Compound in which water is chemically combined with another compound or an element. —v. (-ting) 1 combine chemically with water. 2 cause to absorb water. hydration n. [french: related to *hydro-]
Hydraulic adj. 1 (of water, oil, etc.) Conveyed through pipes or channels. 2 (of a mechanism etc.) Operated by liquid moving in this way (hydraulic brakes). hydraulically adv. [greek hudor water, aulos pipe]
Hydraulics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Science of the conveyance of liquids through pipes etc., esp. As motive power.
Hydride n. Compound of hydrogen with an element.
Hydro n. (pl. -s) colloq. 1 hotel or clinic etc., orig. Providing hydropathic treatment. 2 hydroelectric power plant. [abbreviation]
Hydro-comb. Form 1 having to do with water (hydroelectric). 2 combined with hydrogen (hydrochloric). [greek hudro-from hudor water]
Hydrocarbon n. Compound of hydrogen and carbon.
Hydrocephalus n. Accumulated fluid in the brain, esp. In young children. hydrocephalic adj. [greek kephale head]
Hydrochloric acid n. Solution of the colourless gas hydrogen chloride in water.
Hydrocyanic acid n. Highly poisonous liquid smelling of bitter almonds; prussic acid.
Hydrodynamics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Science of forces acting on or exerted by fluids (esp. Liquids). hydrodynamic adj.
Hydroelectric adj. 1 generating electricity by water-power. 2 (of electricity) so generated. hydroelectricity n.
Hydrofoil n. 1 boat equipped with planes for lifting its hull out of the water to increase its speed. 2 such a plane.
Hydrogen n. Tasteless odourless gas, the lightest element, occurring in water and all organic compounds. hydrogenous adj. [french: related to *hydro-, *-gen]
Hydrogenate v. (-ting) charge with or cause to combine with hydrogen.
hydrogenation n.
Hydrogen bomb n. Immensely powerful bomb utilizing the explosive fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
Hydrogen peroxide n. Viscous unstable liquid with strong oxidizing properties.
Hydrogen sulphide n. Poisonous unpleasant-smelling gas formed by rotting animal matter.
Hydrography n. Science of surveying and charting seas, lakes, rivers, etc.
hydrographer n. Hydrographic adj.
Hydrology n. Science of the properties of water, esp. Of its movement in relation to land. hydrologist n.
Hydrolyse v. (us -lyze) (-sing or -zing) decompose by hydrolysis.
Hydrolysis n. Chemical reaction of a substance with water, usu. Resulting in decomposition. [greek lusis dissolving]
Hydrolyze v. (brit. -lyse) decompose by hydrolysis.
Hydrometer n. Instrument for measuring the density of liquids.
Hydropathy n. (medically unorthodox) treatment of disease by water. hydropathic adj. [related to *pathos]
Hydrophilic adj. 1 having an affinity for water. 2 wettable by water. [greek philos loving]
Hydrophobia n. 1 aversion to water, esp. As a symptom of rabies in humans. 2 rabies, esp. In humans. hydrophobic adj.
Hydroplane n. 1 light fast motor boat that skims over water. 2 finlike attachment enabling a submarine to rise and descend.
Hydroponics n. Growing plants without soil, in sand, gravel, or liquid, with added nutrients. [greek ponos labour]
Hydrosphere n. Waters of the earth’s surface.
Hydrostatic adj. Of the equilibrium of liquids and the pressure exerted by liquid at rest. [related to *static]
Hydrostatics n.pl. (usu. Treated as sing.) Mechanics of the hydrostatic properties of liquids.
Hydrotherapy n. Use of water, esp. Swimming, in the treatment of arthritis, paralysis, etc.
Hydrous adj. Containing water. [related to *hydro-]
Hydroxide n. Compound containing oxygen and hydrogen as either a hydroxide ion or a hydroxyl group.
Hydroxyl n. (attrib.) Univalent group containing hydrogen and oxygen.
Hyena n. (also hyaena) doglike flesh-eating mammal. [latin from greek]
Hygiene n. 1 conditions or practices, esp. Cleanliness, conducive to maintaining health. 2 science of maintaining health. hygienic adj. Hygienically adv. Hygienist n. [greek hugies healthy]
Hygrometer n. Instrument for measuring the humidity of the air or a gas. [greek hugros wet]
hugros wet]
Hygroscope n. Instrument indicating but not measuring the humidity of the air.
Hygroscopic adj. 1 of the hygroscope. 2 (of a substance) tending to absorb moisture from the air.
Hymen n. Membrane at the opening of the vagina, usu. Broken at the first occurrence of sexual intercourse. [greek humen membrane]
Hymenopterous adj. Of an order of insects having four transparent wings, including bees, wasps, and ants. [greek, = membrane-winged]
Hymn —n. 1 song of esp. Christian praise. 2 crusading theme (hymn of freedom). —v. Praise or celebrate in hymns. [greek humnos]
Hymnal n. Book of hymns. [medieval latin: related to *hymn]
Hymnology n. (pl. -ies) 1 the composition or study of hymns. 2 hymns collectively. hymnologist n.
Hyoscine n. Poisonous alkaloid found in plants of the nightshade family, used to prevent motion sickness etc. [greek huoskuamos henbane from hus huos pig, kuamos bean]
Hype slang —n. Extravagant or intensive promotion of a product etc. —v. (-ping) promote with hype. [origin unknown]
Hyped up adj. Slang nervously excited or stimulated. [shortening of *hypodermic]
Hyper adj. Slang hyperactive, highly-strung. [abbreviation of *hyperactive]
Hyperbola n. (pl. -s or -lae) plane curve produced when a cone is cut by a plane that makes a larger angle with the base than the side of the cone makes. hyperbolic adj. [greek hyperbole, = excess: related to *hyper-, ballo throw]
Hyperbole n. Exaggeration, esp. For effect. hyperbolical adj.
Hyperbolic function n. Function related to a rectangular hyperbola, e.g. A hyperbolic cosine or sine.
Hyperglycaemia n. (us hyperglycemia) excess of glucose in the bloodstream. [from *hyper-, greek glukus sweet, haima blood]
Hyperglycemia n. (brit. Hyperglycaemia) excess of glucose in the bloodstream. [from *hyper-, greek glukus sweet, haima blood]
Hypermarket n. Very large supermarket.
Hypermedia n. Provision of several media (e.g. Audio, video, and graphics) on one computer system, with cross-references from one to another (often attrib.: hypermedia database).
Hypersensitive adj. Excessively sensitive. hypersensitivity n.
Hypersonic adj. 1 of speeds of more than five times that of sound. 2 of sound-frequencies above about a thousand million hertz.
Hypertension n. 1 abnormally high blood pressure. 2 great emotional tension.
Hypertext n. Provision of several texts on one computer system, with cross-references from one to another.
Hyperthermia n. Abnormally high body-temperature. [from *hyper-, greek therme heat]
Hyperthyroidism n. Overactivity of the thyroid gland, resulting in an increased rate of metabolism.
Hyperventilation n. Abnormally rapid breathing. hyperventilate v. (-ting).
Hyphen —n. Sign (-) used to join words semantically or syntactically (e.g. Fruit-tree, pick-me-up, rock-forming), to indicate the division of a word at the end of a line, or to indicate a missing or implied element (as in man-and womankind). — v. = *hyphenate. [greek huphen together]
Hyphenate v. (-ting) 1 write (a compound word) with a hyphen. 2 join (words) with a hyphen. hyphenation n.
Hypnosis n. 1 state like sleep in which the subject acts only on external suggestion. 2 artificially produced sleep. [greek hupnos sleep]
Hypnotherapy n. Treatment of mental disorders by hypnosis.
Hypnotic —adj. 1 of or producing hypnosis. 2 inducing sleep. —n. Hypnotic drug or influence. hypnotically adv. [greek: related to *hypnosis]
Hypnotism n. The study or practice of hypnosis. hypnotist n.
Hypnotize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 produce hypnosis in. 2 fascinate;
Hypnotize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 produce hypnosis in. 2 fascinate; capture the mind of.
Hypo1 n. Sodium thiosulphate (incorrectly called hyposulphite) used as a photographic fixer. [abbreviation]
Hypo2 n. (pl. -s) slang = *hypodermic n. [abbreviation]
Hypo-prefix 1 under (hypodermic). 2 below normal (hypotension). 3 slightly. [greek hupo under]
Hypocaust n. Space for underfloor hot-air heating in ancient roman houses. [from *hypo-, kaustos burnt]
Hypochondria n. Abnormal and ill-founded anxiety about one’s health. [latin from greek, = soft parts of the body below the ribs, where melancholy was thought to arise]
Hypochondriac —n. Person given to hypochondria. —adj. Of or affected by hypochondria.
Hypocrisy n. (pl. -ies) 1 false claim to virtue; insincerity, pretence. 2 instance of this. [greek, = acting, feigning]
Hypocrite n. Person given to hypocrisy. hypocritical adj. Hypocritically adv.
Hypodermic —adj. 1 of the area beneath the skin. 2 a injected beneath the skin. B (of a syringe, etc.) Used to do this. —n. Hypodermic injection or syringe. [from *hypo-, greek derma skin]
Hypotension n. Abnormally low blood pressure.
Hypotenuse n. Side opposite the right angle of a right-angled triangle. [greek, = subtending line]
Hypothalamus n. (pl. -mi) region of the brain controlling body-temperature, thirst, hunger, etc. hypothalamic adj. [latin: related to *hypo-, greek thalamos inner room]
Hypothermia n. Abnormally low body-temperature. [from *hypo-, greek therme heat]
Hypothesis n. (pl. -theses) proposition or supposition made as the basis for reasoning or investigation. [greek, = foundation]
Hypothesize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) form or assume a hypothesis.
Hypothetical adj. 1 of, based on, or serving as a hypothesis. 2 supposed; not necessarily true. hypothetically adv.
Hypothyroidism n. Subnormal activity of the thyroid gland, resulting in
cretinism. hypothyroid n. & adj.
Hypoventilation n. Abnormally slow breathing.
Hyssop n. 1 small bushy aromatic herb, formerly used medicinally. 2 bibl. Plant whose twigs were used for sprinkling in jewish rites. [ultimately from greek hyssopos, of semitic origin]
Hysterectomy n. (pl. -ies) surgical removal of the womb. [greek hustera womb, *-ectomy]
Hysteresis n. Phenomenon whereby changes in an effect lag behind changes in its cause. [greek husteros coming after]
Hysteria n. 1 wild uncontrollable emotion or excitement. 2 functional disturbance of the nervous system, of psychoneurotic origin. [greek hustera womb]
Hysteric n. 1 (in pl.) A fit of hysteria. B colloq. Overwhelming laughter (we were in hysterics). 2 hysterical person.
Hysterical adj. 1 of or affected with hysteria. 2 uncontrollably emotional. 3 colloq. Extremely funny. hysterically adv.
Hz abbr. Hertz.
I
I1 n. (also i) (pl. Is or i’s) 1 ninth letter of the alphabet. 2 (as a roman numeral) 1.
I2 pron. (obj. Me; poss. My, mine; pl. We) used by a speaker or writer to refer to himself or herself. [old english]
I3 symb. Iodine.
I4 abbr. (also i.) 1 island(s). 2 isle(s).
-ial var. Of *-al.
Iambic prosody —adj. Of or using iambuses. —n. (usu. In pl.) Iambic verse.
Iambus n. (pl. -buses or -bi) metrical foot consisting of one short followed by one long syllable (&iambus.). [greek, = lampoon]
-ian var. Of *-an.
Iba abbr. Independent broadcasting authority.
Iberian —adj. Of iberia, the peninsula comprising spain and portugal; of spain and portugal. —n. Native or language of iberia. [latin iberia]
Ibex n. (pl. -es) wild mountain goat with thick curved ridged horns. [latin]
Ibid. Abbr. In the same book or passage etc. [latin ibidem in the same place]
-ibility suffix forming nouns from, or corresponding to, adjectives in -ible.
Ibis n. (pl. -es) wading bird with a curved bill, long neck, and long legs. [greek, from egyptian]
-ible suffix forming adjectives meaning ‘that may or may be’ (forcible; possible). [latin]
-ible suffix forming adjectives meaning ‘that may or may be’ (forcible; possible). [latin]
-ibly suffix forming adverbs corresponding to adjectives in -ible.
Ibo n. (also igbo) (pl. Same or -s) 1 member of a black people of se nigeria. 2 their language. [native name]
-ic suffix 1 forming adjectives (arabic; classic; public) and nouns (critic; epic; mechanic; music). 2 combined in higher valence or degree of oxidation (ferric; sulphuric). [latin -icus, greek -ikos]
-ical suffix forming adjectives corresponding to nouns or adjectives in -ic or -y (classical; historical).
Ice —n. 1 a frozen water. B sheet of this on water. 2 ice-cream or water-ice (ate an ice). —v. (icing) 1 mix with or cool in ice (iced drinks). 2 (often foll. By over, up) a cover or become covered with ice. B freeze. 3 cover (a cake etc.) With icing. on ice 1 performed by skaters. 2 colloq. In reserve. On thin ice in a risky situation. [old english]
Ice age n. Glacial period.
Ice-axe n. Cutting tool used by mountaineers.
Iceberg n. Large floating mass of ice. the tip of the iceberg small perceptible part of something very large or complex. [dutch]
Iceberg lettuce n. Crisp type of round lettuce.
Ice blue adj. & n. (as adj. Often hyphenated) very pale blue.
Icebox n. 1 compartment in a refrigerator for making or storing ice. 2 us refrigerator.
Ice-breaker n. 1 ship designed to break through ice. 2 joke, incident, etc. That breaks the ice.
Ice bucket n. Bucket holding ice, used to chill wine.
Ice cap n. Permanent covering of ice, esp. In polar regions.
Ice-cream n. Sweet creamy frozen food, usu. Flavoured.
Ice-cube n. Small block of ice for drinks etc.
Ice-field n. Expanse of ice, esp. In polar regions.
Ice hockey n. Form of hockey played on ice.
Icelander n. 1 native or national of iceland. 2 person of icelandic descent.
Icelandic —adj. Of iceland. —n. Language of iceland.
Ice lolly n. (also iced lolly) flavoured ice on a stick.
Ice-pack n. 1 = *pack ice. 2 ice applied to the body for medical purposes.
Ice-pick n. Tool with a spike for splitting up ice.
Ice-plant n. Plant with speckled leaves.
Ice-rink n. = *rink n. 1.
Ice-skate —n. Boot with a blade beneath, for skating on ice. —v. Skate on ice.
ice-skater n.
Ichneumon n. 1 (in full ichneumon fly) small wasp depositing eggs in or on the larva of another as food for its own larva. 2 mongoose noted for destroying crocodile eggs. [greek from ikhnos footstep]
Ichthyology n. The study of fishes. ichthyological adj. Ichthyologist n. [greek ikhthus fish]
Ichthyosaurus n. (also ichthyosaur) (pl. -sauruses or -saurs) extinct marine reptile with four flippers and usu. A large tail. [greek ikhthus fish, sauros lizard]
-ician suffix forming nouns denoting persons skilled in subjects having nouns usu. Ending in -ic or -ics (magician; politician). [french -icien]
Icicle n. Hanging tapering piece of ice, formed from dripping water. [from *ice, obsolete ickle icicle]
Icing n. 1 coating of sugar etc. On a cake or biscuit. 2 formation of ice on a ship or aircraft. icing on the cake inessential though attractive addition or enhancement.
Icing sugar n. Finely powdered sugar.
Icon n. (also ikon) 1 painting of christ etc., esp. In the eastern church. 2 image or statue. 3 symbol on a vdu screen of a program, option, or window, esp. For selection. iconic adj. [greek eikon image]
Iconoclast n. 1 person who attacks cherished beliefs. 2 hist. Person destroying religious images. iconoclasm n. Iconoclastic adj. [greek: related to *icon, klao break]
Iconography n. 1 the illustration of a subject by drawings or figures. 2 the study of portraits, esp. Of an individual, or of artistic images or symbols. [greek: related to *icon]
Iconostasis n. (pl. -stases) (in the eastern church) screen bearing icons. [greek:
related to *icon]
Icosahedron n. Solid figure with twenty faces. [greek eikosi twenty, hedra base]
-ics suffix (treated as sing. Or pl.) Forming nouns denoting arts, sciences, etc.
(athletics; politics).
Icy adj. (-ier, -iest) 1 very cold. 2 covered with or abounding in ice. 3 (of a tone or manner) unfriendly, hostile. icily adv. Iciness n.
Id abbr. Identification, identity (id card).
Id n. Person’s inherited unconscious psychological impulses. [latin, = that]
I’d contr. 1 i had. 2 i should; i would.
-ide suffix chem. Forming nouns denoting binary compounds of an element (sodium chloride; lead sulphide; calcium carbide). [extended from *oxide]
Idea n. 1 plan etc. Formed by mental effort (an idea for a book). 2 a mental impression or concept. B vague belief or fancy (had an idea you were married). 3 intention or purpose (the idea is to make money). 4 archetype or pattern. 5 ambition or aspiration (have ideas; put ideas into a person’s head). have no idea colloq. 1 not know at all. 2 be completely incompetent. Not one’s idea of colloq. Not what one regards as (not my idea of a holiday). [greek, = form, kind]
Ideal —adj. 1 answering to one’s highest conception; perfect. 2 existing only in idea; visionary. —n. Perfect type, thing, concept, principle, etc., esp. As a standard to emulate. [french: related to *idea]
Idealism n. 1 forming or pursuing ideals, esp. Unrealistically. 2 representation of things in ideal form. 3 system of thought in which objects are held to be in some way dependent on the mind. idealist n. Idealistic adj. Idealistically adv.
Idealize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) regard or represent as ideal or perfect.
idealization n.
Ideally adv. 1 in ideal circumstances. 2 according to an ideal.
Idée fixe n. (pl. Idées fixes pronunc. Same) dominating idea; obsession. [french, = fixed idea]
Identical adj. 1 (often foll. By with) (of different things) absolutely alike. 2 one and the same. 3 (of twins) developed from a single ovum. identically adv. [latin identicus: related to *identity]
Identification n. 1 identifying. 2 means of identifying (also attrib.: identification card).
Identification parade n. Group of people from whom a suspect is to be identified.
Identify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 establish the identity of; recognize. 2 select or discover (identify the best solution). 3 (also refl.; foll. By with) associate inseparably or very closely (with a party, policy, etc.). 4 (often foll. By with) treat as identical. 5 (foll. By with) put oneself in the place of (another person). identifiable adj. [medieval latin identifico: related to *identity]
Identikit n. (often attrib.) Propr. Picture of esp. A wanted suspect assembled from standard components using witnesses’ descriptions. [from *identity, *kit]
Identity n. (pl. -ies) 1 a condition of being a specified person or thing. B individuality, personality (felt he had lost his identity). 2 identification or the result of it (mistaken identity; identity card). 3 absolute sameness (identity of interests). 4 algebra a equality of two expressions for all values of the quantities. B equation expressing this. [latin identitas from idem same]
Ideogram n. Character symbolizing a thing without indicating the sounds in its name (e.g. A numeral, chinese characters). [greek idea form, *-gram]
Ideograph n. = *ideogram. ideographic adj. Ideography n.
Ideologue n. Often derog. Adherent of an ideology. [french: related to *idea]
Ideology n. (pl. -ies) 1 ideas at the basis of an economic or political theory (marxist ideology). 2 characteristic thinking of a class etc. (bourgeois ideology). ideological adj. Ideologically adv. Ideologist n. [french: related to idea, -logy]
Ides n.pl. Day of the ancient roman month (the 15th day of march, may, july, and october, the 13th of other months). [latin idus]
Idiocy n. (pl. -ies) 1 foolishness; foolish act. 2 extreme mental imbecility.
Idiom n. 1 phrase etc. Established by usage and not immediately comprehensible from the words used (e.g. Over the moon, see the light). 2 form of expression peculiar to a language etc. 3 language of a people or country. 4 characteristic mode of expression in art etc. [greek idios own]
Idiomatic adj. 1 relating or conforming to idiom. 2 characteristic of a particular language. idiomatically adv.
Idiosyncrasy n. (pl. -ies) attitude, behaviour, or opinion peculiar to a person; anything highly individual or eccentric. idiosyncratic adj. Idiosyncratically adv. [greek idios private, sun with, krasis mixture]
Idiot n. 1 stupid person. 2 mentally deficient person incapable of rational conduct. idiotic adj. Idiotically adv. [greek idiotes, = private citizen, ignorant person]
Idle —adj. (idler, idlest) 1 lazy, indolent. 2 not in use; not working. 3 (of time etc.) Unoccupied. 4 purposeless; groundless (idle rumour). 5 useless, ineffective (idle protest). —v. (-ling) 1 be idle. 2 run (an engine) or (of an engine) be run slowly without doing any work. 3 (foll. By away) pass (time etc.) In idleness. idleness n. Idler n. Idly adv. [old english]
Idol n. 1 image of a deity etc. As an object of worship. 2 object of excessive or supreme adulation. [greek eidolon image, phantom]
Idolater n. 1 worshipper of idols. 2 devoted admirer. idolatrous adj. Idolatry n. [related to *idol, greek latreuo worship]
Idolize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 venerate or love excessively. 2 make an idol of. idolization n.
Idyll n. 1 short description, esp. In verse, of a peaceful or romantic, esp. Rural, scene or incident. 2 such a scene or incident. [greek eidullion]
Idyllic adj. 1 blissfully peaceful and happy. 2 of or like an idyll. idyllically adv.
I.e. Abbr. That is to say. [latin id est]
-ie see *-y2.
If —conj. 1 introducing a conditional clause: a on the condition or supposition that; in the event that (if he comes i will tell him; if you are tired we can rest). B (with past tense) implying that the condition is not fulfilled (if i knew i would say). 2 even though (i’ll finish it, if it takes me all day). 3 whenever (if i am not sure i ask). 4 whether (see if you can find it). 5 expressing a wish, surprise, or request (if i could just try!; if it isn’t my old hat!; if you wouldn’t mind?). —n. Condition, supposition (too many ifs about it). if only 1 even if for no other reason than (i’ll come if only to see her). 2 (often ellipt.) Expression of regret; i wish that (if only i had thought of it). [old english]
Igloo n. Eskimo dome-shaped dwelling, esp. Of snow. [eskimo, = house]
Igneous adj. 1 of fire; fiery. 2 (esp. Of rocks) volcanic. [latin ignis fire]
Ignite v. (-ting) 1 set fire to. 2 catch fire. 3 provoke or excite (feelings etc.). [latin ignio ignit-set on fire]
Ignition n. 1 mechanism for, or the action of, starting combustion in an internal-combustion engine. 2 igniting or being ignited.
Ignoble adj. (-bler, -blest) 1 dishonourable. 2 of low birth, position, or reputation. ignobly adv. [latin: related to in-1, noble]
Ignominious adj. Shameful, humiliating. ignominiously adv. [latin: related to *ignominy]
Ignominy n. Dishonour, infamy. [latin: related to *in-1, latin (g)nomen name]
Ignoramus n. (pl. -muses) ignorant person. [latin, = we do not know: related to *ignore]
Ignorance n. Lack of knowledge. [french from latin: related to *ignore]
Ignorant adj. 1 (often foll. By of, in) lacking knowledge (esp. Of a fact or
Ignorant adj. 1 (often foll. By of, in) lacking knowledge (esp. Of a fact or subject). 2 colloq. Uncouth. ignorantly adv.
Ignore v. (-ring) refuse to take notice of; intentionally disregard. [latin ignoro not know]
Iguana n. Large american, w. Indian, or pacific lizard with a dorsal crest. [spanish from carib iwana]
Iguanodon n. Large plant-eating dinosaur with small forelimbs. [from *iguana, which it resembles, after mastodon etc.]
Ikebana n. Art of japanese flower arrangement. [japanese, = living flowers]
Ikon var. Of *icon.
Il-prefix assim. Form of in-1, in-2 before l.
Ileum n. (pl. Ilea) third and last portion of the small intestine. [latin ilium]
Ilex n. (pl. -es) 1 tree or shrub of the genus including the common holly. 2 holm-oak. [latin]
Iliac adj. Of the lower body (iliac artery). [latin ilia flanks]
Ilk n. 1 colloq., usu. Derog. Sort, family, class, etc. 2 (in of that ilk) scot. Of the ancestral estate with the same name as the family (guthrie of that ilk). [old english]
Ill —adj. (attrib. Except in sense 1) 1 (usu. Predic.) Not in good health; unwell. 2 wretched, unfavourable (ill fortune; ill luck). 3 harmful (ill effects). 4 hostile, unkind (ill feeling). 5 faulty, unskilful (ill management). 6 (of manners or conduct) improper. —adv. 1 badly, wrongly, imperfectly (ill-matched; ill-provided). 2 scarcely (can ill afford it). 3 unfavourably (spoke ill of them). —n.
Illegal adj. 1 not legal. 2 criminal. illegality n. (pl. -ies). Illegally adv.
Illegible adj. Not legible. illegibility n. Illegibly adv.
Illegitimate adj. 1 born of parents not married to each other. 2 unlawful. 3 improper. 4 wrongly inferred. illegitimacy n. Illegitimately adv.
Illfated adj. Destined to or bringing bad fortune.
Ill-favoured adj. Unattractive.
Ill-founded adj. (of an idea etc.) Baseless.
Ill-gotten adj. Gained unlawfully or wickedly.
Ill health n. Poor physical or mental condition.
Ill humour n. Irritability.
Illiberal adj. 1 intolerant, narrow-minded. 2 without liberal culture; vulgar. 3 stingy; mean. illiberality n. Illiberally adv.
Illicit adj. Unlawful, forbidden. illicitly adv.
Illiterate —adj. 1 unable to read. 2 uneducated. —n. Illiterate person. illiteracy n.
Illiterately adv.
Ill-mannered adj. Having bad manners; rude.
Ill-natured adj. Churlish, unkind.
Illness n. 1 disease. 2 being ill.
Illogical adj. Devoid of or contrary to logic. illogicality n. (pl. -ies). Illogically adv.
Ill-omened adj. Doomed.
Ill-tempered adj. Morose, irritable.
Ill-timed adj. Done or occurring at an inappropriate time.
Ill-treat v. Treat badly; abuse.
Illuminate v. (-ting) 1 light up; make bright. 2 decorate (buildings etc.) With
lights. 3 decorate (a manuscript etc.) With gold, colour, etc. 4 help to explain (a subject etc.). 5 enlighten spiritually or intellectually. 6 shed lustre on. illuminating adj. Illumination n. Illuminative adj. [latin lumen light]
Illumine v. (-ning) literary 1 light up; make bright. 2 enlighten.
Ill-use v. = *ill-treat.
Illusion n. 1 false impression or belief. 2 state of being deceived by appearances. 3 figment of the imagination. be under the illusion (foll. By that) believe mistakenly. illusive adj. Illusory adj. [latin illudo mock]
Illusionist n. Conjuror.
Illustrate v. (-ting) 1 a provide (a book etc.) With pictures. B elucidate by drawings, pictures, examples, etc. 2 serve as an example of. illustrator n. [latin lustro light up]
Illustration n. 1 drawing or picture in a book, magazine, etc. 2 explanatory example. 3 illustrating.
Illustrative adj. (often foll. By of) explanatory; exemplary.
Illustrious adj. Distinguished, renowned. [latin illustris: related to *illustrate]
Ill will n. Bad feeling; animosity.
Im-prefix assim. Form of in-1, in-2 before b, m, or p.
I’m contr. I am.
Image —n. 1 representation of an object, e.g. A statue. 2 reputation or persona of a person, company, etc. 3 appearance as seen in a mirror or through a lens. 4 mental picture or idea. 5 simile or metaphor. —v. (-ging) 1 make an image of; portray. 2 reflect, mirror. 3 describe or imagine vividly. be the image of be or look exactly like. [latin imago imagin-]
Imagery n. 1 figurative illustration, esp. In literature. 2 images; statuary, carving.
3 mental images collectively.
Imaginary adj. 1 existing only in the imagination. 2 math. Being the square root of a negative quantity. [latin: related to *image]
Imagination n. 1 mental faculty of forming images or concepts of objects or situations not existent or not directly experienced. 2 mental creativity or resourcefulness.
Imaginative adj. Having or showing imagination. imaginatively adv.
Imaginativeness n.
Imagine v. (-ning) 1 a form a mental image or concept of. B picture to oneself. 2 think of as probable (can’t imagine he’d be so stupid). 3 guess (can’t imagine what he is doing). 4 suppose (i imagine you’ll need help). imaginable adj. [latin imaginor]
Imago n. (pl. -s or imagines) fully developed stage of an insect, e.g. A butterfly. [latin: see *image]
Imam n. 1 leader of prayers in a mosque. 2 title of various muslim leaders. [arabic]
Imbalance n. 1 lack of balance. 2 disproportion.
Imbecile —n. 1 colloq. Stupid person. 2 person with a mental age of about five. —adj. Mentally weak; stupid, idiotic. imbecilic adj. Imbecility n. (pl. -ies). [french from latin]
Imbed var. Of *embed.
Imbibe v. (-bing) 1 drink (esp. Alcohol). 2 a assimilate (ideas etc.). B absorb (moisture etc.). 3 inhale (air etc.). [latin bibo drink]
Imbroglio n. (pl. -s) 1 confused or complicated situation. 2 confused heap. [italian: related to in-2, broil]
Imbue v. (-bues, -bued, -buing) (often foll. By with) 1 inspire or permeate (with feelings, opinions, or qualities). 2 saturate. 3 dye. [latin imbuo]
Imf abbr. International monetary fund.
Imitate v. (-ting) 1 follow the example of; copy. 2 mimic. 3 make a copy of. 4 be like. imitable adj. Imitator n. [latin imitor -tat-]
Imitation n. 1 imitating or being imitated. 2 copy. 3 counterfeit (often attrib.:
imitation leather).
Imitative adj. 1 (often foll. By of) imitating; following a model or example. 2 (of a word) reproducing a natural sound (e.g. Fizz), or otherwise suggestive (e.g. Blob).
Immaculate adj. 1 perfectly clean and tidy. 2 perfect (immaculate timing). 3 innocent, faultless. immaculately adv. Immaculateness n. [latin: related to *in-1, macula spot]
Immaculate conception n. Rc ch. Doctrine that the virgin mary was without original sin from conception.
Immanent adj. 1 (often foll. By in) naturally present, inherent. 2 (of god) omnipresent. immanence n. [latin: related to *in-2, maneo remain]
Immaterial adj. 1 unimportant; irrelevant. 2 not material; incorporeal.
Immeasurable adj. Not measurable; immense. immeasurably adv.
Immediate adj. 1 occurring or done at once (immediate reply). 2 nearest, next; direct (immediate vicinity; immediate future; immediate cause of death). 3 most pressing or urgent (our immediate concern). immediacy n. Immediateness n. [latin: related to in-1, mediate]
Immediately —adv. 1 without pause or delay. 2 without intermediary. —conj.
As soon as.
Immemorial adj. Ancient beyond memory or record (from time immemorial).
Immense adj. 1 extremely large; huge. 2 considerable (immense difference). immenseness n. Immensity n. [latin metior mens-measure]
Immensely adv. 1 colloq. Very much (enjoyed myself immensely). 2 to an immense degree (immensely rich).
Immerse v. (-sing) 1 a (often foll. By in) dip, plunge. B submerge (a person). 2 (often refl. Or in passive; often foll. By in) absorb or involve deeply. 3 (often
(often refl. Or in passive; often foll. By in) absorb or involve deeply. 3 (often foll. By in) bury, embed. [latin mergo mers-dip]
Immersion n. 1 immersing or being immersed. 2 baptism by total bodily immersion. 3 mental absorption.
Immersion heater n. Electric device immersed in a liquid to heat it, esp. In a hot-water tank.
Immigrant —n. Person who immigrates. —adj. 1 immigrating. 2 of immigrants.
Immigrate v. Come into a country and settle. immigration n. [related to in-2, migrate]
Imminent adj. Impending; about to happen (war is imminent). imminence n. Imminently adv. [latin immineo be impending]
Immiscible adj. (often foll. By with) not able to be mixed. immiscibility n.
Immobile adj. 1 not moving. 2 unable to move or be moved. immobility n.
Immobilize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make or keep immobile. 2 keep (a limb or patient) still for healing purposes. immobilization n.
Immolate v. (-ting) kill or offer as a sacrifice. immolation n. [latin, = sprinkle with meal]
Immoral adj. 1 not conforming to accepted morality; morally wrong. 2 sexually promiscuous or deviant. immorality n. (pl. -ies). Immorally adv.
Immortal —adj. 1 a living for ever; not mortal. B divine. 2 unfading. 3 famous for all time. —n. 1 a immortal being. B (in pl.) Gods of antiquity. 2 person, esp. An author, remembered long after death. immortality n. Immortalize v. (also – ise) (-zing or -sing). Immortally adv.
Immovable adj. (also immoveable) 1 not able to be moved. 2 steadfast, unyielding. 3 emotionless. 4 not subject to change (immovable law). 5 motionless. 6 (of property) consisting of land, houses, etc. immovability n. Immovably adv.
Immune adj. 1 a (often foll. By against, from, to) protected against infection through inoculation etc. B relating to immunity (immune system). 2 (foll. By from, to) exempt from or proof against a charge, duty, criticism, etc. [latin immunis exempt]
Immunity n. (pl. -ies) 1 ability of an organism to resist infection by means of
antibodies and white blood cells. 2 (often foll. By from) freedom or exemption.
Immunize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make immune, usu. By inoculation.
immunization n.
Immunodeficiency n. Reduction in normal immune defences.
Immunoglobulin n. Any of a group of related proteins functioning as antibodies.
Immunology n. The study of immunity. immunological adj. Immunologist n.
Immunotherapy n. Prevention or treatment of disease with substances that stimulate the immune response.
Immutable adj. Unchangeable. immutability n. Immutably adv.
Imp n. 1 mischievous child. 2 small devil or sprite. [old english, = young shoot]
Impact —n. 1 effect of sudden forcible contact between two solid bodies etc.; collision. 2 strong effect or impression. —v. 1 press or fix firmly. 2 (as impacted adj.) (of a tooth) wedged between another tooth and the jaw. 3 (often foll. By on) have an impact on. impaction n. [latin: related to *impinge]
Impair v. Damage, weaken. impairment n. [latin, = make worse, from pejor]
Impala n. (pl. Same or -s) small african antelope. [zulu]
Impale v. (-ling) transfix or pierce with a sharp stake etc. impalement n. [latin palus *pale2]
Impalpable adj. 1 not easily grasped by the mind; intangible. 2 imperceptible to the touch. 3 (of powder) very fine. impalpability n. Impalpably adv.
Impanel var. Of *empanel.
Impart v. (often foll. By to) 1 communicate (news etc.). 2 give a share of (a thing). [latin: related to *part]
Impartial adj. Treating all alike; unprejudiced, fair. impartiality n. Impartially adv.
Impassable adj. Not able to be traversed. impassability n. Impassableness n.
Impassably adv.
Impasse n. Deadlock. [french: related to *pass1]
Impassible adj. 1 impassive. 2 incapable of feeling, emotion, or injury. impassibility n. Impassibly adv. [latin patior pass-suffer]
Impassioned adj. Filled with passion; ardent. [italian impassionato: related to *passion]
Impassive adj. Incapable of or not showing emotion; serene. impassively adv.
Impassiveness n. Impassivity n.
Impasto n. Art technique of laying on paint thickly. [italian]
Impatiens n. Any of several plants including the busy lizzie. [latin: related to *impatient]
Impatient adj. 1 lacking or showing a lack of patience or tolerance. 2 restlessly eager. 3 (foll. By of) intolerant of. impatience n. Impatiently adv.
Impeach v. 1 charge with a crime against the state, esp. Treason. 2 us charge (a public official) with misconduct. 3 call in question, disparage. impeachable adj. Impeachment n. [french empecher from latin pedica fetter]
Impeccable adj. Faultless, exemplary. impeccability n. Impeccably adv. [related to *in-1, latin pecco sin]
Impecunious adj. Having little or no money. impecuniosity n. Impecuniousness n. [related to *pecuniary]
Impedance n. Total effective resistance of an electric circuit etc. To an alternating current. [from *impede]
Usage impedance is sometimes confused with impediment, which means ‘a hindrance’ or ‘a speech defect’.
Impede v. (-ding) obstruct; hinder. [latin impedio from pes ped-foot]
Impediment n. 1 hindrance or obstruction. 2 speech defect, e.g. A stammer. [latin: related to *impede]
Usage see note at impedance.
Impedimenta n.pl. 1 encumbrances. 2 baggage, esp. Of an army.
Impel v. (-ll-) 1 drive, force, or urge. 2 propel. [latin pello drive]
Impend v. (often foll. By over) 1 (of a danger, event, etc.) Be threatening or imminent. 2 hang. impending adj. [latin pendeo hang]
Impenetrable adj. 1 not able to be penetrated. 2 inscrutable. 3 inaccessible to ideas, influences, etc. impenetrability n. Impenetrableness n. Impenetrably adv.
Impenitent adj. Not sorry, unrepentant. impenitence n.
Imperative —adj. 1 urgent; obligatory. 2 commanding, peremptory. 3 gram. (of a mood) expressing a command (e.g. Come here!). —n. 1 gram. Imperative mood. 2 command. 3 essential or urgent thing. [latin impero command]
Imperceptible adj. 1 not perceptible. 2 very slight, gradual, or subtle.
imperceptibility n. Imperceptibly adv.
Imperfect —adj. 1 not perfect; faulty, incomplete. 2 gram. (of a tense) denoting action in progress but not completed (e.g. They were singing). —n. Imperfect tense. imperfectly adv.
Imperfection n. 1 state of being imperfect. 2 fault, blemish.
Imperial adj. 1 of or characteristic of an empire or similar sovereign state. 2 a of an emperor. B majestic, august; authoritative. 3 (of non-metric weights and measures) statutory in the uk, esp. Formerly (imperial gallon). imperially adv. [latin imperium dominion]
Imperialism n. 1 imperial rule or system. 2 usu. Derog. Policy of dominating other nations by acquiring dependencies etc. imperialist n. & adj. Imperialistic adj.
Imperil v. (-ll-; us -l-) endanger.
Imperious adj. Overbearing, domineering. imperiously adv. Imperiousness n.
Imperishable adj. Not able to perish, indestructible.
Impermanent adj. Not permanent. impermanence n. Impermanency n.
Impermeable adj. Not permeable, not allowing fluids to pass through.
impermeability n.
Impermissible adj. Not allowable.
Impersonal adj. 1 without personal reference; objective, impartial. 2 without human attributes; cold, unfeeling. 3 gram. A (of a verb) used esp. With it as a subject (e.g. It is snowing). B (of a pronoun) = *indefinite. impersonality n. Impersonally adv.
Impersonate v. (-ting) 1 pretend to be (another person), esp. As entertainment or fraud. 2 act (a character). impersonation n. Impersonator n. [from in-2, latin persona]
Impertinent adj. 1 insolent, disrespectful. 2 esp. Law irrelevant. impertinence n.
Impertinently adv.
Imperturbable adj. Not excitable; calm. imperturbability n. Imperturbably adv.
Impervious adj. (usu. Foll. By to) 1 impermeable. 2 not responsive (to argument etc.).
Impetigo n. Contagious skin infection forming pimples and sores. [latin impeto assail]
Impetuous adj. 1 acting or done rashly or with sudden energy. 2 moving forcefully or rapidly. impetuosity n. Impetuously adv. Impetuousness n. [latin: related to *impetus]
Impetus n. 1 force with which a body moves. 2 driving force or impulse. [latin impeto assail]
Impiety n. (pl. -ies) 1 lack of piety or reverence. 2 act etc. Showing this.
Impinge v. (-ging) (usu. Foll. By on, upon) 1 make an impact or effect. 2 encroach. impingement n. [latin pango pact-fix]
Impious adj. 1 not pious. 2 wicked, profane.
Impish adj. Of or like an imp; mischievous. impishly adv. Impishness n.
Implacable adj. Unable to be appeased. implacability n. Implacably adv.
Implant —v. 1 (often foll. By in) insert or fix. 2 (often foll. By in) instil (an idea etc.) In a person’s mind. 3 plant. 4 a insert (tissue etc.) In a living body. B (in passive) (of a fertilized ovum) become attached to the wall of the womb. —n. Thing implanted, esp. A piece of tissue. implantation n. [latin: related to *plant]
Implausible adj. Not plausible. implausibility n. Implausibly adv.
Implement —n. Tool, instrument, utensil. —v. Put (a decision, plan, contract, etc.) Into effect. implementation n. [latin impleo fulfil]
Implicate v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By in) show (a person) to be involved (in a crime etc.). 2 imply. [latin plico fold]
Implication n. 1 thing implied. 2 implicating or implying.
Implicit adj. 1 implied though not plainly expressed. 2 absolute, unquestioning (implicit belief). implicitly adv. [latin: related to *implicate]
Implode v. (-ding) (cause to) burst inwards. implosion n. [from *in-2: cf. *explode]
Implore v. (-ring) 1 (often foll. By to + infin.) Entreat (a person). 2 beg earnestly for. [latin ploro weep]
Imply v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (often foll. By that) strongly suggest or insinuate without directly stating (what are you implying?). 2 signify, esp. As a consequence (silence implies guilt). [latin: related to *implicate]
Imponderable —adj. 1 not able to be estimated. 2 very light; weightless. —n.
(usu. In pl.) Imponderable thing. imponderability n. Imponderably adv.
Import —v. 1 bring in (esp. Foreign goods or services) to a country. 2 imply, indicate, signify. —n. 1 (esp. In pl.) Imported article or service. 2 importing. 3 what is implied; meaning. 4 importance. importation n. Importer n. [latin importo carry in]
Important adj. 1 (often foll. By to) of great effect or consequence; momentous. 2 (of a person) having high rank or authority. 3 pompous. importance n. Importantly adv. [latin importo carry in, signify]
Importunate adj. Making persistent or pressing requests. importunity n. [latin importunus inconvenient]
Importune v. (-ning) 1 pester (a person) with requests. 2 solicit as a prostitute.
Impose v. (-sing) 1 (often foll. By on, upon) lay (a tax, duty, charge, or obligation) on. 2 enforce compliance with. 3 also refl. (foll. By on, upon, or absol.) Take advantage of (will not impose on you any longer). 4 (often foll. By on, upon) inflict (a thing) on. [latin impono]
Imposing adj. Impressive, formidable, esp. In appearance.
Imposition n. 1 imposing or being imposed. 2 unfair demand or burden. 3 tax, duty.
Impossible adj. 1 not possible. 2 colloq. Not easy, convenient, or believable. 3 colloq. (esp. Of a person) outrageous, intolerable. impossibility n. (pl. -ies). Impossibly adv.
Impost1 n. Tax, duty, or tribute. [latin impono impost-impose]
Impost2 n. Upper course of a pillar, carrying an arch.
Impostor n. (also imposter) 1 person who assumes a false character or pretends to be someone else. 2 swindler.
Imposture n. Fraudulent deception.
Impotent adj. 1 powerless, ineffective. 2 (of a male) unable to achieve an
Impotent adj. 1 powerless, ineffective. 2 (of a male) unable to achieve an erection or orgasm. impotence n.
Impound v. 1 confiscate. 2 take legal possession of. 3 shut up (animals) in a pound.
Impoverish v. Make poor. impoverishment n. [french: related to *poverty]
Impracticable adj. Not practicable. impracticability n. Impracticably adv.
Impractical adj. 1 not practical. 2 esp. Us not practicable. impracticality n.
Imprecation n. Formal oath, curse. [latin precor pray]
Imprecise adj. Not precise. imprecisely adv. Impreciseness n. Imprecision n.
Impregnable adj. Strong enough to be secure against attack. impregnability n. Impregnably adv. [french: related to *in-1, latin prehendo take]
Impregnate v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By with) fill or saturate. 2 (often foll. By with) imbue (with feelings etc.). 3 a make (a female) pregnant. B fertilize (an ovum). impregnation n. [latin: related to *pregnant]
Impresario n. (pl. -s) organizer of public entertainment, esp. A theatrical etc. Manager. [italian]
Impress —v. 1 (often foll. By with) a affect or influence deeply. B affect (a person) favourably (was most impressed). 2 (often foll. By on) emphasize (an idea etc.) (must impress on you the need to be prompt). 3 a (often foll. By on) imprint or make (a mark). B mark (a thing) with a stamp, seal, etc. —n. 1 mark made by a seal, stamp, etc. 2 characteristic mark or quality. impressible adj. [french: related to *press1]
Impression n. 1 effect (esp. On the mind or feelings). 2 notion or belief (esp. Vague or mistaken). 3 imitation of a person or sound, esp. As entertainment. 4 a impressing. B mark impressed.
Impressionable adj. Easily influenced. impressionability n. Impressionably adv.
Impressionism n. 1 style or movement in art concerned with conveying the effect of natural light on objects. 2 style of music or writing seeking to convey esp. Fleeting feelings or experience. impressionist n. Impressionistic adj.
Impressive adj. Arousing respect, approval, or admiration. impressively adv.
Impressiveness n.
Imprimatur n. 1 rc ch. Licence to print (a religious book etc.). 2 official approval. [latin, = let it be printed]
Usage imprimatur is sometimes confused with sense 2 of imprint.
Imprint —v. 1 (often foll. By on) impress firmly, esp. On the mind. 2 a (often foll. By on) make a stamp or impression of (a figure etc.) On a thing. B make an impression on (a thing) with a stamp etc. —n. 1 impression, stamp. 2 printer’s or publisher’s name etc. Printed in a book.
Usage see note at imprimatur.
Imprison v. 1 put in prison. 2 confine. imprisonment n.
Improbable adj. 1 unlikely. 2 difficult to believe. improbability n. Improbably adv.
Improbity n. (pl. -ies) 1 wickedness; dishonesty. 2 wicked or dishonest act.
Impromptu —adj. & adv. Extempore, unrehearsed. —n. (pl. -s) 1 extempore performance or speech. 2 short, usu. Solo, instrumental composition, often improvisatory in style. [french from latin in promptu in readiness]
Improper fraction n. Fraction in which the numerator is greater than or equal to the denominator.
Impropriety n. (pl. -ies) 1 lack of propriety; indecency. 2 instance of this. 3
Impropriety n. (pl. -ies) 1 lack of propriety; indecency. 2 instance of this. 3 incorrectness.
Improve v. (-ving) 1 a make or become better. B (foll. By on, upon) produce something better than. 2 (as improving adj.) Giving moral benefit (improving literature). improvable adj. Improvement n. [anglo-french emprower from french prou profit]
Improvise v. (-sing) (also absol.) 1 compose or perform (music, verse, etc.) Extempore. 2 provide or construct from materials not intended for the purpose. improvisation n. Improvisational adj. Improvisatory adj. [latin improvisus unforeseen]
Imprudent adj. Unwise, indiscreet. imprudence n. Imprudently adv.
Impudent adj. Impertinent. impudence n. Impudently adv. [latin pudeo be ashamed]
Impugn v. Challenge or call in question. impugnment n. [latin pugno fight]
Impulse n. 1 sudden urge (felt an impulse to laugh). 2 tendency to follow such urges (man of impulse). 3 impelling; a push. 4 impetus. 5 physics a large temporary force producing a change of momentum (e.g. A hammer-blow). B change of momentum so produced. 6 wave of excitation in a nerve. [latin:
related to *pulse1]
related to *pulse1]
Impulse buying n. Purchasing goods on impulse.
Impulsion n. 1 impelling. 2 mental impulse. 3 impetus.
Impulsive adj. 1 tending to act on impulse. 2 done on impulse. 3 tending to impel. impulsively adv. Impulsiveness n.
Impunity n. Exemption from punishment, bad consequences, etc. with impunity without punishment etc. [latin poena penalty]
Impure adj. 1 adulterated. 2 dirty. 3 unchaste.
Impurity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being impure. 2 impure thing or part.
Impute v. (-ting) (foll. By to) attribute (a fault etc.) To. imputation n. [latin puto reckon]
In symb. Indium.
In —prep. 1 expressing inclusion or position within limits of space, time, circumstance, etc. (in england; in bed; in 1989; in the rain). 2 a within (a certain
time) (finished it in two hours).
In. Abbr. Inch(es).
In-1 prefix (also il-, im-, ir-) added to: 1 adjectives, meaning ‘not’ (inedible; insane). 2 nouns, meaning ‘without, lacking’ (inaction). [latin]
In-2 prefix (also il-, im-, ir-) in, on, into, towards, within (induce; influx; insight; intrude). [from *in, or from latin in (prep.)]
Inability n. 1 being unable. 2 lack of power or means.
In absentia adv. In (his, her, or their) absence. [latin]
Inaccessible adj. 1 not accessible. 2 (of a person) unapproachable. inaccessibility n.
Inaccurate adj. Not accurate. inaccuracy n. (pl. -ies). Inaccurately adv.
Inaction n. Lack of action.
Inactive adj. 1 not active. 2 not operating. 3 indolent. inactivity n.
Inadequate adj. 1 not adequate; insufficient. 2 (of a person) incompetent; weak.
Inadequate adj. 1 not adequate; insufficient. 2 (of a person) incompetent; weak.
inadequacy n. (pl. -ies). Inadequately adv.
Inadmissible adj. That cannot be admitted or allowed. inadmissibility n.
Inalienable adj. That cannot be transferred to another or taken away (inalienable rights).
Inamorato n. (fem. Inamorata) (pl. -s) literary lover. [italian inamorato: related to *in-2, latin amor love]
Inane adj. 1 silly, senseless. 2 empty, void. inanely adv. Inanity n. (pl. -ies). [latin inanis]
Inanimate adj. 1 not endowed with, or deprived of, animal life (an inanimate object). 2 spiritless, dull.
Inapplicable adj. (often foll. By to) not applicable or relevant. inapplicability n.
Inapposite adj. Not apposite.
Inappropriate adj. Not appropriate. inappropriately adv. Inappropriateness n.
Inapt adj. 1 not apt or suitable. 2 unskilful. inaptitude n.
Inarticulate adj. 1 unable to express oneself clearly. 2 (of speech) not articulate; indistinct. 3 dumb. 4 esp. Anat. Not jointed. inarticulately adv.
Inasmuch adv. (foll. By as) 1 since, because. 2 to the extent that. [from in as much]
Inattentive adj. 1 not paying attention. 2 neglecting to show courtesy. inattention n. Inattentively adv.
Inaudible adj. Unable to be heard. inaudibly adv.
Inaugural —adj. Of or for an inauguration. —n. Inaugural speech, lecture, etc. [french from latin auguro take omens: related to *augur]
Inaugurate v. (-ting) 1 admit formally to office. 2 begin (an undertaking) or initiate the public use of (a building etc.), with a ceremony. 3 begin, introduce. inauguration n. Inaugurator n.
Inauspicious adj. 1 ill-omened, not favourable. 2 unlucky. inauspiciously adv.
Inauspicious adj. 1 ill-omened, not favourable. 2 unlucky. inauspiciously adv.
Inauspiciousness n.
In-between attrib. Adj. Colloq. Intermediate.
Inboard —adv. Within the sides or towards the centre of a ship, aircraft, or vehicle. —adj. Situated inboard.
Inborn adj. Existing from birth; natural, innate.
Inbred adj. 1 inborn. 2 produced by inbreeding.
Inbreeding n. Breeding from closely related animals or persons. inbreed v. (past and past part. -bred).
Inbuilt adj. Built-in.
Inc. Abbr. Us incorporated.
Inca n. Member of a people of peru before the spanish conquest. [quechua, = lord]
Incalculable adj. 1 too great for calculation. 2 not calculable beforehand. 3 uncertain, unpredictable. incalculability n. Incalculably adv.
Incandesce v. (-cing) (cause to) glow with heat.
Incandescent adj. 1 glowing with heat. 2 shining. 3 (of artificial light) produced by a glowing filament etc. incandescence n. [latin candeo be white]
Incapable adj. 1 a not capable. B too honest, kind, etc., to do something (incapable of hurting anyone). 2 not capable of rational conduct (drunk and incapable). incapability n. Incapably adv.
Incapacitate v. (-ting) make incapable or unfit.
Incapacity n. 1 inability; lack of power. 2 legal disqualification.
Incarcerate v. (-ting) imprison. incarceration n. [medieval latin carcer prison]
Incarnate —adj. Embodied in flesh, esp. In human form (is the devil incarnate). —v. (-ting) 1 embody in flesh. 2 put (an idea etc.) Into concrete form. 3 be the living embodiment of (a quality). [latin incarnor be made flesh: related to *carnage]
Incarnation n. 1 a embodiment in (esp. Human) flesh. B (the incarnation) the
Incarnation n. 1 a embodiment in (esp. Human) flesh. B (the incarnation) the embodiment of god in christ. 2 (often foll. By of) living type (of a quality etc.).
Incautious adj. Heedless, rash. incautiously adv.
Incendiary —adj. 1 (of a bomb) designed to cause fires. 2 a of arson. B guilty of arson. 3 inflammatory. —n. (pl. -ies) 1 incendiary bomb. 2 arsonist. incendiarism n. [latin incendo -cens-set fire to]
Incense1 n. 1 gum or spice producing a sweet smell when burned. 2 smoke of this, esp. In religious ceremonial. [church latin incensum]
Incense2 v. (-sing) make angry. [latin: related to *incendiary]
Incense2 v. (-sing) make angry. [latin: related to *incendiary]
Incentive —n. 1 motive or incitement. 2 payment or concession encouraging effort in work. —attrib. Adj. Serving to motivate or incite (incentive scheme). [latin incentivus that sets the tune]
Inception n. Beginning. [latin incipio -cept-begin]
Inceptive adj. 1 a beginning. B initial. 2 (of a verb) denoting the beginning of an action.
Incest n. Sexual intercourse between persons too closely related to marry. [latin castus chaste]
Incestuous adj. 1 of or guilty of incest. 2 having relationships restricted to a particular group or organization. incestuously adv.
Inch —n. 1 linear measure of 1/12 of a foot (2.54 cm). 2 (as a unit of rainfall) 1 inch depth of water. 3 (as a unit of map-scale) so many inches representing 1 mile. 4 small amount (usu. With neg.: would not yield an inch). —v. Move gradually. every inch entirely (looked every inch a queen). Within an inch of almost to the point of. [old english from latin uncia *ounce]
Inchoate adj. 1 just begun. 2 undeveloped. inchoation n. [latin inchoo, incoho begin]
Usage inchoate is sometimes used incorrectly to mean ‘chaotic’ or ‘incoherent’.
Incidence n. 1 (often foll. By of) range, scope, extent, or rate of occurrence or influence (of disease, tax, etc.). 2 falling of a line, ray, particles, etc., on a surface. 3 coming into contact with a thing. [latin cado fall]
Incident —n. 1 occurrence, esp. A minor one. 2 public disturbance (the march took place without incident). 3 clash of armed forces (frontier incident). 4 distinct piece of action in a play, film, etc. —adj. 1 (often foll. By to) apt to occur; naturally attaching. 2 (often foll. By on, upon) (of light etc.) Falling. [latin
cado fall]
Incidental —adj. (often foll. By to) 1 small and relatively unimportant, minor; supplementary. 2 not essential. —n. (usu. In pl.) Minor detail, expense, event, etc.
Incidentally adv. 1 by the way. 2 in an incidental way.
Incidental music n. Background music in a film, broadcast, etc.
Incinerate v. (-ting) burn to ashes. incineration n. [medieval latin cinis ciner-ashes]
Incinerator n. Furnace or device for incineration.
Incipient adj. 1 beginning. 2 in an early stage. [latin incipio begin]
Incise v. (-sing) 1 make a cut in. 2 engrave. [latin caedo cut]
Incision n. 1 cutting, esp. By a surgeon. 2 cut made in this way.
Incisive adj. 1 sharp. 2 clear and effective.
Incisor n. Cutting-tooth, esp. At the front of the mouth.
Incite v. (-ting) (often foll. By to) urge or stir up. incitement n. [latin cito rouse]
Incivility n. (pl. -ies) 1 rudeness. 2 impolite act.
Inclement adj. (of the weather) severe or stormy. inclemency n.
Inclination n. 1 disposition or propensity. 2 liking, affection. 3 slope, slant. 4 angle between lines. 5 dip of a magnetic needle. 6 slow nod of the head. [latin: related to *incline]
Incline —v. (-ning) 1 (usu. In passive) a dispose or influence (am inclined to think so; does not incline me to agree; don’t feel inclined). B have a specified tendency (the door is inclined to bang). 2 a be disposed (i incline to think so). B (often foll. By to, towards) tend. 3 (cause to) lean, usu. From the vertical; slope. 4 bend forward or downward. —n. Slope. incline one’s ear listen favourably. [latin clino bend]
Inclined plane n. Sloping plane used e.g. To reduce work in raising a load.
Include v. (-ding) 1 comprise or reckon in as part of a whole. 2 (as including prep.) If we include (six, including me). 3 put in a certain category etc. inclusion n. [latin includo -clus-enclose, from claudo shut]
Inclusive adj. 1 (often foll. By of) including. 2 including the limits stated (pages 7 to 26 inclusive). 3 including all or much (inclusive terms). inclusively adv. Inclusiveness n.
Incognito —predic. Adj. & adv. With one’s name or identity kept secret. —n. (pl. -s) 1 person who is incognito. 2 pretended identity. [italian, = unknown: related to in-1, cognition]
Incognizant adj. Formal unaware. incognizance n.
Incoherent adj. 1 unintelligible. 2 lacking logic or consistency; not clear.
incoherence n. Incoherently adv.
Incombustible adj. That cannot be burnt.
Income n. Money received, esp. Periodically or in a year, from one’s work, investments, etc. [from in, come]
Income tax n. Tax levied on income.
Incoming —adj. 1 coming in (incoming telephone calls). 2 succeeding another (incoming tenant). —n. (usu. In pl.) Revenue, income.
Incommensurable adj. (often foll. By with) 1 not commensurable. 2 having no common factor, integral or fractional. incommensurability n.
Incommensurate adj. 1 (often foll. By with, to) out of proportion; inadequate. 2 = *incommensurable.
Incommode v. (-ding) formal 1 inconvenience. 2 trouble, annoy.
Incommodious adj. Formal too small for comfort; inconvenient.
Incommunicable adj. That cannot be communicated.
Incommunicado adj. 1 without means of communication. 2 (of a prisoner) in solitary confinement. [spanish incomunicado]
Incommunicative adj. Uncommunicative.
Incomparable adj. Without an equal; matchless. incomparability n. Incomparably adv.
Incompatible adj. Not compatible. incompatibility n.
Incompetent —adj. Lacking the necessary skill. —n. Incompetent person.
incompetence n.
Incomplete adj. Not complete.
Incomprehensible adj. That cannot be understood.
Incomprehension n. Failure to understand.
Inconceivable adj. 1 that cannot be imagined. 2 colloq. Most unlikely.
inconceivably adv.
Inconclusive adj. (of an argument, evidence, or action) not decisive or convincing.
Incongruous adj. 1 out of place; absurd. 2 (often foll. By with) out of keeping.
Inconvenience —n. 1 lack of ease or comfort; trouble. 2 cause or instance of this. —v. (-cing) cause inconvenience to.
Inconvenient adj. Causing trouble, difficulty, or discomfort; awkward.
inconveniently adv.
Incorporate —v. (-ting) 1 include as a part or ingredient (incorporated all the latest features). 2 (often foll. By in, with) unite (in one body). 3 admit as a member of a company etc. 4 (esp. As incorporated adj.) Form into a legal corporation. —adj. Incorporated. incorporation n. [latin corpus body]
Incorporeal adj. Without physical or material existence. incorporeally adv.
Incorporeity n.
Incorrect adj. 1 not correct or true. 2 improper, unsuitable. incorrectly adv.
Incorrigible adj. (of a person or habit) that cannot be corrected or improved.
incorrigibility n. Incorrigibly adv.
Incorruptible adj. 1 that cannot be corrupted, esp. By bribery. 2 that cannot decay. incorruptibility n. Incorruptibly adv.
Increase —v. (-sing) make or become greater or more numerous. —n. 1 growth, enlargement. 2 (of people, animals, or plants) multiplication. 3 amount or extent of an increase. on the increase increasing. [latin cresco grow]
Increasingly adv. More and more.
Incredible adj. 1 that cannot be believed. 2 colloq. Amazing, extremely good.
incredibility n. Incredibly adv.
Incredulous adj. Unwilling to believe; showing disbelief. incredulity n.
Incredulously adv.
Increment n. Increase or added amount, esp. On a fixed salary scale. incremental adj. [latin cresco grow]
Incriminate v. (-ting) 1 make (a person) appear to be guilty. 2 charge with a crime. incrimination n. Incriminatory adj. [latin: related to *crime]
Incrustation n. 1 encrusting. 2 crust or hard coating. 3 deposit on a surface. [latin: related to *crust]
Incubate v. (-ting) 1 hatch (eggs) by sitting on them or by artificial heat. 2 cause (micro-organisms) to develop. 3 develop slowly. [latin cubo lie]
Incubation n. 1 incubating. 2 period between infection and the appearance of the first symptoms.
Incubator n. Apparatus providing artificial warmth for hatching eggs, rearing premature babies, or developing micro-organisms.
Incubus n. (pl. -buses or -bi) 1 demon formerly believed to have sexual intercourse with sleeping women. 2 nightmare. 3 oppressive person or thing. [latin: as *incubate]
Inculcate v. (-ting) (often foll. By upon, in) urge or impress (a habit or idea) persistently. inculcation n. [latin calco tread]
Incumbency n. (pl. -ies) office or tenure of an incumbent.
Incumbent —adj. 1 resting as a duty (it is incumbent on you to do it). 2 (often foll. By on) lying, pressing. 3 currently holding office (the incumbent president). —n. Holder of an office or post, esp. A benefice. [latin incumbo lie upon]
Incunabulum n. (pl. -la) 1 early printed book, esp. From before 1501. 2 (in pl.) Early stages of a thing. [latin, (in pl.) = swaddling-clothes]
Incur v. (-rr-) bring on oneself (danger, blame, loss, etc.). [latin curro run]
Incurable —adj. That cannot be cured. —n. Incurable person. incurability n.
Incurably adv.
Incurious adj. Lacking curiosity.
Incursion n. Invasion or attack, esp. Sudden or brief. incursive adj. [latin: related to *incur]
Incurve v. (-ving) 1 bend into a curve. 2 (as incurved adj.) Curved inwards.
incurvation n.
incurvation n.
Indebted adj. (usu. Foll. By to) owing gratitude or money. indebtedness n. [french endetté: related to *debt]
Indecent adj. 1 offending against decency. 2 unbecoming; unsuitable (indecent haste). indecency n. (pl. -ies). Indecently adv.
Indecent assault n. Sexual attack not involving rape.
Indecent exposure n. Exposing one’s genitals in public.
Indecipherable adj. That cannot be deciphered.
Indecision n. Inability to decide; hesitation.
Indecisive adj. 1 (of a person) not decisive; hesitating. 2 not conclusive (an indecisive battle). indecisively adv. Indecisiveness n.
Indeclinable adj. Gram. That cannot be declined; having no inflections.
Indecorous adj. 1 improper, undignified. 2 in bad taste. indecorously adv.
Indeed —adv. 1 in truth; really. 2 admittedly. —int. Expressing irony, incredulity, etc.
Indefeasible adj. Literary (esp. Of a claim, rights, etc.) That cannot be forfeited or annulled. indefeasibly adv.
Indefensible adj. That cannot be defended or justified. indefensibility n.
Indefensibly adv.
Indefinable adj. That cannot be defined; mysterious. indefinably adv.
Indefinite adj. 1 vague, undefined. 2 unlimited. 3 (of adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns) not determining the person etc. Referred to (e.g. Some, someone, anyhow).
Indefinite article n. Word (e.g. A, an in english) preceding a noun and implying ‘any of several’.
Indefinitely adv. 1 for an unlimited time (was postponed indefinitely). 2 in an indefinite manner.
Indelible adj. That cannot be rubbed out or removed. indelibly adv. [latin deleo efface]
Indelicate adj. 1 coarse, unrefined. 2 tactless. indelicacy n. (pl. -ies). Indelicately adv.
Indemnify v. (-ies, -ied) 1 (often foll. By from, against) secure (a person) in respect of harm, a loss, etc. 2 (often foll. By for) exempt from a penalty. 3 compensate. indemnification n. [latin indemnis free from loss]
Indemnity n. (pl. -ies) 1 a compensation for damage. B sum exacted by a victor in war. 2 security against loss. 3 exemption from penalties.
Indent —v. 1 make or impress marks, notches, dents, etc. In. 2 start (a line of print or writing) further from the margin than others. 3 draw up (a legal document) in duplicate. 4 a (often foll. By on, upon a person, for a thing) make a requisition. B order (goods) by requisition. —n. 1 a order (esp. From abroad) for goods. B official requisition for stores. 2 indented line. 3 indentation. 4 indenture. [latin dens dentis tooth]
Indentation n. 1 indenting or being indented. 2 notch.
Indention n. 1 indenting, esp. In printing. 2 notch.
Indenture —n. 1 (usu. In pl.) Sealed agreement or contract. 2 formal list, certificate, etc. —v. (-ring) hist. Bind by indentures, esp. As an apprentice. [anglo-french: related to *indent]
Independent —adj. 1 a (often foll. By of) not depending on authority or control. B self-governing. 2 a not depending on another person for one’s opinions or livelihood. B (of income or resources) making it unnecessary to earn one’s living. 3 unwilling to be under an obligation to others. 4 acting independently of any political party. 5 not depending on something else for its validity etc. (independent proof). 6 (of broadcasting, a school, etc.) Not supported by public funds. —n. Person who is politically independent. independence n. Independently adv.
In-depth adj. Thorough.
Indescribable adj. 1 too good or bad etc. To be described. 2 that cannot be described. indescribably adv.
Indestructible adj. That cannot be destroyed. indestructibility n. Indestructibly adv.
Indeterminable adj. That cannot be ascertained or settled. indeterminably adv.
Indeterminate adj. 1 not fixed in extent, character, etc. 2 left doubtful; vague. 3 math. Of no fixed value. indeterminacy n.
Indeterminate vowel n. Vowel heard in ‘a moment ago’.
Index —n. (pl. Indexes or indices) 1 alphabetical list of subjects etc. With references, usu. At the end of a book. 2 = *card index. 3 measure of prices or
wages compared with a previous month, year, etc. (retail price index). 4 math. Exponent of a number. 5 pointer, sign, or indicator. —v. 1 provide (a book etc.) With an index. 2 enter in an index. 3 relate (wages etc.) To a price index. indexation n. (in sense 3 of v.). [latin]
Index finger n. Forefinger.
Index-linked adj. Related to the value of a price index.
Indiaman n. (pl. -men) hist. Ship engaged in trade with india or the east indies.
Indian —n. 1 a native or national of india. B person of indian descent. 2 (in full american indian) a original inhabitant of america. B any of the languages of the american indians. —adj. 1 of india or the subcontinent comprising india, pakistan, and bangladesh. 2 of the original peoples of america.
Indian corn n. Maize.
Indian elephant n. The elephant of india, smaller than the african elephant.
Indian file n. = *single file.
Indian hemp see *hemp 1.
Indian ink n. 1 black pigment. 2 ink made from this.
Indian summer n. 1 dry warm weather in late autumn. 2 late tranquil period of life.
Indiarubber n. Rubber for erasing pencil marks etc.
Indicate v. (-ting) (often foll. By that) 1 point out; make known. 2 be a sign of; show the presence of. 3 call for; require (stronger measures are indicated). 4 state briefly. 5 give as a reading or measurement. 6 point by hand; use a vehicle’s indicator (failed to indicate). indication n. [latin dico make known]
Indicative —adj. 1 (foll. By of) suggestive; serving as an indication. 2 gram. (of a mood) stating a fact. —n. Gram. 1 indicative mood. 2 verb in this mood.
Indicator n. 1 flashing light on a vehicle showing the direction in which it is about to turn. 2 person or thing that indicates. 3 device indicating the condition of a machine etc. 4 recording instrument. 5 board giving information, esp. Times of trains etc.
Indicatory adj. (often foll. By of) indicative.
Indices pl. Of *index.
Indict v. Accuse formally by legal process. [anglo-french: related to in-2, dictate]
Indictable adj. 1 (of an offence) making the doer liable to be charged with a crime. 2 (of a person) so liable.
Indictment n. 1 a indicting, accusation. B document containing this. 2 thing that serves to condemn or censure (an indictment of society).
Indie colloq. —adj. (of a pop group or record label) independent, not belonging to one of the major companies. —n. Such a group or label. [abbreviation of *independent]
Indifference n. 1 lack of interest or attention. 2 unimportance.
Indifferent adj. 1 (foll. By to) showing indifference or lack of interest. 2 neither good nor bad. 3 of poor quality or ability. indifferently adv.
Indigenous adj. (often foll. By to) native or belonging naturally to a place. [latin:
from a root gen-be born]
Indigent adj. Formal needy, poor. indigence n. [latin egeo need]
Indigestible adj. 1 difficult or impossible to digest. 2 too complex to read or understand. indigestibility n.
Indigestion n. 1 difficulty in digesting food. 2 pain caused by this.
Indignity n. (pl. -ies) 1 humiliating treatment or quality. 2 insult.
Indigo n. (pl. -s) 1 colour between blue and violet in the spectrum. 2 dye of this colour. [greek indikon indian dye]
Indirect adj. 1 not going straight to the point. 2 (of a route etc.) Not straight. 3 a not directly sought (indirect result). B not primary (indirect cause). indirectly adv.
Indirect object n. Gram. Person or thing affected by a verbal action but not primarily acted on (e.g. Him in give him the book).
Indirect question n. Gram. Question in indirect speech.
Indirect speech n. = *reported speech.
Indirect tax n. Tax on goods and services, not on income or profits.
Indiscernible adj. That cannot be discerned.
Indiscipline n. Lack of discipline.
Indiscreet adj. 1 not discreet. 2 injudicious, unwary. indiscreetly adv.
Indiscretion n. Indiscreet conduct or action.
Indiscriminate adj. Making no distinctions; done or acting at random (indiscriminate shooting). indiscriminately adv.
Indispensable adj. That cannot be dispensed with; necessary. indispensability n.
Indispensably adv.
Indisposed adj. 1 slightly unwell. 2 averse or unwilling. indisposition n.
Indisputable adj. That cannot be disputed. indisputably adv.
Indissoluble adj. 1 that cannot be dissolved or broken up. 2 firm and lasting.
indissolubly adv.
Indistinct adj. 1 not distinct. 2 confused, obscure. indistinctly adv.
Indistinct adj. 1 not distinct. 2 confused, obscure. indistinctly adv.
Indistinguishable adj. (often foll. By from) not distinguishable.
Indite v. (-ting) formal or joc. 1 put (a speech etc.) Into words. 2 write (a letter etc.). [french: related to *indict]
Indium n. Soft silvery-white metallic element occurring in zinc ores. [latin indicum *indigo]
Individual —adj. 1 of, for, or characteristic of, a single person etc. 2 a single (individual words). B particular; not general. 3 having a distinct character. 4 designed for use by one person. —n. 1 single member of a class. 2 single human being. 3 colloq. Person (a tiresome individual). 4 distinctive person. [medieval latin: related to *divide]
Individualism n. 1 social theory favouring free action by individuals. 2 being independent or different. individualist n. Individualistic adj.
Individuality n. 1 individual character, esp. When strongly marked. 2 separate existence.
Individualize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 give an individual character to. 2 (esp. As individualized adj.) Personalize (individualized notepaper).
Individually adv. 1 one by one. 2 personally. 3 distinctively.
Indivisible adj. Not divisible.
Indo-comb. Form indian; indian and.
Indoctrinate v. (-ting) teach to accept a particular belief uncritically.
indoctrination n.
Indo-european —adj. 1 of the family of languages spoken over most of europe and asia as far as n. India. 2 of the hypothetical parent language of this family. —n. 1 indo-european family of languages. 2 hypothetical parent language of these.
Indolent adj. Lazy; averse to exertion. indolence n. Indolently adv. [latin doleo suffer pain]
Indomitable adj. 1 unconquerable. 2 unyielding. indomitably adv. [latin: related to *in-1, domito tame]
Indoor adj. Of, done, or for use in a building or under cover.
Indoors adv. Into or in a building.
Indorse var. Of *endorse.
Indorse var. Of *endorse.
Indrawn adj. (of breath etc.) Drawn in.
Indubitable adj. That cannot be doubted. indubitably adv. [latin dubito doubt]
Induce v. (-cing) 1 prevail on; persuade. 2 bring about. 3 a bring on (labour) artificially. B bring on labour in (a mother). C speed up the birth of (a baby). 4 produce (a current) by induction. 5 infer; deduce. inducible adj. [latin duco duct-lead]
Inducement n. Attractive offer; incentive; bribe.
Induct v. (often foll. By to, into) 1 introduce into office, install (into a benefice etc.). 2 archaic lead (to a seat, into a room, etc.); install. [related to *induce]
Inductance n. Property of an electric circuit generating an electromotive force by virtue of the current flowing through it.
Induction n. 1 act of inducting or inducing. 2 act of bringing on (esp. Labour) by artificial means. 3 inference of a general law from particular instances. 4 (often attrib.) Formal introduction to a new job etc. (induction course). 5 electr. A production of an electric or magnetic state by the proximity (without contact) of an electrified or magnetized body. B production of an electric current by a change of magnetic field. 6 drawing of the fuel mixture into the cylinders of an internal-combustion engine.
Inductive adj. 1 (of reasoning etc.) Based on induction. 2 of electric or magnetic induction.
Inductor n. Component (in an electric circuit) having inductance.
Indue var. Of *endue.
Indulge v. (-ging) 1 (often foll. By in) take pleasure freely. 2 yield freely to (a desire etc.). 3 (also refl.) Gratify the wishes of. 4 colloq. Take alcoholic liquor. [latin indulgeo give free rein to]
Indulgence n. 1 indulging or being indulgent. 2 thing indulged in. 3 rc ch.
Remission of punishment still due after absolution. 4 privilege granted.
Indulgent adj. 1 lenient; ready to overlook faults etc. 2 indulging. indulgently adv.
Industrial adj. 1 of, engaged in, or for use in or serving the needs of industries. 2 (of a nation etc.) Having developed industries. industrially adv.
Industrial action n. Strike or other disruptive action by workers as a protest.
Industrial estate n. Area of land zoned for factories etc.
Industrialism n. System in which manufacturing industries are prevalent.
Industrialist n. Owner or manager in industry.
Industrialize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) make (a nation etc.) Industrial.
industrialization n.
Industrial relations n.pl. Relations between management and workers.
Industrious adj. Hard-working. industriously adv.
Industry n. (pl. -ies) 1 a branch of production or manufacture; commercial enterprise. B these collectively. 2 concerted activity (a hive of industry). 3 diligence. [latin industria]
-ine suffix 1 forming adjectives, meaning ‘belonging to, of the nature of’ (alpine; asinine). 2 forming feminine nouns (heroine). [latin -inus]
Inebriate —v. (-ting) 1 make drunk. 2 excite. —adj. Drunken. —n. Drunkard. inebriation n. Inebriety n. [latin ebrius drunk]
Inedible adj. Not suitable for eating.
Ineducable adj. Incapable of being educated.
Ineducable adj. Incapable of being educated.
Ineffable adj. 1 too great for description in words. 2 that must not be uttered. ineffability n. Ineffably adv. [latin effor speak out]
Ineffective adj. Not achieving the desired effect or results. ineffectively adv.
Ineffectiveness n.
Ineffectual adj. Ineffective, feeble. ineffectually adv. Ineffectualness n.
Inefficient adj. 1 not efficient or fully capable. 2 (of a machine etc.) Wasteful.
inefficiency n. Inefficiently adv.
Inelegant adj. 1 ungraceful. 2 unrefined. inelegance n. Inelegantly adv.
Ineligible adj. Not eligible or qualified. ineligibility n.
Inept adj. 1 unskilful. 2 absurd, silly. 3 out of place. ineptitude n. Ineptly adv. [latin: related to *apt]
Inequable adj. 1 unfair. 2 not uniform.
Inequality n. (pl. -ies) 1 lack of equality. 2 variability. 3 unevenness.
Inequitable adj. Unfair, unjust.
Inequity n. (pl. -ies) unfairness, injustice.
Ineradicable adj. That cannot be rooted out.
Inert adj. 1 without inherent power of action, motion, or resistance. 2 not reacting chemically with other substances (inert gas). 3 sluggish, slow; lifeless. [latin iners -ert-: related to *art]
Inertia n. 1 physics property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest or motion unless an external force is applied. 2 a inertness, lethargy. B tendency to remain unchanged (inertia of the system). inertial adj. [latin: related to *inert]
Inertia reel n. Reel allowing a seat-belt to unwind freely but locking on impact etc.
Inertia selling n. Sending of unsolicited goods in the hope of making a sale.
Inescapable adj. That cannot be escaped or avoided.
Inessential —adj. Not necessary; dispensable. —n. Inessential thing.
Inestimable adj. Too great, precious, etc., to be estimated. inestimably adv.
Inevitable —adj. 1 unavoidable; sure to happen. 2 colloq. Tiresomely familiar. —n. (prec. By the) inevitable fact, event, etc. inevitability n. Inevitably adv. [latin evito avoid]
Inexact adj. Not exact. inexactitude n. Inexactly adv.
Inexcusable adj. That cannot be excused or justified. inexcusably adv.
Inexhaustible adj. That cannot be used up, endless.
Inexperience n. Lack of experience, knowledge, or skill. inexperienced adj.
Inexpert adj. Unskilful; lacking expertise.
Inexpiable adj. That cannot be expiated or appeased.
Inexplicable adj. That cannot be explained. inexplicably adv.
Inexpressible adj. That cannot be expressed. inexpressibly adv.
Inextinguishable adj. That cannot be extinguished or destroyed.
In extremis adj. 1 at the point of death. 2 in great difficulties; in an emergency. [latin]
Inextricable adj. 1 inescapable. 2 that cannot be separated, loosened, or solved.
inextricably adv.
Inf abbr. Intermediate-range nuclear forces.
Infallible adj. 1 incapable of error. 2 unfailing; sure to succeed. 3 (of the pope) incapable of doctrinal error. infallibility n. Infallibly adv.
Infamous adj. Notoriously bad. infamously adv. Infamy n. (pl. -ies).
Infant n. 1 a child during the earliest period of its life. B schoolchild below the age of seven years. 2 (esp. Attrib.) Thing in an early stage of its development. 3 law person under 18. infancy n. [latin infans unable to speak]
Infanta n. Hist. Daughter of a spanish or portuguese king. [spanish and portuguese: related to *infant]
Infanticide n. 1 killing of an infant, esp. Soon after birth. 2 person who kills an infant.
Infantile adj. 1 of or like infants. 2 childish, immature. infantilism n.
Infantile paralysis n. Poliomyelitis.
Infantry n. (pl. -ies) body of foot-soldiers; foot-soldiers collectively. [italian infante youth, foot-soldier]
Infantryman n. Soldier of an infantry regiment.
Infarct n. Small area of dead tissue caused by an inadequate blood supply. infarction n. [latin farcio farct-stuff]
Infatuate v. (-ting) (usu. As infatuated adj.) 1 inspire with intense usu. Transitory fondness or admiration. 2 affect with extreme folly. infatuation n. [latin: related
fondness or admiration. 2 affect with extreme folly. infatuation n. [latin: related to *fatuous]
Infect v. 1 affect or contaminate with a germ, virus, or disease. 2 imbue, taint. [latin inficio -fect-taint]
Infection n. 1 a infecting or being infected. B instance of this; disease. 2 communication of disease, esp. By air, water, etc.
Infectious adj. 1 infecting. 2 (of a disease) transmissible by infection. 3 (of emotions etc.) Quickly affecting or spreading to others. infectiously adv. Infectiousness n.
Infelicity n. (pl. -ies) 1 inapt expression etc. 2 unhappiness. infelicitous adj.
Infer v. (-rr-) 1 deduce or conclude. 2 imply. inferable adj. [latin fero bring]
Usage the use of infer in sense 2 is considered incorrect by some people.
Inference n. 1 act of inferring. 2 thing inferred. inferential adj.
Inferior —adj. 1 (often foll. By to) lower in rank, quality, etc. 2 of poor quality. 3 situated below. 4 written or printed below the line. —n. Person inferior to another, esp. In rank. [latin, comparative of inferus]
Inferiority n. Being inferior.
Inferiority complex n. Feeling of inadequacy, sometimes marked by compensating aggressive behaviour.
Inferno n. (pl. -s) 1 raging fire. 2 scene of horror or distress. 3 hell. [italian:
related to *infernal]
Infertile adj. 1 not fertile. 2 unable to have offspring. infertility n.
Infest v. (esp. Of vermin) overrun (a place). infestation n. [latin infestus hostile]
Infidel —n. Unbeliever in esp. The supposed true religion. —adj. 1 of infidels. 2 unbelieving. [latin fides faith]
Infidelity n. (pl. -ies) unfaithfulness, esp. Adultery. [latin: related to *infidel]
Infield n. Cricket the part of the ground near the wicket.
Infighting n. 1 conflict or competitiveness between colleagues. 2 boxing within arm’s length.
Infill —n. 1 material used to fill a hole, gap, etc. 2 filling gaps (esp. In a row of buildings). —v. Fill in (a cavity etc.).
Infilling n. = *infill n.
Infiltrate v. (-ting) 1 a enter (a territory, political party, etc.) Gradually and imperceptibly. B cause to do this. 2 permeate by filtration. 3 (often foll. By into, through) introduce (fluid) by filtration. infiltration n. Infiltrator n. [from in-2, filtrate]
Infinite —adj. 1 boundless, endless. 2 very great or many. —n. 1 (the infinite) god. 2 (the infinite) infinite space. infinitely adv. [latin: related to in-1, finite]
Infinitesimal —adj. Infinitely or very small. —n. Infinitesimal amount.
infinitesimally adv.
Infinitive —n. Form of a verb expressing the verbal notion without a particular subject, tense, etc. (e.g. See in we came to see, let him see). —adj. Having this form.
Infinitude n. Literary = *infinity 1, 2.
Infinity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being infinite; boundlessness. 2 infinite number or extent. 3 infinite distance (gaze into infinity). 4 math. Infinite quantity.
Infirm adj. Physically weak, esp. Through age.
Infirmary n. (pl. -ies) 1 hospital. 2 sick-quarters in a school etc.
Infirmity n. (pl. -ies) 1 being infirm. 2 particular physical weakness.
Infix v. Fasten or fix in.
In flagrante delicto adv. In the very act of committing an offence. [latin, = in blazing crime]
Inflame v. (-ming) 1 provoke to strong feeling, esp. Anger. 2 cause inflammation in; make hot. 3 aggravate. 4 catch or set on fire. 5 light up with or as with flames.
Inflammable adj. Easily set on fire or excited. inflammability n.
Usage where there is a danger of inflammable being understood to mean the opposite, i.e. ‘not easily set on fire’, flammable can be used to avoid confusion.
Inflammation n. 1 inflaming. 2 bodily condition with heat, swelling, redness, and usu. Pain.
Inflammatory adj. 1 tending to cause anger etc. 2 of inflammation.
Inflatable —adj. That can be inflated. —n. Inflatable object.
Inflate v. (-ting) 1 distend with air or gas. 2 (usu. Foll. By with; usu. In passive) puff up (with pride etc.). 3 a cause inflation of (the currency). B raise (prices) artificially. 4 (as inflated adj.) (esp. Of language, opinions, etc.) Bombastic, overblown, exaggerated. [latin inflo -flat-]
Inflation n. 1 inflating. 2 econ. A general increase in prices. B increase in the supply of money regarded as causing this. inflationary adj.
Inflect v. 1 change the pitch of (the voice). 2 a change the form of (a word) to express grammatical relation. B undergo such a change. 3 bend, curve. inflective adj. [latin flecto flex-bend]
Inflection n. (also inflexion) 1 inflecting or being inflected. 2 a inflected word. B suffix etc. Used to inflect. 3 modulation of the voice. inflectional adj. [latin: related to *inflect]
Inflexible adj. 1 unbendable. 2 unbending. inflexibility n. Inflexibly adv.
Inflexion var. Of *inflection.
Inflict v. (usu. Foll. By on) 1 deal (a blow etc.). 2 often joc. Impose (suffering, oneself, etc.) On (shall not inflict myself on you any longer). infliction n. Inflictor n. [latin fligo flict-strike]
Inflight attrib. Adj. Occurring or provided during a flight.
Inflorescence n. 1 a complete flower-head of a plant. B arrangement of this. 2 flowering. [latin: related to in-2, flourish]
Inflow n. 1 flowing in. 2 something that flows in.
Influence —n. 1 (usu. Foll. By on) effect a person or thing has on another. 2 (usu. Foll. By over, with) moral ascendancy or power. 3 thing or person exercising this. —v. (-cing) exert influence on; affect. under the influence colloq. Drunk. [latin influo flow in]
Influential adj. Having great influence. influentially adv.
Influenza n. Virus infection causing fever, aches, and catarrh. [italian: related to *influence]
Influx n. Flowing in, esp. Of people or things into a place. [latin: related to *flux]
Info n. Colloq. Information. [abbreviation]
Inform v. 1 tell (informed them of their rights). 2 (usu. Foll. By against, on) give incriminating information about a person to the authorities. [latin: related to *form]
Informal adj. 1 without formality. 2 not formal. informality n. (pl. -ies).
Informally adv.
Informant n. Giver of information.
Information n. 1 a something told; knowledge. B items of knowledge; news. 2 charge or complaint lodged with a court etc.
Information retrieval n. The tracing of information stored in books, computers, etc.
Information technology n. The study or use of processes (esp. Computers, telecommunications, etc.) For storing, retrieving, and sending information.
Informative adj. Giving information; instructive.
Informed adj. 1 knowing the facts. 2 having some knowledge.
Informer n. Person who informs, esp. Against others.
Infra adv. Below, further on (in a book etc.). [latin, = below]
Infra-comb. Form below.
Infraction n. Infringement. [latin: related to *infringe]
Infra dig predic. Adj. Colloq. Beneath one’s dignity. [latin infra dignitatem]
Infrared adj. Of or using rays with a wavelength just longer than the red end of the visible spectrum.
Infrastructure n. 1 a basic structural foundations of a society or enterprise. B roads, bridges, sewers, etc., regarded as a country’s economic foundation. 2 permanent installations as a basis for military etc. Operations.
Infrequent adj. Not frequent. infrequently adv.
Infringe v. (-ging) 1 break or violate (a law, another’s rights, etc.). 2 (usu. Foll. By on) encroach; trespass. infringement n. [latin frango fract-break]
Infuriate v. Make furious; irritate greatly. infuriating adj. Infuriatingly adv. [medieval latin: related to *fury]
Infuse v. (-sing) 1 (usu. Foll. By with) fill (with a quality). 2 steep (tea leaves
Infuse v. (-sing) 1 (usu. Foll. By with) fill (with a quality). 2 steep (tea leaves etc.) In liquid to extract the content; be steeped thus. 3 (usu. Foll. By into) instil (life etc.). [latin infundo -fus-: related to *found3]
Infusible adj. That cannot be melted. infusibility n.
Infusion n. 1 a infusing. B liquid extract obtained thus. 2 infused element.
-ing1 suffix forming nouns from verbs denoting: 1 verbal action or its result (asking). 2 material associated with a process etc. (piping; washing). 3 occupation or event (banking; wedding). [old english]
-ing2 suffix 1 forming the present participle of verbs (asking; fighting), often as adjectives (charming; strapping). 2 forming adjectives from nouns (hulking) and verbs (balding). [old english]
Ingenious adj. 1 clever at inventing, organizing, etc. 2 cleverly contrived. ingeniously adv. [latin ingenium cleverness]
Usage ingenious is sometimes confused with ingenuous.
Ingénue n. 1 unsophisticated young woman. 2 such a part in a play. [french:
Ingratiate v.refl. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By with) bring oneself into favour.
Ingratiate v.refl. (-ting) (usu. Foll. By with) bring oneself into favour. ingratiating adj. Ingratiatingly adv. [latin in gratiam into favour]
Ingratitude n. Lack of due gratitude.
Ingredient n. Component part in a mixture. [latin ingredior enter into]
Ingress n. Act or right of going in. [latin ingressus: related to *ingredient]
Ingrowing adj. (esp. Of a toenail) growing into the flesh. ingrown adj.
Inguinal adj. Of the groin. [latin inguen groin]
Inhabit v. (-t-) dwell in; occupy. inhabitable adj. [latin: related to *habit]
Inhabitant n. Person etc. Who inhabits a place.
Inhalant n. Medicinal substance for inhaling.
Inhale v. (-ling) (often absol.) Breathe in (air, gas, smoke, etc.). inhalation n. [latin halo breathe]
Inhaler n. Device for administering an inhalant, esp. To relieve asthma.
Inhere v. (-ring) be inherent. [latin haereo haes-stick]
Inherent adj. (often foll. By in) existing in something as an essential or permanent attribute. inherence n. Inherently adv.
Inherit v. (-t-) 1 receive (property, rank, title, etc.) By legal succession. 2 derive (a characteristic) from one’s ancestors. 3 derive (a situation etc.) From a predecessor. inheritable adj. Inheritor n. [latin heres heir]
Inheritance n. 1 thing that is inherited. 2 inheriting.
Inheritance tax n. Tax levied on property acquired by gift or inheritance.
Usage this tax was introduced in 1986 to replace capital transfer tax.
Inhibit v. (-t-) 1 hinder, restrain, or prevent (action or progress). 2 (as inhibited adj.) Suffering from inhibition. 3 (usu. Foll. By from + verbal noun) prohibit (a person etc.). inhibitory adj. [latin inhibeo -hibit-hinder]
Inhibition n. 1 psychol. Restraint on the direct expression of an instinct. 2 colloq.
Emotional resistance to a thought, action, etc. 3 inhibiting or being inhibited.
Inhospitable adj. 1 not hospitable. 2 (of a region etc.) Not affording shelter,
favourable conditions, etc. inhospitably adv.
In-house adj. & adv. Within an institution, company, etc.
Inhuman adj. Brutal; unfeeling; barbarous. inhumanity n. (pl. -ies). Inhumanly adv.
Inimitable adj. Impossible to imitate. inimitably adv.
Iniquity n. (pl. -ies) 1 wickedness. 2 gross injustice. iniquitous adj. [french from latin aequus just]
Initial —adj. Of or at the beginning. —n. Initial letter, esp. (in pl.) Those of a person’s names. —v. (-ll-; us -l-) mark or sign with one’s initials. initially adv. [latin initium beginning]
Initial letter n. First letter of a word.
Initiate —v. (-ting) 1 begin; set going; originate. 2 a admit (a person) into a society, office, etc., esp. With a ritual. B instruct (a person) in a subject. —n.
society, office, etc., esp. With a ritual. B instruct (a person) in a subject. —n. (esp. Newly) initiated person. initiation n. Initiator n. Initiatory adj. [latin initium beginning]
Initiative n. 1 ability to initiate things; enterprise (lacks initiative). 2 first step. 3 (prec. By the) power or right to begin. have the initiative esp. Mil. Be able to control the enemy’s movements. [french: related to *initiate]
Inject v. 1 a (usu. Foll. By into) drive (a solution, medicine, etc.) By or as if by a syringe. B (usu. Foll. By with) fill (a cavity etc.) By injecting. C administer medicine etc. To (a person) by injection. 2 place (a quality, money, etc.) Into something. injection n. Injector n. [latin injicere -ject-from jacio throw]
Injudicious adj. Unwise; ill-judged.
Injunction n. 1 authoritative order. 2 judicial order restraining a person or body from an act, or compelling redress to an injured party. [latin: related to *enjoin]
Injure v. (-ring) 1 harm or damage. 2 do wrong to. [back-formation from *injury]
Injury n. (pl. -ies) 1 physical harm or damage. 2 offence to feelings etc. 3 esp. Law wrongful action or treatment. [latin injuria]
Injury time n. Extra playing-time at a football etc. Match to compensate for time lost in dealing with injuries.
Injustice n. 1 lack of fairness. 2 unjust act. do a person an injustice judge a person unfairly. [french from latin: related to *in-1]
Ink —n. 1 coloured fluid or paste used for writing, printing, etc. 2 black liquid ejected by a cuttlefish etc. —v. 1 (usu. Foll. By in, over, etc.) Mark with ink. 2 cover (type etc.) With ink. [greek egkauston purple ink used by roman emperors]
Inkling n. (often foll. By of) slight knowledge or suspicion; hint. [origin unknown]
Inkstand n. Stand for one or more ink bottles.
Ink-well n. Pot for ink, usu. Housed in a hole in a desk.
Inky adj. (-ier, -iest) of, as black as, or stained with ink. inkiness n.
Inland —adj. 1 in the interior of a country. 2 carried on within a country. —adv.
In or towards the interior of a country.
Inland revenue n. Government department assessing and collecting taxes.
In-law n. (often in pl.) Relative by marriage.
Inlay —v. (past and past part. Inlaid) 1 embed (a thing in another) so that the surfaces are even. 2 decorate (a thing with inlaid work). —n. 1 inlaid work. 2 material inlaid. 3 filling shaped to fit a tooth-cavity. [from in-2, lay1]
Inlet n. 1 small arm of the sea, a lake, or a river. 2 piece inserted. 3 way of entry. [from in, let1]
In loco parentis adv. (acting) for or instead of a parent. [latin]
Inmate n. Occupant of a hospital, prison, institution, etc. [probably from inn, mate1]
In memoriam prep. In memory of (a dead person). [latin]
Inmost adj. Most inward. [old english]
Inn n. 1 pub, sometimes with accommodation. 2 hist. House providing accommodation, esp. For travellers. [old english: related to *in]
Innards n.pl. Colloq. Entrails. [special pronunciation of *inward]
Innate adj. Inborn; natural. innately adv. [latin natus born]
Inner —adj. (usu. Attrib.) 1 inside; interior. 2 (of thoughts, feelings, etc.) Deeper. —n. Archery 1 division of the target next to the bull’s-eye. 2 shot striking this. innermost adj. [old english, comparative of *in]
Inner city n. Central area of a city, esp. Regarded as having particular problems (also (with hyphen) attrib.: inner-city housing).
Inner man n. (also inner woman) 1 soul or mind. 2 joc. Stomach.
Inner tube n. Separate inflatable tube inside a pneumatic tyre.
Innings n. (pl. Same) 1 esp. Cricket part of a game during which a side is batting. 2 period during which a government, party, person, etc. Is in office or can achieve something. [obsolete in (verb) = go in]
Innkeeper n. Person who keeps an inn.
Innocent —adj. 1 free from moral wrong. 2 (usu. Foll. By of) not guilty (of a crime etc.). 3 simple; guileless. 4 harmless. —n. Innocent person, esp. A young child. innocence n. Innocently adv. [latin noceo hurt]
Innocuous adj. Harmless. [latin innocuus: related to *innocent]
Innocuous adj. Harmless. [latin innocuus: related to *innocent]
Inn of court n. Each of the four legal societies admitting people to the english bar.
Innovate v. (-ting) bring in new methods, ideas, etc.; make changes. innovation n. Innovative adj. Innovator n. Innovatory adj. [latin novus new]
Innuendo n. (pl. -es or -s) allusive remark or hint, usu. Disparaging or with a double meaning. [latin, = by nodding at: related to *in-2, nuo nod]
Innuit var. Of *inuit.
Innumerable adj. Too many to be counted. innumerably adv.
Innumerate adj. Having no knowledge of basic mathematics. innumeracy n.
Inoculate v. (-ting) treat (a person or animal) with vaccine or serum to promote immunity against a disease. inoculation n. [latin oculus eye, bud]
Inoffensive adj. Not objectionable; harmless.
Inoperable adj. Surgery that cannot successfully be operated on.
Inoperative adj. Not working or taking effect.
Inopportune adj. Not appropriate, esp. Not timely.
Inordinate adj. Excessive. inordinately adv. [latin: related to *ordain]
Inorganic adj. 1 chem. (of a compound) not organic, usu. Of mineral origin. 2 without organized physical structure. 3 extraneous.
In-patient n. Patient who lives in hospital while under treatment.
Input —n. 1 what is put in or taken in. 2 place where energy, information, etc., enters a system. 3 action of putting in or feeding in. 4 contribution of information etc. —v. (inputting; past and past part. Input or inputted) (often foll. By into) 1 put in. 2 supply (data, programs, etc., to a computer etc.).
Inquest n. 1 law inquiry by a coroner’s court into the cause of a death. 2 colloq. Discussion analysing the outcome of a game, election, etc. [romanic: related to *inquire]
Inquietude n. Uneasiness. [latin: related to *quiet]
Inquire v. (-ring) 1 seek information formally; make a formal investigation. 2 = *enquire. [latin quaero quisit-seek]
Inquiry n. (pl. -ies) 1 investigation, esp. An official one. 2 = *enquiry.
Inquisition n. 1 intensive search or investigation. 2 judicial or official inquiry. 3 (the inquisition) rc ch. Hist. Ecclesiastical tribunal for the violent suppression of heresy, esp. In spain. inquisitional adj. [latin: related to *inquire]
Inquisitor n. 1 official investigator. 2 hist. Officer of the inquisition.
Inquisitorial adj. 1 of or like an inquisitor. 2 prying. inquisitorially adv.
Inquorate adj. Not constituting a quorum.
In re prep. = *re1. [latin]
Inri abbr. Jesus of nazareth, king of the jews. [latin iesus nazarenus rex iudaeorum]
Inroad n. 1 (often in pl.) Encroachment; using up of resources etc. 2 hostile attack.
Inrush n. Rapid influx.
Insalubrious adj. (of a climate or place) unhealthy.
Insane adj. 1 mad. 2 colloq. Extremely foolish. insanely adv. Insanity n. (pl. – ies).
Insanitary adj. Not sanitary; dirty.
Insatiable adj. 1 unable to be satisfied. 2 extremely greedy. insatiability n.
Insatiably adv.
Insatiate adj. Never satisfied.
Inscribe v. (-bing) 1 a (usu. Foll. By in, on) write or carve (words etc.) On a surface, page, etc. B (usu. Foll. By with) mark (a surface) with characters. 2 (usu. Foll. By to) write an informal dedication in or on (a book etc.). 3 enter the name of (a person) on a list or in a book. 4 geom. Draw (a figure) within another so that points of it lie on the boundary of the other. [latin scribo write]
Inscription n. 1 words inscribed. 2 inscribing. inscriptional adj. [latin: related to *inscribe]
Inscrutable adj. Mysterious, impenetrable. inscrutability n. Inscrutably adv. [latin
Insect n. Small invertebrate of a class characteristically having a head, thorax, abdomen, two antennae, three pairs of thoracic legs, and usu. One or two pairs of thoracic wings. [latin: related to *section]
Insecticide n. Substance for killing insects.
Insectivore n. 1 animal that feeds on insects. 2 plant which captures and absorbs insects. insectivorous adj. [from *insect, latin voro devour]
Insecure adj. 1 a unsafe; not firm. B (of a surface etc.) Liable to give way. 2 uncertain; lacking confidence. insecurity n.
Inseminate v. (-ting) 1 introduce semen into. 2 sow (seed etc.). insemination n. [latin: related to *semen]
Insensate adj. 1 without physical sensation. 2 without sensibility. 3 stupid. [latin:
related to *sense]
Insensible adj. 1 unconscious. 2 (usu. Foll. By of, to) unaware (insensible of her needs). 3 callous. 4 too small or gradual to be perceived. insensibility n. Insensibly adv.
Insensitive adj. (often foll. By to) 1 unfeeling; boorish; crass. 2 not sensitive to physical stimuli. insensitively adv. Insensitiveness n. Insensitivity n.
Insentient adj. Not sentient; inanimate.
Inseparable adj. (esp. Of friends) unable or unwilling to be separated.
inseparability n. Inseparably adv.
Insert —v. Place or put (a thing) into another. —n. Something (esp. Pages) inserted. [latin sero sert-join]
Insertion n. 1 inserting. 2 thing inserted.
In-service attrib. Adj. (of training) for those actively engaged in the profession or activity concerned.
Inset —n. 1 a extra section inserted in a book etc. B small map etc. Within the border of a larger one. 2 piece let into a dress etc. —v. (insetting; past and past part. Inset or insetted) 1 put in as an inset. 2 decorate with an inset.
Inshore adv. & adj. At sea but close to the shore.
Inside —n. 1 a inner side. B inner part; interior. 2 side away from the road. 3 (usu. In pl.) Colloq. Stomach and bowels. —adj. 1 situated on or in the inside. 2 football & hockey nearer to the centre of the field. —adv. 1 on, in, or to the inside. 2 slang in prison. —prep. 1 on the inner side of; within. 2 in less than (inside an hour). inside out 1 with the inner surface turned outwards. 2 thoroughly (knew his subject inside out).
Inside information n. Information not normally accessible to outsiders.
Inside job n. Colloq. Crime committed by a person living or working on the premises burgled etc.
Insider n. 1 person who is within an organization etc. 2 person privy to a secret.
Insider dealing n. Stock exch. Illegal practice of trading to one’s own advantage through having access to confidential information.
Insidious adj. 1 proceeding inconspicuously but harmfully. 2 crafty. insidiously adv. Insidiousness n. [latin insidiae ambush]
Insight n. (usu. Foll. By into) 1 capacity of understanding hidden truths etc. 2 instance of this.
Insignia n. (treated as sing. Or pl.) Badge. [latin signum sign]
Insignificant adj. 1 unimportant. 2 meaningless. insignificance n.
Insincere adj. Not sincere. insincerely adv. Insincerity n. (pl. -ies).
Insinuate v. (-ting) 1 hint obliquely, esp. Unpleasantly. 2 (often refl.; usu. Foll. By into) a introduce (a person etc.) Into favour etc., by subtle manipulation. B introduce (a thing, oneself, etc.) Deviously into a place. insinuation n. [latin sinuo curve]
Insipid adj. 1 lacking vigour or character; dull. 2 tasteless. insipidity n. Insipidly adv. [latin sapio have savour]
Insist v. (usu. Foll. By on or that; also absol.) Maintain or demand assertively (insisted on my going; insisted that he was innocent). [latin sisto stand]
Insistent adj. 1 (often foll. By on) insisting. 2 forcing itself on the attention.
insistence n. Insistently adv.
In situ adv. In its proper or original place. [latin]
Insobriety n. Intemperance, esp. In drinking.
Insofar adv. = in so far (see *far).
Insole n. Fixed or removable inner sole of a boot or shoe.
Insolent adj. Impertinently insulting. insolence n. Insolently adv. [latin soleo be accustomed]
Insoluble adj. 1 incapable of being solved. 2 incapable of being dissolved.
Insomnia n. Sleeplessness, esp. Habitual. [latin somnus sleep]
Insomniac n. Person suffering from insomnia.
Insomuch adv. 1 (foll. By that) to such an extent. 2 (foll. By as) inasmuch. [originally in so much]
Insouciant adj. Carefree; unconcerned. insouciance n. [french souci care]
Inspect v. 1 look closely at. 2 examine officially. inspection n. [latin spicio spect-look]
Inspector n. 1 person who inspects. 2 official employed to supervise. 3 police officer next above sergeant in rank. inspectorate n.
Inspector of taxes n. Inland revenue official responsible for assessing taxes.
Inspiration n. 1 a creative force or influence. B person etc. Stimulating creativity etc. C divine influence, esp. On the writing of scripture etc. 2 sudden brilliantidea. inspirational adj.
Inspire v. (-ring) 1 stimulate (a person) to esp. Creative activity. 2 a (usu. Foll. By with) animate (a person) with a feeling. B create (a feeling) in a person (inspires confidence). 3 prompt; give rise to (a poem inspired by love). 4 (as inspired adj.) Characterized by inspiration. inspiring adj. [latin spiro breathe]
Inspirit v. (-t-) 1 put life into; animate. 2 encourage.
Inst. Abbr. = *instant adj. 4 (the 6th inst.).
Instability n. 1 lack of stability. 2 unpredictability in behaviour etc.
Install v. (also instal) (-ll-) 1 place (equipment etc.) In position ready for use. 2 place (a person) in an office or rank with ceremony. 3 establish (oneself, a person, etc.). installation n. [latin: related to *stall1]
Installment n. (brit. Instalment) 1 any of several usu. Equal payments for something. 2 any of several parts, esp. Of a broadcast or published story. [anglo-french estaler fix]
Instalment n. (us installment) 1 any of several usu. Equal payments for something. 2 any of several parts, esp. Of a broadcast or published story. [anglo-french estaler fix]
Instance —n. 1 example or illustration of. 2 particular case (that’s not true in this instance). —v. (-cing) cite as an instance. for instance as an example. In the first (or second etc.) Instance in the first (or second etc.) Place; at the first (or second etc.) Stage (of a proceeding). [french from latin instantia contrary example]
Instant —adj. 1 occurring immediately. 2 (of food etc.) Processed for quick preparation. 3 urgent; pressing. 4 commerce of the current month (the 6th instant). —n. 1 precise moment (come here this instant). 2 short space of time (in an instant). [latin insto be urgent]
Instantaneous adj. Occurring or done in an instant. instantaneously adv.
Instantly adv. Immediately; at once.
Instead adv. 1 (foll. By of) in place of. 2 as an alternative.
Instep n. 1 inner arch of the foot between the toes and the ankle. 2 part of a shoe etc. Over or under this. [ultimately from in-2, step]
Instigate v. (-ting) 1 bring about by incitement or persuasion. 2 urge on, incite. instigation n. Instigator n. [latin stigo prick]
Instil v. (us instill) (-ll-) (often foll. By into) 1 introduce (a feeling, idea, etc.) Into a person’s mind etc. Gradually. 2 put (a liquid) into something in drops. instillation n. Instilment n. [latin stillo drop]
Instill v. (brit. Instil) (-ll-) (often foll. By into) 1 introduce (a feeling, idea, etc.) Into a person’s mind etc. Gradually. 2 put (a liquid) into something in drops. instillation n. Instilment n. [latin stillo drop]
Instinct —n. 1 a innate pattern of behaviour, esp. In animals. B innate impulse. 2 intuition. —predic. Adj. (foll. By with) imbued, filled (with life, beauty, etc.). instinctive adj. Instinctively adv. Instinctual adj. [latin stinguo prick]
Institute —n. 1 society or organization for the promotion of science, education, etc. 2 its premises. —v. (-ting) 1 establish; found. 2 initiate (an inquiry etc.). 3(usu. Foll. By to, into) appoint (a person) as a cleric in a church etc. [latin statuo set up]
Institution n. 1 organization or society founded for a particular purpose. 2 established law, practice, or custom. 3 colloq. (of a person etc.) Familiar object. 4 instituting or being instituted.
Institutional adj. 1 of or like an institution. 2 typical of institutions.
institutionally adv.
Institutionalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 (as institutionalized adj.) Made dependent after a long period in an institution. 2 place or keep (a person) in an institution. 3 make institutional.
Instruct v. 1 teach (a person) a subject etc.; train. 2 (usu. Foll. By to + infin.) Direct; command. 3 law a employ (a lawyer). B inform. instructor n. [latin instruo -struct-build, teach]
Instruction n. 1 (often in pl.) A order. B direction (as to how a thing works etc.).
2 teaching (course of instruction). instructional adj.
Instructive adj. Tending to instruct; enlightening.
Instrument n. 1 tool or implement, esp. For delicate or scientific work. 2 (in full musical instrument) device for producing musical sounds. 3 a thing used in performing an action. B person made use of. 4 measuring-device, esp. In an aeroplane. 5 formal, esp. Legal, document. [latin instrumentum: related to *instruct]
Instrumental adj. 1 serving as an instrument or means. 2 (of music) performed on instruments. 3 of, or arising from, an instrument (instrumental error).
Instrumentalist n. Performer on a musical instrument.
Instrumentality n. Agency or means.
Instrumentation n. 1 a provision or use of instruments. B instruments collectively. 2 a arrangement of music for instruments. B the particular instruments used in a piece.
Insubordinate adj. Disobedient; rebellious. insubordination n.
Insubstantial adj. 1 lacking solidity or substance. 2 not real.
Insufferable adj. 1 intolerable. 2 unbearably conceited etc. insufferably adv.
Insufficient adj. Not sufficient; inadequate. insufficiency n. Insufficiently adv.
Insular adj. 1 a of or like an island. B separated or remote. 2 narrow-minded. insularity n. [latin insula island]
Insulate v. (-ting) 1 prevent the passage of electricity, heat, or sound from (a thing, room, etc.) By interposing non-conductors. 2 isolate. insulation n. Insulator n. [latin insula island]
Insulin n. Hormone regulating the amount of glucose in the blood, the lack of which causes diabetes. [latin insula island]
Insult —v. 1 speak to or treat with scornful abuse. 2 offend the self-respect or modesty of. —n. Insulting remark or action. insulting adj. Insultingly adv. [latin insulto leap on, assail]
Insuperable adj. 1 (of a barrier) impossible to surmount. 2 (of a difficulty etc.) Impossible to overcome. insuperability n. Insuperably adv. [latin supero overcome]
Insupportable adj. 1 unable to be endured. 2 unjustifiable.
Insurance n. 1 insuring. 2 a sum paid for this. B sum paid out as compensation for theft, damage, etc. [french: related to *ensure]
Insure v. (-ring) (often foll. By against; also absol.) Secure compensation in the event of loss or damage to (property, life, a person, etc.) By advance regular payments. [var. Of *ensure]
Insured n. (usu. Prec. By the) person etc. Covered by insurance.
Insurer n. Person or company selling insurance policies.
Insurgent —adj. In active revolt. —n. Rebel. insurgence n. [latin surgo surrect-rise]
Insurmountable adj. Unable to be surmounted or overcome.
Insurrection n. Rebellion. insurrectionist n. [latin: related to *insurgent]
Intaglio n. (pl. -s) 1 gem with an incised design. 2 engraved design. [italian:
related to in-2, tail2]
Intake n. 1 action of taking in. 2 a number (of people etc.), or amount, taken in or received. B such people etc. (this year’s intake). 3 place where water is taken into a pipe, or fuel or air enters an engine etc.
Intangible —adj. 1 unable to be touched. 2 unable to be grasped mentally. —n. Thing that cannot be precisely assessed or defined. intangibility n. Intangibly adv. [latin: related to *intact]
Integer n. Whole number. [latin, = untouched, whole]
Integral —adj. Also 1 a of or necessary to a whole. B forming a whole. C complete. 2 of or denoted by an integer. —n. Math. Quantity of which a given function is the derivative. integrally adv. [latin: related to *integer]
Usage the alternative pronunciation given for the adjective, stressed on the second syllable, is considered incorrect by some people.
Integral calculus n. Mathematics concerned with finding integrals, their properties and application, etc.
Integrate v. (-ting) 1 a combine (parts) into a whole. B complete by the addition of parts. 2 bring or come into equal membership of society, a school, etc. 3 desegregate, esp. Racially (a school etc.). 4 math. Find the integral of.
integration n.
Integrated circuit n. Electronics small chip etc. Of material replacing several separate components in a conventional electronic circuit.
Integrity n. 1 moral excellence; honesty. 2 wholeness; soundness. [latin: related to *integer]
Integument n. Natural outer covering, as a skin, husk, rind, etc. [latin tego cover]
Intellect n. 1 a faculty of reasoning, knowing, and thinking. B understanding. 2 clever or knowledgeable person. [latin: related to *intelligent]
Intellectual —adj. 1 of or appealing to the intellect. 2 possessing a highly developed intellect. 3 requiring the intellect. —n. Intellectual person. intellectuality n. Intellectualize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing). Intellectually adv.
Intelligence n. 1 a intellect; understanding. B quickness of understanding. 2 a the collecting of information, esp. Of military or political value. B information so collected. C people employed in this.
Intelligence quotient n. Number denoting the ratio of a person’s intelligence to the average.
Intelligent adj. 1 having or showing intelligence, esp. Of a high level. 2 clever.
Intelligentsia n. Class of intellectuals regarded as possessing culture and political initiative. [russian intelligentsiya]
Intelligible adj. Able to be understood. intelligibility n. Intelligibly adv.
Intemperate adj. 1 immoderate. 2 a given to excessive drinking of alcohol. B excessively indulgent in one’s appetites. intemperance n.
Intend v. 1 have as one’s purpose (we intend to go; we intend going). 2 (usu. Foll. By for, as) design or destine (a person or a thing) (i intend him to go; i intend it as a warning). [latin tendo stretch]
Intended —adj. Done on purpose. —n. Colloq. One’s fiancé or fiancée.
Intense adj. (intenser, intensest) 1 existing in a high degree; violent; forceful; extreme (intense joy; intense cold). 2 very emotional. intensely adv. Intenseness n. [latin intensus stretched]
Usage intense is sometimes confused with intensive, and wrongly used to describe a course of study etc.
Intensifier n. 1 thing that makes something more intense. 2 word or prefix used to give force or emphasis, e.g. Thundering in a thundering nuisance.
Intensify v. (-ies, -ied) make or become intense or more intense. intensification n.
Intensity n. (pl. -ies) 1 intenseness. 2 amount of some quality, e.g. Force, brightness, etc.
Intensive adj. 1 thorough, vigorous; directed to a single point, area, or subject (intensive study; intensive bombardment). 2 of or relating to intensity. 3 serving to increase production in relation to costs (intensive farming). 4 (usu. In comb.) Econ. Making much use of (labour-intensive). 5 (of an adjective, adverb, etc.) Expressing intensity, e.g. Really in my feet are really cold. intensively adv. Intensiveness n.
Usage see note at intense.
Intensive care n. 1 constant monitoring etc. Of a seriously ill patient. 2 part of a hospital devoted to this.
Intent —n. Intention; purpose (with intent to defraud). —adj. 1 (usu. Foll. By on) a resolved, determined. B attentively occupied. 2 (esp. Of a look) earnest; eager. to all intents and purposes practically; virtually. intently adv. Intentness n. [latin intentus]
Intention n. 1 thing intended; aim, purpose. 2 intending (done without intention).
Intentional adj. Done on purpose. intentionally adv.
Inter v. (-rr-) bury (a corpse etc.). [latin terra earth]
Inter-comb. Form 1 between, among (intercontinental). 2 mutually, reciprocally (interbreed). [latin inter between, among]
Interact v. Act on each other. interaction n.
Interactive adj. 1 reciprocally active. 2 (of a computer or other electronic device) allowing a two-way flow of information between it and a user. interactively adv.
Inter alia adv. Among other things. [latin]
Interbreed v. (past and past part. -bred) 1 (cause to) breed with members of a different race or species to produce a hybrid. 2 breed within one family etc.
Intercalary attrib. Adj. 1 a (of a day or a month) inserted in the calendar to harmonize it with the solar year. B (of a year) having such an addition. 2 interpolated. [latin calo proclaim]
Intercede v. (-ding) (usu. Foll. By with) intervene on behalf of another; plead. [latin: related to *cede]
Intercept v. 1 seize, catch, or stop (a person or thing) going from one place to another. 2 (usu. Foll. By from) cut off (light etc.). interception n. Interceptive
another. 2 (usu. Foll. By from) cut off (light etc.). interception n. Interceptive adj. Interceptor n. [latin intercipio -cept-from capio take]
Intercession n. Interceding. intercessor n. [latin: related to *intercede]
Interchange —v. (-ging) 1 (of two people) exchange (things) with each other. 2 put each of (two things) in the other’s place; alternate. —n. 1 (often foll. By of) exchange between two people etc. 2 alternation. 3 road junction where traffic streams do not cross.
Interchangeable adj. That can be interchanged, esp. Without affecting the way a thing works. interchangeably adv.
Intercity adj. Existing or travelling between cities.
Intercom n. Colloq. 1 system of intercommunication by radio or telephone. 2 instrument used in this. [abbreviation]
Intercommunicate v. (-ting) 1 communicate reciprocally. 2 (of rooms etc.) Open into each other. intercommunication n.
Intercommunion n. 1 mutual communion. 2 mutual action or relationship, esp.
Between christian denominations.
Interconnect v. Connect with each other. interconnection n.
Intercontinental adj. Connecting or travelling between continents.
Intercourse n. 1 communication or dealings between individuals, nations, etc. 2 = *sexual intercourse. [latin: related to *course]
Interdenominational adj. Concerning more than one (religious) denomination.
Interdepartmental adj. Concerning more than one department.
Interdependent adj. Dependent on each other. interdependence n.
Interdict —n. 1 authoritative prohibition. 2 rc ch. Sentence debarring a person, or esp. A place, from ecclesiastical functions and privileges. —v. 1 prohibit (an action). 2 forbid the use of. 3 (usu. Foll. By from + verbal noun) restrain (a person). 4 (usu. Foll. By to) forbid (a thing) to a person. interdiction n. Interdictory adj. [latin dico say]
Interdisciplinary adj. Of or between more than one branch of learning.
Interest —n. 1 a concern; curiosity (have no interest in fishing). B quality exciting curiosity etc. (this book lacks interest). 2 subject, hobby, etc., in which one is concerned. 3 advantage or profit (it is in my interest to go). 4 money paid for the use of money lent. 5 a thing in which one has a stake or concern (business interests). B financial stake (in an undertaking etc.). C legal concern, title, or right (in property). 6 a party or group with a common interest (the brewing interest). B principle or cause with which this is concerned. —v. 1 excite the
curiosity or attention of. 2 (usu. Foll. By in) cause (a person) to take a personal interest. 3 (as interested adj.) Having a private interest; not impartial or disinterested. [latin, = it matters]
Interesting adj. Causing curiosity; holding the attention. interestingly adv.
Interface —n. 1 surface forming a boundary between two regions. 2 means or place of interaction between two systems etc.; interaction (the interface between psychology and education). 3 esp. Computing apparatus for connecting two pieces of equipment so that they can be operated jointly. —v. (-cing) (often foll. By with) 1 connect with (another piece of equipment etc.) By an interface. 2 interact.
Usage the use of the noun and verb in sense 2 is deplored by some people.
Interfacing n. Stiffish material between two layers of fabric in collars etc.
Interfere v. (-ring) 1 (usu. Foll. By with) a (of a person) meddle; obstruct a process etc. B (of a thing) be a hindrance. 2 (usu. Foll. By in) intervene, esp. Without invitation or necessity. 3 (foll. By with) euphem. Molest or assault sexually. 4 (of light or other waves) combine so as to cause interference. [latin ferio strike]
Interference n. 1 act of interfering. 2 fading or disturbance of received radio signals. 3 physics combination of two or more wave motions to form a resultant wave in which the displacement is reinforced or cancelled.
Interferon n. Any of various proteins inhibiting the development of a virus in a cell etc.
Interfuse v. (-sing) 1 a (usu. Foll. By with) mix (a thing) with; intersperse. B blend (things). 2 (of two things) blend with each other. interfusion n. [latin: related to *fuse1]
Intergalactic adj. Of or situated between galaxies.
Interim —n. Intervening time. —adj. Provisional, temporary. [latin, = in the interim]
Interior —adj. 1 inner. 2 inland. 3 internal; domestic. 4 (usu. Foll. By to) situated further in or within. 5 existing in the mind. 6 coming from inside. —n. 1 interior part; inside. 2 interior part of a region. 3 home affairs of a country (minister of the interior). 4 representation of the inside of a room etc. [latin]
Interior decoration n. Decoration of the interior of a building etc. interior decorator n.
Interior design n. Design of the interior of a building. interior designer n.
Interject v. 1 utter (words) abruptly or parenthetically. 2 interrupt. [latin jacio throw]
Interjection n. Exclamation, esp. As a part of speech (e.g. Ah!, dear me!).
Interlace v. (-cing) 1 bind intricately together; interweave. 2 cross each other intricately. interlacement n.
Interlard v. (usu. Foll. By with) mix (writing or speech) with unusual words or phrases. [french]
Interleave v. (-ving) insert (usu. Blank) leaves between the leaves of (a book etc.).
Interline v. (-ning) put an extra layer of material between the fabric of (a garment) and its lining.
Interlink v. Link or be linked together.
Interlock —v. 1 engage with each other by overlapping. 2 lock or clasp within each other. —n. 1 machine-knitted fabric with fine stitches. 2 mechanism for preventing a set of operations from being performed in any but the prescribed sequence.
Interlocutor n. Formal person who takes part in a conversation. [latin loquor speak]
Interlocutory adj. Formal 1 of dialogue. 2 (of a decree etc.) Given provisionally in a legal action.
Interloper n. 1 intruder. 2 person who interferes in others’ affairs, esp. For profit. [after landloper vagabond, from dutch loopen run]
Interlude n. 1 a pause between the acts of a play. B something performed during this pause. 2 contrasting event, time, etc. In the middle of something (comic interlude). 3 piece of music played between other pieces etc. [medieval latin ludus play]
Intermarry v. (-ies, -ied) (foll. By with) (of races, castes, families, etc.) Become connected by marriage. intermarriage n.
Intermediary —n. (pl. -ies) intermediate person or thing, esp. A mediator. —adj.
Acting as mediator; intermediate.
Intermediate —adj. Coming between two things in time, place, order, character, etc. —n. 1 intermediate thing. 2 chemical compound formed by one reaction andthen used in another. [latin intermedius]
Interment n. Burial.
Usage interment is sometimes confused with internment, which means ‘confinement’.
Intermezzo n. (pl. -mezzi or -s) 1 a short connecting instrumental movement in a musical work. B similar independent piece. 2 short light dramatic or other
performance inserted between the acts of a play. [italian]
Intermission n. 1 pause or cessation. 2 interval in a cinema etc. [latin: related to *intermittent]
Intermittent adj. Occurring at intervals; not continuous. intermittently adv. [latin mitto miss-let go]
Intermix v. Mix together.
Intern —n. (also interne) esp. Us = *houseman. —v. Oblige (a prisoner, alien, etc.) To reside within prescribed limits. internment n. [french: related to *internal]
Usage internment is sometimes confused with interment, which means ‘burial’.
Internal adj. 1 of or situated in the inside or invisible part. 2 of the inside of the body (internal injuries). 3 of a nation’s domestic affairs. 4 (of a student) attending a university etc. As well as taking its examinations. 5 used or applying within an organization. 6 a intrinsic. B of the mind or soul. internality n. Internally adv. [medieval latin internus internal]
Internal-combustion engine n. Engine with its motive power generated by the explosion of gases or vapour with air in a cylinder.
Internal evidence n. Evidence derived from the contents of the thing discussed.
Internalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) psychol. Make (attitudes, behaviour, etc.) Part of one’s nature by learning or unconscious assimilation. internalization n.
International —adj. 1 existing or carried on between nations. 2 agreed on or used by all or many nations. —n. 1 a contest, esp. In sport, between teams representing different countries. B member of such a team. 2 (international) any of four successive associations for socialist or communist action. internationality n. Internationally adv.
Internationalism n. Advocacy of a community of interests among nations.
internationalist n.
Internationalize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) 1 make international. 2 bring under the protection or control of two or more nations.
Interpenetrate v. (-ting) 1 penetrate each other. 2 pervade. interpenetration n.
Interpersonal adj. Between persons, social (interpersonal skills).
Interplanetary adj. 1 between planets. 2 of travel between planets.
Interplay n. Reciprocal action.
Interpol n. International criminal police organization. [abbreviation]
Interpolate v. (-ting) 1 a insert (words) in a book etc., esp. Misleadingly. B make such insertions in (a book etc.). 2 interject (a remark) in a conversation. 3 estimate (values) between known ones in the same range. interpolation n. Interpolator n. [latin interpolo furbish]
Interpose v. (-sing) 1 (often foll. By between) insert (a thing) between others. 2 say (words) as an interruption; interrupt. 3 exercise or advance (a veto or objection) so as to interfere. 4 (foll. By between) intervene (between parties). interposition n. [latin pono put]
Interpret v. (-t-) 1 explain the meaning of (words, a dream, etc.). 2 make out or bring out the meaning of (creative work). 3 act as an interpreter. 4 explain or understand (behaviour etc.) In a specified manner. interpretation n. Interpretative
Interpreter n. Person who interprets, esp. One who translates foreign speech orally.
Interracial adj. Between or affecting different races.
Interregnum n. (pl. -s) 1 interval when the normal government or leadership is suspended, esp. Between successive reigns or regimes. 2 interval, pause. [latin regnum reign]
Interrelate v. (-ting) 1 relate (two or more things) to each other. 2 (of two or more things) relate to each other. interrelation n. Interrelationship n.
Interrogate v. (-ting) question (a person), esp. Closely or formally. interrogation n. Interrogator n. [latin rogo ask]
Interrogative —adj. Of, like, or used in a question. —n. Interrogative word (e.g.
What?).
Interrogatory —adj. Questioning (interrogatory tone). —n. (pl. -ies) formal set of questions.
Interrupt v. 1 break the continuous progress of (an action, speech, person speaking, etc.). 2 obstruct (a person’s view etc.). interruption n. [latin: related to *rupture]
*rupture]
Interrupter n. (also interruptor) 1 person or thing that interrupts. 2 device for interrupting, esp. An electric circuit.
Intersect v. 1 divide (a thing) by crossing it. 2 (of lines, roads, etc.) Cross each other. [latin: related to *section]
Intersection n. 1 intersecting. 2 place where two roads intersect. 3 point or line common to lines or planes that intersect.
Intersperse v. (-sing) 1 (often foll. By between, among) scatter. 2 (foll. By with) vary (a thing) by scattering other things among it. interspersion n. [latin: related to *sparse]
Interstate adj. Existing or carried on between states, esp. Those of the us.
Interstellar adj. Between stars.
Interstice n. 1 intervening space. 2 chink or crevice. [latin interstitium from sisto stand]
Interstitial adj. Of, forming, or occupying interstices. interstitially adv.
Intertwine v. (-ning) (often foll. By with) entwine (together).
Interval n. 1 intervening time or space. 2 pause or break, esp. Between the parts of a performance. 3 difference in pitch between two sounds. at intervals here and there; now and then. [latin intervallum space between ramparts]
Intervene v. (-ning) 1 occur in time between events. 2 interfere; prevent or modify events. 3 be situated between things. 4 come in as an extraneous factor. [latin venio vent-come]
Intervention n. 1 intervening. 2 interference, esp. By a state. 3 mediation.
Interventionist n. Person who favours intervention.
Interview —n. 1 oral examination of an applicant. 2 conversation with a reporter, for a broadcast or publication. 3 meeting face to face, esp. For consultation. —v. Hold an interview with. interviewee n. Interviewer n. [french entrevue: related to *inter-, vue sight]
Interwar attrib. Adj. Existing in the period between two wars.
Interweave v. (-ving; past -wove; past part. -woven) 1 weave together. 2 blend intimately.
Interpolate v. (-ting) 1 a insert (words) in a book etc., esp. Misleadingly. B make
such insertions in (a book etc.). 2 interject (a remark) in a conversation. 3 estimate (values) between known ones in the same range. interpolation n. Interpolator n. [latin interpolo furbish]
Interpose v. (-sing) 1 (often foll. By between) insert (a thing) between others. 2 say (words) as an interruption; interrupt. 3 exercise or advance (a veto or objection) so as to interfere. 4 (foll. By between) intervene (between parties). interposition n. [latin pono put]
Interpret v. (-t-) 1 explain the meaning of (words, a dream, etc.). 2 make out or bring out the meaning of (creative work). 3 act as an interpreter. 4 explain or understand (behaviour etc.) In a specified manner. interpretation n. Interpretative adj. Interpretive adj. [latin interpres -pretis explainer]
Interpreter n. Person who interprets, esp. One who translates foreign speech orally.
Interracial adj. Between or affecting different races.
Interregnum n. (pl. -s) 1 interval when the normal government or leadership is suspended, esp. Between successive reigns or regimes. 2 interval, pause. [latin regnum reign]
Interrelate v. (-ting) 1 relate (two or more things) to each other. 2 (of two or more things) relate to each other. interrelation n. Interrelationship n.
Interrogate v. (-ting) question (a person), esp. Closely or formally. interrogation
n. Interrogator n. [latin rogo ask]
Interrogative —adj. Of, like, or used in a question. —n. Interrogative word (e.g.
What?).
Interrogatory —adj. Questioning (interrogatory tone). —n. (pl. -ies) formal set of questions.
Interrupt v. 1 break the continuous progress of (an action, speech, person speaking, etc.). 2 obstruct (a person’s view etc.). interruption n. [latin: related to *rupture]
Interrupter n. (also interruptor) 1 person or thing that interrupts. 2 device for interrupting, esp. An electric circuit.
Intersect v. 1 divide (a thing) by crossing it. 2 (of lines, roads, etc.) Cross each other. [latin: related to *section]
Intersection n. 1 intersecting. 2 place where two roads intersect. 3 point or line common to lines or planes that intersect.
Intersperse v. (-sing) 1 (often foll. By between, among) scatter. 2 (foll. By with) vary (a thing) by scattering other things among it. interspersion n. [latin: related to *sparse]
Interstate adj. Existing or carried on between states, esp. Those of the us.
Interstate adj. Existing or carried on between states, esp. Those of the us.
Interstellar adj. Between stars.
Interstice n. 1 intervening space. 2 chink or crevice. [latin interstitium from sisto stand]
Interstitial adj. Of, forming, or occupying interstices. interstitially adv.
Intertwine v. (-ning) (often foll. By with) entwine (together).
Interval n. 1 intervening time or space. 2 pause or break, esp. Between the parts of a performance. 3 difference in pitch between two sounds. at intervals here and there; now and then. [latin intervallum space between ramparts]
Intervene v. (-ning) 1 occur in time between events. 2 interfere; prevent or modify events. 3 be situated between things. 4 come in as an extraneous factor. [latin venio vent-come]
Intervention n. 1 intervening. 2 interference, esp. By a state. 3 mediation.
Interventionist n. Person who favours intervention.
Interview —n. 1 oral examination of an applicant. 2 conversation with a
reporter, for a broadcast or publication. 3 meeting face to face, esp. For consultation. —v. Hold an interview with. interviewee n. Interviewer n. [french entrevue: related to *inter-, vue sight]
Interwar attrib. Adj. Existing in the period between two wars.
Interweave v. (-ving; past -wove; past part. -woven) 1 weave together. 2 blend intimately.
Intestate —adj. Not having made a will before death. —n. Person who has died intestate. intestacy n. [latin: related to *testament]
—adj. Not having made a will before death. —n. Person who has died intestate. intestacy n. [latin: related to *testament]
Intestine n. (in sing. Or pl.) Lower part of the alimentary canal. intestinal adj. [latin intus within]
Intifada n. Arab uprising. [arabic]
Intimacy n. (pl. -ies) 1 state of being intimate. 2 intimate remark or act; sexual intercourse.
Intimate1 —adj. 1 closely acquainted; familiar (intimate friend). 2 private and personal. 3 (usu. Foll. By with) having sexual relations. 4 (of knowledge) detailed, thorough. 5 (of a relationship between things) close. —n. Close friend. intimately adv. [latin intimus inmost]
Intimate2 v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By that) state or make known. 2 imply, hint. intimation n. [latin intimo announce: related to *intimate1]
Intimidate v. (-ting) frighten or overawe, esp. To subdue or influence. intimidation n. [medieval latin: related to *timid]
Into prep. 1 expressing motion or direction to a point on or within (walked into a tree; ran into the house). 2 expressing direction of attention etc. (will look into it). 3 expressing a change of state (turned into a dragon; separated into groups). 4 after the beginning of (five minutes into the game). 5 colloq. Interested in. [old english: related to in, to]
Intolerable adj. That cannot be endured. intolerably adv.
Intolerant adj. Not tolerant, esp. Of others’ beliefs or behaviour. intolerance n.
Intonation n. 1 modulation of the voice; accent. 2 intoning. 3 accuracy of musical pitch. [medieval latin: related to *intone]
Intone v. (-ning) 1 recite (prayers etc.) With prolonged sounds, esp. In a monotone. 2 utter with a particular tone. [medieval latin: related to *in-2]
Intoxicate v. (-ting) 1 make drunk. 2 excite or elate beyond self-control. intoxication n. [medieval latin: related to *toxic]
Intra-prefix on the inside, within. [latin intra inside]
Intractable adj. 1 hard to control or deal with. 2 difficult, stubborn. intractability n. Intractably adv.
Intramural adj. 1 situated or done within the walls of an institution etc. 2 forming part of normal university etc. Studies. intramurally adv. [latin murus wall]
Intramuscular adj. In or into muscle tissue.
Intransigent —adj. Uncompromising, stubborn. —n. Intransigent person. intransigence n. [spanish los intransigentes extremists]
Intransitive adj. (of a verb) not taking a direct object.
Intrauterine adj. Within the womb.
Intravenous adj. In or into a vein or veins. intravenously adv.
In-tray n. Tray for incoming documents.
Intrepid adj. Fearless; very brave. intrepidity n. Intrepidly adv. [latin trepidus alarmed]
Intricate adj. Very complicated; perplexingly detailed. intricacy n. (pl. -ies). Intricately adv. [latin: related to *in-2, tricae tricks]
Intrigue —v. (-gues, -gued, -guing) 1 (foll. By with) a carry on an underhand plot. B use secret influence. 2 arouse the curiosity of. —n. 1 underhand plot or plotting. 2 secret arrangement (amorous intrigues). intriguing adj. Esp. In sense 2 of v. Intriguingly adv. [french from italian intrigo]
Intro n. (pl. -s) colloq. Introduction. [abbreviation]
Intro-comb. Form into. [latin]
Introduce v. (-cing) 1 (foll. By to) make (a person or oneself) known by name to another, esp. Formally. 2 announce or present to an audience. 3 bring (a custom etc.) Into use. 4 bring (legislation) before parliament etc. 5 (foll. By to) initiate (a person) in a subject. 6 insert. 7 bring in; usher in; bring forward. 8 occur just before the start of. 9 put on sale for the first time. introducible adj. [latin duco
lead]
Introduction n. 1 introducing or being introduced. 2 formal presentation of one person to another. 3 explanatory section at the beginning of a book etc. 4 introductory treatise. 5 thing introduced.
Introductory adj. Serving as an introduction; preliminary.
Introit n. Psalm or antiphon sung or said as the priest approaches the altar for the eucharist. [latin introitus entrance]
Introspection n. Examination of one’s own thoughts. introspective adj. [latin specio spect-look]
Introvert —n. 1 person predominantly concerned with his or her own thoughts. 2 shy thoughtful person. —adj. (also introverted) characteristic of an introvert. introversion n.
Intrude v. (-ding) (foll. By on, upon, into) 1 come uninvited or unwanted. 2 force on a person. [latin trudo trus-thrust]
Intruder n. Person who intrudes, esp. A trespasser.
Intrusion n. 1 intruding. 2 influx of molten rock between existing strata etc.
intrusive adj.
Intrust var. Of *entrust.
Intuition n. Immediate insight or understanding without conscious reasoning. intuit v. Intuitional adj. [latin tueor tuit-look]
Intuitive adj. Of, possessing, or perceived by intuition. intuitively adv. Intuitiveness n. [medieval latin: related to *intuition]
Inuit n. (also innuit) (pl. Same or -s) n. American eskimo. [eskimo inuit people]
Inundate v. (-ting) (often foll. By with) 1 flood. 2 overwhelm. inundation n. [latin unda wave]
Inure v. (-ring) 1 (often in passive; foll. By to) accustom (a person) to an esp. Unpleasant thing. 2 law take effect. inurement n. [anglo-french: related to *in, eure work, from latin opera]
Invade v. (-ding) (often absol.) 1 enter (a country etc.) Under arms to control or subdue it. 2 swarm into. 3 (of a disease) attack. 4 encroach upon (a person’s rights, esp. Privacy). invader n. [latin vado vas-go]
Invalid1 —n. Person enfeebled or disabled by illness or injury. —attrib. Adj. 1 of or for invalids. 2 sick, disabled. —v. (-d-) 1 (often foll. By out etc.) Remove (an invalid) from active service. 2 (usu. In passive) disable (a person) by illness. invalidism n. Invalidityn. [latin: related to *in-1]
Invalid2 adj. Not valid. invalidity n.
Invalidate v. (-ting) make (a claim etc.) Invalid. invalidation n.
Invaluable adj. Above valuation; very valuable. invaluably adv.
Invasive adj. 1 (of weeds, cancer cells, etc.) Tending to spread. 2 (of surgery) involving large incisions etc. 3 tending to encroach.
Invective n. Strong verbal attack. [latin: related to *inveigh]
Inveigh v. (foll. By against) speak or write with strong hostility. [latin invehor – vect-assail]
Inveigle v. (-ling) (foll. By into, or to + infin.) Entice; persuade by guile. inveiglement n. [anglo-french from french aveugler to blind]
Invent v. 1 create by thought, originate (a method, device, etc.). 2 concoct (a false story etc.). inventor n. [latin invenio -vent-find]
false story etc.). inventor n. [latin invenio -vent-find]
Invention n. 1 inventing or being invented. 2 thing invented. 3 fictitious story. 4 inventiveness.
Inventive adj. Able to invent; imaginative. inventively adv. Inventiveness n.
Inventory —n. (pl. -ies) 1 complete list of goods etc. 2 goods listed in this. —v. (-ies, -ied) 1 make an inventory of. 2 enter (goods) in an inventory. [medieval latin: related to *invent]
Inverse —adj. Inverted in position, order, or relation. —n. 1 inverted state. 2 (often foll. By of) the direct opposite. [latin: related to *invert]
Inverse proportion n. (also inverse ratio) relation between two quantities such that one increases in proportion as the other decreases.
Inversion n. 1 turning upside down. 2 reversal of a normal order, position, or relation.
Invert v. 1 turn upside down. 2 reverse the position, order, or relation of. [latin verto vers-turn]
Invertebrate —adj. (of an animal) not having a backbone. —n. Invertebrate animal.
Inverted commas n.pl. = *quotation marks.
Invest v. 1 a (often foll. By in) apply or use (money), esp. For profit. B (foll. By in) put money for profit into (stocks etc.). 2 (often foll. By in) devote (time etc.) To an enterprise. 3 (foll. By in) colloq. Buy (something useful). 4 a (foll. By with) provide or credit (a person etc. With qualities) (invested her with magical importance; invested his tone with irony). B (foll. By in) attribute or entrust (qualities or feelings) to (a person etc.) (power invested in the doctor). 5 (often foll. By with, in) clothe with the insignia of office; install in an office. investor n. [latin vestis clothing]
Investigate v. (-ting) 1 inquire into; examine. 2 make a systematic inquiry. investigation n. Investigative adj. Investigator n. Investigatory adj. [latin vestigo track]
Investiture n. Formal investing of a person with honours or rank. [medieval latin:
related to *invest]
Investment n. 1 investing. 2 money invested. 3 property etc. In which money is invested.
Investment trust n. Trust that buys and sells shares in selected companies to make a profit for its members.
Inveterate adj. 1 (of a person) confirmed in a habit etc. 2 (of a habit etc.) Long-established. inveteracy n. [latin vetus old]
Invidious adj. Likely to cause resentment or anger (invidious position; invidious task). [latin invidiosus: related to *envy]
Invigilate v. (-ting) supervise people taking an exam. invigilation n. Invigilator n. [latin: related to *vigil]
Invigorate v. (-ting) give vigour or strength to. invigorating adj. [medieval latin:
related to *vigour]
Invincible adj. Unconquerable. invincibility n. Invincibly adv. [latin vinco conquer]
Inviolable adj. Not to be violated or dishonoured. inviolability n. Inviolably adv.
Inviolate adj. 1 not violated. 2 safe (from violation or harm). inviolacy n.
Invisible adj. Not visible to the eye. invisibility n. Invisibly adv.
Invitation n. 1 inviting or being invited. 2 letter or card etc. Used to invite.
Invite —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By to, or to + infin.) Ask (a person) courteously
Invite —v. (-ting) 1 (often foll. By to, or to + infin.) Ask (a person) courteously to come, or to do something. 2 make a formal courteous request for. 3 tend to call forth unintentionally. 4 a attract. B be attractive. —n. Colloq. Invitation. [latin invito]
In vitro adv. (of biological processes) taking place in a test-tube or other laboratory environment. [latin, = in glass]
Invocation n. 1 invoking or being invoked, esp. In prayer. 2 summoning of supernatural beings, e.g. The muses, for inspiration. 3 eccl. The words ‘in the name of the father’ etc. Used to preface a sermon etc. invocatory adj. [latin: related to *invoke]
Invoice —n. Bill for usu. Itemized goods or services. —v. (-cing) 1 send an invoice to. 2 make an invoice of. [earlier invoyes pl. Of invoy: related to *envoy]
Invoke v. (-king) 1 call on (a deity etc.) In prayer or as a witness. 2 appeal to (the law, a person’s authority, etc.). 3 summon (a spirit) by charms etc. 4 ask earnestly for (vengeance etc.). [latin voco call]
Involuntary adj. 1 done without exercising the will; unintentional. 2 (of a muscle) not under the control of the will. involuntarily adv. Involuntariness n.
Involute adj. 1 involved, intricate. 2 curled spirally. [latin: related to *involve]
Involuted adj. Complicated, abstruse.
Involution n. 1 involving. 2 intricacy. 3 curling inwards. 4 part that curls inwards.
Involve v. (-ving) 1 (often foll. By in) cause (a person or thing) to share the experience or effect (of a situation, activity, etc.). 2 imply, entail, make necessary. 3 (often foll. By in) implicate (a person) in a charge, crime, etc. 4 include or affect in its operations. 5 (as involved adj.) A (often foll. By in) concerned. B complicated in thought or form. C amorously associated. involvement n. [latin volvo roll]
Invulnerable adj. That cannot be wounded, damaged, or hurt, physically or mentally. invulnerability n. Invulnerably adv.
Inward —adj. 1 directed towards the inside; going in. 2 situated within. 3 mental, spiritual. —adv. (also inwards) 1 towards the inside. 2 in the mind or soul. [old english: related to in, -ward]
Inwardly adv. 1 on the inside. 2 in the mind or soul. 3 not aloud.
Inwrought adj. 1 (often foll. By with) (of a fabric) decorated (with a pattern). 2 (often foll. By in, on) (of a pattern) wrought (in or on a fabric).
Iodide n. Any compound of iodine with another element or group.
Iodine n. 1 black crystalline element forming a violet vapour. 2 solution of this as an antiseptic. [french iode from greek iodes violet-like]
Iom abbr. Isle of man.
Ion n. Atom or group of atoms that has lost one or more electrons (= *cation), or gained one or more electrons (= *anion). [greek, = going]
-ion suffix (usu. As -sion, -tion, -xion) forming nouns denoting: 1 verbal action (excision). 2 instance of this (a suggestion). 3 resulting state or product (vexation; concoction). [latin -io]
Ionic adj. Of the order of greek architecture characterized by a column with scroll-shapes on either side of the capital. [from ionia in greek asia minor]
Ionic adj. Of or using ions. ionically adv.
Ionize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) convert or be converted into an ion or ions.
ionization n.
Ionizer n. Device producing ions to improve the quality of the air.
Ionosphere n. Ionized region of the atmosphere above the stratosphere, reflecting radio waves. ionospheric adj.
Iota n. 1 ninth letter of the greek alphabet (i, i). 2 (usu. With neg.) A jot. [greek iota]
Iou n. Signed document acknowledging a debt. [from i owe you]
Iow abbr. Isle of wight.
Ipa abbr. International phonetic alphabet.
Ipecacuanha n. Root of a s. American shrub, used as an emetic and purgative. [portuguese from s. American indian, = emetic creeper]
Ipso facto adv. By that very fact. [latin]
Iq abbr. Intelligence quotient.
Ir-prefix assim. Form of in-1, in-2 before r.
Ira abbr. Irish republican army.
Iranian —adj. 1 of iran (formerly persia). 2 of the group of languages including persian. —n. 1 native or national of iran. 2 person of iranian descent.
persian. —n. 1 native or national of iran. 2 person of iranian descent.
Iraqi —adj. Of iraq. —n. (pl. -s) 1 a native or national of iraq. B person of iraqi descent. 2 the form of arabic spoken in iraq.
Irascible adj. Irritable; hot-tempered. irascibility n. Irascibly adv. [latin irascor grow angry, from ira anger]
Irate adj. Angry, enraged. irately adv. Irateness n. [latin iratus from ira anger]
Ire n. Literary anger. [latin ira]
Iridaceous adj. Of the iris family of plants.
Iridescent adj. 1 showing rainbow-like luminous colours. 2 changing colour with position. iridescence n.
Iridium n. Hard white metallic element of the platinum group.
Iris n. 1 circular coloured membrane behind the cornea of the eye, with a circular opening (pupil) in the centre. 2 plant of a family with bulbs or tuberous roots, sword-shaped leaves, and showy flowers. 3 adjustable diaphragm for regulating the size of a central hole, esp. For the admission of light to a lens. [greek iris iridos rainbow]
Irish —adj. Of ireland or its people. —n. 1 celtic language of ireland. 2 (prec. By
the; treated as pl.) The people of ireland. [old english]
Irish bull n. = *bull3.
Irish coffee n. Coffee with a dash of whiskey and a little sugar, topped with cream.
Irishman n. Man who is irish by birth or descent.
Irish stew n. Stew of mutton, potato, and onion.
Irishwoman n. Woman who is irish by birth or descent.
Irk v. Irritate, bore, annoy. [origin unknown]
Irksome adj. Annoying, tiresome. irksomely adv.
Iron —n. 1 grey metallic element used for tools and constructions and found in some foods, e.g. Spinach. 2 this as a symbol of strength or firmness (man of iron; iron will). 3 tool made of iron. 4 implement with a flat base which is heated to smooth clothes etc. 5 golf club with an iron or steel sloping face. 6 (usu. In pl.) Fetter. 7 (usu. In pl.) Stirrup. 8 (often in pl.) Iron support for a malformed leg. —adj. 1 made of iron. 2 very robust. 3 unyielding, merciless. —v. Smooth (clothes etc.) With an iron. iron out remove (difficulties etc.). [old english]
Iron age n. Period when iron replaced bronze in the making of tools and weapons.
Ironclad —adj. 1 clad or protected with iron. 2 impregnable. —n. Hist. Warship protected by iron plates.
Iron cross n. German military decoration.
Iron curtain n. Hist. Former notional barrier to the passage of people and information between the soviet bloc and the west.
Ironic adj. (also ironical) using or displaying irony. ironically adv.
Ironing n. Clothes etc. For ironing or just ironed.
Ironing-board n. Narrow folding table on which clothes etc. Are ironed.
Iron in the fire n. Undertaking, opportunity (usu. In pl.: too many irons in the fire).
Iron lung n. Rigid case fitted over a patient’s body for administering prolonged artificial respiration.
Ironmaster n. Manufacturer of iron.
Ironmonger n. Dealer in hardware etc. ironmongery n. (pl. -ies).
Iron rations n.pl. Small emergency supply of food.
Ironstone n. 1 rock containing much iron. 2 a kind of hard white pottery.
Ironware n. Articles made of iron.
Ironwork n. 1 things made of iron. 2 work in iron.
Ironworks n. (as sing. Or pl.) Factory where iron is smelted or iron goods are made.
Irony n. (pl. -ies) 1 expression of meaning, often humorous or sarcastic, using language of a different or opposite tendency. 2 apparent perversity of an event or circumstance in reversing human intentions. 3 theatr. Use of language with one meaning for a privileged audience and another for those addressed or concerned. [greek eironeia pretended ignorance]
Irradiate v. (-ting) 1 subject to radiation. 2 shine upon; light up. 3 throw light on (a subject). irradiation n. [latin irradio shine on, from radius ray]
Irrational adj. 1 illogical; unreasonable. 2 not endowed with reason. 3 math. Not commensurate with the natural numbers. irrationality n. Irrationally adv.
Irrecoverable adj. Not able to be recovered or remedied. irrecoverably adv.
Irredeemable adj. 1 not able to be redeemed. 2 hopeless. irredeemably adv.
Irredentist n. Person advocating the restoration to his or her country of any territory formerly belonging to it. irredentism n. [italian irredenta unredeemed]
Irreducible adj. Not able to be reduced or simplified. irreducibility n. Irreducibly adv.
Irrefutable adj. That cannot be refuted. irrefutably adv.
Irregular —adj. 1 not regular; unsymmetrical, uneven; varying in form. 2 not occurring at regular intervals. 3 contrary to a rule, principle, or custom; abnormal. 4 (of troops) not belonging to the regular army. 5 (of a verb, noun, etc.) Not inflected according to the usual rules. 6 disorderly. —n. (in pl.) Irregular troops. irregularity n. (pl. -ies). Irregularly adv.
Irrelevant adj. (often foll. By to) not relevant. irrelevance n. Irrelevancy n. (pl. –
ies).
Irreligious adj. Lacking or hostile to religion; irreverent.
Irremediable adj. That cannot be remedied. irremediably adv.
Irremovable adj. That cannot be removed. irremovably adv.
Irreparable adj. (of an injury, loss, etc.) That cannot be rectified or made good.
irreparably adv.
Irreplaceable adj. That cannot be replaced.
Irrepressible adj. That cannot be repressed or restrained. irrepressibly adv.
Irrigate v. (-ting) 1 a water (land) by means of channels etc. B (of a stream etc.) Supply (land) with water. 2 supply (a wound etc.) With a constant flow of liquid. irrigable adj. Irrigation n. Irrigator n. [latin rigo moisten]
Irritable adj. 1 easily annoyed. 2 (of an organ etc.) Very sensitive to contact. irritability n. Irritably adv. [latin: related to *irritate]
Irritate v. (-ting) 1 excite to anger; annoy. 2 stimulate discomfort in (a part of the body). 3 biol. Stimulate (an organ) to action. irritating adj. Irritation n. Irritative adj. [latin irrito]
Irrupt v. (foll. By into) enter forcibly or violently. irruption n. [latin: related to *rupture]
Is 3rd sing. Present of *be.
Isbn abbr. International standard book number.
-ise var. Of *-ize.
Usage see note at -ize.
-ish suffix forming adjectives: 1 from nouns, meaning: a having the qualities of (boyish). B of the nationality of (danish). 2 from adjectives, meaning ‘somewhat’ (thickish). 3 colloq. Denoting an approximate age or time of day (fortyish; six-thirtyish). [old english]
Isinglass n. 1 gelatin obtained from fish, esp. Sturgeon, and used in making jellies, glue, etc. 2 mica. [dutch huisenblas sturgeon’s bladder]
Islam n. 1 the religion of the muslims, proclaimed by muhammad. 2 the muslim world. islamic adj. [arabic, = submission (to god)]
Island n. 1 piece of land surrounded by water. 2 = traffic island. 3 detached or isolated thing. [old english igland; first syllable influenced by isle]
Islander n. Native or inhabitant of an island.
Isle n. Poet. (and in place-names) island, esp. A small one. [french ile from latin insula]
Islet n. 1 small island. 2 anat. Structurally distinct portion of tissue. [french diminutive of *isle]
Ism n. Colloq. Usu. Derog. Any distinctive doctrine or practice. [from *-ism]
-ism suffix forming nouns, esp. Denoting: 1 action or its result (baptism; organism). 2 system or principle (conservatism; jingoism). 3 state or quality (heroism; barbarism). 4 basis of prejudice or discrimination (racism; sexism). 5 peculiarity in language (americanism). [greek -ismos]
Isn’t contr. Is not.
Iso-comb. Form equal. [greek isos equal]
Isobar n. Line on a map connecting places with the same atmospheric pressure. isobaric adj. [greek baros weight]
Isochronous adj. 1 occurring at the same time. 2 occupying equal time.
Isolate v. (-ting) 1 a place apart or alone. B place (a contagious or infectious patient etc.) In quarantine. 2 separate (a substance) from a mixture. 3 insulate (electrical apparatus), esp. By a physical gap; disconnect. isolation n. [latin insulatus made into an island]
Isolationism n. Policy of holding aloof from the affairs of other countries or groups. isolationist n.
Isomer n. One of two or more compounds with the same molecular formula but a different arrangement of atoms. isomeric adj. Isomerism n. [greek *iso-, meros share]
Isometric adj. 1 of equal measure. 2 (of muscle action) developing tension while the muscle is prevented from contracting. 3 (of a drawing etc.) With the plane of projection at equal angles to the three principal axes of the object shown. [greek isometria equality of measure]
Isomorphic adj. (also isomorphous) exactly corresponding in form and relations. [from *iso-, greek morphe form]
Isosceles adj. (of a triangle) having two sides equal. [from *iso-, greek skelos leg]
Isotherm n. Line on a map connecting places with the same temperature. isothermal adj. [from *iso-, greek therme heat]
Isotope n. One of two or more forms of an element differing from each other in relative atomic mass, and in nuclear but not chemical properties. isotopic adj. [from *iso-, greek topos place]
Isotropic adj. Having the same physical properties in all directions. isotropy n. [from *iso-, greek tropos turn]
Israeli —adj. Of the modern state of israel. —n. (pl. -s) 1 native or national of israel. 2 person of israeli descent. [hebrew]
Israelite n. Hist. Native of ancient israel; jew. [hebrew]
Issue —n. 1 a act of giving out or circulating shares, notes, stamps, etc. B quantity of coins, copies of a newspaper, etc., circulated at one time. C each of a regular series of a magazine etc. (the may issue). 2 a outgoing, outflow. B way out, outlet, esp. The place of the emergence of a stream etc. 3 point in question; important subject of debate or litigation. 4 result; outcome. 5 law children, progeny (without male issue). —v. (issues, issued, issuing) 1 literary go or come out. 2 a send forth; publish; put into circulation. B supply, esp. Officially or authoritatively (foll. By to, with: issued passports to them; issued them with passports). 3 a (often foll. By from) be derived or result. B (foll. By in) end, result. 4 (foll. By from) emerge from a condition. at issue under discussion; in dispute. Join (or take) issue (foll. By with a person etc., about, on, over a subject) disagree or argue. [latin exitus: related to *exit]
-ist suffix forming personal nouns denoting: 1 adherent of a system etc. In -ism: (marxist; fatalist). 2 person pursuing, using, or concerned with something as an interest or profession (balloonist; tobacconist). 3 person who does something expressed by a verb in -ize (plagiarist). 4 person who subscribes to a prejudice or practises discrimination (racist; sexist). [greek -istes]
Isthmus n. (pl. -es) narrow piece of land connecting two larger bodies of land. [greek isthmos]
It abbr. Information technology.
It pron. (poss. Its; pl. They) 1 thing (or occasionally an animal or child) previously named or in question (took a stone and threw it). 2 person in question (who is it? It is i). 3 as the subject of an impersonal verb (it is raining; it is winter; it is two miles to bath). 4 as a substitute for a deferred subject or object (it is silly to talk like that; i take it that you agree). 5 as a substitute for a vague object (brazen it out). 6 as the antecedent to a relative word or clause (it was an owl that i heard). 7 exactly what is needed. 8 extreme limit of achievement. 9 colloq. A sexual intercourse. B sex appeal. 10 (in children’s games) player who has to perform a required feat. that’s it colloq. That is: 1 what is required. 2 the difficulty. 3 the end, enough. [old english]
Italian —n. 1 a native or national of italy. B person of italian descent. 2 romance language of italy. —adj. Of or relating to italy.
Italianate adj. Of italian style or appearance.
Italian vermouth n. Sweet kind of vermouth.
Italic —adj. 1 a of the sloping kind of letters now used esp. For emphasis and in foreign words. B (of handwriting) compact and pointed like early italian handwriting. 2 (italic) of ancient italy. —n. 1 letter in italic type. 2 this type. [latin italicus: related to *italian]
Italicize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) print in italics.
Itch —n. 1 irritation in the skin. 2 impatient desire. 3 (prec. By the) (in general use) scabies. —v. 1 feel an irritation in the skin. 2 feel a desire to do something (itching to tell you). [old english]
Itching palm n. Avarice.
Itchy adj. (-ier, -iest) having or causing an itch. have itchy feet colloq. 1 be restless. 2 have a strong urge to travel. itchiness n.
It’d contr. Colloq. 1 it had. 2 it would.
-ite suffix forming nouns meaning ‘a person or thing connected with’ (israelite; trotskyite; graphite; dynamite). [greek -ites]
Item n. 1 any of a number of enumerated things. 2 separate or distinct piece of news etc. [latin, = in like manner]
Itemize v. (also -ise) (-zing or -sing) state item by item. itemization n.
Iterate v. (-ting) repeat; state repeatedly. iteration n. Iterative adj. [latin iterum again]
-itic suffix forming adjectives and nouns corresponding to nouns in -ite, -itis, etc. (semitic; arthritic). [latin -iticus, greek -itikos]
Itinerant —adj. Travelling from place to place. —n. Itinerant person. [latin iter itiner-journey]
Itinerary n. (pl. -ies) 1 detailed route. 2 record of travel. 3 guidebook.
-itis suffix forming nouns, esp.: 1 names of inflammatory diseases (appendicitis). 2 colloq. With ref. To conditions compared to diseases (electionitis). [greek]
It’ll contr. Colloq. It will; it shall.
Its poss. Pron. Of it; of itself.
It’s contr. 1 it is. 2 it has.
Itself pron. Emphatic and refl. Form of it. be itself see oneself. By itself see by oneself. In itself viewed in its essential qualities (not in itself a bad thing). [old english: related to it, self]
Itv abbr. Independent television.
-ity suffix forming nouns denoting: 1 quality or condition (humility; purity). 2 instance of this (monstrosity). [latin -itas]
Iud abbr. Intrauterine (contraceptive) device.
I’ve contr. I have.
-ive suffix forming adjectives meaning ‘tending to’, and corresponding nouns (suggestive; corrosive; palliative). [latin -ivus]
Ivf abbr. In vitro fertilization.
Ivory n. (pl. -ies) 1 hard substance of the tusks of an elephant etc. 2 creamy-white colour of this. 3 (usu. In pl.) A article made of ivory. B slang thing made of or resembling ivory, esp. A piano key or a tooth. [latin ebur]
Ivory tower n. Seclusion or withdrawal from the harsh realities of life (often attrib.: ivory tower professors).
Ivy n. (pl. -ies) climbing evergreen shrub with shiny five-angled leaves. [old english]
-ize suffix (also -ise) forming verbs, meaning: 1 make or become such (americanize; realize). 2 treat in such a way (monopolize; pasteurize). 3 a follow a special practice (economize). B have a specified feeling (sympathize). -ization suffix forming nouns. [greek -izo]
Usage the form -ize has been in use in english since the 16th c.; it is widely used in american english, but is not an americanism. The alternative spelling -ise (reflecting a french influence) is in common use, esp. In british english, and is obligatory in certain cases: (a) where it forms part of a larger word-element, such as -mise (= sending) in compromise, and -prise (= taking) in surprise; and (b) in verbs corresponding to nouns with -s-in the stem, such as advertise and televise.
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These sources explore the C programming language, drawing comparisons to Python to highlight key differences and similarities. The materials emphasize C’s historical significance and its role in the development of other languages. Topics covered include syntax, data structures (like linked lists, trees, and hashmaps), pointers, memory management, and the C pre-processor. The goal is to understand the low-level implementations that enable higher-level languages like Python to function. Practical examples demonstrate concepts such as file input/output and the building of fundamental data structures in C. The materials acknowledge C’s complexities and potential pitfalls, like buffer overflows, but stress its importance in grasping computer science fundamentals.
Operating Systems, C Programming, and Data Structures: A Comprehensive Study Guide
I. Quiz
1. What was the significance of the 1973 rewrite of Unix in C? 2. How did the University of California, Berkeley (BSD) contribute to the development and popularization of Unix? 3. Explain the difference between Minix and Linux, and why Linux became more successful. 4. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using scanf in C compared to Python’s input methods? 5. Explain what a buffer overflow is and why it’s a security risk in C programming. 6. Explain the difference between internal static and external static variables in C. 7. Describe the role of the “size of” operator in C and why it’s important for dynamic memory allocation. 8. Briefly explain the concept of pointer arithmetic in C, and why it is not as simple as regular arithmetic. 9. What are the benefits of using assignment operators like += in C, according to the text? 10. How does C simulate object-oriented programming principles even without native object-oriented features?
Quiz Answer Key
1. Rewriting Unix in C made the operating system more portable, allowing it to run on different hardware architectures, a key factor in its widespread adoption. 2. BSD Unix distributed networking protocols such as TCP/IP which aided the growth of the internet. 3. Minix was a free operating system used for education. Linux became commercially viable due to its GNU Public Library license. 4. scanf is more low-level and requires format specifiers, while Python’s input is higher-level and easier to use but may require type conversion; scanf continues processing data and has no stop at end of line. 5. A buffer overflow occurs when a program writes data beyond the allocated memory of an array, potentially overwriting other data or code and leading to security vulnerabilities. 6. Internal static variables retain their value between function calls but are only accessible within that function, while external static variables are accessible within the file in which they are declared but not in other files. 7. The size of operator determines the memory size in bytes of a variable or data type. 8. Pointer arithmetic adjusts memory addresses based on the size of the data type being pointed to, so adding 1 to an int pointer increments the address by the size of an int rather than a single byte. 9. Assignment operators like += are more concise and may allow the compiler to generate more efficient code, as they only evaluate the left-hand side expression once. 10. C achieves object-oriented concepts like encapsulation and polymorphism through structures with function pointers, naming conventions, and explicit passing of the structure as the first argument to the functions that operate on it.
II. Essay Questions
1. Discuss the evolution of operating systems from Multics to Unix to Linux. What were the key innovations and shortcomings of each?
2. Explain the significance of portability in the context of operating systems and programming languages, using Unix and C as primary examples.
3. Compare and contrast C’s approach to arrays with that of other languages, such as Python and Java, focusing on dynamic resizing and memory management.
4. Analyze the trade-offs between structured programming and avoiding “goto” statements in C. How does C balance these two paradigms?
5. Describe how C achieves object-oriented programming principles, such as encapsulation and polymorphism, without native object-oriented language constructs. Discuss the limitations and advantages of this approach.
III. Glossary of Key Terms
Unix: An operating system developed in the 1970s known for its portability, multi-user capabilities, and influence on subsequent operating systems.
C: A programming language developed in conjunction with Unix, known for its efficiency, portability, and low-level access to hardware.
BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution): A Unix distribution developed at the University of California, Berkeley, that contributed significantly to networking and TCP/IP protocols.
Minix: An educational operating system created by Andrew Tanenbaum that served as an inspiration for Linux.
Linux: A free and open-source operating system kernel that has become the dominant operating system in many areas, particularly servers and embedded systems.
Portability: The ability of software to run on different hardware platforms or operating systems with minimal modification.
Assembly Language: A low-level programming language that is specific to a particular computer architecture.
TCP/IP: A suite of communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on the internet.
Buffer Overflow: A security vulnerability that occurs when a program writes data beyond the allocated memory of a buffer.
Static Variable: A variable with a limited scope (either within a function or a file) and a lifetime that persists throughout the execution of the program.
size of Operator: An operator in C that returns the size, in bytes, of a variable or data type.
Pointer Arithmetic: The manipulation of memory addresses using arithmetic operations, taking into account the size of the data type being pointed to.
Assignment Operator: A shorthand notation (e.g., +=, -=) that combines an arithmetic operation with assignment.
Conditional Expression: A compact way to express an if-else statement using the ternary operator ?:.
Function Pointer: A variable that stores the memory address of a function, allowing functions to be passed as arguments to other functions or stored in data structures.
Structure: A composite data type that groups together variables of different data types under a single name.
Dynamic Memory Allocation: The process of allocating memory during the runtime of a program, as opposed to at compile time.
malloc: A standard library function in C used to allocate a block of memory dynamically.
free: A standard library function in C used to deallocate a block of memory previously allocated with malloc.
Linked List: A data structure in which elements are linked together using pointers.
Tree: A hierarchical data structure in which each node can have zero or more child nodes.
Hash Table: A data structure that uses a hash function to map keys to values for efficient retrieval.
Iterator: An object that allows you to traverse the elements of a container (e.g., a list, a tree) in a sequential manner.
Object-Oriented Programming: A programming paradigm based on the concept of “objects,” which contain data and methods that operate on that data.
Encapsulation: Bundling data and methods that operate on that data within a single unit (e.g., a class or structure).
Polymorphism: The ability of objects of different classes to respond to the same method call in their own specific ways.
Call by Reference: A method of passing arguments to a function where the function can directly modify the original variable passed in.
Function: A block of organized, reusable code that performs a specific task.
C, Operating Systems, and Foundational Computer Science
Okay, here’s a briefing document summarizing the key themes and ideas from the provided text excerpts:
Briefing Document: Analysis of Operating Systems, Programming Languages (C, Python), Data Structures, and Software Design
Overall Theme: This document explores the historical evolution and underlying principles of operating systems (specifically Unix and Linux), the C programming language, its influence on other languages like Python and Java, fundamental data structures, and object-oriented programming concepts. The author uses a narrative style, drawing on personal experience and comparing different approaches to problem-solving in computer science. A recurring theme is the trade-offs in language design and the importance of understanding low-level details even when using high-level languages.
Key Ideas and Facts:
Unix History and Portability:Unix was developed in the 1970s, evolving from the Multics project.
Portability was a design goal, with Unix being rewritten in C to facilitate this: “in 1973 Unix was Rewritten in C but it only was there on the pdp11 although they had laid the groundwork for portability from the beginning.”
Early challenges involved adapting Unix to different architectures, such as the Interdata 8/32.
BSD Unix from UC Berkeley was significant for introducing networking (TCP/IP).
Sun Microsystems played a key role in popularizing Unix workstations.
AT&T’s lack of a clear business plan hindered the commercial success of Unix.
Minix and the Birth of Linux:Andrew Tanenbaum created Minix as a free, open-source operating system for educational purposes.
Linus Torvalds developed Linux as a fresh implementation of a Unix-like kernel, adopting the GPL license: “in 1991 a program called lonus Torvalds decided he was going to build a fresh groundup implementation of the Unix kernel that was 100% free.”
Linux, due to its open-source nature, eventually surpassed Unix in market share: “Linux has become Unix right Linux in the modern world is the Unix like system and Unix tried to hold on for a while but they really really couldn’t.”
The C Programming Language:C was a byte-oriented language, a significant shift from earlier word-oriented languages like B. “the C language came from B and became a bite oriented language and so C sort of like said we’re going to do bite and dressing”
Arrays in C are not dynamically resizable, leading to potential buffer overflows.
C provides bitwise operators for low-level manipulation of data.
C provides specific operators such as & bitwise AND and && for logical AND. There are nuances in the order of evaluation that can be significant in certain expressions.
The switch statement is presented as a multi-way decision maker, but the author expresses some reservations about its use.
C uses semicolon for end of line.
C has loop structures (while, for, do while).
C’s Influence on Other Languages:Python’s open() function is inspired by C’s fopen().
Many C conventions, such as the use of || and && for logical operators, have been adopted by other languages.
Java adopted C-like syntax for arrays but also provides dynamic list structures.
Concepts from C are present in TCP/IP implementations and encryption algorithms in other languages.
Data Structures and Algorithms:Arrays are a fundamental data structure in C, but their fixed size can be limiting.
Linked lists are crucial for dynamic memory allocation and building data structures like Python’s lists.
The discussion covers base conversion algorithms (decimal to octal/hexadecimal) using the modulo operator.
Binary search is presented as an example of a three-way decision process suitable for else if constructs.
Trees, hashMaps and ListMaps are discussed as dictionary data structures.
Memory Management:C provides functions like malloc() and free() for dynamic memory allocation.
The concept of “call by reference” is explored, contrasting C’s approach (using pointers) with languages like Python (which primarily use call by value).
“Static” keyword in C has multiple meanings with internal static being local to a function and external static being known to a source file.
Pointers and Addressing:Pointers are a central concept in C, allowing direct manipulation of memory addresses. “pointers gives us the ability to do call by reference”
Pointer arithmetic is type-aware, incrementing based on the size of the data type being pointed to: “if you add one to a character pointer that actually adds one to the address and if you add one to an integer pointer then it adds four”.
The “arrow operator” (->) provides a concise way to access members of structures through pointers.
Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) in C:The author demonstrates how to simulate OOP concepts in C using structures and function pointers.
Naming conventions are used to mimic methods and constructors: “…we’re going to name the dump function and the dump function is going to take a self parameter and we’re going to name it pointcore dump that’s just a naming convention.”
The code illustrates how to implement dynamic data structures like linked lists using dynamic memory allocation.
The Importance of Low-Level Understanding:The author emphasizes that understanding how bits are stored and manipulated is crucial, even with modern high-level languages.
Language Design Tradeoffs:The document implicitly highlights the trade-offs between language features (e.g., operator overloading, call by reference) and complexity in memory management and language implementation.
Quotes: I have incorporated quotes throughout the summary above.
In Conclusion: The document presents a rich overview of core computer science concepts, focusing on the C programming language as a foundation for understanding operating systems, data structures, and the evolution of programming paradigms. The author’s perspective provides valuable insights into the design choices behind different languages and the continuing relevance of low-level knowledge.
Unix, C, and Operating System Development: An Overview
FAQ
1. What is Unix and why is it important?
Unix is an operating system that emerged in the 1970s, known for its multi-user capabilities and portability. It was initially rewritten in C, a programming language that facilitated its adaptation to different computer architectures. Unix played a crucial role in shaping modern operating systems, introducing concepts like networking (TCP/IP) and influencing the development of BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution), which pioneered many advancements. Although AT&T struggled to monetize Unix effectively, its impact on computer science education and the subsequent rise of Unix workstations cemented its place in computing history.
2. How did Minix and Linux emerge in relation to Unix?
Minix, developed by Andrew Tanenbaum, was a free and open-source operating system created for educational purposes. While popular, Tanenbaum initially restricted commercialization. In 1991, Linus Torvalds independently created Linux, a Unix-like kernel, under the GPL (GNU Public License). This licensing allowed for community investment and development, eventually leading to Linux becoming the dominant “Unix” system in the modern marketplace, surpassing the original Unix distributions.
3. What is C’s significance in the context of operating systems and portability?
The C programming language played a pivotal role in making Unix portable. As C evolved, it enabled the rewriting of Unix code to contain less assembly language, resulting in a more adaptable operating system. C’s influence extends to many later languages (like Python, Java, JavaScript and PHP) which adopted C conventions for logical and bitwise operators.
4. How did the PC revolution impact the adoption of Unix?
While Unix was gaining popularity, the rise of personal computers (PCs) with operating systems like DOS and early versions of Windows presented competition. This meant Unix wasn’t universally adopted in professional settings during the early 1980s. However, as microprocessor speeds increased, smaller companies began producing Unix workstations that eventually outperformed older mainframe computers.
5. How do C arrays differ from Python lists, and what are the implications?
C arrays have a fixed size determined at compile time, and their size cannot be dynamically adjusted during program execution. This limitation can lead to buffer overflows, a class of security vulnerabilities. Python lists, in contrast, can automatically resize as elements are added or removed at runtime.
6. What are the common uses of bitwise operators in C, and why are they important?
Bitwise operators in C, such as AND (&), OR (|), XOR (^), left shift (<<), and right shift (>>), allow for direct manipulation of individual bits within data. They are crucial for tasks like masking bits, setting bits, and performing efficient multiplication or division by powers of two. While they might seem less relevant in modern high-level programming, bitwise operators remain essential for low-level programming, implementing networking protocols (like TCP/IP), encryption algorithms, and checksum calculations. The fact that Java and Python support bitwise operators in the same way C does made it possible to write portable code.
7. How does C support structured programming, and what alternatives exist?
C supports structured programming through constructs like if-then-else, else if, while, do loops, which promote code readability and maintainability by avoiding “spaghetti code” created by extensive use of goto statements. C’s approach represents a middle ground, allowing both structured and less-structured coding styles. However, the switch statement can act as a multi-way decision branch which is an alternative to structured constructs, though it should be used sparingly and with caution to prevent fall through errors.
8. How does C’s approach to pointers enable “call by reference,” and what are some alternative approaches in other languages?
C enables “call by reference” by allowing functions to receive memory addresses as arguments (pointers). By dereferencing these pointers within the function, it can directly modify the original data in the calling scope. Pascal also directly supports call by reference with the VAR keyword. While Python, Java, and Javascript lack explicit call-by-reference features, they allow modification of mutable objects passed as arguments. Some languages, like PHP and C#, provide syntax or mechanisms (e.g. ref keyword in C#) to achieve similar effects while maintaining code clarity and safety. Returning tuples is another way to effectively return more than one value from a Python function and thus emulate some of the effects of call by reference.
Python Lists: Implementation and Evolution
Here’s what the sources say about Python lists:
Python lists emulate the list class in C.
When building a list object, an object-oriented approach can hide implementation details within the object.
When creating a new list (Pylist new), memory is dynamically allocated to make it work. The head and tail are set to null, indicating an empty list. The count is set to zero.
In Python, a list is a mutable data structure.
Python 1.0 Lists:
In Python 1.0, lists were implemented as extendable arrays of pointers, not linked lists.
The Python 1.0 list has an allocation and a length, as well as an array of pointers.
The allocation is how many characters were allocated, and the length is how many of those have been used. A zero byte is automatically put at the end.
The structure of the Python 1.0 list is simpler than a linked list because there is only one structure.
If there is room to append, a new string is allocated, the parameter is copied into that string, and wherever the end is, length tells where the end is, it is put in that position and one is added to the length.
When extending a list, realloc is used.
If memory needs to be reallocated, the items that were in it before are copied if a new pointer is returned.
Python 3.7 Lists:
Python 3.7 uses an integer array for its index.
Additional details:
In C, next is a common convention (but not a keyword) used when creating linked lists.
The destructor is trickier because it requires going through the list and freeing up all of the text areas, not just the structure list nodes, and also the character text has to be removed.
There is an infinite array of optimizations to make everything faster.
C Language: Memory Allocation Strategies and Concepts
Here’s what the sources say about memory allocation:
C requires programmers to handle memory allocation manually, unlike languages like Python, JavaScript, and Java that have automatic memory management.
Understanding data allocation and location is crucial in all programming languages.
C’s memory allocation is closely tied to pointers.
In C, memory allocation can be done statically or dynamically.
Key Concepts & Functions:
malloc(): Allocates a block of memory at runtime. It returns a pointer to the allocated memory. The programmer is responsible for specifying the size of the memory block needed.
free(): Deallocates memory that was previously allocated with malloc(). It is crucial to free memory when it is no longer needed to prevent memory leaks.
realloc(): Changes the size of a previously allocated block of memory. It can expand or shrink the memory block. If it expands the memory and there is not enough contiguous space, it may copy the contents to a new location.
Memory Allocation Strategies:
Static Allocation: Memory is allocated at compile time, and the size is fixed.
Dynamic Allocation: Memory is allocated at runtime, allowing for more flexibility in memory usage. Dynamic allocation is essential when the amount of memory needed is not known at compile time.
Memory allocation in the context of C and data structures:
Arrays: When allocating memory for arrays, the size must be known.
Structures: The sizeof operator is used to determine the size in bytes of a structure or data type, which is needed when allocating memory for it.
Linked Lists: Nodes in a linked list are dynamically allocated. Each node contains data and a pointer to the next node in the list.
Strings: In C, strings are often represented as character arrays. Dynamic memory allocation allows strings to grow or shrink as needed.
Hash tables: Memory is allocated using malloc for the key and value.
Python List: Python’s list object in early versions, allocated memory using realloc.
Memory allocation sizes: Integers are 16 bits on some computers and 32 bits on others. Addresses are generally positive numbers that start from zero.
Security: The gets function is prone to buffer overflow, because it doesn’t check bounds.
C Character Arrays: Concepts, Functions, and Usage
Here’s what the sources say about character arrays:
In C, character arrays are used to represent strings [1-6].
Unlike some other languages, C doesn’t have a built-in string object type [2, 7].
Character arrays in C are not automatically resizable [2, 7, 8].
The C language is responsible for many security holes due to coding practices regarding character arrays [7].
Here’s what you need to know about character arrays:
Declaration: When declaring a character array, its size must be specified at allocation time [2, 3, 7, 8]. For example: char line [1, 3].
Fixed Length: Character arrays have a fixed length, and they do not auto-extend [1, 7].
Potential for buffer overflow: Writing beyond the allocated size of a character array can lead to a buffer overflow, potentially causing the program to crash or create security vulnerabilities [1, 5, 7]. This can happen if you try to input more characters into the array than it can hold [1, 5].
No String Object: C does not have a built-in string object. Character arrays are used as strings [2, 7].
String Literals:
Double quotes are used to define string literals, which are character arrays [6, 7].
A string constant like “I am a string” is internally represented as an array of characters, terminated by a null character (\0) [6].
Single vs. Double Quotes: In C, single quotes denote a single character, while double quotes create a character array [7].
Character Representation: Characters in C are essentially integers [3, 7]. They have numeric representations based on the character set being used (e.g., ASCII) [2, 3, 7].
String Termination:
Strings in C are terminated by a null character (\0), which is a character with the integer value of zero [2, 6]. This null terminator is crucial for functions that process strings, as they use it to determine the end of the string [2].
Passing Character Arrays to Functions:
When passing a character array to a function, you’re actually passing the address of the first element of the array [8, 9].
Within the function, the argument can be treated as a pointer to characters [8, 9].
When declaring a character array as a function parameter without specifying its size, it means that the array’s length is determined in the calling code [10, 11].
Common Operations and Functions:
scanf(): Can be used to read a string from input [1]. It’s important to limit the number of characters read to prevent buffer overflows [1, 5].
fgets(): A safer alternative to scanf() for reading strings, as it allows specifying the maximum number of characters to read.
strlen(): Calculates the length of a string (excluding the null terminator) by iterating through the array until it finds the null character [2, 9].
strcpy(): Copies one string to another [6, 11]. A pointer version of strcpy increments pointers as it copies [6].
strcmp(): Compares two strings lexicographically [6, 11].
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
int main() {
char name; // Character array to store a name
printf(“Enter your name: “);
scanf(“%99s”, name); // Read up to 99 characters to prevent overflow. %s expects a char* argument. No ampersand needed.
printf(“Hello, %s!\n”, name);
return 0;
}
Pointers and Character Arrays: The name of an array is treated as a pointer, so there is no need for an ampersand (&) [1, 8, 9].
char *message declares message as a pointer to a character [6]. message = “Now is the time”; assigns message to point to the character array [6].
Initialization:
Character arrays can be initialized with a string literal [12]:
char month_name[] = {
“Illegal”,
“January”,
“February”,
“March”
};
If the size of the array is not specified, the compiler will determine the size based on the initializer [12].
Multi-dimensional arrays:
Elements are stored by rows [11, 12].
When passing a two-dimensional array to a function, the column dimension must be included in the function’s argument declaration [11, 12]. The row dimension is irrelevant [11, 12].
The C Language: History, Features, and Impact
Here’s what the sources say about the C language:
C is a general-purpose programming language that has been closely associated with the Unix system since it was developed on that system.
C is a relatively low-level language, dealing with characters, numbers, and addresses.
C is often studied as a foundation of modern software and computing, acting as a “Rosetta Stone” connecting past and present programming languages.
The C language was created in the early 1970s, with a key book published in 1978.
C enabled major advances in computer architecture and performance. Operating systems, compilers, and utilities could be recompiled to work on a new hardware platform once a C compiler was available for that hardware.
C is known for being efficient and expressive, closely matched to the hardware of its time.
Many popular programming languages, such as Perl, Python, Java, JavaScript, and Ruby, were written in C.
History and Evolution
C evolved from a language called B at AT&T Bell Labs, but C was designed to support byte addressing.
Unix and C co-evolved, with C being used to rewrite Unix and improve its portability.
The book The C Programming Language by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie (K&R) was published in 1978 and summarized a decade of research in building a portable programming language.
In 1989, C was standardized as C89 (ANSI C) and later as C90 (ISO).
Later revisions of C have not attempted to make it an easy-to-use language like Python or JavaScript.
Before C, Assembly Language or Fortran were commonly used.
C was aimed at writing system code, such as operating systems and utilities.
Influenced the syntax of many other languages.
Key Features and Characteristics
Portability: C was designed to be portable, allowing it to work on different computers.
Low-Level Access: C provides the ability to do address arithmetic through pointers.
Functions: C provides fundamental control constructions for well-structured programs, such as statement grouping, decision-making with if, looping with for and while, and selecting one of a set of possible cases with switch.
No High-Level Operations: C lacks built-in operations for directly dealing with composite objects like character strings, sets, lists, or arrays as a whole.
Manual Memory Management: C requires manual memory management using functions like malloc and free.
Not Strongly Typed: C is relatively permissive with data conversion, although it does not automatically convert data types with the “wild abandon” of PL/1.
Evolving Language: C is an evolving language that exists on a variety of systems.
Impact and Influence
Foundation for Other Languages: C is considered the “mother tongue” of many other languages, including the Bash shell, Perl, Python, PHP, C++, JavaScript, Java, C#, and Objective-C.
Systems Programming: C is well-suited for systems programming, such as writing operating system kernels.
Early Internet: Early TCP/IP networking stack implementations and the first web browsers and web servers were written in C.
Operating Systems: C was used to develop operating systems like Unix, Minix, and Linux.
Importance of Pointers
Pointers are heavily used in C for computations and achieving compact, efficient code.
Pointers allow accessing objects indirectly by containing the address of another variable.
Pointers, if used carelessly, can create impossible-to-understand programs, but with discipline, they can achieve clarity and simplicity.
Understanding pointers leads to understanding Assembly Language, machine language, and ultimately hardware.
Learning C
The only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it.
It is essential to master the mechanical details of creating, compiling, loading, and running a program.
The book is not intended to be a reference work on data structures and algorithms.
Modern C and its Role
General-Purpose vs. Systems Language: While C is a difficult language to use as a general-purpose language, it excels as a systems programming language.
Alternatives: Languages like Java, JavaScript, C#, and Python are better suited for general-purpose tasks, as they offer features like simpler object-oriented layers and automatic memory management.
Rust as a Successor: Rust is considered a potential successor to C, offering low-level control with safer data types.
Legacy Considerations: Modern lint programs look at programs in far more detail than most compilers.
C Pointers: Concepts, Usage, and Dynamic Memory Allocation
Here’s what the sources say about pointers in C:
Definition: A pointer is a variable that holds the memory address of another variable.
Pointers are essential to C, enabling high-level languages to function like low-level languages.
Pointers are heavily used in C, sometimes being the only way to express a computation, and often lead to more compact and efficient code.
Pointers are fundamental to many core concepts in C, such as functions, arrays, structures, and dynamic memory allocation.
Mastering pointers is critical, and rushing through this material is not recommended.
Core Pointer Concepts
Address Operator (&): The unary operator & provides the address of an object. PX = &X assigns the address of X to the variable PX.
Dereference Operator (*): The unary operator * treats its operand as an address and accesses the content of that address. If PX points to X, then Y = *PX assigns the content of what PX points to (which is X) to Y.
Declaration
int *PX; declares PX as a pointer to an integer.
Usage
Function Arguments: C passes arguments to functions by value. To modify a variable in the calling function, pass a pointer to the variable.
Calling code: swap(&a, &b).
Function declaration: swap(int *PX, int *PY).
Arrays: Pointers are closely related to arrays in C. When a character string appears in a program (as with printf(“hello, world\n”)), access to it is done through a character pointer.
Character pointers and string constants:
char *message = “Now is the time”; assigns message to a pointer to the character array.
Arrays of pointers are a mapping to the typical operating system and string manipulation use cases that are more the core of C applications.
Structures: Pointers are used to access structure members. The arrow operator (->) is a shorthand for dereferencing a pointer to a structure and accessing a member: PP->X is equivalent to (*PP).X.
Arithmetic
If P is a pointer to some element of an array, P++ increments P to point to the next element, provided it stays within the bounds of the array.
Pointer arithmetic is consistent; if P is a pointer to a float, P++ will advance to the next float.
Valid pointer arithmetic operations include adding or subtracting a pointer and an integer, subtracting or comparing two pointers. Other pointer arithmetic operations are illegal.
Cautionary Notes
Potential for confusion: Pointers have been labeled alongside the “go-to” statement as a way to create impossible-to-understand programs.
Invalid Accesses: It is easy to create pointers that point somewhere unexpected.
Type Safety: It is unwise to take liberties with routines that return pointers without proper pointer declarations.
Dynamic Memory Allocation
sizeof operator: The sizeof operator can compute the size of any object. sizeof(object) yields an integer equal to the size of the specified object in bytes.
malloc function: Used for dynamic memory allocation. It’s necessary to know the size of the data to be allocated.
Return type is void * in modern C.
free function: Used to release dynamically allocated memory.
Pointers and Structures
Self-Referential Structures: Structures can contain pointers to themselves, enabling the creation of linked lists and trees.
Linked Lists: Dynamic data structures can be constructed using pointers and structures, allowing for efficient insertion and deletion of elements.
Trees and Hashmaps: Understanding pointers is essential for implementing more complex data structures like trees and hashmaps.
Command Line Arguments
Pointers are used extensively in handling command-line arguments. argv is a pointer to an array of character strings containing the arguments.
Learn C Programming and OOP with Dr. Chuck [feat. classic book by Kernighan and Ritchie]
Dr Charles sance is one of the world’s most popular programming instructors in this course he’ll teach you C programming and object orientation With a Little Help from the classic cbook from kinghan and Richie this is definitely the place to start if you want to learn C welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and I’m your instructor for this course this course and website is dedicated to learning the classic version of C programming language from the 1978 book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie this book places the reader in the middle of the 1970s transition from a hardware centered computer science to a focus on writing portable and efficient software C was used to develop operating systems like Unix Minix and Linux programming languages like Pearl python Java and JavaScript and Ruby are all written in C software like early tcpip networking stack implementations that made the internet possible were written in C and the first web browsers and web servers were written in C writing software in C enabled major advances in computer architecture and performance operating systems compilers and utilities could be recompiled to work on a new hardware platform once we had a c compiler for the new hardware so much software has been written in C over the past 40 years that there’s a very good chance that much of the software that you use every day was either written in C or written in a programming language that was was written in C so we study C less as a programming language to use on a daily basis and more as the foundation of modern software and Computing in many ways C is the technology equivalent of the Rosetta Stone in that it provides a connection between the programming languages of the past and the programming languages of the present the name cc4 in http://www.cc.com refers to the original Unix command CC which was the command that you used to compile your C program CC stood for C compiler and it is featured on the first page of the first chapter of the KRC book programmers like me from the 1970s and 1980s typed CC on unic systems like the AT&T 3bw to compile and run their first hello world program in C this material is being presented under fair use as we are making use of material from a copyrighted work that is out of print and not broadly available in any format the book is also not available in any accessible format we are making use of this material in a teaching and research context with a focus on studying its contribution to Computing history the material is a available for free and online to anyone who wants to learn about the history of the sea language Computing and computer architecture welcome to the course [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and I’m your instructor for this course this course in website is dedicated to learning the classic version of C programming language from the 1978 book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie this book places the reader in the middle of the 1970s transition from a hardware centered computer science to a focus on writing portable and efficient software C was used to develop operating systems like Unix NX and Linux programming languages like Pearl python Java and JavaScript and Ruby are all written in C software like early tcpip networking stack implementations that made the internet possible were written in C and the first web browsers and web servers were written in C writing software in C enabled major advances in computer architecture and performance operating systems compilers and utilities could be recompiled to work on a new hardware platform once we had a c comp filer for the new hardware so much software has been written in C over the past 40 years that there’s a very good chance that much of the software that you use every day was either written in C or written in a programming language that was written in C so we study C less as a programming language to use on a daily basis and more as the foundation of modern software and Computing in many ways C is the technology equivalent of the Rosetta Stone in that it provides a connection between the programming languages of the past and the programming languages of the present the name cc4 in http://www.cc.com refers to the original Unix command CC which was the command that you Ed to compile your C program CC stood for C compiler and it is featured on the first page of the first chapter of the KRC book programmers like me from the 1970s and 1980s typed CC on unic systems like the AT&T 3bw to compile and run their first hello world program in C this material is being presented under fair use as we are making use of material from a copyrighted work that is out of print and not broadly available in any format the book is also not available in any accessible format we are making use of this material in a teaching and research context with a focus on studying its contribution to Computing history the material is a available for free and online to anyone who wants to learn about the history of the sea language Computing and computer architecture welcome to the [Music] course hello and welcome to C programming for everybody this lecture is putting C in a bit of a historical context now if you’re watching this lecture you’re probably familiar with some of my other classes I just want to kind of let you know that I’ve been been building a lot of classes most of you probably took python for everybody available on corsera edx and many other platforms but I have a whole series of classes that are designed what I call the path of the master programmer where I try to start people that no matter where you start I want you to be able to learn to be a really good programmer and follow along as far as you want these are all my materials they’re all 100% free open and online and they’re really aimed at teaching everybody how to program I mean I started doing doing this back in 2012 with corsera and I have dedicated myself to making all my materials free and to create a path that anyone can take anywhere in the world regardless of economic uh challenges or other things in your life I want everybody to have an opportunity to be a professional developer so I encourage you and and and frankly if you haven’t taken python yet like my python for everybody class this this course is going to be a little bit uh difficult so let’s start with a history of sea the book we’re looking at the kigan and Richie uh C A C programming language by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie uh was published in 1978 and the the key thing is is that it it is a moment in history where everything changed and and so we’re looking at this textbook and the text in this textbook and the language itself in the context of how it is impacted history the C programming language itself has a long history there was a language called B and they were using it at AT&T of bell labs to build utilities and operating system stuff um but it was a little too word oriented and so they the language C was as new uh computer hardware came out that supported bite addressing and the ability to load a string of bites and send store a string of bites rather than a set of words words being lger than a bite and more than one character were packed into a words and kind of like the 60s and early’ 70s um C wanted to make a character a sort of core uh low-level V kind of data that the language would happen and from like like the the mid early and mid 70s the C and Unix kind of co-evolved they wanted to build something that would uh make Unix work well on a PDP 1120 and at the same time uh make it so they could Port Unix to other systems but really um it was about the PDP 1120s uh cool memory architecture having to do with bite addressability and what happened was is they were they were carefully rewriting Unix in C but then fixing C laying the groundwork for uh Unix portability and so by 1978 the this KRC book was published and at that point you could think of it as a um a summary of over a decade of research in how to build a portable programming language and then use that portable programming language to build a portable operating system C in Unix of course um by uh 1989 the C had become popular and there was a need to standardize it so there’s a variant of C called c89 that is the ANC and then that same version was called C90 as ISO ISO the international organization of standards also standardized that and so that was our first uh version of the sea that we could all agree on uh the the ancy did not intend to go too far away from what we call KRC it but instead it just you know sort of nailed down a few things that by then were important to nail down um and C has continued to evolve from sort of 1990 to the present and there’s a number of major revisions but the key thing that these revisions don’t do in the modern version of C is they do not attempt to make C uh easy to use language say like python or JavaScript and they C is knows its place in the in the panoply of languages and does a good job of that so if we look at sort of what’s the future C is a difficult language to use as a general purpose language python is a is a great general purpose language but it’s not a great systems programming language and the two things that are missing from C are the lack of really solid dynamic memory support in the core types and libraries and then there is no safe string type strings are not there’s no string in C it’s character arrays and arrays have sizes and if you start putting stuff beyond the boundary of that array things just blow up and C++ is to me not the the sort of future version of C it’s really a more powerful inter and flexible version of C for programmers who are doing really professional intricate systems applications writing good C++ in some ways is more difficult than writing good C the the languages that sort of take on in C’s mantle in the general purpose are things like Java JavaScript CP or python the key thing with these languages is they don’t give you sort of strings as just raw bite arrays and they they give us a simple objectoriented layer that keeps us away from the metal the goal of C is to get close to the hardware close to the metal and so Java JavaScript C python are all great languages and they’re great for what we use them for they’re just not well suited for writing an operating system kernel the most likely language that is like C like the next C is probably rust the idea of rust is that it stays close to the metal um but then gives us some simple and safe core data types and recently Linux is starting to accept some Rust in Linux and so that means that rust has to be mature it means that rust can’t be like evolving rapidly um I’ve seen situations where operating systems like Mac OS like decide to depend on python so there’s parts of Mac OS that depend on python 2 but then they can’t really upgrade to python 2 because their operating system blah blah blah so to for an operating system to depend on a programming language like rust it really has to be mature and even more importantly stable you can’t have clever Innovations in the programming language causing regressions in an operating system say like clinics so I look look look for rust now C is has been around a long time um before C we call C starting in 72 the book is published in 78 before c most of us would write Assembly Language or Fortran some people WR wrote pl1 that’s not on here uh Fortran is not really a general purpose programming language you wouldn’t write uh command like cat in Fortran Fortran was really for scientific computations and the earliest of computers in the 50s 60s were either sort of really specialized toward like payroll and HR systems or they were really specialized to doing computations and the ones that specialized were science the science ones were uh used for Trend because it was just the right language for those computers that were aimed at doing scientific calculations c as a language was kind of none of the above in that it was aimed at writing system code a kernel an operating system and the utilities around it including like other languages and so C is kind of the mother tongue of all kinds of other derivative languages and things like The Bash shell Pearl python PHP C++ JavaScript Java and C sh and Objective C just kind of were derivatives of this beginning of c and that’s why you see a lot of patterns in these other languages that are similar and that’s because JavaScript and Java both inherited their for Loop syntax from C so I’ve got a couple of videos in this section this is Brian kernigan and uh talking about the C programming language and it’s a short video I didn’t produce this video but it’s a great little video um another video is from the creator of C++ Barn strrip this was an interview that I did with itle e computer Magazine on top of this history of the sea language we can look at a brief history of computers and I have a whole course called internet history technology and security that really starts in the 1940s with a focus more on communication rather than computation even though Comm communication and computation were very much connected throughout the 40s through the even today in the early 1950s computers were you best think of them as like a multi-million doll strategic asset every single computer and a lot of them were custombuilt the first computer uh Michigan State University where where I went to undergrad was built by the electrical engineering students of that University based on some designs that they’d borrowed I think from Iowa and so things like the programming language the operating system you didn’t have a lot of generalization you didn’t have a lot of sharing you tended to write code and put it on a paper tape or later a magnetic tape and load it and run it and so you were just pretty happy if the code worked you didn’t need an operating system these weren’t multiprocessing computers and so the software environment was very minimalist but in the late 50s and early 60s you saw companies like IBM and digital equipment corporation began selling general purpose computers they just could make them um and they and they started selling them and they still were expensive and they were only in like a business would have a couple of computers to help them do payroll perhaps or something like that something that was really really important because the computers were expensive but in the’ 60s there we we really got to the point where the computer componentry the chips Etc were becoming Commodities you could just go to a place and buy chips and then you could make a computer by buying a bunch of chips and putting those things together and and because you weren’t building everything from scratch the cost got a lot lower the other thing that these uh these less expensive computers were is they were a little slower but by the end of the 1960 there was a lot of computers there were some you know super expensive weird oneoff you know small production computers there were computers that had had there was like the previous generation of mini computer where there were lots of them laying around old computer science departments or businesses that they weren’t sure what they did with them to do with them they wanted to buy a new one and then there were just Innovative new lowcost computers coming out and in the 70s in the this millu of just lots of new and old computer hardware the question was is is there a way we can do things with all of this old hardware and is there sort of one solution and that’s where Unix andc uh came and certainly after the 70s we look at the 80s and that’s where microprocessors and personal computers and so we went from computers that were sizes of refrigerators or or desks to the size of a a computer could be on a single chip and in the beginning those personal computers like the IBM PC or Commodore pet they had really bad performance but that performance once you could get everything on a single chip that performance could get faster very quickly and because personal computers became a mass Market item a lot of money could be invested in personal computers by the 1990s personal computers continued to grow right and um but the to communicate and and talk and exchange information became important and so in the 1990s we saw really an increasing focus on connecting computers with the internet and other kinds of networks and the performance of these computers and the price kept going down the performance kept going up and then by the time we get to the 2000s Amazon’s AWS was founded in 2002 and it used personal computer microprocessors like from Intel and produced Computing as a commodity right and so and you don’t even buy computers anymore you just go to Amazon and say I’ll rent a computer for $7 a month and so we see in 1978 we see this moment where the we going from uh the computers were were becoming more common they’re going down in price and there’s getting to be more and more of them and there was a diversity of computers these days there’s actually less diversity if we go back in history and you take a look at my internet history class you you can see the I go to Bletchley Park and show you some of the earliest uh computations from the 1940s in World War II we go to uh Computer History Museum in California and visit with Gordon Bell and talk about the the pdp1 and he talks a lot about um buying the components and putting the components together and how how sort of the mass availability of relatively lowcost components really allowed for a rapid innovation in computer architecture uh a computer that I used in my uh computer science degree was the Control Data CDC 6500 and I have a video where we visit the living computer Museum in Seattle Washington and here card readers work and card punches and if uh if we ever get to the point where everything opens back up again it’s a it’s a tremendous visit to go see uh all the technology that really Through The Years except that it in the living computer Museum they like to have everything running and then you can take a look at a more modern smaller the Raspberry Pi which the Raspberry Pi is actually not an Intel based system the Raspberry Pi is based on uh arm the processor that really became popular as a result of the cell phone Revolution and so they the Raspberry Pi is to take what the the technology was Advanced both um low power and high performance technology that was Advanced because of mobile phone Innovations the Raspberry Pi came out and was a good single board computer so let’s take a look at the operating system munix is the operating system that is uh connected with C in the 1960s there was a multi-user operating system called multics um and then in the 1970s they they wanted to come up with yet another operating system and they called it eventually called it Unix and the deck PDP 1120 which was one of these new uh commodity PE part-based computers um that was coming into the marketplace and so in 1973 Unix was Rewritten in C but it only was there on the pdp11 although they had laid the groundwork for portability from the beginning they they knew they wanted to H have everything be portable they just couldn’t make it all portable the first version they just had to make it run on the pdp11 and then by 1978 the Unix the second computer that Unix had run on was an inata 832 and that was quite a different computer and so it was good and so they really learned a lot about making Unix a portable bit of software from in the early 1970s C was evolving in a way so that the Unix could be ported right so it’s like let’s we got this problem between let’s just say the pdb1 and the inner data and how can we fix this and we can both change how the operating system works we can change the operating system code and we can change the C compiler and then we can rewrite the operating system code to get less and less Assembly Language and more and more C language and so the idea was to get to the point where uh there was a very very small amount of Assembly Language in Unix and over the years that’s gotten lower and lower Unix was Rewritten a number of versions came out in the 70s having to do with their portability so by 1978 the Unix version 7 could also run on a whole new architecture from deck called the VAC systems um uh the University of California Berkeley had their own distribution of Unix called BSD the Berkeley software distribution and that was really cool because uh universities often pushed things like networking tcpip arpanet BSD Unix was the first place some of us saw tcpip 1982 a company based solely on Unix called Sun Microsystems was found uh sun was some work at Stanford some work at Berkeley based on Unix and they created what in effect was the Unix workstation Marketplace at this point you could imagine that the world was about to just adopt Unix Unix was the greatest thing ever computer science departments were um teaching Unix in their operating systems classes in the in the mid 80s the problem became AT&T had never come up really with a business plan for what the purpose of Unix was and so there was some fits and starts as to how they could monetize this extremely popular thing and they they didn’t do a great job and it took them a long time to figure out what was going to be successful and by the time AT&T sort of figured things out the market had moved on and so Minx is an operating system system that was developed in the Netherlands by Andrew Tannon bomb and he he built a completely free and open- Source operating system that was used for Education he he built a textbook around it and it was very popular but uh he didn’t want commercialization at least not at that point in time so he sort of he sort of held on to it too tightly again kind of an intellectual property mistake and in 19911 a program called lonus Torvalds decided he was going to build a fresh groundup implementation of the Unix kernel that was 100% free so he wasn’t going to use Unix he wasn’t going to use Minix he wanted to create another thing and originally it was just like a hobby I’m going to try to see how far I can go by 1992 Linux started to work and it adopted this license called the the GPL which is called the ganu public library license which is a strongly open source license in the way that it’s difficult to take uh Linux out of Open Source with which meant that people could then invest in Linux and so Linux has become Unix right Linux in the modern world is the Unix like system and Unix tried to hold on for a while but they really really couldn’t and so the uh the the remaining Unix distributions are a a tiny tiny fraction of the marketplace and Linux is the marketplace so we can see some of this in some of the videos that I’ve got like Andrew tanom will tell us the story of how Minix was created and how Minx be how Minix kind of begat Linux and so that there’s some interesting stuff here okay so I’ll lay on top of all this remember that 1978 is this moment in history where I claim like everything changed now I’ve been a computer scientist for a very long time I started in 1975 and in 19775 I learned things like Fortran on a computer that CDC 6500 computer it ran a special operating system called scope Hustler I knew how to do assembly I knew to Fortran and even Pascal so Pascal in the 70s was one of these languages um that and I’ve got a video for Pascal as well one of these languages that was sort of like saying look here’s the future now Pascal was really aimed at teaching and so I used Pascal in educational context and I as I became a professional programmer in the 1980s I was using a bunch of stuff Assembly Language Cobalt little bit Unix and see here it wasn’t like by the early 80s Unix was everywhere at least not in the professional world because the PC Revolution was happening so we had Doss we had early Windows versions I used things like dbas and turbo Pascal um I taught classes of the IBM 360 and I taught Assembly Language I use the deck vax and I use the VMS not Unix operating system in Fortran and I also then taught in the mid 80s on AT&T West I think it’s called Uh a g8t 3B 2 I taught Unix I taught C and I taught Fortran and so even though we can trace back to like 1978 is the moment that everything changed it’s not like the market changed the the thing that happened in the 1990s though is that all these older computers all and the older computers vendors like burough and Unisys and IBM and cray and control data um as microprocessor speeds increased all these little companies would create Unix workstations that were faster and faster and faster and because they could build new hardware that was fast and then grab the Unix operating system um and make their operating system work on their new hardware it allowed for some amazing Innovation so I was using Sun ardan Stellar these are all gone now IBM RS 6000 convex C2 2400 I had a next on my desk I used C but TCP IP Windows HTTP the web you know and Windows and Mac OS were all kind of in the mix but the Innovation was really happening most rapidly in the Unix space but by the 2000s everything that I touched really had some aspect I’m not a Windows person so everything I touched had some aspect of Unix in it Mac OS still has Unix in Linux and my languages were sort of narrowing back down to Java PHP and JavaScript and then in 2010s right Linux Mac OS python PHP JavaScript so things really have settled into a world that my own software development where I’m pretty much using Unix like systems all the time and C based or C derived languages because python Java p HP and JavaScript are all based on C and that’s why it’s so important to understand C I’m not writing c as a profession professional in any way but I am using all my C knowledge every single day and so that’s a a sort of a picture of me in my office that’s an IBM PS2 in my office I I was registering in 1989 I was registering with Punch Cards when I first started I was using a line printer and punch cards and so so there there’s my history now I think it’s important to acknowledge that as I’ve shown you all these history documents and the videos and the oral histories that I’ve done is there is a preponderance of old white males in here and I I think that it is important to talk a bit about that and why that is perhaps and so I would encourage you to take a look at an article it’s so article it’s actually a you can listen to it about what happened to computer science the title of the article is when women stop coding yeah all the way up to 1980 computer science was just another field and then it you know kept going up to sort of 1985 but then it went down and so you know all these other fields have a pretty good uh gender mix and the computer science uh does not have a gender and so I would encourage you to listen to this article uh another another area that you can learn something about um the diversity in computer science is uh this book by Jane margalis called unlocking the clubhouse the essence of the book is really talking about how uh social pressure advertising pressure in the early 80s uh made it seem as though Computing was a guy thing and in particular uh it made it so that uh young men even in high school would go fiddle around with computers as a hobby and by the time they got to college they were pretty skilled and if you weren’t skilled the college classes were designed for people who already knew what programming was and if you were a a woman and you hadn’t played with computers in 1980 when you were like 14 years old you’d came to college at a distinct disadvantage and this is what led to this falloff where colleges tended to teach to programmers who already knew how to program and uh that really meant that that the hobbyists people who are in their youth before they went to college and played with programming as a hobby uh had a tremendous Advantage now Jane did her work in the 80s late 80s and 90s um I myself I’m older than that and I think that to some degree this notion of the social pressure uh that said that uh Computing was really for young men and not young women uh it it’s actually as much a symptom as it is the cause because I grew up in a time in the mid ’70s where there were women everywhere um and this is a person who’s who who who had a really large impact in my life her name is Helen Spence she was a professor at Michigan State University and I show you a URL to look at her oral history um she taught me operating systems so in 1977 or 1978 I don’t remember when Helen was my operating systems teacher uh the interesting thing about how Helen taught operating systems was she made it fun I it was really fun uh I encountered my first Auto grader in Helen’s class she had made a piece of software that she called the HMS 5050 which itself is both Helen Spence and uh I think it’s her majesty ship at the same time and what she did was she built a operating system simulator in Fortran and and our job as uh taking the class was to build functions and sub routines that would implement the tasks and the algorithms that operating systems need to do so you’d run your program over and over and over again until you had written a successful operating system and she wrote a autog grader that would do things to your program and then measure whether or not you knew how to build an operating system it was just a natural thing to have females as fast faculty members uh you know and and it was just a there was a lot more fun in the field um and I I have my own theories that I think complement uh Jane’s theories as well but I’ll leave it here that that’s a TED Talk for another day as to uh gender and Computing right now I’m just acknowledging it and giving you some resources to uh to to read and U and reach your own conclusions if you look at everything I’ve done since 2012 in the free online education in Muk space you’ll notice that every course I’ve ever created has the words for everybody and that’s not just a marketing thing that’s because it’s my philosophy if you’ve taken some of my classes like python for everybody or jangle for everybody web applications for everybody postgress for everybody and now see programming for everybody I try to build a course where I spend time thinking about how not to create the clubhouse that Jane talks about and that is I want you in the club I want everybody in the club I don’t want it just to be a club for the super Geniuses and so part of why I’m building an entire curriculum is to perhaps just make a new club and that is programming for everybody club and I think once you become a great programmer I think that’s a good time to study computer science and so perhaps after we teach everybody programming then we can teach everybody computer science but again that’s a TED Talk talk for another day so on to the course C programming for everybody I’ll just say that c is the most important programming language you’re going to ever learn it should never be the first programming language taught to any students you will likely never write a line of C in a professional context in your career I’m not teaching you C so that you can go be a professional C programmer I’m teaching you C so you can be a professional Java programmer really but if you learn see at the right time in your Learning Journey it’s a necessary step on the path to becoming a master programmer but it’s important step because I can’t teach you Java if I hadn’t already taught you C I have to explain how Java Works in terms of what you’re going to learn in this class so this class is not just like get a c certificate and go make lots of money CU I don’t think that this certificate’s going to make you a lot of money but I do think this certificate is going to unlock the future of you as a programmer so please be patient with this material do not rush it’s an online class I guarantee that you can search for solutions to every programming exercise that I create I don’t change them that much so the solutions are out there and if your goal is to game it and just search for solutions to programming go ahead finish the class congratulations but you you have just taken the opportunity to learn from yourself right you didn’t you didn’t trick me I didn’t lose anything by you searching for and just pasting in solutions to programs each exercise from beginning to end is trying to take you a little tiny step further down your understanding and the easy exercises in the beginning even if I have a bunch of them they’re there to prepare and strengthen rengen you for something much more challenging in the course if you start pasting in Solutions in the beginning of the course you have no chance in the end of the course and you’re just going to be pasting in Solutions and when you do that you’ll have only wasted your time so I look forward to you taking the rest of this course I of course I look forward to you telling me if uh if I’m right in my instinct about how important this is for you uh especially after you take a few more classes and then uh find your way to being a professional [Music] that b abbs bunch of smart people I call it 1,200 PhD level people in Murray Hill in basically one giant building and so that’s a lot lot of people rubbing up against each and they’re all doing technical kinds of things and and the environment did not tell people what to do it was go do your thing and once a year one side of one piece of paper tell us what you did and that’ll determine how much money you get next year but it was a very long cycle the one extra thing is that it was a problem Rich environment and so there were things that you could work on and there was this I think very gentle gravitational drift towards doing something that somebody else might care about now lots of people you know who cares what other people think I’m going to do my stuff but I think most people got some reward you know psychic reward from I do something I give it to you and you say that was great and then you say but and you tell me all the things that aren’t yet great but but that kind of thing was very common at the labs because AT&T at that time basically supplied telephone service to most of the United States million people all kinds of in problems in and around Communications and so no matter what you were interested in there’ be some part of AT&T that could probably make use of that so that was part of it but then there was the external world as well the research Community Bill Labs was just part of the academic research community so they’re both outlets and the labs was perfectly happy to have people do either and so all of that I think worked out really very well um and it helped to have stable funding because basically at that point if you made a a longdistance phone call in the United States remember the concept of longdistance right if you made one of those calls a tiny slice of the revenue of that finance bill Labs with the charter of make the service better and don’t we won’t worry about the details of how you do that so at the time there was a lot of interest in programming languages this all came out of the multics experience right where where people at Bel labs and of course the folks at MIT were had realized that writing things in a highle language made sense and then the question is what’s what’s the high level language and they started with pl1 which in the abstract sounded like a good idea and in reality was a horrible idea because it was a horrible language and and so Martin Richards from uh Cambridge University of Cambridge um had this language called bcpl and he had spent if I understand it correctly a sabatical year at MIT planted the language in some sense and it was much simpler much cleaner much better suited to system programming kinds of things than any version of pl1 would have been and so the people at Bell Labs Ken Thompson Dennis Richie and so on had gotten some experience with high level languages as suitable for writing lots of different things bcpl wasn’t a suitable thing for modern machines because it was typeless and newer machines clearly were coming on stream that would have types like btes and integers and maybe bigger things and so so at some point Ken did a lot of experimenting this is Ken Thomas did a lot of experimenting with simpler versions even of bcpl particular one called B which was an interpreted language no compiler um and that was again expressive enough that people started to like it and that’s sort of where I started in on this I mean I’d written bits of pl1 it was awful I’d written Fortran better um but the B was sort of nicer to use but it was still typeless and an interpreter as well so it wouldn’t be terribly efficient um but with the pdp1 in the offing and I don’t remember the exact timing here U it was clear that a version of something that was felt sort of like B but which had some mechanism to include types so that you could talk about characters or integers was going to be the way to go and that’s where Dennis picked up and started developing the C language and the compiler to go with it and so on portability was very much on people’s minds at that time because although the core Unix work was done on the pdp1 there were other machines at the time that were you know in the same equivalence class uh inata had a couple 732 832 numbers like that and I think there were probably HP machines as well and ETA um and the other thing that was in some ways harder was that there was the big big Mainframe kind of computerss that were used by the local computer center and these were fundamentally stripped down versions of the multic machines there were g635 kind of things and so those were big clunky word oriented machines they were you know effect IBM 794 is cleaned up a bit and getting something that would compile sensibly for those machines that really didn’t have characters in a language which had become what it was so it could manipulate characters I think there was a bit of a strain there but that portability how do you get the same language to work on different computers and Dennis’s original compiler really was targeted at the pdp1 and Steve Johnson came along with the portable C compiler which basically separated the front end okay let’s recognize the language let’s build some intermediate structure and then let’s generate code for different kinds of machines I had written a tutorial on B because you know I thought it was interesting maybe I can tell other people how to use it um and so when C started to be used and I became somewhat better at using it then I basically repurposed the B tutorial brought it forward in in and made the c tutorial out of it uh and so I used C4 all this essentially all the software that I was writing at that time and you know kind of liked it it was good it was a nice match for the way people think about Computing I think but also a very nice match for the actual Hardware of the time you could imagine what the compiler was doing all of it was clear so efficient expressive and you know nicely matched to everything around it um and then somewhere in probably 1977 earlyish um I coerced Dennis into writing a book about it first edition came out in 78 and at that point the language was pretty reasonable the book I think it was right on the cusp of we structures were fully part of the language or not a bit of overhang there and I don’t remember but I think probably they were not quite but awful close and since Dennis was doing both compiler and book I it was at least a consistent Viewpoint question can you pick up a structure as a unit and pass it around or do you have to do something special um so I think but that’s a milestone and then the next one is probably the 1988 book and the development of the ANC C standard the first stand which is essentially again about the same time um and so I think those are the ways I measured and at that point call it 1988 give or take just before you encountered it um C was probably just fine for anything you might reasonably want to do and this is probably heresy or something but I don’t think that the changes in evolution since then have bought enough in some sense [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter zero introduction C is a general purpose programming language it has been closely associated with the Unix System since it was developed on that system and since Unix and its software are written in C the language however is not tied to any one operating system or machine and although it has been called a system programming language because it is useful for writing operating systems it has been used equally well to write major numerical text processing and database programs C is a relatively low-level language this characterization is not perjorative it simply means that c deals with the same sort of objects that most computers do namely characters numbers and addresses these may be be combined and moved about with the usual arithmetic and logical operators implemented by actual machines C provides no operations to deal directly with composite objects such as character strings sets lists or arrays considered as a whole there is no analog for example of the pl1 operations which manipulate an entire array or string the language does not define any storage allocation facility other than static definition and the stack discipline provided by the local variables of functions there is no Heap or Garbage Collection like that provided by alol 68 finally C itself Prov provides no input output facilities there are no read or write statements and no wired INF file access methods all of these higher level mechanisms must be provided by explicitly called functions I would note that the lack of a heap or Garbage Collection feature in C is both one of the great strengths of the language and at the same time is likely the reason that the average programmer will never develop or maintain a major C application during their career C provides a simple feature using Malo and free functions that allow a programmer to request a certain amount of memory be allocated dynamically use the memory and then return the memory to the C runtime library for reuse for example to convert a jpeg image to a PNG image our application will read the jpeg data into memory then convert the image into a PNG image in memory and then write the PNG data out to a file we don’t know how large the images will be in ADV advance so we request whatever size we need from C and then give it back when we’re done the term Heap refers to the memory that c manages on our behalf when we need to borrow a bit of memory and give it back later there are a couple of issues with a simple Heap implementation first if we forget to call free when we are done with a memory we have created a memory leak and our program will eventually run out of memory and abort C places the onus of giving back any dynamically allocated memory on the programmer modern languages like Java JavaScript and python keep track of when we stop using dynamic memory using a dynamic memory layer that can automatically reclaim the memory the more difficult problem is after a series of calls to malakin free the Heap space becomes fragmented and some cleanup is needed this cleanup is called garbage collection efficient memory allocation and garbage collection has been the subject of Decades of computer science research the Java language has built an number of increasingly effective garbage collection approaches over the years kernigan and Richie in one simple paragraph Define most of the problem as out of scope for the ca language which makes it a bit challenging for us to make good use of dynamic memory allocation in C but when we do it properly it performs very well if you are currently using a language like Java python or PHP every time you create a new string through concatenation without thinking about memory allocation remember to appreciate the Decades of work by computer scientists that made it easy for you kernigan and Richie knew that garbage collection was difficult so they left it out of the C language and put it into a runtime Library back to chapter zero similarly C offers only straightforward singlethread control flow constructions tests Loops grouping and subprograms but not multi-programming parallel operations synchronization or code routines though the absence of some of these features may seem like a grave deficiency you mean I have to call a function to compare two character strings keeping the language down to modest Dimensions has brought real benefits since C is relatively small it can be described in a small space and learned quickly a compiler for C can be simple and compact compilers are also easily written using current technology one can expect to prepare a compiler for a new machine in a couple of months and to find that 80% of the code of a new compiler is common with existing ones this provides a high degree of language Mobility because the data types and control structures provided by C are supported directly by most existing computers the runtime Library required to implement self-contained programs is Tiny on the pdp1 for example sample it contains only the routines to do 32-bit multiplication and division and to perform sub routine entry and exit sequences of course each implementation provides a comprehensible compatible library of functions to carry out input output string handling and storage allocation operations but since they are only called explicitly they can be avoided if required and they can also be written portably in C itself again because the language reflects the capabilities of current computers C programs tend to be efficient enough that there is no compulsion to write Assembly Language instead the most obvious example of this is the Unix operating system itself which is written almost entirely in C of 13,000 lines of system code only about 800 lines at the very lowest level are an assembler in addition essentially all of the Unix application software is written in C the vast majority of Unix users including one of the authors of this book do not even know the pdp1 Assembly Language I would note that in this preface the authors are carefully explaining the fact that many of the wellestablished programming languages of the 1960s and 1970s like Fortran Cobalt Pascal alol and pl1 were solving many of the use cases that were needed by us programmers by adding syntax to the languages the creators of CN Unix for advocating for a more minimal set of programming language constructs and more Reliance on calling function in provided runtime libraries to meet programmer use cases it may have seemed a strange approach for experienced programmers in the 1980s but over time it has allowed C to expand to meet a very wide range of programmer needs without requiring major revisions to the core language or compiler back to chapter zero although C matches the capability of many computers it is independent of any particular machine architecture and so with a little care it is easy to write portable programs that is programs which can be run without change on a variety of Hardware it is now routine in our environment that software developed on Unix is transported to local Honeywell IBM and inata systems in fact the C compilers and runtime support on these four machines are much more compatible than the supposedly an Standard Version of Fortran the Unix operating system itself now runs on both the pdp11 and the interdata 832 outside of programs which are necessarily somewhat machine dependent like the compiler assembler and debugger software written in C is identical on both machines within the operating system itself the 7,000 lines of code outside of the Assembly Language support and the io device handlers is about 95% identical as a note note before Unix and C if you were running the vendor operating system and writing in the best language for systems like the pdp11 and in dat 732 the user experience was completely different today we take for granted that we expect to be able to download the same application for Windows Mac OS or a Linux system even in the 1970s those that were using Unix andc could write code once and move it between two Hardware platforms and expect that it would work with no or relatively few changes back to chapter zero for programmers familiar with other language it may prove helpful to mention a few historical Technical and philosophical aspects of C for contrast and comparison many of the most important ideas of C stem from the considerably older but still quite vital language bcpl developed by Martin Richards the influence of bcpl on C proceeded indirectly through the language B which was written by Ken Thompson in 1970 for the first Unix system on the PDP 7 although it shares several characteristic features with bcpl C is in no sense a dialect of it bcpl and B are typeless language the only data type is the machine word and access to other kinds of objects is by special operators or function calls in C the fundamental data objects are characters integers of several sizes and floating Point numbers in addition there is a hierarchy of derived data types created with pointers arrays structures unions and functions C provides the fundamental control constructions required for well-structured programs statement grouping decision- making with if looping with termination test at the top using for and while or at the bottom using do and selecting one of a set of possible cases switch all of these were provided in bcpl as well though with somewhat different syntax that language anticipated the Vogue for structured programming by several years C provides pointers in the ability to do address arithmetic the arguments to functions are passed by copying the value of an argument and is impossible for the called function to change the actual argument in the caller when it is desired to achieve call by reference a pointer may be passed explicitly and the function may change the object to which the pointer points array names are passed as the location of the array origin so array arguments are effectively called by reference any function can be called recursively and its local variables are typically automatic or created a new with each invocation function definitions may not be nested but variables may be be declared in a block structured fashion the functions of a c program may be compiled separately variables may be internal to a function external but known only within a single source file or complet completely Global internal variables may be automatic or static automatic variables may be placed in registers for increased efficiency but the register declaration is only a hint to the compiler and does not refer to specific machine registers C is not a strongly typed language in the sense of Pascal or algo 68 it is relatively permissive about data conversion although it will not automatically convert data types with the wild abandon of pl1 existing compilers provide no runtime checking of array subscripts or argument types etc for those situations where strong type checking is desirable a separate version of the compiler is used this program is called lint apparently because it picks up bits of fluff from one’s program lint does not generate code but instead applies a very strict check as to many aspects of the program as can be verified at compile and load time it detects type mismatches inconsistent argument use unused or apparently uninitialized variables potential portability difficulties and the like programs which pass unscathed through lint enjoy with few exceptions freedom from type errors about as complete as do for example algol 68 programs we will mention other lint capabilities as the occasion arises I would note that separately checking for things that might be wrong into the lint program keeps the C compiler simple and easy to port to a new computer the lint program was naturally a very portable text processing application well there’s some overlap between a lint program and a compiler over time there’s quite distinct research and expertise in how to lint versus how to compile modern lint programs look at programs in far more detail than most compilers separating concerns of lint and the C compiler also allow ow lint programs to use more memory and take more time to execute than compilers since the typical developer might use the compiler many times per day and run lint less often it was nice for the compiler to run quickly and make light use of Computer Resources we call this idea of building two smaller complimentary programs that each specialize in one task separation of concerns and it is an important principle in computer science by keeping each component simple and focused we can more easily build test and verify each component Unix and C showed the benefits of taking many small components approach to solve an overall set of problems back to chapter zero finally C like any other language has its blemishes some of the operators have the wrong precedence some of the syntax could be better there are several versions of the language extent differing in minor ways nonetheless has proven to be an extremely effective and expressive language for a wide variety of programming applications the rest of this book is organized as follows chapter one is a tutorial introduction to the central part of C the purpose is to get the reader started as quickly as possible since we believe strongly that the only way to learn a new language is to write programs in it this tutorial does assume a working knowledge of the basic elements of programming there is no explanation of computers of compilation nor the meaning of an expression like n equals n plus one although we have tried where possible to show useful programming techniques the book is not intended to be a reference work on data structures and algorithms when forced to make a choice we have concentrated on the language chapters 2 through six discuss the various aspects of C in more detail and rather more formally than does chapter 1 although the emphasis is still on working examples of complete useful programs rather than isolated fragments chapter 2 deals with da basic data types operators and expressions and chapter three treats control flow if else while for ETC chapter four covers functions and program structure external variables scope RS and so on chapter five discusses pointers and address arithmetic and chapter six contains the details of structures and unions chapter 7 describes the standard CIO Library which provides a common interface to the operating system this IO library is supported on all machines that support C so programs which use it for input output and other system functions can be moved from one system to another essentially without Change chapter 8 describes the interface between C programs and the Unix operating system concentrating on input output the file system and portability although some of this chapter is UNIX specific programmers who are not using Unix system should still find useful material here including some insight on how one version of the standard library is implemented and suggestions on achieving portable code appendix a contains the C reference manual this is the official statement of the syntax and semantics of c and except for one owns compiler the final Arbiter of any ambiguities and omissions from earlier chapters since C is an evolving language that exists on a variety of systems some of the material in this book may not correspond to the current state of developments for a particular system we have tried to steer clear of such problems and warn of potential difficulties with in doubt however we have chosen generally to describe the pdp11 Unix System since that is the environment of the majority of C programmers appendix a also describes implementation differences on the major C systems this recording of chapter zero of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie is part of my C programming for everybody course where I teach C from a historical perspective my name is Charles sance and I’m the teacher of the [Music] course hello and welcome to C programming for everybody I’m Charles Severance and I’m your professor for this course in this lecture we are going to do a very rapid translation from python to C so as I’ve shown you in our earlier lecture she C is kind of like the mother tongue of advanced programming languages python itself was written and still is written in C and python is deeply influenced by C even though the syntax looks very different right um and if you’ve taken all my other classes you will have seen PHP you’ll have seen uh JavaScript and to some degree even see SS takes some of its inspiration from uh the syntax of c and so I’m not intending for this to be your first programming class I intend for you to be an expert in Python well not expert but certainly I’m not going to tell you what a if statement is I’m not going to tell you what a variable is I’m going to just tell you how to use variables in C and I’m going to tell you how to use if statements in C and so that’s why a solid foundation of python not wizard but solid foundation of python is essential and frankly I would rather that you learned a bit of PHP some JavaScript and all this other stuff before you come I see that c I think a C programming is not the first class that you should take but instead it is your gateway to the advanced work that you’re going to do and so I think C is very very important I just don’t think it’s your first programming class so you might think Python and C are not very different although python is written in C python has Whit space that is part of its syntax c whes space is ignored I I do like C better in that python is very object Orient if you read an article I wrote on quora you’ll see I I rank all my languages and I I put Javascript and python is the most object Orient languages Java is a little less objectoriented and C is like the least unob oriented C is not objectoriented at all python has wonderfully convenient data structures in the form of list and dictionaries PHP has arrays and um JavaScript has objects the all beautiful beautiful stuff Fair object R structures Python A C does not it’s fast it’s efficient it’s powerful it’s got strs and pointers and by goly you will use them and they’re not they’re not convenient but they are scorchingly fast and by the time we’re done with all this we will see how to use stru and pointers to build lists and dictionaries and that really is we will follow down the path of building python so you’ll see a a common three theme throughout this class of how python achieves what it’s trying to achieve by writing C python has automatic memory management to the point where if you’ve been a python programmer a PHP programmer a Java programmer or JavaScript programmer you probably don’t even know what memory management is well you’re going to by the end of this class and by the end of this class you’re going to be able to see how python automates memory management for you right python is written in the 80s and C was written in the 70s in in many ways I see python as a convenience layer that was built on top of C just C programmers look at C it’s like it’s great it’s great it’s great if we just had this layer of easiness on top of it then things would be better and so um that’s what python is now python also introduced things like quite different syntax to make it uh indentation you know required because they thought it was a good idea so we we could argue one way or the other I mean I I’ll tell you when I’m writing a million lines of code I white white space is not to me a good way to have syntax so we’re going to look at C through a python lens and we’re going to learn by example now most of the time I tell you you um don’t copy and paste don’t cheat don’t look for Solutions this lecture is the exception to that rule I’ve written this lecture as a Rosetta Stone it’s just a little tiny bit of connection to what you already know in Python to what you’re going to do in C and so I’m not intending at this point for you to build your own stuff based on reading a book I actually just want you and if I give you assignments to do these particular things I really do want you to just watch this lecture grab the PowerPoint and feel free to cut and paste from my PowerPoint into my assignments because this is I don’t know if you’ve ever seen it where the mama tiger is teaching a baby tiger how to hunt and the mama tiger goes out and gets a something or other and brings it back and puts it near the baby tiger and lets the baby tiger Chase it well that’s kind of what I’m doing I’m the mama tiger and I’m giving you some C code and I’m putting it right in front of you and then I want you to take that c code and I want you to run it and play with it and understand it so I’m not expecting in this lecture that you’re going to derive it that you’re going to sort of somehow read the textbook look at a problem and solve the problem that’s later that is that’s absolutely later so this is the beginning this is trying to make connections conceptual connections to the complex knowledge you have about python to little places where you can hook things on to in see and so the idea is to go through it quickly so I do assigned some of these as programming exercises it’s intended for me my intent is that you’ll watch the lectures and just work on the code at the same time I’m not trying to test what you learned I really want you to watch and listen and type that’s how we learn right you could cut and paste it or you could type it and you could type it one piece at a time and the mere Act of you typing even though you’re just looking at a slide and typing it in at this point in the course that is the learning objective is this lecture now that whole rule of just typing code in that you’re looking at some from someone else don’t don’t do that forever later I want you to do things like synthesize what you learn in the book synthesize it struggle through it and figure things out and do the assignment yourself so don’t go searching if you want to gain maximum benefit if you’re just in the biggest hurry of all just go ahead and search but please if you want benefit from this class don’t cheat yourself there’s a lot of similarities that I’m not going to cover you can go read the textbook like the plus minus asterisk slash and percent hey probably when you were learning python you’re like whoa what’s this percent thing and why did they choose percent the answer is that’s what C chose and so modulo is just percent in all these other languages because they flipped a coin in C and decided percent was modulo the comparison operators the assignment operators is equal sign which means that the the equality operators got to be double equals exclamation equals less than greater than less than equal all that stuff’s the same variable naming rules the same you start with a letter underscore and then numbers letters and underscores and case matters both languages while Loops the concept of break and continue which you know some people get all worried about I love break and continue if you’ve taken my other courses and you’ll see when we talk about it in see I love breaking continu in C2 maybe because that’s I learned C first and I I just love breaking and you okay enough about that I love breaking okay enough about that uh constants uh about the only thing that’s really different in constants is like strings and characters and booleans and strings and characters are like the biggest thing in the beginning both have int and float and Char and bite now again bite and string and Char and not the same thing C has no stir class which is the string class list or dictionary and python has no concept of struct or double and in a sense you could think of um Python’s float is really sees double right and so by the time python was written the notion of shorter floating Point numbers is less less critical there are some differences a lot of this I think was in the design of python trying to be a little less obtuse and a little more convenient uh for me it’s annoying I write the C versions of The Operators like and double Amper sand not is exclamation point we call that bang or double vertical bar and in Python they’re all convenient we use the word A and D but okay whatever um so there in C we have a for Loop but it’s it’s an indeterminant Loop if you remember the definition from python for everybody in determined Loop is one that you have to examine to see if it’s got infinite Loop whereas in the in Python if you say 4X in some list you’re going to go through the whole list it’s a determinant Loop it only runs until that list is exhausted C does not have such a thing right it just every Loop has got a condition to finish it now we write Loops like 4 I equal 1 to 100 or 0 to 99 we write them and you can look at them and say yeah that’s not an infinite loop it’s just technically you have to look at the Loop to make sure that you haven’t inadvertently made it infinit Loop there’s no predefined true and false I find this really like wow couldn’t they got eoff capital eof for IND defil Andy none and null are similar Concepts but quite different none in Python is its own type null is the number zero that’s cast to be a pointer to nothing and so none is like specially marked empty null is a zero we’ll get there we’ll get there um strings and character arrays for a while you can kind of pretend that character arays in C are mostly like strings like when you throw a constant and you pass it to a function they kind of look the same but like once we start working with them you’ll see they’re very very different and that’s that’s kind of the first fun part of the first part of this class is like strings are now your responsibility there’s there’s no help right um and C of course has no list or dictionary and python has no concept of like tightly packed data which is what strs are and uh and doubles and floats so here we go let’s get started let’s see if my pen is working here yeah so what we’re going to see is on one side we’re going to see some Python and other side we’re going to see some C and so this is just talking about output this is Python 3 of course and so we have a print function and it takes any number of parameters one of the things you’ll notice about the print function is like hello space World well that’s part of this constant but answer comma 42 puts a little space in between answer and 42 and the output so if you want to suppress that kind of automatic addition of spacing you have to maybe concatenate things together or or some other trick um the print statement automatically knows if it’s got a string or a float or an integer and it just does things kind of all automatically and so if you want to see something usually you just print it okay so let’s take a look at the uh compare and contrast so first off you pretty much you’re going to have to start every one of your C programs with pound includes standard i.h comments are different python comments are pound signed to the end of the line uh C comments are SL star across multiple lines to Star slash so everything in between there that can be multiple lines later versions of C also add the What’s called the C++ style of comments and JavaScript uses those as comments which is the double slash so when you’re writing you probably can use double slash in the C that you’re using but I’m kind of being kind of strict and so I’m pretending I’m in 1978 so I’m not using that uh C++ style comment again that came from C++ it didn’t come from JavaScript some of you have taken python classes where there’s this like uncore uncore Main and it calls this thing and it makes a function and calls it and indents everything one Tab and they’re really imitating C in that respect and I think I don’t like that style I think those people who do that in Python I’m sure they have a good reason but I think they’re just like wishing it was C because the definition of c is code a program starts it when it starts running it searches for a function named Main and later we’ll see that this function can actually have arguments and it returns an integer as to the success or failure so really main is a function and so that first line there int main open print Clos print open curly brace that is the definition of a function that happens to be named Main and then we have print F now again if we if you I don’t know if you learned python 2 but in Python 2 there was a print statement in Python 3 there is a print function and so here we’re using a Python 3 print function and um C never did the statement so C decided as we’ll talk about later to not have any input output any reading or writing in the language itself but instead put them in standard libraries and that’s what this pound includes stdio.h is saying okay I’m going to do some IO here input output here and so include the C input output Library okay and so print F takes as its first parameter a string the other thing you see in C is you can’t use single quotes for long strings later we’ll see single quotes but in C there’s a major difference between single quotes and double quotes single single quotes are single characters and double quotes are a character array not a string character array the other thing is things like the end of line so in Python the new line is added implicitly in C you have to add it explicitly and so that’s basically saying print hello world and then go to the beginning of the next line now this first parameter is actually not just a string it’s a string with embedded format codes that start with percent percent D says there is a corresponding integer number and I want you to conver convert that into a string and print it out I guess I should probably just re erase some of this so it says answer and then a number and so you can have more than one of these things and then they match so that says there’s an integer as another parameter so you can have one parameter two parameters Etc so for Beyond one parameter like in this one X per. 1f that corresponds to this first flow voting Point number and this percent D corresponds to the integer one okay so you have these percent things now we will learn that these percent things have um a language unto themselves in chapter 8 and uh this is basically saying please print me a floating Point number with only one digit of precision right so percent. onef says print a floating Point number and then if we want a string it’s percent s but this really Sarah here double quote Sarah double quote is a character array and it’s actually not five characters but six because there is always a terminating zero character at the end and so percent s says the parameter needs to be a character array and properly terminated by an end of string indicator which is a zero character so so that’s this right it’s pretty simple but I we got a lot of stuff to cover here and this is the Rosetta Stone it’s more complex than C you have you have more control you’re doing things the more explicitly um and and it’s not doing it for you automatically so let’s take a look at a simple number input and you’ll see that some of these things come from my uh my python for everybody class this is the famous US floor to European floor um elevator can inverter so we we’re going to print something out now one thing about C is that you’ve got to declare all your variables python is sort of a typeless language it’s increasingly getting more typy um but it’s but it’s a typeless language so we have to declare that we’re going to have two variables USF and euf and they’re going to be integers we print the statement about the diff only difference there is we have to put the backs slash n in otherwise it won’t automatically do that and then we have this IO routine again coming from stdio.h called scanf and its first parameter much like printf is actually a formatting string and what this says is this says read four a lot little ways find me a number as long as it seems like a number keep reading and turn that into an integer and give it back to me and so it actually has got some scanning built into it and it reads until it finds a non-digit and then stops and says that’s the number so it turns out in C the way you could type a lot of different things here we won’t go into that too much detail we’ll hold that until chapter 8 but the the idea is it doesn’t work exactly the same although this input in Python reads a line now again I got this little note here if you recall if you recall in Python 2 there was an input and a raw input and raw input was what read a line which I tended to use when I was teaching python 2 input was a weird thing that had some kind of scanning thing going on and it scanned and threw stuff away and it grabbed something it might go from to multiple lines and it was totally inconsistent and it was worse than scan F so I was really glad when they just got rid of it in Python 3 and then they changed the name what used to be python 2’s raw input became input in Python 3 so the old input from python 2 is kind of like homage to scan F in C but it’s not exactly the same and the reason it’s not the same is the input in Python 2 was was deriving the type of the data from what it encountered so it might give you back a string it might give you back a floating Point might go like oh that’s dangerous right and and that’s because the type of USF in Python here is determined it it it you can it’s not preclarus and by the way both the input and the scan F we can write stuff that confuses it badly and causes it to blow up but we’re not we’re not worrying too much about that right now we’re just kind of getting the basics done so we have a we read an integer we subtract one we print it out right we read an integer oh I forgot to say this Amper sand call by reference and call by value so in Python this is coming back as a function return so it’s really easy to assign it into USF whereas in C we put these parameters on the scan F call and we have to say oh and by the way I want you to change it because ultimately if we don’t put Ampersand on it’s what’s called call by value not call by reference and ampers USF is a way to tell C to actually give it the address of the USF variable rather than the value in the USF variable and in that is a the whole chapter that we will cover like uh I think four and five will be all about the Amper sand and call by reference call by I’m we we’re way ahead because I don’t think chapters one through four would all they ever do is mention call by reference and then say Oh that’s in the future so I’m going to just say oh that’s in the future I will tell you that that Amper sand is really important and the code doesn’t work without it because it is the way that c does call by reference for simple variables like integers and floats as you’re going to see on the next slide there’s always an exception string input okay so here we’re going to this H my hello Sarah thing right we say enter your name and then we say name input now the beauty is here in Python is input gives us a whole line okay and then we just print hello name and you’ll notice that there’s like this little space that comes out automatically so switching over to C we have our included the library we have the in main which is the and then we have to precare a character array there is no like make it a string If This Were python we could say hey let’s make a string but you can’t and what’s even more important is you got to tell it how long which means that we could type too much stuff in here and blow our program up and that’s one of the difficulties of C is the fact that arrays including character arrays have fixed length then they don’t Auto extend there is no Auto there is no DOA pend in C you can’t like say oh name DOA pend you can’t do it python it’s an object it’s not an actual array python it’s an object name is a string object here name is a character array with 100 elements and if you put 20 in you’ll be fine if you put 80 in you’ll be fine if you put 101 in it’s going to blow up ah well that’s okay that’s why C is fast we’ll get to all that we’ll get to all that so we print out a prompt and we say scan F and we say in this case percent s give me a string and you can put a limit on it so we’re saying look only read up to 100 characters and you’ll notice there is no Amper sand on name and that is because name is an array and so when you put name in with no square brackets no index operator then you’re passing the address of the beginning of the array and so that is in a sense an Amper sand that is the location of the beginning of a 100 character array we’re going to scan up to 100 characters into it and so it really is roughly equivalent to the input and then we just again say hello percent s and then name is the corresponding thing and so it says hello Sarah now a lot of what we did in the python for everybody is read whole lines of input and we tended to use string parsing of those lines like we would trim the stuff off the end and then we’d split it and all these things there’s there’s no good split see so we won’t be doing too much of that but it does help to understand how to read a whole line of input so now we’re going to read something that doesn’t have it it has lots of spaces we’re going to read the whole line and we’re just going to Echo the whole line right enter line read the Line Print the line so now we’re going to have again we have to declare how big of a string we’re willing to take Char line with a thousand characters in it the prompt by now should be pretty easy and we have a really weird look percent square bracket carrot back sln close square bracket 1000s well if you took python for everybody and you remember chapter 11 regular Expressions that should look familiar to you open bracket carrot back sln close bracket says match any character that’s not a new line so that says scan up to the end of a line or until you hit a th characters that’s what percent open square bracket carrot back sln close square bracket 1000s means as the first parameter to scan F read a whole line but stop at 100 stop at a thousand characters and then of course line is just the parameter and then we print that thing out okay and so a lot of C programmers probably never written this particular line of code but it gives you a sense that um there’s a lot of of sort of programmability and things like regular Expressions that we you know that python had well those are kind of an old concept those are seven 1970s Concepts this C language had that Concept in it in 1970 there’s another way that’s a little safer to do this and these are the exact same thing where this command fgs so fgs says put it into the up to a thousand characters looking for a new line and reading from what’s called standard input so in C there are three basic files one is the standard input which usually is read through to up to eof standard output which is where print f is going and then there’s a thing called standard error which is where you send errror messages that you don’t just go want to go to the output so the input and the output like if you’re going to make a program to do uppercase you would read your input you would uppercase it and then send it out but if for example um um you encountered a character that you didn’t want to copy and you wanted to send an airor says I’m I’m not going to copy you wouldn’t just send it to standard output you actually send it to standard erir when you’re running um just on a terminal like in your command line standard input is your keyboard standard output is your screen and standard error is your screen so you can see both the error messages and the output of the program but if you’re running sort of with redirecting input and output you do tend to still see the error message on your screen and it doesn’t end up hidden in some stand standard output but in this case we’re using fgs which is part of the standard library and we are saying read this from standard input now you’ll see in a second when we read a file fgs can read a file and that third parameter is the file handle but there are three predefined file Handles in C programs standard in standard out and standard err they’re all named stdin that’s their name their predefined constants in the C the C standard SDI Doh Library okay so now we’re going to read a file we do this a lot in Python we go get a file handle it reads it this might fail of course if the file doesn’t exist then we got add a a nice determinant Loop remember we talk about iner loops and this for in it’s so Python and it’s so awesome and it’s like so expressive I love it I miss it okay and then uh line. strip which takes the new line off um and so that’s going to read you know just reads reads the little file writes it out so we uh we have to create a variable we’ll call it a th thousand characters we now we are and and in Python we could have any length of characters in our file and it would work but in C now we’re going to have to actually say we can only handle up to a th characters because we’ve declared the line that we’re going to use the line variable we’re going to read this in has a thousand there is a equivalent to the handle file is a type it’s it’s defined in stdio.h starand which means it’s a pointer to a file object and a hand equals fopen romeo. text R so that’s two character arrays romeo. txt and R and actually the open in Python is inspired by the F open in um in in C and that’s because again when they were writing python they were writing it in C why don’t we take an open and all the did was made the open in python be a little easier so we don’t have any kind of a io4 in so we have to write our own y Loop here so we’re going to call F gets line give me up to a th000 characters from the file handle named hand and fgs returns null which is a constant that’s defined in stdio.h if it reaches end of file so this basically is a loop that says re everything up till end of file very similar to this four line in hand and then we’re printing it now I don’t have to strip it because F gets actually takes the new line that is the end of each line so in Python you would get double spacing if you didn’t strip the new line at the end of each one of these little things right each line whereas the the F get S is nice enough not to give us the new line so there we go so a counted Loop now this honestly is not one of my favorite things in P in Python but this range is a generator that’s going to generate the numbers 0o through four 4 I in range this is effectively kind of a a dynamically generated set and then we’re going to print it so we’re going 0 1 2 3 4 in C we of course have to declare the I is going to be an INT and the for Loop has three pieces separated by semicolons there’s the initialization piece now PHP and JavaScript are the exact same thing so if this looks familiar to you that’s because you took those classes congratulations so for I equal Z is the initialization that says before the loop starts set I to zero then there is the middle part is the test whether or not the loop should run or continue to run it’s a top tested Loop and so I less than five must be true or The Loop won’t run at all but given that I is zero at the beginning it’s less than five so it’s going to run at least once and then each time through the loop at the bottom after the loop is run we’re going to add one to I with a i++ a post increment operator and again that line of code PHP JavaScript Java all look the same except PHP has dollar signs for variable prefixes which yeah bothers me but it is what it is and of course we have a a block curly brace open curly brace and close curly brace denote the block and then we simply print the variable out and both both bits of code produce the exact same output so if we get a little bit trickier we’re going to do a uh take an example from my python for everybody class and look at the max and Min and because we need to Prime the loop we’re going to set our Max Val to none and the Min Val to none and we’re going to do an a middle tested infinite Loop while true we’re going to read the input line each line like 5 29 we’re going to strip it just because we’re going to check to see if it’s the string done if it is we’re going to break out of the loop right and then we’re going to convert it to an integer and we’re going to check to see if Max Val is none or the Val value we read is greater than Max Val we’re going to reme remember it and if Minal is none or the value we just read is less than minval we’re going to remember it and when the loop finally reads all the way through we’re going to print out the maximum and the minimum so this is pretty much the same code except we’re using scanf with a percent D format input format and scanning into the V integer variable and using Ampersand to indicate that it’s called by reference and to replace the current V and then the rest of it the same right if uh if it’s the first one or we’ve got a larger one we keep it if it’s the first one or we got a smaller one we keep that one as well we Loop through and it all goes now one thing that if we’re using scanf as I mentioned before scanf doesn’t sort of stop at the end of lines it keeps on going and so the if I have 5 to and nine and again we have to use contrl D or eof here to to finish this or we have to five space two five Space 9 and then eof it it does the same because scanf is just looking for an integer it start it’s really it’s algorithm we’ll see this in chapter 8 but the the thing that it does it’s like get me an integer which means throw away stuff that’s not an integer so um away you go so that’s a slightly more cthonic version of uh this min max using uh scan f and it doesn’t suffer from the problem of using uh get us and having to worry about the size of the arrays that’s character arrays here’s a guessing game it’s one of my favorite applications so we have a a infinite Loop the ultimate non-determinate Loop a loop that you got to examine to know that it’s going to finish and in this particular one we’re just looping to eof you’re using try and accept why because line doesn’t give you any return indication that it’s hit into files so we just have to like have it blow up and then do an accept and then jump out oh well so we throw away the new line and then we convert the line to an integer and we say if guess is 42 nice work and then break which gets out of the loop the break affects the loop not the if and then LF guess less than 42 too low else print too high so this is a classic multi-way if where we can have an if you can have kind of as many lfs as you want dot dot dot and then an else we do the same thing in C uh we’re going to use the scanf pattern waiting till we uh see eof um if the guess is 42 um we print nice work and then break now we have to have curly braces here because that is a two statement block and so if you’re having more than one statement you’ve got to do uh curly braces and then else this else matches up with that if else if guess less than 42 print F now modern programmers would tend to put curly braces even though this is only one line but this print f is the statement connected to the if and it does not need curly braces because what comes after an if is a statement or block of statements with curly braces and the same is true of its else the print f is the single statement so you would You’ not seeing curly braces here and I I’m I would write this with curly braces but because the authors of the book are really very succinct they tend to not put curly braces in so I’m calling your attention to that now a really important thing to call your attention to is the difference between else space if and L if now the high level is what we’re doing in C is not really a multi-way if what we’re doing in Python is truly a multi-way if this if and L if and else are really part of the same block of code but this else if is two keywords and so if you look at the the the first if the first if has one block of code which is the print F nice work and the break and then the else Clause of the first if is this entire block of code here which is if guess less than 42 print F yada yada and then another else and so this is a block so this is a block if and in the else Clause there is another block if and so if you look at this really the indentation of this stuff ought to be in in this like the El If part in the else that indentation should be further in now by convention we don’t de indent we don’t add that indentation even though it’s technically correct because this is an else and then there’s one statement and that statement is the if okay and so it’s we use this idiomatically all the time it looks like a multiway if else if else but it’s not it’s actually a further and further deeply nested elseif an else with an if inside the else and then another else with an if inside the else we just don’t indent it we indent it by Convention as if it were a multi-way if you know need to know this precisely when you are writing code but I just want to point that out in case like in the back of your mind you’re like why does python called LF which is one reserved word and why does c not have an LF but instead has an LF I think when the gido invented python he said look that’s a cool convention let’s make it actually part of the language rather than a idiomatic use of the language okay enough of that enough of that okay calling by value functions this is pretty easy right there’s no defa key word um you have the return value the name of the function and the parameters and then of course before the curly braces you have to have the type of the parameters those are not the type of the variables in the function those are the type of the parameters in Python you don’t need to tell it what type they are python is kind of a flexible typeless language the type of a variable goes right along with it any you could be inside my mol and say what kind of a thing is a and then a could be an integer it could be a float it could be whatever could be a string right because that’s an object and an object can have a type whereas a is just a number and you have to tell it in C uh that number that’s coming in it is an integer and if someone miscalls it in C like put 6.0 here it just blows up doesn’t work right I mean it might do something it’s just unexpected right so there’s no cleverness now there might be some checking you might get a compiler warning that says how come it’s an integer here and it’s a floating Point here that will be dangerous but it won’t fix it for you and it doesn’t automatically convert it whereas if you did this in Python it would automatically convert so you have a far greater responsibility to match your types up and see uh things like return statement pretty much functions the same it was you know the python return state statement is an imitation of the C return statement you do have to declare your variable types that are going to be used temporary inside the function scope wise right this C is not outside we will see later when we get to the functions chapter about external values and static values Etc but the default scoping is that any variable that you declare inside of a function only lives inside the function there is no a b or c in the main code any and that’s the same as how python works that’s a lot of Rosetta Stone we talked about input output we talked about looping we talked about reading a file we’ve talked about strings which are really character arrays we’ve talked about um float and later later later later later we’re going to learn a lot and chapters five and six are the crazy chapters but we’re going to play with how would P how would we Implement some of the things that python strings lists and dictionaries handle and before this course is is over we’re going to come back and get inside the mind of what it would take to build python using the C language so we’ll see how Alec structures pointers Etc character Rays can be used to build string object list object and dict object and that to me is the learning objective of this course is not so much how to code C because it’s your job but what in C is necessary to make a higher level language like python or JavaScript or Java or C work and we’ll get to that before the end of the course it is a long course um and again this was a long lecture this takes some time to absorb and and just zooming through this you you you achieve nothing if you just do the homework without understanding so take your time I put the lines in this lecture the lines of code are there very much on purpose every single one is trying to teach something so I hope you’ll take the time to learn all this material [Music] cheers hello and welcome to chapter one of K en Richie my name is Charles Sant and of course I’m your professor for this course that’s about history so welcome to this course it’s really part of a learning path um I don’t think that c should be your first programming Lang language and I don’t think it should be your last programming language I have a whole series of courses that are all free and available online both just on the web on places like free code camp and corera and at X and the place that you’re at in my learning path is a uh that you’re at right now is C programming and we’re not learning C programming to learn C programming we’re learning C programming to take a historical look at how computers work and lead into uh computer architecture I’m not trying to teach you coding in C but I am going to explain how computers work and things like how Java Works using C as kind of like the it just gives me a way to explain Java to you so the outline of the textbook is a kind pretty typical computer science textbook where it uh it starts off easy and then whoo everything goes pretty crazy so chapters 1 through 4 and we’re on chapter one right now is mostly syntax and it’s just another programming language and especially if you’ve know a little bit of Java or a little little bit of PHP or a little bit of JavaScript some of that syntax is going to be like whoa of course this is familiar and the answer is well that’s because all those languages came from C so it’s kind of feels like just another programming language except that arrays are not lists and character arrays are not strings and character arrays kind of look like strings but they don’t work like strings and you can get in all kinds of trouble but other than that once you sort of stop worrying about how long things are pretend it’s okay which is dangerous of course when you write code chapters 1 through 4 feel a lot like you’re just any other programming language but then chapters 5 and six are the valuable chap chter of this book but they also become a lot more difficult so don’t don’t give chapters 1 through 4 short shrift because five and six are going to just go woo um and then seven and eight is just sort of filling in detail and seven and eight are not so critical um you know it just kind of fills in all the gaps so that’s that’s the outline of the book just expect that 1 through four is going to be smooth and then five and six are going to be like now we’re really getting somewhere okay so looking at chapter one one again chapters sections 1 through 15 looks not that different than any other programming language that you’ve learned it’s chapter one section 1.6 is arrays static allocation arrays you you have to know how big they are when you declare them and you can’t resize them until chapter 5 at which point we’ll start talking about dynamic memory and pointers and resizing chapter 1.7 and 1.8 functions and parameters and it’s all called by value in this early phase called by by reference is in chapter 5 because we need to know about pointers before that we talked about chapter 5 even though they use a little pointer syntax here and there in chapter one and section 1.9 is character Rays read this one closely because there is no string object in C there’s no objects at all in C and in section 1.10 they talk about variable scoping between functions and that feels kind of similar to to other languages and part of it is because other languages took their inspiration from C so if we just take a quick look at C character arrays we must understand that the size of the character array is at allocation time and there is nothing Auto extended and if you write a for Loop that goes off the end of the loop like I’ve got where you know I have a character array that’s 10 long and I write a loop That’s goes up to a thousand storing data in it eventually the program will blow up and you can see like I mean in Python you just make you just add characters whereas in C if you add characters beyond what where is allocated the system blows up and you probably heard me say more than once that the C language is probably responsible for 90% of the security hole significant security holes in all of computing and this kind of code where you allocate an array and then you wildly go beyond it ends up making it so that people can inject things into operating systems and routers and all kinds of things so this is why we don’t use C to to write programs I mean here we are in the first page the example one of chapter one is why we don’t write C very often or if we do we have to be really careful at reviewing it and making sure that it’s right it’s really fast but it’s also dangerous uh string constants and character constants strings and characters in most languages Java’s a little different but PHP Python and JavaScript treat single and double quotes roughly the same and they create string constants and that’s a multicar thing that has a length C doesn’t have a multi character thing has a length it has an array of characters that has a zero character at the end of it in C single quotes are a single character and double quotes are a character array so a single a double quote with one character in it is actually two bytes because it’s the character and the string ending whereas in Python A String has a length it doesn’t really have an ending character there’s a special character that we use for an ending in c a character is a bite which is a short integer usually eight bits in in in most computers and so we you got to be real careful you you got double quote things and single quote things and single quote things in in C are far more like integers and far less like strings and so in in in Python you just use them interchangeably single quotes and double quotes character sets the Char in C is like a number it’s a tiny number it’s eight bits long so you can go from 0 to 255 and the character representations depend on the character set but quite often they’re asky and so you can just go look up at an asky chart and figure out what the numeric representation of the letter a is and in Python we can actually see the ordinal position of a by using the or function but that’s the or function of a single character string which pulls the ORD of the very first character and we find it it’s 65 and if you look up in the asky chart it’s 65 but in python python 3 Python 3 are multi-te characters that represent Unicode and unicode is much larger than 8 Bits I think Unicode is 32 bits uh utf8 is a way to represent Unicode and unicode is a 32bit character set and so if you say what is the character the integer equivalent of the character Smiley phase you see that it’s 128,50 122 and that’s in a space of 32bit it’s a 32-bit integer and that’s the character Point within that 32-bit integer that represents smiley face in C there is no smiley face you can’t represent well unless you put a bunch of libraries into it but the normal out of- the box seed can’t can’t represent a smiley face it can represent an uppercase a and you can say what is the A and you’ll notice we’re printing it out with a percent c and a percent D and and it’s the same thing if you print a a a a character out as a a character it’s an A and if you print it out as an integer it’s an a we don’t even need an Ord function because character constants are really integer constants in the asy character set okay just understand that every time you see single quote a single quote think of it as an integer as a number that happens to be conveniently looked up for you by the C compiler and you can take a look at the asy character set and you can go look at uppercase a and you see that its decimal equivalent is 65 you also see in this table that its hexadecimal is 41 and its octal is one1 and it’s it’s binary its actual bits are one bunch of zeros and a one now the reason we like octal and and hex as programmers is it’s easier to convert directly one without having converting from decimal requires like divisions and modulo and stuff like that um but converting from octal or hex to Binary is Direct on a on a digit by digit basis so I can convert an octal digit to a binary set of binary digits just by looking at each digit in succession so when we’re printing out and we want to be able to understand what the raw bit pattern is of some data we tend to print it out in HEX or in octal so that we can quickly figure out what bits are set inside that uh value strings in C are not strings they are arrays of characters and there is no length so you can ask python what the length of a string is and the string knows its length but in C that you can ask what the length of a string is but it turns into a for Loop that scans until it finds the end of the string and the end of the string is a special character which is quote back sl0 quote which is zero I mean it’s literally the integer zero so you have characters that are nonzero and then you have a zero character and the length is how many characters are in this array up to the end now that is different than the allocation so you can have in this case I have a an example of a six character array and I put six things in it it’s all full I could have terminated it like you notice I say x sub3 equal 0 it’s no it still got six characters in the array but now the end of the string in that array or the end of the character sequence in that array has a zero at position sub three and of course array start at zero so you see the first three characters and the third one is an end and that that stops IT to print out and so you got to you got to a allocate for the end of the character string and you you be you’ve got to have it there if just because it goes up to six if you don’t have the end of the string it’s going to go off and and and R randomly go through memory until it blows up probably right and so strings must be terminated if you append something to a string first you have to have enough space in that string if you pen something to a character aray you have to have enough space and then if you overwrite the end of the string you got to add another little Mark to say now the end of the string has been moved so terminating a string is a thing that you always got to think about both when you’re scanning through a string and when you’re creating a new string like I said the C string length is only computable by a loop that scans for a zero character so there’s a sterland function in string.h that computes the string but it’s very very different than the Len function in Python Len function in Python X is an object and length is an attribute of that object whereas in C there is an array and it has a length and it has a zero position but to ask how long is it you’ve got to actually Loop through all the characters looking for the zero marker so you kind of can find a length of a character a length of a string the length of a quote unquote string in C but you got to write a for Loop to do it you don’t have to write a for Loop because python just knows the length later we’ll bring all these things together much later so one of your assignments exercise 117 is reversing a string in C without requiring any information an extra string you can’t you have a string it’s got a certain amount of space and you’ve got to just flip you got to swap the characters you’re going to probably have to draw a picture to do that it is exercise 117 and I’m going to tell you do not cheat there are probably a million Solutions out there on the internet chat GPT will tell you how to do it don’t be tempted as you do this you will get there I show you a blurred out version of it it’s not all that much code so don’t shortcut this don’t just the solution getting the solution to this assignment without actually doing it is the the meanest thing you’ll ever do to yourself you have to do the reversal in place it’s a classic interview question at the interview you don’t get to go to chat GPT you got to think about even length strings odd length strings empty strings and Single Character strings you’re going to have to draw some pictures take your time enjoy this assignment seriously it’s not that big and when you get it done you can be very very proud of yourself that you you really thought through the low-level storage of what an array of characters with an ending marker is working with and so that’s why it’s such a good interview question so there we go that’s kind of my call outs from chapter one give you a sense of overall sense of the book see character arrays and encouraging you to actually do your homework even though there’s a million ways to get it done for you cheers [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles S and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter 1 a tutorial introduction let us begin with a quick ruction to see our aim is to show the Essential Elements of the language in real programs but without getting bogged down in details formal rules and exceptions at this point we are not trying to be complete or even precise we want you to get as quickly as possible to the point where you can write useful programs and to do that we have to concentrate on the basics variables and constants arithmetic control flow functions and the rudiments of input and output we are quite intentionally leaving out of this chapter features of C which are of vital importance for writing bigger programs these include pointers structures and most of C’s Rich set of operators several control flow statements and a myriad of details this approach has its drawbacks of course most notable is that the complete story on any particular language feature is not found in a single place the tutorial by being brief may also mislead and because they cannot use the full power of C the examples are not as concise and elegant as they might be we have tried to minimize these effects but be warned another drawback is that later chapters will necessarily repeat some of this chapter in any case experienced programmers should be able to extrapolate from the material in this chapter to their own programming needs beginners should supplement it by writing small similar programs of Their Own both groups can use it as a framework on which to hang the more detailed descriptions that begin in Chapter 2 1.1 getting started the only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it the first program to write is the same for all languages print the words hello world this is the basic hurdle to leap over it you have to be able to create the program text somewhere compile it successfully load it it run it and find out where your output went with these mechanical details mastered everything else is comparatively easy in traditional C the program to PR print hello world is main open parentheses close parentheses open curly brace print F parentheses double quote hello comma space world back sln double quote close parentheses semicolon close curly brace the modern minimal version of this program needs a bit more syntax we add a single line at the beginning hashtag include space left angle brackets stdio.h right angle bracket P include stdio.h we have to add that line for the modern program back to the book just how to run this program depends on the system that you’re using as a specific example on the Unix operating system you must create the source program in a file whose name ends in C such as hello.c and then you compile it with the command CC space hello.c if you haven’t botched anything such as omitting a character or misspelling something the compilation will proceed silently and make an executable file called a.out running that by the command a.out will produce hello comma world as its output on other systems the rules will be different check with a local expert on Modern systems we use the GCC compiler with the dash ANC option to accept the Legacy syntax of C so we use GCC space minus an space hello.c and to run the resulting a.out file you usually you need to prepend the local directory because most shell configurations do not include the current path in the paths to search for applications so you need to write SL a.out now for some explanations about the program itself a c program whatever its size consists of one or more functions which specify the actual Computing operations that are to be done C functions are similar to functions and subroutines of a Fortran program or the procedures of pl1 Pascal Etc in our example Maine is such a function normally you are at Liberty give functions whatever names you like but Maine is a special name your program begins executing at the beginning of main this means every program must have a main somewhere main will usually invoke other functions to perform its job some coming from the same program and others from libraries of previously written functions one method of communicating data between functions is by arguments the parentheses following the function name surround the argument list here main is a function of no arguments indicated by open parentheses closed parentheses the curly braces enclose the statements that make up the function they’re analogous to the due end of pl1 or the begin end of alol or Pascal and so on a function is invoked by naming it followed by a parenthesized list of arguments there is no call statement as there is in foran or pl1 the parentheses must be present even if there are no arguments in the above text the authors were making connections to the popular general purpose programming languages of the time when the book was written it was not all a ured that c and C- like languages would ever evolve past writing high performance applications like operating system kernels and device drivers by comparing C to these more general purpose languages the authors are trying to plant the seed that c could have value as a general purpose language back to the text the line that says print F parentheses double quot hello commas space world back slash and double quot close parentheses semicolon is a function call which calls a function named print f with the argument hello world print f is a library function which prints the output to the terminal unless some other destination is specified in this case it prints the string of characters that make up its argument any sequence of any number of characters enclosed in double quotes is called a character string or string constant for the moment our only use of the character strings will be as arguments to print F and other functions the sequence back sln in the string is C notation for the new line character which when printed advances the terminal to the left margin on the next line if you leave out the back slash n a worthwhile experiment by the way you will find that your output is not terminated by a line feed the only way to get a new line character into the print f argument is with back slash n if you try to break it into two lines like print F quote hello world and then just hit the return double quote close parentheses semicolon on a new line the C compiler will print out unfriendly Diagnostics about missing quotes printf never supplies a new line automatically so multiple calls can be used to build up an output line in stages our first program could have just as well been written as main open parentheses Clos parentheses open curly brace brf quote hello quote semicolon print F quote World quote semicolon print F back slash n semicolon and then on a sixth line Clos curly braids and it would have produce the identical output note that back sln represents only a single character an Escape SE sequence like back sln provides a general and extensible mechanism for representing hardto get or invisible characters among the others that c provides are back SLT for tab back SLB for backspace back SL double quote for double quote and back slashback slash for the backslash itself 1.2 page8 variables and arithmetic the next program prints the following table of fair fhe temperatures and their Centigrade or Celsius equivalents using the formula c equal parentheses 5 / 9 Clos parentheses parentheses Fus 32 the table contains Fahrenheit of 0 Celsius of -7.8 Fahrenheit of 20 Celsius of -6.7 Fahrenheit of 40 Celsius of 4.4 and so forth here is the program itself for reference this this program is on page 29 of the textbook so it starts with pound include stdio.h to include the standard library then it has a comment it says print the Fahrenheit Celsius table for f equals 0 comma 20 comma dot dot dot comma 300 close comment main open parentheses close parentheses open curly brace int lower comma upper comma step semicolon float far comma Celsius lower equals z semicolon followed by a comment upper equals 300 semicolon followed by a comment step equals 20 semicolon followed by a comment far equals lower then while open parentheses far less than or equal upper close parentheses open curly brace Celsius equals parentheses 5.0 9.0 Clos parentheses asterisk open parentheses far minus 32.0 closed parentheses semicolon then a print F statement print F open parentheses double quote percent 4.0 f space percent 6.1 f back slash n close quote comma far comma Celsius close parentheses semicolon far equals far plus step and then a closing curly brace to finish the while statement and then a closing curly brace to finish the main statement the first two lines slash star print Fahrenheit to Celsius table for FAL 0 comma 20 dot dot dot 3 100 star slash are a comment which in this case explains briefly what the program does any characters between SL star and star slash are ignored by the compiler they may be used to freely make the program easier to understand comments may appear anywhere a blank or new line can in C all variables must be declared before use usually at the beginning of a function before any executable statements if you forget a declaration you will get a diagnostic from the compiler a declaration consider consists of a type and a list of variables that have that type as in int lower comma upper comma step semicolon float far comma Celsius semicolon the type int implies that the variables listed are integers float stands for floating Point I.E numbers which may have a fractional part Precision of both int and Float depends on the particular machine that you are using on the pdp1 for instance an INT is a 16bit signed number that is one that lies between negative 32,768 and positive 32,767 a float number is a 32bit quantity which amounts to about seven significant digits with a magnitude of about 10 Theus 38 and 10 + 38 chapter 2 lists the sizes for other machines I would note that the 1970s was a time of transition in the amount of memory installed in computers the C language int type was 16 bits in the older but more generally available computers like the pdp1 C could be used to write programs like the Unix operating system that made efficient use of available memory in particular the 1978 version of C did not require that Computers support 32bit integers but 32,768 is a pretty small number the size of an integer affected the maximum size of arrays and strings a lot of early C programs use the long type to get at least a 32-bit integer capable of representing numbers up to about 2 billion in modern modern computers and database we tend to choose between 32bit and 64-bit integers back to the text C provides several other basic data types besides int and Float Char is a character a single bite short is a short integer long is a long integer and double is a double Precision floating Point size of these objects are also machine dependent and details are in Chapter 2 there are also arrays structures and unions of these basic types and pointers to them and functions that return them all of which we will meet in due course the actual computation in our temperature conversion program begins with the assignments lower equals z upper equals 300 step equals 20 far equals lower all ending with semicolon these set the variables to their starting VAR values individual statements are terminated by semicolons each line of the table is computed in the same way so we use a loop which repeats once per line This is the purpose of the while statement while parentheses far less than or equal upper closed parentheses open curly brace then the body of the loop and then close curly brace the condition in the parenthesis is tested if it is true I.E far is less than or equal to Upper the body of the loop all of the statements included between the open curly brace and the closed curly brace are executed then the condition is retested if true the body’s executed again when the test becomes false I.E far exceeds upper the loop ends and execution continues at the statement that follows the loop there are no further statements in the program so it terminates the body of a while loop can be one or more statements enclosed in braces as the temperature converter or a single statement without braces as in while open parentheses I less than J closed parentheses I = 2 * I semicolon in either case the statements controlled by the while are indented by one tab stop so you can see at a glance what statements are inside the loop the indentation emphasizes The Logical structure of the program although C is quite permissive about statement positioning proper indentation and the use of Whit space are critical in making programs easy for people to read we recommend writing only one statement per line and usually leaving blanks around operators the position of the braces is less important we have chosen one of the several popular Styles pick a style that suits you and then use it consistently I would add that with these words the authors triggered a great debate about how to best indent code and use curly braces that continues to this day the indentation style used in this book is often referred to as the k&r style it tends to put open braces at the end of statements like if and while to keep code more compact in terms of the number of lines of code the best advice is not to debate at all when you modify someone else’s code just imitate the style that they used when they wrote their code back to the text most of the work gets done in the body of the loop the Celsius temperature is computed and assigned to the Celsius variable by the statement Celsius equals open parentheses 5.0 SL 9.0 closed parentheses asteris open parentheses far minus 32.0 closed parentheses semicolon the reason for using 5.0 9.0 instead of the simpler looking 59 is that in C as in many other languages integer division truncates so that any fractional part is discarded thus 59 is zero and of course so would then all the temperatures be zero a decimal point in a constant indicates that it is floating point so that 5.0 over 9.0 is 0.555 5 repeating which is what we want we also wrote 32.0 instead of 32 even though since far is a float 32 would automatically be converted to float before the subtraction but as a matter of style it’s wise to write floating Point constants with explicit decimal points even when they have integral values it emphasizes their floating Point nature for human readers and ensures the compiler will see things the way you do as well I would note that for those of you familiar with python before Python 3 integer division truncated and returned an integer just like C in Python 3 one of the major improvements was that the division of two integers perform the division operation in floating point and returns a floating Point result C and python 2 made the choice because of efficiency integer division with truncation especially for 16bit numbers was quite fast in the 1970s computers compared to floating Point division that kept the fractional part intact early pdp1 computers did integer division in Hardware while all floating point was done with loops and functions so it was far slower if you wanted to write fast code in the 1970s you avoided floating Point numbers except for special situations modern computers usually do 6 4bit floating Point operations almost at the same speed as integer division so we don’t need to allow programmers to avoid using floating point computations in their code the detailed rules for when integers are converted to floating Point are in chapter two for now notice that the assignment far equals lower semicolon and the test while far less than or equals upper both work as expected the int is converted to a float before the operation is done this example also shows a bit more of how print F Works print f is actually a general purpose format conversion function which we will describe completely in chapter 7 its first argument is a string of characters to be printed with each percent sign indicating where one of the other second third Etc arguments is to be substituted and what form it is to be printed in for instance in the statement print F parentheses double quote percent 4.0 f space percent 6.1 F back slash and double quote comma far comma Celsius the conversion specification percent 4.0 F says that a floating Point number is to be printed in a space at least four characters wide with no digits after the decimal point percent 6.1 F describes another number to occupy at least six spaces with one digit after the decimal point analogous to the f61 of Fortran or the F parentheses 6 comma 1 of pl1 parts of a specification may be omitted percent 6f says that the number is to be at least six characters y percent do 2f requests two places after the decimal point but the width is not constrained and merely percent F says to print the number itself as floating point printf also recognizes percent D for decimal integers percent o for octal percent X for heximal and percent C for characters and percent s for a character string and percent percent for the percent itself each percent Construction in the first argument of print f is paired with its corresponding second third Etc argument they must line up properly by number and type or else you’ll get meaningless Answers by the way print f is not part of the C language there is no input or output defined in C itself there is nothing magic about printf it’s just a useful function which is part of the standard library of routines that are normally accessible to C programs in order to concentrate on C itself we won’t we won’t talk much about IO until chapter 7 in particular will defer formatted input until then if you have to input numbers read the discussion of the function scanf in chapter 7 section 7.4 scanf is much like printf except that it reads input instead of writing output the balance between building a feature into the language itself and providing it as a function in a library is something that computer language designers struggle with many years later for example in Python 2 print was a language element in Python 3 one of the non- upwards compatible and somewhat unpopular changes was changing print to be a function many programmers feel that a print statement is a more elegant way to Express Printing but from a compiler and language design perspective a function call with a variable number of parameters is seen as technically more elegant and flexible with kernigan and Richie focused on keeping everything small and portable they opted to keep all input output functionality in libraries the syntax is a little more complex but given how Computing has changed in the past 30 years it is the right choice section 1.3 the four statement as you might expect there are plenty of different ways to write a program let’s try a variation on the temperature converter this is sample code is on page 11 of the textbook pound sign include less than stdio.h greater than main open parentheses closed parentheses open curly brace int bar that is f a HR semicolon for open parentheses far equals z semicolon far less than or equal to 300 semicolon far equal far + 20 close parentheses print F open parenthese double quote percent 4D space percent 6.1 F back sln close print close quote comma far comma open parentheses 5.0 9.0 Clos parentheses asterisk open parentheses far minus 32 close parentheses close parentheses semicolon this code produces the same answers as the one before but it certainly looks different one major change is the elimination of most of the variables only far fahr remains as an INT to show the percent D conversion in print F the lower and upper limits of the step size appear only as constants in the four statement itself four is a new construction and the expression that computes the Celsius temperature now appears as the third argument of print F instead of in a separate assignment statement this last change is an instance of a quite general rule in C in any context where it is permiss permissible to use the value of a variable of some type you can use an expression of that type since the third argument of print F has to be a floating point value to match the percent 6.1 F any floating Point expression can occur there the four itself is a loop a generalization of while if you compare it to the earlier while its operation should be clear it contains three parts separated by semicolons the first part far equals zero is done once before the loop proper is entered the second part is the test or condition that controls the loop far less than or equal to 300 this condition is evaluated if it is true the body of a loop in this case a single print f is executed then the reinitialization step faral far + 20 is done and the condition is re-evaluated the loop terminates when the condition becomes false as with the while the body of the loop can be a single statement or a group of statements enclosed in braces the initialization and reinitialization parts can be any single expression the choice between while and for is arbitrary and should be based on what seems clearer the four is usually appropriate for Loops in which the initialization and reinitialization are single statements and logically related since it is more compact than while and keeps the Lo Loop control statements together in one place I would note that the syntax of the four and while loop is a feature of c and derived C- like languages in modern languages we tend to have two kinds of loop structures determinant and indeterminant the four and the Y Loop structures in C are both indeterminant because you must read them closely to make sure they are properly constructed and for example are not unintentionally infinite Loops an example of a determinant Loop is the for each Loop in PHP or the for Loop in Python the semantics of both of these Loops is to iterate all the elements in a collection but since collections are never infinite you can be assured that these determinant Loops will not run forever section 1. for symbolic constants a final observation before we leave temperature conversion it’s a bad practice to BU magic numbers or magic constants like 320 or 320 in a program they convey little information to someone who might read the program later and they’re hard to change in a systematic way fortunately C provides a way to avoid such magic numbers with the pound sign defined Construction at the beginning of a program we can define a symbolic name or symbolic constant to be a particular string of characters thereafter the compiler will replace all unquoted occurrences of the name by the corresponding string the replacement for the name can actually be any text at all it’s not related to numbers so this is sample code on page 13 of the text pound sign include less than stdio.h greater than next line pound toine space lower space zero next line pound toine space upper space 300 pound define space step space 20 for these pound sign statements I would note that they have to start in the First Column the rest of this sample code is the code itself main open parentheses Clos parentheses open curly brace int far F A HR for open parthy far equals uppercase lower semicolon far less than or equal to uppercase upper semicolon far equals far plus uppercase step and then the same print statement print F open parentheses double quote percent 4D space percent 6.1 F back sln quote comma far comma percent 5.0 9.0 close parentheses asterisk open parentheses far minus 32 close parentheses close parentheses semicolon and then to end the program close curly brace the quantities uppercase lower uppercase upper and uppercase step are constants so they do not eer in declarations symbolic names are commonly written in uppercase so they can be readly distinguished from lowercase variable names notice that there is no semicolon at the end of a pound fine statement since the whole line after the defined name is substituted there would be too many semicolons in the four section 1.5 a collection of useful programs we are now going to consider a family of related programs for doing Simple operations on character data you will find that many programs are just expanded versions of the prototypes we discussed here character input and output the standard Library provides functions for reading and writing a character at a time get charar fetches the next input character each time it is called and Returns the character as its value that is after C equals get Char open parentheses Clos parentheses the variable C contains the next character of input these characters normally come from the terminal or keyboard but that need not concern us until chapter 7 the function put Char open parentheses C closed parentheses is the complement of get charar put charar open parentheses C close parentheses prints the content of the variable C on some output medium again usually the terminal or screen calls to put chart and print F may be interleaved the output may be app will appear in the order in which the calls are made as with printf there is nothing special about getchar and putchar they are not part of the C language but they are universally available once again I would note that the authors are making the case that the syntax of the language should not include Syntax for input output operations but instead call library functions keeping the compiler small and easy to Port new systems was important to the creators of c and even if it’s something like putchar was part of the language syntax it would be translated at runtime to call a function programming languages from the 1960s tended to have a small set of use cases read some input run some calculation and then write some output so it seemed like a few language elements would be sufficient to describe all programs but as programs started to make network connections draw buttons on a screen or respond to API calls over the network it would have been difficult to keep expanding the core language Syntax for each new use case but it was extremely natural to add new libraries to languages like C with functions to call to accomplish these new use cases file copying given getchar and putchar you can write a surprising amount of useful code without knowing anything more about input output the simplest example is a program which copies its input to its output one character at a time in outline here’s what we do get a character while the character is not the end of file signal I’ll put the character we just read and then get a new character converting this into C gives us the sample code on page 14 of the textbook pound includes stdio.h main open parentheses Clos parentheses open curly prce int c semicolon C equals getchar open parentheses close parentheses semicolon while c not equal eoff uppercase eoff close parentheses open curly brace put char C C equals get charge semicolon close parentheses close curly brace the relational operator exclamation equals means not equal to the main problem is detecting the end of the input by convention getchar Returns the value which is not a valid character when it encounters the end of input in this way programs can detect when they did not get a character and and they’ve actually simply run out of input the only complication which is a serious nuisance is that there are two conventions in common use about what that endif file value really is we have deferred this issue by using the S symbolic name EF capital eof for the value whatever it might be in practice eof will be either negative one or zero so the program must be proceeded by the appropriate pound Define eof minus one or pound Define e0 to work properly by using the symbolic constant eof to represent the value that geta returns when the end of file occurs we are assured that only one thing in the program defines on the specific depends on the specific value numeric value of eof I would note most of that is incorrect modern C compilers actually Define EOS in the stdio.h include file so you never Define eoff in your code in modern C the value of eoff is minus one you should just include stdio.h and use predefined eoff constant to check for end a file the nuisance of different values for eof was resolved shortly after 1978 continuing with the text we also declare C to be an INT not a chair Char so that it can hold the value which get Char returns as we’ll see in chapter two the value is actually an in because it must be capable of representing end of file in addition to all possible characters so the program for copying could actually be written more concisely by experienced C programmers in C any assignment such as C equals get Char open parentheses close parentheses can be used in an expression it’s a value is simply the residual value being assigned to the left hand side if the assignment of a character to the variable C is put inside the test part of a while statement the file copy program can be written as shown in the example code on page 15 of the textbook pound include stdio.h main open parentheses closed parentheses open curly brace int space c semicolon while open parentheses open parentheses C equals getchar open parentheses close parentheses Clos parentheses not equal EF Clos parentheses put Char C parentheses C Clos parentheses semicolon close curly brace the program gets a character assigns it to C and then tests whether the character was the end ofile signal if it was not the body of the while is executed printing the character the while then repeats when the input is end of input is finally reached the Wild termin terminates and so does Main this version version centralizes the input there’s now only one call to getchar and shrinks the program nesting an assignment is a test of one of the places where C permits a valuable conciseness it is possible to get carried away and create impensable code though a tendency that we will try though that is a tendency we will try to curve it’s important to recognize that the parentheses around the assignment within the conditional are really necessary the Precedence of exclamation equal not equals is higher than that of equals the assignment operator which means that in absence of parentheses the relational test exclamation equals would be done before the assignment equals so the statement C equals get charar parentheses open parentheses closed parentheses not equal eof is equivalent to C equals get Char open no sorry is equivalent to C equals open parthey get chart open parthy closed parentheses not equal e closed parenthesis this has the undef desired effect of setting it is important to recognize that the parentheses around the assignment within the conditional are really necessary the Precedence of exclamation equals is higher than that of equals which means that in the absence of parentheses the relational test not equals would be done before the assignment so the statement C equals get Char not equal eoff is equivalent to C equals open parentheses get Char not equal eof closed parentheses this has the undesired effect of setting C to zero or one depending on whether or not the call of getchar encountered the end of file more on this in Chapter 2 The Next program counts characters it is a small elaboration of the copy program this sample code is on page 16 of the textbook pound include stdio.h main open parentheses close parentheses open curly brace long NC semicolon N C equals 0 semicolon while open parentheses get CH Char open parthey close parentheses exclamation equal EO Plus+ n c semicolon print f double quot percent LD back sln double quot comma NC parentheses semicolon close curly brakes the statement plus plus NC semicolon shows a new operator Plus+ which means increment by one you could write ncal NC + 1 but plus plus NC is more concise and often more efficient there is a corresponding operator minus minus to de By One The Operators Plus+ and minus minus can either be prefix operators Plus+ C NC or postfix n C++ these two forms have different values and expressions as will be shown in Chapter 2 but Plus+ NC and N C++ both increment and see for the moment we’ll stick to the prefix form the character counting program accumulates its count in a long variable instead of an INT on a pdp1 the maximum value of an INT is 32,767 and it would take relatively little input to overflow that counter if it were declared as an INT in honey well and ibmc long and int are synonymous and much larger the conversion specification percent LD signals to print F that the corresponding argument is a long integer we again as a note we again see another reference to the fact that the number of bits of the int type is in transition in 1978 the older pdp1 used a 16-bit integer to save limited memory on a small almost obsolete computer while later computers from IBM and Honeywell have already switched to their int type to be 32bits this allowed code originally written for the pdp1 like Unix or even the C compiler to be recompiled on the IBM or Honeywell with very few changes to cope with bigger numbers you can use a double which is a double length float we will also use a four statement instead of a while to illustrate an alternate way to write a while loop this code is the second sample code on page 16 of the textbook found include stdio.h main open parentheses closed parenthesis open curly brace double NC semicolon for open parentheses NC equal 0 semicolon getar open parentheses closed parentheses not equal EF semicolon plus plus NC Clos parentheses and then a semicolon a semicolon in this case is an empty statement because there’s nothing in the body of the of the for Loop and at the end we say print F double quote percent. 0f back sln double quot comma NC close parentheses semicolon close curly bracket print F uses percent f for both float and double percent. ZF suppresses printing of the non-existent fraction part the body of the for Loop here is empty because all the work is done in the test and reinitialization parts of the for Loop but the grammatical rules of C require that a four statement have a body the isolated simp semi and technically a null statement is there to satisfy that syntax requirement we put it on a separate line to make it more visible before we leave the character counting program observe that if the input contains no characters the while or for test fails on the very first call to getchar so that the loop program produces zero the right answer this is an important observation one of the nice things about while and four is they are tested at the top of the loop proceed before proceeding with the body if there is nothing to do nothing is done even if that means never going through the loop body programs should act intelligently with hand handed input like no characters the while and the four statements help ensure that they do reasonable things with boundary conditions line counting the next program counts lines in its in put input lines are assumed to be terminated by the new line character back sln that has been carefully appended to every line written out this is sample code on line 17 of the textbook pound includes stdio.h main open parentheses closed parentheses open curly brace int C comma NL semicolon NL equals z semicolon while open parentheses open parentheses C equals get Char open parentheses closed parentheses closed parentheses not equal eoff Clos parentheses if open parentheses C double equals single quote back sln single quote close parentheses Plus+ NL semicolon print F double quot percent D back sln double quot comma NL close parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace the body of the while loop now consists of an if which in turn controls the increment Plus+ n l the if statement tests its parenthesized condition and if true does the statement or group of statements inside braces that follow we have again indented to show what is controlled by what the double equal sign in is the C notation for is equal to like fortrans do EQ do this symbol is used to distinguish the quality test a question being asked from the single equal sign used for assignment since assignment is about twice as frequently used as equality testing in typical C programs it’s appropriate that the operator be half as long A Single Character can be written between single quotes to produce a value equal to the numerical value of the character in The Machine’s character set this is called a character constant so for example single quote a single quote is a a character constant in the asky character set its value is 65 the internal representation of the character a of course double single quote a single quote is to be preferred over 65 its meaning is obvious and it is independent of a particular character set these Escape sequences that are used in character strings are also legal and character constants so in tests and arithmetic Expressions single quote back slash ning single quote stands for the value of a new line character you should note carefully that single quote back sln is a single qu character and in Expressions is equivalent to a single integer on the other hand double quote back sln double quote is a character string which happens to contain only one character the topics of strings versus characters is discussed further in Chapter 2 the numeric values that are shown for characters are using the asy character set the character sets in the 1970s were quite intricate most were eight bits long to conserve computer memory and only support a 100 or so Latin like characters this is why early programming languages use special characters like asterisk and curly brace in their syntax very carefully they needed to choose characters that were commonly available on computer keyboards from different manufacturers modern programming languages like Python 3 three and Ruby store internal string values using the Unicode character set so they are all able to represent all the characters in all languages around the world modern languages tend to represent 8 bit values in the range from 0 to 256 using a bite or similar type python 2 strings were stored as 8bit bytes and Python 3 strings are stored as 32-bit Unicode characters moving to Unicode was a major effort in the python 2 to Python 3 transition word counting the fourth in our series of useful programs counts lines words and characters with a loose definition that a word is any sequence of characters that does not contain a blank a tab or a new line this is a very very barebones version of the Unix utility WC this example is on page in the textbook pound include stdio.h pound Define yes one pound Define no zero main open parentheses closed parentheses open curly braas int C comma NL comma NW comma NC comma NW NW equals no NL = NW = ncal Z while open parentheses open parentheses C equals get Char not equal to eof open curly brace plus plus n c if parentheses C equals quote back sln quote parentheses Plus+ n l if open parentheses C double equals single quote space single quote double vertical bar cble equals single quot back sln single quote double vertical Bar C equals equals single quote back SLT single quote close parentheses inward equals no else if open parentheses inward equal equal no close parentheses open curly brace inward equals yes semicolon Plus+ n W semicolon close curly brace close curly brace print F open princy double quot percent d space percent d space percent D back sln double quot comma NL comma NW comma NC close curly brace every time the program encounters the first character of a word it counts it the variable inword records whether the program is currently in a word or not initially it is not in a word which which is assign the value no we prefer the symbolic constants yes and no to the literal values one and zero because they make the program more readable of course in a program as Tiny as this it makes little difference but in larger programs the increase of clarity is well worth the modest X effort to write it this way to make it more readable you will also find that it’s easier to make changes to programs where numbers appear only as symbolic constants the line NL equal nwal N C equals z sets all three variables to zero this is not a special case but a consequence of the fact that an assignment has a value and assignments associate right to left it’s really as if we had written NC equals open parentheses NL equals open parentheses NW equals 0 close parentheses close parentheses semicolon the operator double vertical bar vertical bar vertical bar means or so the line if open parentheses C equals single quote space single quote vertical bar vertical bar cble equals single quote back slash n single quote double vertical Bar C equals quot back SLT quote parentheses says if C is a blank or C is a new line or C is a tab the escape sequence back SLT is a visible representation of the tab character there’s a corresponding operator which is double Amper sand for and expressions connected by double Amper sand or double vertical bar are evaluated left to right and it is guaranteed that the evaluation will stop as TR as true soon as the truth or falsehood for the overall expression is known thus if C contains a blank there is no need to test whether it contains contains a new line or tab so these tests are not made this isn’t particularly important here but is very significant in more complicated situations as we will soon see I would note that the double vertical bar and double Ampersand are the norm for booing operators in C like languages when a new language was being designed it was really easy to just adopt the C convention for logical operators because while they may seem cryptic millions of software developers were already familiar with the operators in this way the relationship between C and C like languages is like the relationship between Latin and romance languages including English back to the text the example also shows the C else statement which specifies an alternative action to be done if the condition part of an if statement is false the general form is if open parentheses expression closed parentheses statement one else statement two one and only one of the two statements associated with an if then else is done if the expression is true statement one is executed if not statement two is executed each statement can actually be in fact quite complicated in the word count problem the one after the else is an if that controls two statements in braces section 1.6 arrays understanding the capabilities and limitations of CR arrays is one of the most important topics in our historical look at the C programming language most importantly the number of elements in an array declaration must be a constant at compiled time and the size of an array cannot be adjusted using an array declaration while the program’s running this inability to automatically resize C arrays as data is added leads to a class of security laws that are generally referred to as buffer overflow where a program reads more data in that can fit into an array and is tricked to overwriting other data or code in compromising an application later in this book we will create Dynamic array like structures in C using pointers and the standard Library calac function python has support for non-dynamic arrays buffers python buffers are generally not used except for programmers writing Library code that talks to low-level code written in a language other than python or talking to operating system things like Linux more commonly used python list and dictionary structures can change their sizes automatically as elements are added and deleted at runtime Java has support for non-dynamic arrays like C which are given a length at the moment they are created and the array length cannot be increased nor decreased without making a new array and copying all the elements from the first to the second array Java does provide list and map structures that automatically adjust their length as data is added or removed Java has a class called array list which can be dynamically extended but provides array likee linear access it is a list internally but it can be used like an array externally the underlying technique that is used to implement language structures like Python’s list is dynamic memory allocation in a link list structure link list are one of the most important data structures in all of computer science we will cover Dynamic allocation in implementing data structures in C in chapter 6 for now we will merely examine the syntax of C arrays but keep in mind that allocating an array in C is very different than C creating a list in Python back to the text let us write a program to count the number of occurrences of each digit of Whit space characters blank tab and new line and all other characters this is an artificial problem to solve but it permits us to illustrate several aspects of C in one program there are 12 categories of input so it is convenient to use an array to hold the number of occurrences of each digit rather than 10 individual variables actually 12 individual variables here is one version of the program on page 21 in the textbook and I would note that as these programs get larger and larger it is harder and harder for you to just listen to me read them and you have to go look at them in the textbook so I recommend that you go check out the textbook in page 20 and find this um actual code found include stdio.h main open parentheses close parenthe open curly brace int C comma I comma n white comma n other semicolon int n digit open square bracket 10 Clos square bracket semicolon n white equal n other equals z semicolon four open parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than 10 semicolon Plus+ I open I mean close parentheses n digit open square bracket I closed square bracket equals 0 semicolon now we’re going to have a loop to read all of our input while double open parentheses C equals get Char open parentheses close parentheses and another closed parentheses not equal EF closed parentheses if open parentheses C greater than or equal to single quote 0 single quote double Amper sand C less than or equal single quote 9 single quote close parentheses Plus+ in digit open square bracket C minus single quote 0 single quote close square bracket semicolon else if open parentheses C double equals space uh quote space quote or double vertical bar cble equals single quot back sln single quote double vertical Bar C double equals single quot backt single quote close parentheses plus plus n white semicolon else plus plus n other that if statement was a sort of a three branch if checking to see if we were doing a digit a a whit space character or some other character at the end of the Y Loop or not at the end of The L while loop and so we say print F parentheses double quote digits equals double quote closed parentheses semicolon now we’ll note in this that there is no new line so we can have these print defs kind of concatenate outward without going to a separate line for parentheses I equals 0 semicolon I less than 10 semicolon Plus+ I close parentheses print F double quote space percent d double quote comma igit open square bracket I close square bracket Clos parentheses semicolon print F open parentheses double quote back slash n Whit space equals percent D comma other equals percent D back slash N double quote comma n white comma n other Clos parentheses semicolon close curly brace let’s go through the code the Declaration int n digit op square bracket 10 closed square bracket semicolon declares igit to be an array of 10 integers array of subscripts always start as zero in C rather than one as in forrer pl1 so the elements are igit Subzero igit sub one dot dot dot n digit sub n square brackets are the sub this is reflected in the for Loops which initialize and print the array a subscript can be integer any integer expression which of course includes integer variables like I and integer constants this particular program relies heavily on the properties of character representation of the digits for example if C greater than or equal to single quote zero single quote double Ampersand C less than or equal to single quote 9 single quote Clos parentheses determines whether it’s a digit that is if the numeric value of the digit and the numeric value of the digit is C minus double quot 0 double quot this only works if double quot 0 double quote one Etc are positive and increasing order and there’s nothing but digits between 0 and N fortunately this is true for all conventional character sets by definition arithmetic involving chars and ins converts everything to int before proceeding so Char variables and constants are identically to essentially identical to ins in arithmetic contexts this is quite natural and convenient for example C minus single quote 0 single quote is an integer expression that gives us a value between zero and nine an integer value between Zer and N corresponding to the character quote 0 quote 2 quote 9 quote stored in C and is thus a valid subscript for the 10 element array and digit the decision as to whether the character is a digit a white space or something else is made by the sequence if open parentheses C greater than or equal to quote zero quote double Amper San C less than or equal quote Z quote quote 9 quote closed parentheses plus plus igit open square bracket C minus quote zero quote close bracket semicolon else if C equals single quote or C equals single quot back sln or cou equals single quot backt plus plus n white else Plus+ and other the pattern if in parentheses condition statement else if parentheses condition statement L statement occurs frequently in programs as a way to Express a multi-way decision the code is simply read from the top of the B until the bottom until some condition is satisfied at that point the corresponding statement part is executed and the entire construction is finished of course statement can be several statements enclosed in braces if none of the conditions are satisfied the statement after the final else is executed if present if the final else and statement are omitted as in the word count program no action takes place there can be an arbitrary number of elsif condition statements groups between the initial if and the final else as a matter of style it is advisable to format this construction as we have shown with proper indentation so that long decisions do not March off the right side of the page the switch statement to be discussed in chapter 3 provides another way to write multi-way branching that is particularly suitable when the condition being tested is simply whether some integer or character expression matches one of a set of constants for contrast we will present a switch version of this program in chapter three functions in C a function is equivalent to a subroutine or function in Fortran or a procedure in pl1 Pascal Etc a function provides a convenient way to encapsulate some computation in a black box which can then be used without worrying about its inerts functions are really the only way to cope with the potential complexity of large programs with properly designed functions it is possible to ignore how a job gets done knowing what is done is sufficient C is designed to make the use of functions easy convenient and efficient you will often see a function only a few lines long called only once just because it clarifies some piece of code so far we have used functions like print f get charart and put chart that have been provided for us now it’s time to write a few of our own since C has no exponentiation operator like the double asterisk of forrer pl1 let us illustrate the mechanics of function definition by writing a function power open parentheses M comma n closed parentheses to raise an integer into a positive power n that is the value of power parentheses 2 comma 5 5 is 32 this function certainly doesn’t do the whole job of exponentiation since it only handles positive powers of small integers but it is best to confuse only one issue at a time here is the function power and a main program to exercise it so you can see the whole structure at once this sample code is on page 23 of the textbook pound include stdio.h main open curly R in I semicolon for for parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than 10 semicolon plus plus I Clos parentheses print F double quote percent d space percent d space percent D back slash N double quote comma I comma power open parentheses 2 comma I close parentheses comma power open parentheses -3 comma I close parentheses close parentheses semicolon close curly brace the end of the main now we’ begin the function power open parentheses x comma n Clos parentheses int X comma n semicolon open curly brace int I comma p p equal 1 for open parentheses I equal 1 semicolon I less than or equal to n semicolon plus plus I p = p * X semicolon return open parentheses p closed parentheses semicolon close curly brace each function has the same form function name open parentheses argument list if any followed by argument declarations if any followed by the body of the function which includes declarations and statements the functions can’t appear in either order and in one source file or two if of course the source file appears in two files you will have to say more to compile and load it then it fall appears in one but that’s an operating system matter not a language attribute for the moment we’ll just assume that both fun functions are in the same file so whatever you learned about C programs running them will not change the function power is called twice in the Line Print F open parenes double quote percent d space percent d space percent D back sln double quote comma I comma power open parentheses to comma I Clos parentheses comma power open parentheses -3 comma I close parentheses close parentheses each call passes two arguments to the power function which each time returns an integer to be formatted and printed in the expression power open parentheses 2 comma I is just an integer as two and I are not all functions produce an integer value and we’ll take this up in more detail in chapter 4 in power the arguments have to declared appropriately so their types are known before the beginning of the body of the function this is done by the line int X comma n semicolon that follows the function name the argument declarations go between the argument list and the opening left brace each declaration is terminated by a semicolon the names used for power and for its arguments are purely local to power and not accessible to any other functions other routines can use the same names for their variables without conflict this is all so true of the variables I and P within the function the i in power is unrelated to the i in main the value that power comp computes is returned to main by the return statement which is just as in pl1 any expression must occur within the parentheses a function need not return a value a return statement with no expression causes control but no useful value to be returned to the call caller as does falling off the end of a function by reaching the terminating right curly brace section 1.8 arguments call by value one aspect of C function which may be unfamiliar to programmers who are used to other languages particularly Fortran and P one in C all function arguments are passed by value this means that the called function is given the values of its arguments in temporary variables actually on a stack rather than their addresses this leads to some different properties than are seen with call by reference languages like Fortran and pl1 in which the called routine is handled the address of the argument not its value it may seem strange that the authors are calling so much attention to the fact that function arguments are passed call by value in the very first chapter most modern programming languages like python PHP or Java pass single value arguments by value by default and to pass in an argument by reference you need to do something special like adding the Ampersand in the function declaration in PHP passing by reference was the norm before c and passing by value was the norm form after C since modern languages were deeply influenced by and often written in C passing by value is the norm for modern languages it’s nice because it isolates the data in the calling code from the called code so the called code can’t easily mess with its arguments either intentionally or by mistake and create an unexpected side effect and possibly a bug or security flaw in the calling code it was a bit of work to make pass by value work in C C implements a call stack where a bit of memory is automatically allocated at each function call and C makes a copy of the values in the calling code to pass them into the called code in a way that the calling code can see the values and change their local copies without affecting the values in the calling code the same call stack that made it possible for C function arguments to be passed by value also made it possible for a function to call itself recursively Fortran functions could not be called recursively until the 1990 version of Fortran if you know your python you know that simple variables like integers and strings are passed by value while structured data like dictionaries and list are passed by reference I.E the called function can modify its arguments we will later see this in C as well talking about call Stacks recursive functions and the fact that arrays andru structured are called by reference is jumping ahead somewhat so for now let’s just remember the author’s point that normal valuable values like integers and floats are passed by value in C back to the text the main distinction is that in C the called function cannot alter a variable in the calling function it can only alter its private temporary copy call by value is an asset however not a liability it usually leads to more compact programs with fewer extraneous variables because arguments can be treated as conveniently initialized local variables in the called routine for example here is a version of power which makes use of this fact this code is on page 24 of the text power open parentheses x comma n close parentheses int X comma n semicolon open curly brace int I comma P semicolon for open parentheses p = 1 semicolon n greater than 0 semicolon minus- n Clos parentheses p = p * X semicolon return open parentheses p close parentheses semicolon close curly brace the argument n is used as a temporary variable and is counted down until it becomes zero there is no longer a need for the variable I as in the previous example whatever is done to n inside the power function has no effect on the argument that power was originally called with when necessary it is possible to arrange for a function to modify the variable in the calling routine the caller must provide the address of their variable to be set technically a pointer to the variable and the called function must declare the argument to be a pointer and reference the actual variable indirectly through it we will cover this in detail in chapter five when the name of an array is used as an argument the value passed to the function is actually the location or address of the beginning of the array there is no copying of the elements in the array by subscripting this value the function can access and alter any element of the array in the calling code this is the topic of the next section now I would recommend that you’re careful looking at the code samples in the rest of this chapter recall that in C array sizes do not grow and Shrink dynamically at all after they’re allocated the authors statically allocate character arrays capable of handling up to 1,000 characters long their code works but it is somewhat riddle so look at the next two sections as examples of cyntax with many important Concepts about character strings stored as arrays and calling patterns when passing arrays to functions as parameters that but not exactly the best practice when handling dynamically sized data back to the text probably the most common type of array in C is an array of characters to illustrate the use of character arrays and functions to manipulate them let’s write a program that reads a set of lines and prints the longest the basic outline is simple enough while there’s another line if it’s longer than the previous longest save it and its length and then at the very end print the longest line the outline makes it clear that the program divides naturally into pieces one piece gets a new line another checks it another saves it and then the rest controls the process since things divide so nicely it’ be it would be well to write them that way too accordingly let’s write first a separate function called getline to fetch the next line of input this is a generalization of get Char to make the function useful in other context we’ll try to make it as flexible as possible at the minimum get line has to return a signal about possible end of file a more generally useful design would be to return the length of the line line or zero if the end of file is encountered zero is never a valid line length since every line has at least one character even a line containing only a new line has length one I would note that here in chapter one we have changed the book’s original use of the function named getline to get underscore line in the code examples because it conflicts with Ste the stdio.h that defines getline as a library function in this chapter the authors are providing examples around function naming and linking in later chapters code samples will simply use the built-in git line without an underscore to read an input when we find a line that is longer than the previous longest it must be saved somewhere this suggests a second function copy to copy the new line to a safe place finally we need a main program to control get line and copy here is the result the sample code for this is on page 26 and it’s a bit long so you might want to show take a look at uh the sample code in a browser pound include stdi H pound Define MAX Line 1000 Main open pen and Clos pen open curly brace int Len semicolon which is the current line length int Max semicolon which is the maximum length we’ve seen so far Char Line open square bracket MAX Line closed square bracket semicolon a character array that’s the current input line and then char Save open square bracket MAX Line Clos square bracket semicolon which is a character array that has the longest line where we’re going to save it onto the code Max equals z while open parentheses open parentheses Len equals get Line open parentheses line comma MAX Line close parentheses close parthy greater than zero if Len is greater than Max open curly brace Max equals Len to save it and then copy line comma save close curly brace if open parentheses Max greater than zero I.E there was a line print F open parentheses double quote percent s double quote comma save close curly brace to end the main program now we’re in the first function getline open parentheses s comma limb closed parentheses Char s Open Bracket close bracket semicolon since it’s being passed in as an argument we don’t need to know the length of it and the next argument is int limb semicolon so getline takes a character array of unknown length and a limit that tells us the length of the character array open curly brace int C comma I semicolon four open parentheses I equals 0 semicolon I less than limb minus1 double Amper sand parentheses C equals get Char open parentheses close parentheses close parentheses not equal eof and double Amper sand c not equal single quote back sln back single quote semicolon Plus+ I and in the body of the loop it’s s open square bracket I closed square bracket equals c from now on I’ll read that S Sub I equals c at the end of the loop we say if open parentheses cble equals single quote back slash n single quote closed parenthe see open curly brace S Sub i = c Plus+ I Clos curly brace s subi equals back sl0 quot semicolon return open parentheses I Clos parentheses semicolon close curly brace and that’s the end of the getline function and now we on to the copy function copy copy open parentheses S1 S2 closed parentheses purpose of this function is copy S1 to S2 assume that S2 is big enough the Declaration is Char S1 open square bracket closed square bracket comma S2 open square bracket closed square bracket as a note these arrays have a size we just don’t know what they are and we hope that they’re large enough the body of the copy function starts with open curly braids int I semicolon I equal 0 while open parentheses open parentheses S2 sub I equals S1 sub I Clos parentheses not equal single quote back sl0 single quote plus plus I glow curly brace to end the copy function Main and getline communicate both through a pair of arguments and a returned value in getline the arguments are declared by the lines Char s open square bracket close square bracket semicolon int limb semicolon which specify that the first argument is an array of unknown length and the second is an integer the length of the array s is not specified in getline since it’s determined in main getline uses return to send a value back to the call Callum caller just as the function power did some functions return a useful value others like copy are only used for their effect and return no value getline puts the character back sl0 the null character whose integer value is zero at the end of the array it’s creating to Mark the end of the string of characters this convention is also used by the C compiler with a when a string constant like double quote h l back SL N double quote is written in a c program the compiler creates an array of characters containing the characters of the string and adds a back sl0 at the end to terminate so that functions such as print F can detect the end so that would lead to an array that has h e l l o back sln back sl0 so it’s a five character array with a new line which is a sixth character and then back sl0 which is an actual character again we don’t know the arrays don’t know their length and so you use the back sl0 as the indicator of the end of a string the percent s format specification in print F expects a string represented in exactly this form if you examine copy you will discover that it too relies on the fact that its input argument S1 is ter terminated by back sl0 and it copies this character back sl0 into the argument output argument S2 all of this implies that back sl0 is not part of normal text it’s merely a marker it is worth mentioning in passing that even a program as small as this one presents some sticky design problems for example what should Maine do if it encounters line which is bigger than its limit get line works properly in that it stops collecting when the array is full even if no new line has been seen by testing the length in the last character returned main can determine whether the line was too long then cope with it as it wishes in interest of brevity we have ignored this issue there’s also no way for a user of getline function to know in Advance how long an input line might be so get line checks for overflow on the other hand a user of the copy function already knows or should be able to find out how big the strings are so we have have chosen not to add error checking to it section section 1.10 scope external variables the variables in Main Line save Etc are private or local to main because they’re declared within main no other function can have direct access to them the same is true of the variables in the other functions for example the variable I in get line is unrelated to the i in copy each local variable in a routine comes into existence only when a function is called and disappears when the function is exited it is for this reason that such variables are usually known as automatic variables following terminology and other languages we’ll use the term automatic henceforth to refer to these Dynamic local variables chapter 4 discusses the static storage class in which local variables do retain their values between function invocations because automatic variables come and go with function in invocation they do not retain their values from one call to the next and must be explicitly set upon each entry if they are not set they will contain garbage as an alternative to automatic variables it is possible to Define variables which are external to all functions that is global variables which can be accessed by name by any function that cares to this function is rather like Fortran common or pl1 external because external variables are globally accessible they can be used instead of arguments to communicate data between functions furthermore because external variables remain in existence permanently rather than appearing and disappearing as functions are called and exited they retain their values even after the functions that set them are done an external variable has to be defined outside of any function this allocates actual storage for it the function also must be declared on each function that wants to access it this may be done either by an explicit extern declaration or implicitly by context to make the discussion concrete let’s rewrite the longest line program with line save and Max as external variables this requires changing the calls declarations and bodies of all three functions this sample code is on page 29 of the textbook and it’s pretty long but um I’ll read it for you pound include stdio.h pound Define MAX Line 1000 and we’re still outside of main Char line Open Bracket MAX Line close bracket semicolon Char save Open Bracket MAX Line semicolon int Max semicolon those are our three Global variables starting the main main open pin Clos pin open curly brace int Len extern int Max so we’re saying that this is an integer but it’s also not to be allocated inside of main extern Char Save open square bracket closed square bracket we the line length the length of the save array is defined above so we don’t need to Define it here Max equals z semicolon while double parentheses Len double left parentheses Len equals get line parentheses greater than zero parentheses if parthey Len greater than Max open curly brace Max equals Len copy open parentheses no parentheses semicolon no parameters to copy because it’s going to Simply talk to the global variables close curly brace after the loop finishes we say if open parentheses Max greater than zero then print F open parentheses double quote percent s double quote comma save close parentheses semicolon close close curly brace and that is the end of the main so now we have the getline function which is specialized to deal with external variables okay so we start get Line open parentheses closed parentheses no parameters open curly brace int comma C comma int C comma I semicolon these are local variables extern Char Line open curl curly BL brace closed curly brace semicolon this is the our reference inside of getline to the global variable line for open parentheses I equals z semicolon I less than MAX Line minus one MAX Line minus one max line is a predefined constant at compile time for I less than MAX Line minus one double Amper sand parentheses C equals get open parentheses Clos parentheses Clos parentheses not equal EF double Amper sand IE and c not equal single quot back sln single quote semicolon plus plus I line subi equals c that’s the for Loop that in effect reads characters one at a time and puts them in line after the for Loop we say if open parentheses C double equals single quote back slash n single quote close parentheses open curly brace line sub I equal C plus plus I close curly brace this ensures that we append the new line to the function line subi equals single quote back slash Z back slash that’s semicolon the that’s the string termination character return I return open parentheses I Clos parenthe see this is the length that getline is returning and then close curly brace to end the getline function and then we have the copy function and again it takes no parameters copy open parentheses close parentheses curly brace in I extern Char line Open Bracket close bracket comma save Open Bracket close bracket semic colum I equals z while parentheses open parentheses open parentheses say sub I equals line sub I Clos parentheses is not equal quote back sl0 quote plus plus I close curly brace for copy so the external variables in Main getline and copy are defined by the very first lines in the example above outside of main which state their type and cause storage to be allocated for them syntactically external definitions are just like the Declarations we used previously but because they occur outside of any function including outside the main function the variables are external before a function can use or access an external variable the name of the variable must be made known to the function one way to do this is to write an extern declaration in the function the Declaration is the same as before except for the added keyword extern in certain circumstances the external declaration can be admitted omitted if the external definition of the variable occurs in the same source file before it’s used in a particular function then there’s no need for an extern declaration in the function the extern Declarations in Main and getline and copy are thus redundant in fact common practice is to place all definition of all external variables at the beginning of the source file and then omit all extern declarations if the program is in several source files and a variable is defined in say file one and used in file two then an extern declaration is needed in file two to connect the two occurrences of the variables this topic is discussed at length in chapter 4 you should note that we are using the words declaration and definition very carefully when we refer to external variables in this section definition refers to the place where the variable is actually created or assigned storage declaration refers to places where the nature of the variable is stated but no storage is allocated by the way there is a tendency to make everything in sight an extern variable because it appears to simplify things argument lists are short and variables are always there when you want them but external variables are always there also when you don’t want them the style of coding is fraught with Peril since it leads to programs whose data connections are not at all obvious variables can be changed in unexpected and even inadvertent ways and the program is hard to modify when it becomes necessary the second version of the longest line program is inferior to the first partly because of these reasons and partly because it destroys the general generality of two quite useful functions by hardwiring them into the names of the variables they will manipulate section 1.1 summary at this point we have covered what might be called the conventional core of see with this handful of building blocks it’s possible to write useful programs of considerable size and it probably a good idea if you paused long enough to do so the exercises that follow are intended to give you suggestions for programs of somewhat greater complexity than the ones presented in this chapter after you have this much C under control it will be well worth your effort to read on for the features covered in the next few chapters are where the power and expressiveness of the language begin to become apparent this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand stand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 1970s and 1980s as computer science evolve from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the ideal book to learn SE programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the sea language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable [Music] applications welcome to chapter 2 types operators and expressions so again I’m not going to tell you everything the book I want you to read the book the book does a great job I’m just going to call your attention to some things that that might seem a little bit weird if you’re coming from a language like python or JavaScript or even PHP where things are objects and you don’t even notice it you’ve been using objects your whole career and you didn’t even realize it so we’re going to talk about data types and storage allocation one of the things that you just got to part of what I love about teaching this historical view on C is that we have to talk about storage allocation um float and double worked out pretty well um partly because in the early days of C they did them all in software so they just made them easy and they made them work well um they weren’t expected expected to be fast the things that they wanted to be super fast were like the integer and bite bite data character data uh type conversion and then and there’s a story that connects integer division in Python 2 and all that pain of Python 3 and how division changed and why it was the way it was and how that worked and again it has to do with performance and simple decisions that got made sadly bitwise logical operations we’ll talk about them you’re probably not going to use them but it’s really important in a historical context to understand why they were so thorough and it really had to do with the fact that because of word oriented computers switching to character oriented computers all of us programmers were thinking in words and if we didn’t see shifting and masking and bitwise stuff we’d be like I can’t program in this thing cuz a lot of our work work in those word oriented computers was masking and shifting and so it’s like we had to have it um we didn’t use it as much as we uh we could have thought so let’s start with uh division in the good old days we were not worried too much about doing Division and if you were doing Division and you cared about the division uh you were probably doing it in floating point because you were doing SCI scientific Computing and you did that on supercomputers you didn’t do that on general purpose computers Unix is really designed for general purpose computers and in general purpose computers you you sort thought to yourself you know why is division that important and I’m sure they made some decision somewhere I do not know why it probably had to do with one of the computers they were working with had truncating division in hardware and non-truncating Division in software I don’t know or rounding division or whatever a lot of those computers didn’t even have fast floating point so some of the computers they were working on did all the floating point in software and maybe they even did integer division in software with loops and stuff uh but we don’t know I I don’t exactly know but they made this decision to do integer Division truncating and this was one of the biggest things of going from python 2 to Python 3 that was the most painful so python 2 was like over 25 years old and it wasn’t that long after C that python 2 was written python 2 was written in C and uh python 2 to Python 3 transition was a big deal it took a long time it took 12 years to get there but python 2 was like the greatest thing ever except for a few things because python 2 was so related to C the strings in Python 2 natively were asky not Unicode which meant it was it it couldn’t even do like Spanish characters let alone uh Asian characters print was part of the language and the programmers got a lot of help like they got automated code converter and syntax Checkers and they did all kinds of things where they would take certain libraries like the print function and then would put it in Python 3 then we backport it to python 2 so you could like switch from using the print statement to the print function and there were lots of things that made this transition as easy as possible the one thing that they really never could crack and we just had to bite the bullet and get used to it was python 2 returns integer and the division is truncated so if you do three four three divided by four is zero in Python 2 and in Python 3 it’s integer 3 divided by integer 4 becomes floating Point 0.75 because that’s what calculators do and the python 2 Division truncated because it didn’t seem like it mattered much back in the 80s and C integer division truncated so 3/4 in C was zero and 3/4 integer 3/4s was zero in C and so it was in Python and 20 plus years later that was the one thing we couldn’t autocon convert and Python 3 does it the way python does so it’s less of a problem in C because C is actually a strongly typed language which means if I wanted to say 3 over4 I knew whether it was integers or floats and I could force that um and so but in in Python you just what’s the variable and so that it imputes the variable type from the result of that expression where C has got a declare X as a float or a double or an in so when a c programmer writes a division they need to know they know already that they have to cast the values or use float constants to trigger type conversion and expressions so as you’re looking through the chapters seeing these type conversions and casting uh that’s the kind of problem that was solved but then python simplified it and then made it really kind of kind of luck uh kind of yucky and then they had to fix it it’s better in Python 3 and most of you have just learned Python 3 so consider yourself lucky so another thing they talk about a lot and it has to do with as we start thinking about um storage allocation on a bit bybit basis we tend to need to know how how to represent and print things out not just in base 10 and it really has to do with the fact that um base 8 and base 16 are better at printing out binary data raw data 10 is the number like where you know how many pizzas do you want I want 16 pizzas or 22 pizzas it’s it’s our natural the way we think way humans think so talk about to talk about bases let’s start by just reviewing what base 10 means there is you know the ones place and the 10’s place and of course later there’s hundreds and thousands but the the four and 42 represents 4 10 so you can think of it as 4 * 10 which is 40 and then the one’s place is two more so 42 is 40 + 2 which is kind of redundant we do that instinctively so now let’s take a look at base 8 so in 42 in base 10 is 52 in base 8 and what base 8 is really doing is it means that the digits in the two places means something different meaning the five and 52 represents an eight so there’s 58s in this number that we’re dealing with and two ones and so 5 * 8 is 40 and 2 * 1 is 2 and so converting from 52 base 8 to 52 base 10 we get to 42 and we used base 8 and again base 8 lines up perfectly with base two because three base 2 digits equals one base 8 digit and I did a lot of Base 8 in the early days but base 16 is really the way we tend to do it now because it’s a little more dense the rightmost place is still the ones and the next place is the 16s so the two in the 16’s Place represents 2 * 16 or 32 and then what’s left over is 10 which we represent with an A and 10 + 32 is 42 now the problem is is we only have digits 0 through n so by convention 10 is a 11 is B 12 is C 13 is D 14 is e and 15 is f f is all the ones it’s four ones I know that I just like four ones so I can convert hex from hex to base two like very very quickly and if I need to look at some a dump of some memory I can dump it in HEX and then I can when I need to I can convert it to base two so just converting back and forth between base 16 and base two uh is a bit of a trick and I don’t really care if you do much of this you can grab this sample code and play with it this is a conversion from base 10 Base number like 1 2 3 4 to base eight and then base 16 and the way this one does it is it converts the number in effect from the left the rightmost number up to the low the low digit up to the high digit and so what you do is you use the modulo function and so you take your number one 2 3 4 and you take it modulo 8 and what’s left over as remainder is two so that’s the far right number in the new one and then you chop it off with integer division you chop that off and see what’s left and that’s 154 and you’re accumulating the two in the converted number and then you take the modulo of 154 modulo 8 and you get two and then you chop off the next eight with divide by integer divide by four and you get 19 so now you your bottom two digits are two two and then you do 19 modulo 8 and you get three and that next digit from the right is a three then you divide by eight integer divide by 8 to get what’s left over and that’s below eight and so that the fourth digit from the right is a two so 1 2 3 4 in base 8 is 2 322 and you can do the exact same thing the difference is you got to look up the digits because the base 16 needs the ab bcde e f and so I make a little string now go we’re talking python here and so we do a we do repeatedly modulo 16 integer divide by 16 modulo 16 integer divide by 16 modulo 16 integer divide by 16 and so we take 1 2 3 4 and when we convert it to base 16 it’s kind of comes up from the bottom as 2 D4 which we read 4d2 so that’s just an algorithm that converts these you tend to you tend to use this modulo and that’s how can convert from one base to another now it’s not critical in this class we’re not going to spend a lot of time converting bases but we just need to be aware that uh because there was so much awareness of how bits were stored we tended to print a lot of stuff out in heximal or in base eight and so I just want you to to know what those things are so if you look for example at the asy chart that we’ve already seen you see that it shows us that the letter a is 65 and in HEX it’s 41 and in octal it’s one1 and in base two or binary it’s one and a bunch of zeros and a one and so this is this is just something that’s making and you know in the old days you had to be just much more aware of the real bits inside the computer and hex and base 8 hex and octal were better ways to sort of know what the bits were um you know so there you go now another thing that uh C really was one of the early Innovative language was bite addressable computers right and so we don’t think much everything’s a string and we can look at the characters in The String but in the old days before c and the generation of computers that kind of triggered c um we didn’t have characters you couldn’t in the hardware load a character you could only load a word and then you had to find the character within the word and uh the language that really was the immediate precursor to C was the B language and the difference was is the B language was a really cool low-level word oriented language and then the C language came from B and became a bite oriented language and so C sort of like said we’re going to do bite and dressing so if I take a look at the way I had to do character character support in a CDC 6500 which is the computer I was using in like 1975 1976 it was a scientific computer it it barely cared about printing characters it didn’t even have lowercase it had 60 bit words and packed six-bit uppercase characters into those words and it used a series of zeros to fill it up and so if I put the word hello world words hello world into the CDC 6500 it took two words and hello space w r l was packed into the first word and D was in the second one and then we did what was called zero filling the rest of those characters were all zeros the integer zero 0000000000 Z and if I wanted to know what the fifth character of this two-word string was like the O for example you would create a mask and in that mask you would have zeros where you wanted to get rid of stuff and ones where you wanted to copy stuff so you would take hello world and you’d run it through this mask with the bits in the right position and then you would get the O and all zeros in the rest of the word and then you would have to shift it half the way down because there were 10 characters so you had to shift it five characters to the right and then you would have the letter o in the bottom six bits of that word and then I could write an if statement that’s how I would say if the fifth character is the letter O I had to extract the fifth character by hand so you can imagine how happy I was when I began to see programming languages that allowed me to use more of an aray syntax and say string sub five or even in this case 0 1 2 3 four string sub four but I could treat characters as an array the notion of a character array for me in the 197 in 1977 was what why would you you know you couldn’t do that right and so we you know a whole generation of programmers went go through their entire career without having to do any masking and shifting so this chapter is going to talk to you about it and you might say well if C was so good at doing it for you um why did they show it and that is that people like me would not have had respect for this language if it weren’t for the fact that they had good masking and shifting CU we were doing that all the time in these word oriented computers and word oriented languages and just as C and Unix were making the world safe for characters then we had this other problem and I’m only going to talk a little bit about this just don’t worry about it the concept of indianness so if you’re loading words do you load them with the least significant digits first or the most significant digits first and most comp computers were big Indian and big Indian to us software developers made the most sense because that’s how we thought it would lay out but it turns out that a few processors wanted to load if they were going to do an ad they wanted to Lo load the low end of the integer first so they could start the addition while they’re adding bringing in the high end and they could overlap the load and the ad and then Intel which in those days wasn’t all that popular but they were so so interested in the microprocessor performance that they became little Indian so that they loading and addition were fast and so we’ve been stuck with a lot of little Indian microprocessors since then and big Indian and little Indian it’s it’s one of the harder things to solve really it really is and so I’m going to show you some code I really I really all I want you to do is feel sorry for those of us who had to figure out little Indian and big Indian and let me just give you an out line of what this code is doing I’m not going to walk through it in detail it just is kind of scary so and and you’re not even going to understand most of this code until chapter 5 it’s just let’s just talk a little bit about the bits and how masking and shifting would have worked if we didn’t have character arrays so what I’m doing in this program is I’m creating a character array the length of this character array is hello world plus one for the Terminator h e l l o space w r l d so 11 + 1 uh should be 12 characters are allocated and then what I’m doing in this next line that says in Star SII is I’m actually saying I want to take the same storage and pretend it’s an integer array and so that’s what that line is is the it takes the address of the beginning of the first character and convert it from a pointer to a character which is Char s is a pointer to a character and have it be a pointer to an integer and again I’m sort of like jumping ahead in chapter 5 so I’m I’m not expecting to understand all this I’m just just making you aware of it so in those first two lines I’ve got a character array and an integer array okay and this is a this is a 32-bit integer and so that means that um the characters are stuck into 32-bit integers in a little ending way and so if you look that means that if you just look at memory from left to right that the the lowest of the first four which is 32 bits the the first character that comes out is the L right and you can see the the little Indian which which in your mind should thinks it should be shifted but it’s because this is running on a little Indian computer and different computers will give you different results and this is a a little endian example and so you can see with masking and shifting where I’m going to try to get the E out which would normally be the second character but it’s kind of the second from the bottom of the first integer and so what I do is I make a mask and I’m going to print this out I take FF which is uh eight bits of ones and then I shifted up eight characters to the left and you can see that in the printout and then I mask out that character which is the e but then it’s in the wrong position and then I have to take that masked result and I have to shift it back down eight so that it’s in the bottom part so now I can check to see what that letter is this is how I would pull out the second character of a string so I could check to see if it’s an e because I can’t compare directly the second character of string right in Python you’re like why are we doing this that’s why you build a string class instead of use a character array for this and i’ I made it even worse by like starting with taking a character array and viewing it as an integer array and then playing with the integers so you don’t have to understand this just be thankful that you use Python and if you don’t use Python use C and whether it’s a big Indian or a little Indian machine you can you can treat an array of characters as an array of characters and you can get the third one or the fifth one with with a square bracket notation okay storage allocation storage allocation storage allocation so a summary of this lecture is we talked about number base conversion we talked a little bit about division why the python 2 integer division happened I I don’t really have a really good answer for that concept of integers and words and bites and masking and shifting and characters just because these topics are covered in this chapter and they will feel very foreign to you and unnatural but just give them a shot read through them understand them and uh and they’ll make sense later later we’re going to learn about structures and pointers and addresses advancing and stuff like that it’ll all make a lot more sense coming up [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter 2 types operators and expressions variables and constants are the basic data objects manipulated in a program declarations list the variables to be used and state what typee they have and perhaps what their initial values are operators specify what is to be done to them Expressions combine variables and constants to produce new values these are the topics of this chapter section 2.1 variable names although we didn’t come out and say so there are some restrictions on variable and symbolic constant names names are made up of letters and digits the first character must be a letter the underscore counts as a letter it is useful for improving the readability of long variable names Upper and Lower cases are different traditional C practice is to use lowercase for variable names and all uppercase for symbolic constants only the first eight characters of an internal name are significant although more may be used for external names such as function names and external variables the number must be less than eight because external names are used by various assemblers and loaders appendix a list the details furthermore keywords like if else in float Etc are reserved you can’t use them as variable names and they must be in lower case I would note that in modern CA languages the limitation of the first eight characters of a variable name being unique has been extended in most C variants at least 30 characters of a variable are treated as unique the character limitation was to reflect the typical limitation of identifier length in Assembly Language programming and runtime linkers of the time naturally it’s wise to choose variable names that mean something that are related to the purpose of the variable and are unlikely to get mixed up typographically section 2.2 data types and sizes there are only a few basic data types in C Char which is a single bite capable of holding one character in the local character set int an integer typically reflecting the natural size of integers on the host machine float a single precision floating point and double is a double Precision floating point in addition there are a number of qualifiers which can be applied to int short long and unsigned short and long refer to different sizes of integers unsigned numbers obey the Ari arithmetic of modulo 2 to the N where n is the number of bits in an INT unsigned numbers are always positive the Declarations for qualifiers look like short int X semicolon long int y semicolon unsigned int Z semicolon the word int can be omitted in such situations and typically is the Precision of these objects depends on the machine at hand the table below shows some representative values on a deck pdp1 a Char is 8 Bits an INT is 16 a short is 16 a Char is 32 a float is 32 a double is 64 on a Honeywell 6000 which uses asky character set a Char is nine bits an INT is 36 bits a short is 36 bits a Char is 36 bits and a float is 36 bits and a double is 32 bits on the IBM 370 which is idic in its character set a Char is 8 Bits an INT is 32 bits a short is 16 bits a Char is 32 bits a float is 32 bits and a double is 6 64 bits and so on the intent is that short and long should provide different lengths of integers where practical int will normally reflect the most natural size of a particular machine as you can see each compiler is free to interpret short and long as appropriate for their own Hardware about all you should count on is that short is no longer than long in this table we see that in the mid1 1970s C was designed to support a range of computer Generations the pdp11 was a common previous generation computer that had less memory so variable sizes were kept small the more modern computers in the chart had a bit more memory and could afford to have slightly larger larger sizes the idea of a natural size is the size that could be loaded computed and stored in usually a single machine language instruction you knew as a programmer that when you used int the machine code you would generate would not need to include extra instructions for a simple line of code like xal x +1 semicolon modern int values in C are 32 bits long and long values are 64 bits long even though modern computers can do 64-bit computations in a single instruction using the shorter int type when appropriate can save on memory storage and memory bandwidth using int values interestingly the length of a 32-bit int leads to a Unix and C problem with dates that is called the year 2038 problem a common way to represent time in Unix C programs was as a 32bit integer of the number of seconds since January 1st 1970 it was quick and easy to compare or add or subtract these second counter dates in code and even in databases but the number of seconds since January 1st 1970 will overflow a 30-bit number on the 19th of January in 2038 by now in order to avoid systems in order to avoid problems most systems have converted to storing these number of second values in long or 64-bit values which gives us almost 300 billion years until we need to worry about overflowing second Tim counters again back when C was developed we had two different character sets and two different character variable lengths the world generally standardized on the asy character set for the core Western characters and the Unicode utf8 to represent all characters in all languages worldwide but that is a story for another time for now just think of the Char type as also a bite type it is8 bits in length and can store asy modern languages like python or Java have excellent support for wide character sets in our historical look at C we will not cover wide or multi-b characters also if you look at the float and double types you will see different bit sizes even worse each of these computers in the 1970s did floating Point computation using slightly different hardware implementations and the same code run on different computers would give slightly different results and have unpredictable Behavior un overflow underflow and other extraordinary floating Point operations this was solved by the introduction of the i e 754 standard in 1985 which standardized floating Point format this standardized both the length of the float in the double but also ensured that the same set of floating Point calculations would produce the exact same result on different processors 2.3 constants int and Float constants have already been disposed of except to note that the usual 123.456 eus 7 or 0.12 E3 scientific notation for floats is also legal every floating Point constant is taken to be double so the E notation serves for both float and double long constants are written in the style 1 2 3 capital L an ordinary integer constant that is too long to fit into an INT is also assumed to be a long there is a notation for octal and heximal constants a leading zero on an INT constant implies octal and a Le meting 0x or 0x uppercase indicates heximal for example the decimal 31 can be written as 037 in octal and 0x1f or 0x1f where f is capitalized in HEX heximal and octal constants may also be followed by the letter L to make them long a character constant is a single character written in single quotes as in quote X quote the value of the character constant is the numeric value of the character in The Machine’s character set for example the asking character set zero or quote Zer quote is 48 and in idic quote Zer quote is 240 both quite different from the numeric value zero writing quote zero quote instead of a numeric value like 48 or 240 makes the program independent of the particular value character constants participate in numeric operations just like any other numbers although they are most often used in comparisons with other characters a later section treats conversion rules certain non-graphic characters can be represented in character constants by escape sequence like back sln for New Line back SLT for tab back sl0 for null back slashback slash for backs slash itself and back slash quote for single quote Etc these look like two characters but they’re actually only one in addition an arbitrary bite-sized P bit pattern can be generated by writing single quote back slash and then three digits single quote where the three digits is 1 to three octal digits as in pound define space form feed single quote back 014 single quote which is asking for a form feed we mentioned form feed here because in the 1970s we sent much of our output to printers physical printers a form feed was the character we would send to the printer to a to advance to the top of a new page the character constant quote back sl0 quote represents the character with the value zero quot back sl0 quote is often written instead of zero to emphasize the character nature of some expression expression a constant expression is an expression that only involves constants such expressions are evaluated at compile time rather than runtime and accordingly may be used in in any place a constant may be as in pound Define MAX Line 1000 Char line Open Bracket MAX Line plus one close bracket semicolon or seconds equals 60 * 60 * hours a string constant is a sequence of zero or more characters surrounded by double quotes as in double quote I space am space a space string double quote or double quote double quote which is a way to show an empty string the quotes are not part of the string but only serve to delimit it the same Escape sequences used for character constants apply in strings back SL double quote represents the double quote character technically a string is an array whose elements are single characters the compiler automatically places the null character back sl0 at the end of each such string so programs can conveniently find the end this representation means that there is no real limit on how long a string can be but programs have to scan one to completely determine its length length the physical storage required is one more location than the number of characters written between the quotes the following function sterin taking the parameter s Returns the length of the character string s excluding the terminal back sl0 sterlin open parentheses s closed parentheses Char s Open Bracket Clos bracket semicolon open curly brace int space I semicolon I equal 0 semicolon while parentheses S Sub I exclamation equals quote back sl0 quote close parentheses plus plus I semicolon return parentheses I parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace be careful to distinguish between the character constant and a string that contains a single character single quote X single quote is not the same as double quot X double quote the former is a single character used to produce the numerical value of the letter X in the machine’s character set the latter is a character string that contains one character the letter X and a back sl0 section 2.4 all variables must be declared before use although certain declarations can be made implicitly by context a declaration specifies a type and is followed by a list of one or more variables of that type as in int lower comma upper comma step semicolon Char C comma line Open Bracket 1000 close bracket semicolon variables can be distributed among declaration in any fashion the list above could be could be equally well written as in lower semicolon int upper semicolon int step semicolon Char C semicolon Char line Open Bracket 1000 close bracket semicolon the latter form takes more room but it is convenient for adding a comment to each declaration or for subsequent modifications variables may also be initialized in their declaration although there are some restrictions if the name is followed by an equal sign in a constant that serves as an initializer as in Char backs slash equals single quote backs slashback slash single quote semicolon int I equals 0 semicolon float EPS equal 1.0 eus 5 semicolon if the variable in question is external or static the initialization is done once only conceptually before the program starts executing explicitly initialized automatic variables are initialized each time the function they are in is called automatic variables for which there is no EXP explicit initializer have undefined that is garbage values external and static variables are initialized to Zero by default but it is a good style to State the initialization anyway we will discuss initialization further as new data types are introduced section 2.5 arithmetic operators the binary operators are plus minus asterisk and Slash and the modulus operator percent there is a unary minus but no unary plus integer division truncates any fraction fractional part the expression x% y produces the remainder when X is divided by Y and is thus zero when y divides X exactly for example a year is a leap year if it is divisible by four but not by 100 except years divisible by four are leap years therefore if parentheses year percent 4 equal equal 0 and and year percent 100 not equal zero or year perent 400 equal equal Z it’s a leap year else it’s not the percent operator cannot be applied to float or double the plus and minus operators have have the same precedence which is lower than the identical precedence of asterisk slash and percent which are in turn lower than unary minus arithmetic operators group from left to right a table at the end of this chapter summarizes precedence and associativity for all operators the order of evaluation is not specified for associative and communative operators like asterisk and plus the compiler May rearrange a parenthesized computation involving these thus A Plus open parentheses B plus C closed parentheses can be evaluated as open parentheses a plus b closed parentheses plus C this rarely makes any difference but if a particular order is required explicit temporary variables might be used the action on overflow or underflow depends on the machine at hand I would note that the above paragraph allows the compiler I would note that the above paragraph allowing the compiler to reorder computations even in the parenthe presence of parentheses is known as the k&r C Arrangement license as the author state it almost never makes a difference unless an expression contains a value computed in a function call or is there a poined lookup to find a value for the computation that might fail the the rule was subtly adjusted in the iso version of C but ISO C still does not strictly Force the order of otherwise communative operations even in the pr presence of parentheses the good news is that as long as you keep your expression simple you don’t have to worry about this rule sometimes the real value of parentheses is to communicate your intentions to the human readers of your code if you are writing code that depends on the order of overflow function calls and pointer D references in a single mathematical expression perhaps you should break your expression into multiple statements section 2.6 relational and logical operators the relational operators are greater than greater than or equal less than less than equal they all have the same precedence just below them in precedence are the equality operators double equals and exclamation equals which have the same precedence relational have lower precedence than arithmetic operators so expressions like I less than limb minus one are taken as I less than open parentheses limb minus one closed parentheses as would be expected more interesting are The Logical connectives double Amper sand and double vertical bar and and or Expressions connected by double Amper sand or double vertical bar are evaluated left to right and the evaluation stops as soon as the truth or falsehood of the result result is known these properties are critical in writing programs that work for example here is a loop from the input function getline which we wrote in chapter 1 for parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than limb minus one double Ampersand parentheses C equals get Char open parentheses closed parentheses closed parthy not equal single quote back slash n single quote double ampersand C exclamation equal e f semicolon Plus+ I close parentheses S Sub I equals c clearly before reading a new character it is necessary to check that there’s room to store the array so the test I less than limb minus one must be made first not only but if this test fails we must not go on and read another character similarly it would be unfortunate if C were tested against eof before get Char was called the call must occur before the character C is checked against do the Precedence of double Amper sand and is greater than that of double vertical bar or and both are low lower than the relational inequality operators so expressions like I less than limb minus one double %an parentheses C equals get Char open pen Clos P Clos pin not equal single quote back sln single quote double Ampersand c not equal EF needs no extra parentheses but since the parentheses of not equals is higher than assignment parentheses do need to be added in open pry equals get Char open print close print close print not equal back sln to achieve the desired result let’s take a brief digression one of the great debates of the 1970s was how to use structured programming to avoid any use of go-to statements that lead to completely unreadable spaghetti code structured code was easier to read debug and validate structured code advocated for if then else else if while do loops and do while Loops where the loop exit test was at the top or the bottom of the loops respectively there was a move from flowcharts with lines boxes and arrows to to structur programming techniques like Nashi nerman diagrams that youed used nested boxes to emphasize the structured nature of the code the proponents of each approach tended to approach the problem based on the language they used alal and Pascal programmers were strong Advocates of structured programming and those languages had syntax that encouraged the approach Fortran programs had Decades of flowchart use and style flowchart style thinking intended to avoid full adoption of structured programming Kuran and Richie chose a middle path and made it so that c could support both approaches to avoid angering either side of the structure programming debate one area where the structured code movement kept hitting a snag was implementing a loop that reads a file and processes data until it reaches the end of file the loop must be able to handle an empty file or no data at all there are three ways to construct a read and process until EOS Loop and none of the approaches are ideal the loop constructions that you can do are a top tested loop with prime a priming read before the loop a bottom tested loop with a read is the first statement in the loop and then if then else is the rest of the body of the loop a top tested infinite loop with a priming read and a middle test and exit and a top tested loop with a side effect read in the test of the loop which is the way that kernigan and Richie chose to document in this chapter all of this serves to explain the syntax while open parentheses open parentheses C equals getchar open print Clos print close parentheses not equal eof close parentheses open curly brace body the loop closed curly brace this construct is a topped tested Loop which most programmers prefer and it folds the priming read and puts its value inside the variable C but since getch might also return eof we need to check if we actually receive no data at all and need to avoid executing the body of the loop or exit the loop if eof were defined as zero instead of n minus one the loop could have been written while open parentheses C equals getchar open paren Clos paren Clos parentheses open curly brace body of the loop Clos curly brace now the getar function returns a character or zero and the test itself is looking at the side side effect or residual value of the assignment statement to decide to start and or continue the loop body the problem with using zero is end a file if you are reading a binary file like jpeg data a zero character might make perfect sense and we would not want to incorrectly end the loop because of a zero character in input data that does not end a file so we get the double parentheses syntax the side effect call to get Char and test the return value within the while test I’m quite confident that this is far more detail that you wanted he in Chapter 2 but is it is as good a time as any to understand how much thought goes into a programming language how it is designed and documented by the time we finish chapter 3 and look at the break and continue statements which are in languages like Python and Java you will see that this 50-year-old structured programming debate debate is still unresolved in the minds of many software Developers back to the book The unary negation operator logical negation operator converts a nonzero or true operand into zero and a zero or false operand into one a common use of exclamation which we often call bang is in constructions like if open parentheses exclamation point inward closed parentheses rather than if open parentheses inward equal equal zero it is hard to generalize about which of these two forms is better construction like exclamation inw read quite nicely as if not in word but more complicated ones can be hard to understand section 2.7 type conversions when operands of different types appear in Expressions they are converted to a common type according to a small number of rules in general the only conversions that happen automatically are those that make sense such as converting an integer to a floating point in an expression like f+ I Expressions that don’t make sense like using a float in a subscript are disallowed first chars and ins may be freely intermixed in arithmetic Expressions every chart in an expression is automatically converted to an INT this permits considerable flexibility in certain kinds of character Transformations one is exemplified by the function a toi which converts a string of digits into its numeric equivalent a to Y open parentheses s closed parentheses Char s Open Bracket close bracket semicolon open curly brace int I comma n semicolon n equals z for parentheses I equal 0 semicolon S Sub I greater than or equal to quot 0 quote double Ampersand s subi less than or equal to D quote 9 quote semic Plus+ I closed parentheses n = 10 asterisk n plus s subi minus single quote 0 single quote semicolon return open parentheses n close parentheses semicolon close curly brace to end the function as we discussed in chapter one the expression S Sub I minus quot 0 quote gives the numeric value of the character stored in s subi because of values 0 1 Etc form a continuously increasing positive sequ positive sequence another example of the card chart int conversion is the function lower which mats A Single Character to lowercase for the asky character set only if the character is not an uppercase letter lower is returned unchanged here’s a function lower open parentheses C closed parentheses int c semicolon open curly brace if open parentheses C greater than or equal to quote capital a quote double Amper C less than or equal to quote Z quote uppercase Z parentheses return open parentheses C plus quote lowercase a quote minus quote uppercase a quote Clos parentheses semicolon else return C this works for asky because the corresponding upper and lowercase letters are a fixed distance apart as numeric values and each alphabet is contiguous there is nothing but letters between a and z this later observation is not true of the idct character set on IBM 360 370 architectures so this code fails on such systems it converts more than letters there is one subtle point about the conversion of characters to integer the language does not specify whether character V where the variables of type Char are signed or unsigned quantities when Char is converted to an INT can it ever produce a negative number unfortunately this varies from machine to machine reflecting differences in architecture on some machines pdp1 for instance a Char whose leftmost bit is one will be converted to negative integer using S extension on others a Char is promoted to an INT by adding zeros at the Left End and is thus always positive the definition of c guarantees that any character in The Machine standard character set will never appear to be negative so these characters may be used freely in Expressions as positive quantities but arbitrary bit patterns stored in character variables may appear to be negative on some machines yet positive on others the most common occurrence of this situation is when the value Nega -1 is used for eof consider the code Char c semicolon C equals get Char open PR Clos pren semicolon if open pren couble equals eof Clos PR dot dot dot on a machine which does not do sign extension C is always positive because it returns a Char yet eof is negative as a result this test always fails to avoid this we have been careful to use int instead of char for any variable which holds a value returned by the function getchar the real reason for using int instead of char is not related to any questions of possible sign extensions it is simply that get Char must return all possible characters so that it can be used to read arbitrary input and in addition a distinct eof value thus its value cannot be represented as a car Char but must instead be stored as an INT as an aside since the book was written before the getar function was standardized the text is somewhat vague in this section shortly after the book was published getchar was put into the stdio.h library and declared to return an integer so as to accommodate all possible characters and the integer minus one value to indicate the end file the above code would be better written with C declared as an integer int c semicolon C equals get Char open PR Clos PR semicolon if open PR c equal eoff Clos PR dot dot dot while the conversion from Char to int may or may not have S extension and yes it still depends on the implementation 50 years later the conversion from int to char is predictable with the top bits being simply discarded if you’re using the library function gets to read a file line by line we don’t need to worry about this converion since git s returns a pointer to a character array I.E a string it indicates it reach has reached end of file by returning the null pointer I.E there is no more data to give back to the textbook another useful form of automatic type conversions is that relational expressions like I greater than J and logical Expressions constructed by double Amper sand and double vertical bar and Andor respectively are defined to have the value one if true true and zero if false thus the assignment is digit equals c greater than or equal to quote 0 quote double % C less than or equal to quote 9 quote sets the variable is digit to one if C is a digit and zero if it’s not in the if test of a in a test part of an if while or for True just means non zero implicit arithmetic conversions work much as expected in general if an operator likes C or asterisk for multiplication which takes two operators I.E a binary operator if it has operate operan of different types the lower type is promoted to the higher type before the operation proceeds and the result is the higher type more precisely for each arithmetic operator the following sequence of conversion rules is applied Char and short are converted to int and Float is converted to double then if either operand is double the other is converted to double and the result is double otherwise if either operand is long and the other is converted to Long the result is long otherwise if either operand is UN operand is unsigned the other is converted to unsigned and the result is unsigned otherwise the operand must be int and the result is in note that all float values in an expression are converted to double all floating Point arithmetic in C is done in double precision conversions take place across assignments the value of the right side is converted to the type of the left which is the type of the result a character is converted to an integer either by ass sign extension or not as described above the re reverse operation in Char is well behaved excess high order bits are simply discarded thus in in I semicolon Char c semicolon IAL C Cal I the value of C is unchanged and this is true true whether or not sin extension is involved if x is float and I is int then xal I and ials X both cause conversions float to in causes truncation of any fractional part double is converted to float by rounding longer ins are converted to Shorter ones by or to chars by dropping excess high order bits since a function argument is an expression type conversions also take place when arguments are passed to functions in particular Char and short become int and Float becomes double and that is why we have declared function arguments to be int and double even when the function is called with Char and Float finally explicit type conversions can be forced also we call it coerced in any expression with a construct called the cast in the construction open parentheses type name closed parentheses expression the expression is converted to the named type by the conversion rules above the precise meaning of cast is in fact as if the expression were assigned to a variable of the specified type which is then used in place of the whole construction for example the library square root sqrt expects a double argument and will produce nonsense if inadvertently handed something else so if n is an integer sqr r t open parentheses open parentheses double closed parentheses n closed parentheses converts n to double before passing it to sqrt note that the cast produces the value of n in the proper type the actual content of n is not altered the cast operator has the same pre precedence as other unary operations as is summarized in the table at the end of this chapter section 2.8 increment and decrement operators C provides two unusual operators for incrementing and decrementing variables the increment operator Plus+ adds one to its operand the decrement operator minus minus subtracts one we have frequently used plus plus to increment variables as in if open parentheses C equals equals single quote back sln single quote closed parentheses Plus+ n l semicolon the unusual aspect is that Plus+ and minus minus may be used either as prefix operators I.E before the variable as in Plus+ n or postfix after the variable n++ in both cases the effect is to increment n but the expression the residual value of the expression Plus+ n increments n before using its value while n++ increments n after its value has been used this means that in a context where the value is used not just the effect Plus+ n and n++ are different if n is five then xal n++ semicolon sets X to 5 the old value but x = ++ n semicolon sets X to six the new value in both cases n becomes six the increment and decrement operators can only be applied to variables an expression like x equals open parthey i+ J closed parth parentheses Plus+ is illegal in a context where no value is wanted just incrementing effect as in if open parentheses C double equals single quote back slash n single quote closed parentheses n l++ semicolon choose prefix or postfix according to taste but there are situations where one or the other is specifically called for for example consider the function squeeze s comma C which removes all occurrences of the character C from the string s squeeze open parentheses s comma C closed parentheses Char s Open Bracket close bracket semicolon int c semicolon open curly brace int I comma J semicolon for parentheses i = j = 0 semicolon S Sub I I not equal to single quote back sl0 single quote semicolon i++ closed parentheses if open parentheses S Sub I not equal to C Clos parentheses S Sub j++ Clos parentheses equals S Sub I and outside the for Loop totally s subj equals back slash quote s subj equals quot back0 quot semicolon close curly brace each time a non c a character other than what’s in the variable C occurs is copied into the current J position and only then is J incremented to be ready for the next character this is exactly equivalent to if open parthey S Sub I not equal to C closed parentheses open curly brace s subj equal s subi semicolon j++ semicolon Clos curly brace another example of a similar construction comes from the getline function we wrote in chapter 1 where we can replace if open parentheses C equals quote back slash n quote Clos parentheses open curly brace s subi equals c semicolon Plus+ I semicolon Clos parentheses by the far more compact if parentheses c equal back sln quot close parentheses S Sub i++ equal c semicolon in a third example the function stir cat concatenates the string t to the end of the string s stir cat does assume that there’s enough space in s to hold the combination here’s the code stir cat open parentheses s comma T closed parentheses Char s Open Bracket close bracket comma T Open Bracket close bracket semicolon open curly brace int I comma J semicolon i = j = 0 semicolon while open PR S Sub I not equal single quot back0 single quote Clos pren i++ in this we’d find the end of s while open parentheses open parentheses S Sub I ++ equals T sub j++ close parentheses not equal back sl0 close parentheses semicolon that code copies the rest of T into s Clos curly brace as each characters copied from T to S the postfix Plus+ is applied to both I and J to make sure they are in position for the next pass through the loop section 2.9 bitwise logical operators C provides a number of operators for bit manipulation these may not be applied to float or double Amper sand is bitwise and vertical bar is bitwise inclusive or carrot is bitwise exclusive or less than less than is left shift and greater than greater than is Right shift and till is one complement and it’s a unary operator the bitwise and operator Ampersand is often used to mask off off some set of bits for example c equal n Ampersand 0177 sets to zero all but the lower seven bits of n the bit wise or operator is used to turn bits on xals X vertical bar mask sets to one the X bits that are set to one in mask you should carefully distinguish the bitwise operator Amper sand and vertical bar from The Logical connective giv double Amper sand and double vertical bar which imply left to right evaluation of a truth value for example if x is 1 and Y is two then X single Amper sand Y is zero while X double Amper sand Y is one think about that for a moment the shift operators less than less than and greater than greater than per perform left and right shifts respectively of their left oper End by the number of bit positions given by the right operand thus X less than less than two shifts X left by two positions filling the vacated bits with zero this is the equivalent to multiplication by four right shifting an unsigned quantity fills the vacated bits with zero right shifting a s quantity will fill the sign bits or arithmetic shift on some machines such as pdp1 and with and with zero bits logical shift on other the unary operator till yields the ones complement of an integer that is it converts each one bit into a zero bit and vice versa this operator typically finds use in expressions like X Ampersand till 077 which masks the last six bits of X to Zero note that X Ampersand till 077 is independent of word length and is thus preferable to for example X Ampersand 01777 which assumes that X is a 16bit quantity the portable form involves no extra cause since keld 077 is a constant expression and thus evaluated at compil time to illustrate the use of some of the bit operators consider the function get bits open parentheses x comma P comma n which Returns the right adjusted nbit field of X that b begins at position P we assume that bit position zero is at the right end and that n and p are sensible positive values for example get bits open print X comma 4 comma 3 close print Returns the three bits in bit positions Four 3 and two right adjusted here we go with the code get bits open PR X comma p comma n unsigned X comma P comma n semicolon open curly brace return open parentheses open parentheses x greater than greater than open parentheses p + 1 minus n closed parentheses Clos parentheses and Ampersand till open parentheses till zero less than less than in close parentheses close parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace X greater than greater than parentheses p + 1 minus n Clos parentheses moves the desired field to the right end of the word declaring the argument to be X declaring the argument X to be unsigned ensures that when it is right shifted vacated bits will be filled with zeros not sign bits regardless of the machine the program is run on till zero is all one bits shifting it left in bit positions with till zero left Shi uh till zero less than less and N creates a mask with the zeros in the rightmost end bits and ones everywhere else complimenting that with till makes a masks with ones in the rightmost bits bitwise operators may seem unnecessary for modern computers but if you look at the internal structure of tcpip packet the values are packed very tightly into the headers in order to save space c made it possible to write portable tcpi implementations on a wide range of hardware architectures bitwise operators also play an important role in encryption decryption and check some calculations modern languages like Java and python support bitwise operators following the same patterns that we established in C so that things like TCP IP and encryption algorithms can also be implemented in these languages by defining these operators it kept software developers from needing to write non-portable Assembly Language to implement these low-level features in operating systems in and libraries section 2.10 assignment operators and expressions Expressions such as IAL I + 2 in which the left hand side is repeated on the right can be written in the compressed form I plus equal 2 using an assignment operator like plus equals most binary operators operators like plus that have a left and right operand have a corresponding assignment operator op equals where op is one of Plus plus minus asterisk for multiplication slash for division percent for modulo less than less than left shift greater than greater than right shift ampers sign bitwise and carrot exclusive or vertical bar bitwise or if E1 and E2 are expressions then E1 operand equals E2 is equivalent to E1 equal E1 operand E2 except that E1 is only computed once note the parenthesis around E2 X star = y + 1 is actually x = x * parentheses y +1 Clos parentheses rather than x * y + 1 as an example function bit count counts the number of one bits in its integer argument here’s the code bit count open parentheses and closed parentheses unsigned and semicolon open curly brace int B for open parentheses b equals 0 semicolon n exclamation equals 0 semicolon n greater than greater than equal 1 close parentheses if open parthey n Ampersand 01 Clos parentheses B plus plus semicolon return open print B Clos print semicolon curly brace quite apart from its conciseness assignment operators have the advantage in that they correspond better to way the way people think we said we say add two to I or increment I by two not take I add two and put the result back in I thus I plus equal 2 in addition for a complicated expression like y y L Open Bracket y ypv Open Bracket P3 plus P4 close bracket plus y y PV Open Bracket P1 plus P2 close bracket close bracket plus equals 2 the assignment operator makes it code easier to understand since the reader doesn’t have to check painstakingly that two long expressions are indeed the same or wonder why they’re not an assignment operator may even help the compiler to produce more efficient code we have already used the fact that the assignment statement has a side effect value and can occur in Expressions the most common example is while open parentheses open parentheses C equals get Char open parentheses closed parentheses closed parentheses exclamation equal e closed parentheses and then the rest of the loop assignments using other assignment operators plus equal minus equal can also occur in Expressions although it’s a less frequent occurrence the type of an assignment expression is the type of its left operand section 2.11 conditional Expressions the statements if parentheses a greater than b Clos parentheses Z equals a semicolon else Z equals B semicolon of course compute Z in the maximum of A and B the conditional expression written with a trinary operator which is question mark and colon provides an alternate way to write this and similar constructions in the expression E1 question mark E2 colon E3 the expression E1 is evaluated first if it is non zero true then the expression E2 is evaluated and that is the value of the conditional expression otherwise E3 is evaluated and that is the value only one of E2 and E3 are evaluated thus to set the Z to set Z to the maximum of A and B we say Z equals Pro parentheses a greater than b close parentheses question mark a colon B and this implements Z equals Max of A and B it should be noted that the conditional expression is indeed an expression and can be used just as any other expression if E1 and E if E2 and E3 are different types the type of the result is determined by the conversion rules described earlier in this chapter for example if f is a float and N is an INT then the expression parentheses n greater than zero Clos parentheses question mark F colon n is of type double regardless of whether n is positive or not parentheses are not necessary around the first expression of a conventional expression since the Precedence of question mark colon is very low just above assignment they are advisable anyway however since they make the condition part of the expression easier to see the conditional expression often needs to succinct code for example this Loop print prints n elements of an array 10 per line with each column separated by one blank and with each line including the last terminated by exactly one new line here’s the code four parentheses I equals 0 semicolon I less than n semicolon I ++ Clos parentheses print F open parentheses double quote percent 6D percent C double quote comma a sub I comma open parentheses i% 10 equal 9 or double vertical bar I equal n minus1 Clos parentheses question mark single quote backs slash and single quote colon single quote space single quote close parenthesis semicolon a new line is printed after every 10th element and after the nth and all elements are followed by one blank although this might look tricky it’s instructive to try to write it without the conditional expression section 2.2 precedence in order of evaluation the table below summarizes the rules for precedence and associativity of all operators including those which we have not yet discussed operators on the same line have the same precedence rows are in order of decreasing precedence so for example asterisk slash and percent all have the same precedence Which is higher than that of plus and minus parentheses square brackets the arrow operator and the dot operator are first with the right left to right associativity next precedence is exclamation till plus plus minus minus single minus the cast multiplication bitwise and size of with left with right to left associativity then multiplication division and modulo with left right associativity then plus and minus with left to right associativity then left shift Which is less than less than and right shift which is right greater than greater than with left to right associativity then logical operators less than less than or equal to greater than or greater than or equal to with left to right associativity then comparison double equals not equal exclamation equal left to right then we have some bitwise operators the bitwise and with left to right associativity then the bitwise exclusive or with Left Right associativity which is a carrot then the single vertical bar which is bitwise or with left to right associativity then we have Amper sand s which is and the logical and left to right associativity then double vertical bar which is the logical or with left to right associativity then the ternary operator which is question mark and colon with right to left associativity then the assignments equals plus equals minus equals Etc with right to left associativity and then the comma which we’ll cover in the next chapter with left to right associativity The Operators Dash greater than and Dot are used to access members of structures they’ll be covered in chapter six along with size of in ch and then in chapter five we’ll discuss asterisk in Direction and Ampersand address of note that the Precedence of The bitwise Logical operators Ampersand carrot and vertical bar flws below double equals and exclamation equals that this implies that bit bit testing expressions like if parentheses parentheses X Amper sand Mass closed parentheses equal equal Z closed parentheses must be fully parenthesized to get proper results as mentioned before Expressions evolving one or more of the associative and commutative operators like multiply plus bitwise and bitwise or bit and bitwise exclusive or can be rearranged even when parenthesized in most cases this makes no difference whatsoever in situations where it might explicit temporary variables can use to force a particular order of evaluation C like most languages does not specify in what order operands of an operator are evaluated for example in a statement like xals f open parentheses closed parentheses plus G open parentheses closed parentheses semicolon F may be evaluated before v g or vice versa thus if F or G Alters an external variable that the other depends on x X can depend on the order value of evaluation again intermediate results can be stored in temporary variables to ensure a particular sequence similarly the order which function arguments are evaluated is not specified so the statement print F open parentheses double quote percent d space percent D back sln double quote comma Plus+ n comma power open parentheses 2 comma n Clos parentheses Clos parentheses is wrong it can and often does produce different results on different machines depending on whether or not n is incremented before power is called the solution of course is to write Plus+ n semicolon print F open parentheses double quote percent d space percent D back sln double quote comma n comma power open parentheses 2 comma n close parentheses close parentheses function calls nested assignment statements and increment and decrement operators cause side effects some variable is changed as a byproduct of the EV valuation of an expression in any expression involving side side effects there can be subtle dependencies on the order in which variables taking part in the expression are stored one unhappy situation is typified by the statement a sub I equals i++ the question is whether or not the subscript is the old value of I or the new value the compiler can do this in different ways and generate different answers depending on its interpretation when side effects I.E assignment to actual variables takes place is left to the discretion of the compiler since the best order strongly depends on machine architecture the moral of this discussion is writing code which depends on the order of evaluation is a bad programming practice in any language now naturally it is necessary to know what things to avoid but if you don’t know how they are done on various machines that innocence may help to protect you the C verifier lint will detect most dependencies on order of evaluation I would add that the real moral of the story is to use side effect operators very carefully they are generally only used in idiomatic situations and then use it written using simple code the authors are happy to tell you everything that you can do and see in great detail and they are also suggesting that just because you can do something does not mean that you should do something remember that a key aspect of writing programs is to communicate with future human readers of your code including you reading your own code in the future with modern-day compilers and optimizers you gain little performance by writing DSE or obtuse code write the code describe what you want done and let the compiler find the best way to to do it one of the reasons that a common senior project in many computer science degrees was to write a compiler is to make sure that all computer scientists understand that they can trust the compiler to generate great code this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 1970s and 1980s as computer science evolved from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the idea book to learn SE programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the sea language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable applications [Music] hello welcome to chapter 3 I’m Charles Severance and I’m your instructor so here in chapter 3 again I’m just I want you to read the book I’m just going to call your attention to a few of the unique things that uh might help you make more sense of the book so we’re going to talk about semicolon use how it’s uh started in Sea and is used across multiple languages how elsif is a little different across languages the switch statement a bit of motivation the switch statement is even Inc um the comma comma I don’t know operator separator and then sort of this this tendency towards excessive succinctness or brevity that uh is pretty common in uh C programming right it just it’s like it’s there’s such a value in making things really really short and that makes it kind of different so I love semicolon based languages and we have a whole bunch of semicolon based languages that that we’ve learned and are going to learn um certainly 1978 the C programming language with its you know non non syntactically important spacing um the key to C is that c the semicolon is a terminator and every statement must be terminated by a semicolon so we say xal X+1 semicolon and xal x divided two semicolon right and that’s that’s the idea the print F ends in a semicolon so you may or may not know in Python you’re allowed to have semicolons they’re pretty much optional like on the print open print X Clos print that semicolon does not need to be there but it is a separator not a Terminator so you can think of the print open print X Clos PR semicolon as one statement followed by a separator followed by an empty statement which does nothing but the interesting thing is you can put more than one line on one line you can put more than one line of Code by put using a separator so there I say x = x + 1 semicolon x = x over2 semicolon I don’t have to indent that I just it it it’s two two lines in the same block of code and that’s legal most of the time people choose not to use semicolon the other thing about that is that shell scripting which is sort of the Linux automation uh treats it as a separator and so that sort of looks a bit like shell scripting to have multip statements on the same line uh separated by semicolons in Java it tends to follow the C pattern where it’s a Terminator I tend to like it as a Terminator I don’t like the idea that you can leave it off the way JavaScript does and so you see it’s on two assignment statements and the system out print Lin in Java in PHP PHP follows C very closely and so it is um it is a Terminator there as well and so that I I think that’s natural and the good news if it’s a separator like in JavaScript in the next example where it’s separating it and so in this case the xal x / 2 does not need to be terminated because the closed curly brace is going to going to terminate that and um and like even the console.log open print Clos print semicolon that semicolon is optional when I tend to write JavaScript I tend to put semicolons everywhere when I tend to write python I put semicolons nowhere and then in phpc and Java I tend to you know put semicolons everywhere even though sometimes there are things you can leave out another thing that is very very subtle is the notion of else if so C predates Python and um C in this book shows else if has two separate words and there’s an else keyword and an if keyword and so you say else space if and then you have the expression and another statement else space if expression and another statement and then else for the one where none of those expressions are true and if you look at python it looks almost identical it says if expression then L if expression L if expression and else the key is that L if is a separate language construct in Python and I think it’s actually really beautiful and elegant and the key is is that this else if while it is I can think of it in C as like indented incorrectly so you can look at it as the very first if has an if and an else and everything from the second if on down is really part of that else and so if you look to the right you see the curly braces with the entation that’s explicit it’s exactly the same thing but what you’re going to see is you can see that it’s if you were going to truly correctly indent an if else if else if else in C you would indent it the way it’s shown on the right side and it it’s neither here nor there very very it is very rare that you would see anyc programmer you know do all the indentation the technically right way but I just want to call your attention to it that it’s different than LF LF is its own language element that is not a deeper nesting deeper and deeper nesting if you were to Nest it you see on the right hand side you see I’ve got three Cur closed curly braces curly brace curly brace curly brace and it’s just so the LF I think is a really elegant addition that python has added the switch statement I I think that the reason that the authors put the switch statement into C is there was a time where we would write code in Assembly Language using what we call a jump table where where we take sort of the take a number maybe take it mask it so it’s only from 0 through 16 and then look up a series of addresses and jump through a jump table and the computed go-to was the way in Fortran of expressing a jump table but in Fortran it was just a mess you got these you got these labels and columns 1 through six and the continue statement doesn’t work like the Contin in and c and and C like languages and you had to have these go-tos to get out of the the switch statement if you think about it from an Assembly Language perspective it’s not that hard to build the computed goto with a little tiny jump table um and so I I think to some degree whether or not we have to use a jump table in modern C is really it’s really really rare where you have to use a jump table we just would do a few repeating Els and it’s just fine back then a few extra statements might have bothered something if you were going to do it a million times a you know a million times a minute or something the switch statement is much prettier you do have to put The Brak statements in there you can kind of Nest the ca you have the Stacked cases and then there’s a default case so if I at least I compare the C switch statement with the Fortran computed goto I want to say that the C switch statement was pretty much a lot more elegant a lot easier to use a lot easier to understand and because Assembly Language programmers of the time did think in terms of jump tables if a highlevel language didn’t have a way to express a jump table in that language then we would kind of think of it as missing but frankly you know in your programming I I’m not sure I’ve written a switch statement in because Java has a switch statement too I probably haven’t written a switch statement in over 20 years and maybe more so I I like the fact that it improved on Fortran but that doesn’t mean that that you should use it the comma operator or comma separator it’s I like to think of it as like a light version of the semicolon and um most people almost never use it and the only place we use it is uh when it is sort of uh idiomatic where in a four statement because we’re already using semicolon to separate the start before the loop the loop test and then the loop increment per iteration we’re using semicolon for that so if we want to do like two statements we going to like oh I equals 0 J equal sterland s minus1 with a comma in between to say do these two things before the loop starts and then at the end you say i++ comma J minus minus that says do these two things at the end of each Loop so I only see it in idiomatic situations just think of it as like we couldn’t use a semicolon here it functions exactly like a semicolon although the syntax already has a semicolon it so I I think it’s actually a pretty clever um way to say I want to put two statements in here you could maybe you could put curly braces in there or something but I thought the comma was a pretty cool thing another problem is that there was just this notion that we as Assembly Language programmers we could do things like be smart and leave some value in a register and then check the register a couple of different ways and that would lead to really succinct fast code hand tune code where you might have to look at it to figure out what it’s doing but then you realize well I I did got in six statements rather than 12 statements 12 statements might have made more sense but the six statements were really fast and in the early days in the early 70s they were changing their compilers so fast and changing their Hardware so fast that they really didn’t build um super great optimizing compilers so they would look at the source code that came out of the compiler and like I could do better than that so there was a lot of a kind of comparison of the source code um between the what the C compiler generate and whatever and so they found over time that if they would kind of use these tricks that like told the compiler to like take this C equals get charar and leave the C in a register and compare it to double to a space and then compare it again to a new line and compare it again to a tab we would think oh I I can see how that would run in Assembly Language and I can hope that the compiler would generate the Assembly Language that um compiler would generate AEM language that would make me happy and then another pattern you see in this is the number four thing where all the work’s been done in the loop test it’s a y Loop that whole big expression is just a test to know when it’s done but it’s actually reading the data comparing it three times storing it in a variable and when that’s all done there’s nothing to do in the loop and so that’s why you say close pen uh semicolon and you’ll see a lot of those things especially when you’re doing string stuff where you’re sort of zooming through an array and you did it all in the for Loop and you don’t really have anything to do in the for Loop and again we’re thinking in the early days of how this is going to translate into Assembly Language and so you’re trying to make that Loop really really small and again it’s amazing how often they looked at the resulting Assembly Language um in a non-optimizing compiler situation and then wondered if the compiler could have done better so that gets us going in uh this chapter we talked about the semicolon we talked about the switch statement the if subtle syntax difference between Python and C the comma and just get used to the notion that it’s obtuse code please don’t write obtuse code these days the optimizers are so great and uh and so don’t write obtuse code but don’t be too upset as you read the textbook and see obtuse code [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter 3 control flow the control flow statements of a language specify the order in which the computations are done we have already met the most common control flow constructions of C in earlier examples here we will complete the set and be more precise about the ones discussed above 3.1 statements and blocks an expression such as xal Z or i++ or printf open pen dot dot dot Clos pen becomes a statement when it is followed by a semicolon as in X = 0 semicolon I ++ semicolon print F open parentheses something closed parentheses semicolon in C the semicolon is a statement Terminator rather than a separator as it is in alol like languages the braces the curly braces open curly brace and closed curly brace are used to group declarations and statements together into a compound statement or block so that they are syntactically equivalent to a single statement the braces that actually surround the statements of a function are one obvious example braces around multiple statements after an if else while or for or another variables can actually be declared inside any block we will talk about this in chapter 4 there is never a semicolon after the right curly brace that ends a block ah see how do I love thee let me count the ways uh quote by Dr Chuck with homage to Elizabeth Barrett Browning The Humble semicolon is why spacing and line ends do not matter in C and SE like languages it means that we as programmers can focus all of our white space and line ends on communicating our intent to humans this freedom is not an excuse to write obtuse code or dense code for example see the obfuscated Pearl contest but instead freedom to describe what we mean or use spacing to help us understand or maintain our code we can take a quick look at how a few other c-like languages that came after C treat the semicolon Java is just like C in that the semicolon terminate statements python treats the semicolon as a separator like algol allowing more than one statement on a single line but since python treats the end of a line as a statement separator you generally never use semicolon in Python but for people like me who automatically add a semicolon when typing code too fast at least python ignores the few semicolon I mistakenly add to my code out of habit JavaScript treats the semicolon as a separator but since JavaScript ignores the end of the line it’s treated as Whit space semic Colones are required when a block of code consists of more than one statement when I write JavaScript I meticulously include semicolons at the end of all statements because any good programmer can write C in any language back to the text 3.2 if else the if else statement is used to make decisions formally the syntax is if parentheses expression parenthesis statement one else statement two where the else part is optional the expression in parentheses is evaluated if it’s evaluates to true that is the expression has a nonzero value statement one is done if it is false the expression is zero and there’s an else part statement two is executed instead since an if simply tests the numeric value of the expression certain coding shortcuts are possible the most obvious is writing if open parenes expression instead of if open parenthesis expression not equal Z zero Clos parentheses sometimes this is natural and clear other times it’s cryptic because the else part of an if else is optional there is an ambiguity when an else is omitted from a nested if sequence this is resolved the usual way the else is associated with the Clos closest previous eless if for example if open parentheses n greater than Z closed parentheses if open parentheses a greater than b closed parentheses zal a semicolon else Z equal B the else with the Z equal B goes with the inner if as we have shown by the indentation in the above example if that’s not what you want braces must be used to force the proper Association if n greater than zero open curly brace if a greater than b z equals a semicolon Clos curly brace else Z equals B this ambiguity is especially pernicious in situations like if open parenes n greater than Z for open parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than n semicolon i++ closed parentheses if open parentheses S Sub I greater than Z closed parentheses open curly brace print F string dot dot dot close parentheses semicolon return open parentheses I close parentheses semicolon close curly brace else and this is where it’s wrong print F open parthy eror and is zero closed parentheses semicolon the indentation in the above example shows unequivocally what you want but the compiler does not get the message and Associates the else with the inner F this bug can be very hard to find by the way notice that there is a semicolon after Z equals a in if open parentheses a greater than b closed parentheses Z equal a semicolon else Z equals B semicolon that is because grammatically a statement follows the if and an expression like Z equals a is always terminated by a semicolon section 3.3 else if the construction if open parentheses expression closed parentheses statement else blank if open parentheses expression Clos parentheses statement else if open parentheses expression closed parentheses statement else statement occurs so often that is worth a brief separate discussion the sequence of ifs is the most General way of writing a multi-way decision the expressions are evaluated in order if any expression is true the statement associated with it is executed and this terminates the whole chain the code for each statement is either a single statement or a group of statements in Braes the last else handles the none of the above or default case where none of the other conditions was satisfied sometimes there is no explicit action for the default in that case the trailing else statement can be omitted or it may be used for error checking to catch an impossible condition to illustrate three-way decision here is a binary search function that decides if a particular value X occurs in the sorted array V the elements of V must be in increasing order the function Returns the position a number between 0 and N minus1 if x occurs in v n minus one if not this sample code is on page 54 it is the first example on page 54 in the book binary open parentheses x comma V comma n Clos parentheses int X comma V open square bracket closed square bracket comma n semicolon open curly brace int low comma High comma mid semicolon low equals zero semicolon High equal n-1 semicolon while open parentheses low less than or equal to high closed parentheses open curly brace mid equals open parentheses low plus High closed parentheses slash to semicolon if open parentheses x less than V sub mid closed parentheses High equal midus one semicolon else if open parentheses x greater than V sub mid closed parentheses low equals mid + 1 else return open parentheses mid close parentheses semicolon close curly brace closing the while and then return open parentheses minus one close parentheses semicolon close curly brace to end the function the fundamental decision in this code is whether X is less than greater than or equal to the middle element V submit at each step this is a natural for Els I would note that in the above examples the else and the if in C are two language constructs that are just being used idiomatically to construct a multi-way branch or elsf pattern with indentation that captures the idiom if we are pedantic about the indentation of the of the above sequence we would be separating the else and if and ending each succeeding block further as follows with brackets or added for clarity if open parthey expression close parenthe parentheses open curly brace statement Clos curly brace else open curly brace if open parenthesis expression closed parentheses open curly brace statement Clos curly brace else open curly brace and now we’re quite indented at this point if open parenthesis expression close parentheses open curly brace statement close curly brace else open curly brace statement close curly brace close curly brace close curly brace Java and JavaScript keep the else and if as separate language elements and document their idiomatic usage and indentation just like C but in Python L if is a single keyword and a new language construct that achieves the same name idiom as shown below if open parentheses expression closed parentheses colon block LF open parentheses expression closed parentheses colon block LF if LF parentheses expression parentheses colon block else colon block the C Java JavaScript and python idioms thankfully look the same when the idiomatic indentation is used even fortran77 supports El the elseif construct to implement multi-way logic section 3.4 switch the switch statement is a special multi-way decision maker that tests whether an expression matches one of a number of constant values and branches accordingly in chapter one we wrote a program to count the occurrences of each digit Whit space and all other characters using a sequence of if else if else here’s the same program with a switch this is the first example program on page 55 pound include less than stdio.h main open parentheses closed parentheses open curly brace int C comma I comma n White comma n other comma n digit open square bracket 10 closed square bracket a 10 element array n white equals n other equals 0 for I equal 0 I less than 10 i ++ n digit sub I equals z while parentheses parentheses C equals getar open print close print Clos print not equal EF Clos print switch open parentheses C Clos parentheses open curly brace case quot Zero quote colon case quote 1 quote colon case quote 2 quote colon case quote 3 quote colon case quote 4 quote colon case quote 5 quote colon case quote 6 quote colon case quote 7 quote colon case quote 8 quote colon case quote 9 quote colon igit Sub C minus quot 0 quot close bracket Plus+ break now that that bit of code right there was to take all the of zero through nine and guide it to the line of code that incremented the particular element of the igit array by one continuing after the break semicolon case quote space quote quote case quot sln quot colon case SLT quot colon n white Plus+ semicolon break default colon n other Plus+ colon break semicolon close curly brace print F open parentheses double quote digits equals double quote close parentheses semicolon four open open print I equals 0 I less than 10 I semicolon i++ close parentheses print F open parentheses percent space percent D close double quote comma igit subi Clos parentheses semicon print F quote back sln wh space equals percent D comma other equals percent D back slash N double quote comma n white comma n other closed parentheses semicolon closed querly brace the switch statement evaluates the integer expression in parentheses in this case the character C and Compares its value simultaneously to all the cases each case must be labeled by an integer or character constant or constant expression if a case matches the expression value execution starts at that case the case labeled default is executed if none of the other cases is satisfied default is optional if there isn’t if it isn’t there and none of the cases matches no action at all takes place cases in default can occur in any order cases must all be different the break statement causes an immediate exit from the switch because the cases serve as labels after the code for one case is done and execution falls through to the next unless you take explicit action to escape break and return are the most common Ways to Leave a switch a break statement can be used to force an immediate exit from a while for and du Loops as well as will be discussed later in this chapter falling through the cases is a mixed blessing on the positive side it allows multiple cases for a single action as with blank tab or new line this example but it also implies that normally each case must end with a break to prevent falling through to the next falling through from one case to another is not robust being prone to disintegration when the program is modified with the exception of multiple labels for a single computation fall throughs should be used sparingly as a matter of good form put a break after the last case in this case default although it’s logically unnecessary some when another case gets added at the end this bit of defensive programming will save you uh the switch statement what is there to say I think that the switch statement was added to se C to compete with the earlier Fortran computed go-to statement or just to keep low-level Assembly Language programmers from switching into Assembly Language to implement the concept of a branch table the authors spend most of the previous section apologizing for the switch statement so you you should perhaps take this as a hint and never use it there are very few situations where a branch table outperforms a series of this if then else checks and those are likely deep in a library or operating system code programmers should only use switch if they understand what a branch table is and why a branch table is more efficient for the particular bit of a program they’re writing otherwise just use LF and do the read of your code a favor 3.5 Loops while and for we have already ex countered the while and for Loops in while open parentheses expression closed parentheses statement the expression is evaluated if it is nonzero the statement is executed and the expression is re-evaluated this cycle continues until the expression becomes a zero at which point execution return resumes after the statement the four statement for open parentheses expression one semicolon Expression 2 semicolon Expression 3 closed parentheses statement is equivalent to expression one semicolon while open parentheses Expression 2 Clos parentheses open curly brace statement Expression 3 semicolon Clos curly brace grammatically the three components of the four are expressions most commonly expression one and expression three are assignments or function calls and expression two is a relational expression any of the three parts can be omitted although the semicolons must remain expression if expression one or expression three is left out it is simply dropped from the expansion if the test expression two is not present it is taken as permanently true so the code for open parentheses semicolon semicolon closed parentheses open curly dot dot dot closed curly brace is an infinite Loop presumably to be broken by some other means such as a break or a return whether to use while or for is largely a matter of taste for example in the code while open parentheses open parentheses C equals get chart open paren close paren close parentheses equal equal quote space quote or c equal equal quot back sln quote or or c equal equal quot back SLT quote closed parentheses semicolon skipping White characters there is no initialization or reinitialization so a while seems more natural the four is clearly Superior when there is simple initialization and reinitialization since it keeps the loop control statements close together and visible at the top of the loop this is the most obvious in for open p i equal 0 sum semicolon I less than n semicolon i++ Clos per n which is the C idiom for processing the first n elements of an array the analog of a Fortran or pl1 do Loop the analogy is not perfect however since the limits of a for Loop can be altered within the loop and the controlling variable I retains its value when the loop terminates for any reason because the components of the four are arbitrary expressions for Loops are not restrict red to arithmetic progressions nonetheless is bad style to force unrelated computations into a four it is best reserved for loot control operations as a larger example here is another version of the a2i function for converting a string to its numeric equivalent this one is more General it copes with optional leading white space and an optional plus or minus sign chapter four shows a to F which does the same conversion for floating Point numbers the basic structure of the program reflects the form of the input skip whites space if any get the sign if any get the integer part and convert it each step does its part and leaves a clean slate for the next the whole process terminates on the first character that would not be part of a number this is the first example on page 58 of the textbook a to I open pen s closed pen which is going to convert s to an integer Char s open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon open curly brace int I comma n comma sign semicolon for I equal 0 S Sub I equal equal quote space quote or S Sub I equals equals quote back n quote or S Sub I equals equals back SL quote back SLT quote semicolon i++ semicolon skip white space this is a for loop with an empty Loop body s equal 1 semicolon if S Sub I equal equal plus or S Sub I equal equal quote minus quote close parentheses sign equals and here we use a turn Turner operator open parentheses S Sub i++ equal equal quote plus quote close parentheses question mark 1 colon minus one semicolon for open parentheses n equals 0 semicolon s subi greater than or equal to quot 0 quote and S Sub I less than or equal to quote 9 quote I Plus plus Clos parentheses n = 10 * n + S Sub I minus quot 0 quote semicolon return open parentheses sign time n closed parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace to end the function the advantages of keeping Loop controls centralized are even more obvious when there are sep several nested Loops the following function is a shell sort for sorting an array of integers the basic idea of the shell sort is that in early stages far apart elements are compared rather than adjacent ones as in simple interchange sorts this tends to eliminate large amounts of disorder quickly so later stages have less work to do the interval between the compared elements is gradually decreased to one at which point the sort becomes an effectively adjacent interchange method this sample code is the second example in page 58 of the textbook shell open parentheses V comma n Clos parentheses int V open square bracket closed square bracket comma n semicolon open curly brace int Gap comma I comma J comma temp for open PR Gap equals n / 2 semicolon Gap greater than zero semicolon Gap slash equals to closed parentheses for open parentheses I equals Gap semicolon I less than n i+ Clos parentheses four and now we’re 3D nested in the four Loops for open parentheses Jal IUS Gap semicolon J greater than equal to Zer and V subj greater than V subj plus Gap semicolon J minus equals Gap close parentheses open curly brace temp equals v subj v subj equals V subj plus Gap semicolon V subj plus Gap equals temp semicolon just a swap of V and V V subj plus Gap V subj and V subj plus Gap close curly brace and that Clos the in innermost for Loop and and then the next closed curly brace closes the function there are three nested Loops the outermost Loop controls the gap between the compared elements shrinking it from n/ Two by a factor of to each pass until it becomes zero the middle Loop Compares each pair of elements that is separated by Gap the innermost Loop reverses any elements that are out of order since Gap is eventually reduced to one all elements are eventually ordered correctly note that the generality of the four makes the outer loop fit the same form as the others even though it is is not an arithmetic progression one final C operator is the comma which most often finds use in the force statement a pair of Expressions separated by a comma is evaluated left to right and the type and value of the result are the type and value of the right operand thus in a force statement it is possible to place multiple expressions in the various parts for example to process two parallel indices this is Illustrated in the function reverse which reverses the function string in place this code is from page 59 of the textbook and it is the first example on page 59 pound include less than string.h greater than reverse open pen s closed pen Char s open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon open curly brace int C comma I I comma J for open fenesy I equal 0 comma Jal sterin sub s minus1 semicolon I less than J semicolon i++ comma J minus minus Clos parentheses open curly brace Cal S Sub I S Sub IAL s subj semicolon s subj equals c semicolon close curly brace close curly braas to end the function the commas that F separate the function arguments variables declarations Etc are not comma operators and do not guarantee left to right evaluation section 3.6 Loops do while the while and for Loops share the desirable attribute of testing the termination condition at the top rather than at the bottom as we discussed in chapter one the third Loop in see the do while tests at the bottom after making each pass through the loop body the body is always executed at least once the syntax is as follows do statement while open parentheses expression closed parentheses semicolon the statement is executed then the expression is evaluated if it is true statement is evaluated again and so on if the expression becomes false the loop terminates as might be expected do while is much less used than while and four accounting perhaps 5% of all loops nonetheless it is from time to time valuable as the following as in the fing function I to a which converts a number to a character string the inverse of a to I the job is slightly more complicated than it might be thought at first because the easy methods of generating the digits generate them in the wrong order we’ve chosen to generate the string backwards and then reverse it this is the first sample code on page 61 uh page 60 of the textbook I to a open parentheses n comma s closed parentheses Char s open square bracket Clos square bracket semicolon int n semicolon open curly brace int I comma sin semicolon if open parentheses open parentheses s equals n close parentheses less than zero close parentheses n = minus n SU col that’s a bit of a complex if I would say there uh it has an assignment statement that both copies n into sign um and then evaluates as to whether or not it’s less than Z the N or sign is less than zero because it’s a side effect assignment statement with a residual value but the net result is sign contains n and then it’s negated um uh then n is made positive so continuing I equal 0 semicolon do open curly brace S Sub i++ equals n modulo 10 plus quote 0 quote semicolon close curly brace while parentheses parentheses n/ equal 10 close parentheses greater than zero close parentheses semicolon if open parentheses sign less than zero Clos parentheses S Sub I ++ equals quote- quote or minus sign semicolon s subi equals qu0 quote semicolon in a sense to terminate the string and then we call the function reverse reverse open parentheses s closed parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace the do while is necessary or at least convenient since at least one character must be installed in the array s regardless of the value of n we have also used braces around the single statement that makes up the body of the do while even though they are unnecessary so the Hasty reader will not mistaken mistake the while part for the beginning of a while loop I would note that it’s important for any language to provide top tested loops and bottom tested Loops but don’t feel bad if you write code for years and never feel like a bottom tested Loop is the right way to solve a problem you’re facing it is usually rare to write a loop that you insist will run once regardless of its input data section 3.7 break it is sometimes convenient to be able to control Loop exits other than by testing at the top or the bottom the break statement provides an early exit from a for while or do just as it does from the switch statement a break statement causes the innermost enclosing Loop or switch to be executed immediately the following program removes trailing blanks and tabs from the end of each line of input using a break to exit from a loop when the most character is non-blank non- tab is found this example code is on page 61 of the textbook and it is the first example on that page pound include less than stdio.h pound Define MAX Line 1000 Main open parentheses closed parenthesis open curly brace int n semicolon Char line Open Bracket MAX Line close bracket semicolon while open pren open pren n equals get Line open pren Line comma MAX Line Clos PR Clos pren greater than zero Clos print open curly brakes while open Cur open parentheses minus- n greater than or equal to zero close parentheses if open parentheses lines sub n not equal Z quote space quote and line subn not equal quote backt quote and line subn not equal quote back slend quote close parentheses break line subn +1 equals back0 quote semicolon print F double quot percent s back sln double quot comma line close parentheses semicolon close curly brace to end the while and then close curly brace to end the main get line Returns the length of the line the inner y Loop starts at the last character of line recall that minus minus n decrements n before using the value and scans backwards looking for the first character that is not a blank tab or new line the loop is broken when one is found or when n becomes negative that is when the entire line has been scanned you should verify that this is the correct Behavior even when the line contains only whites space characters an alternative to break is to put the testing in the loop itself while open parentheses open parentheses n equals get Line open parentheses line comma MAX Line closed parentheses closed parentheses greater than zero closed parentheses open curly brace while open PR minus- n greater than equal to zero and open PR line subn equal equal quot subas quot quote or line subn equals quote backt quote or line subn equals quote back slash n quote close per n close per n semicolon dot dot dot close curly brace this is inferior to the previous version because the test is is harder to understand test which require a mixture of and or not and parentheses should generally be avoided 3.8 continue the continu statement is related to break but less often used it causes the next iteration of the enclosing Loop for while or due to begin in the while and do this means that the test part is executed immediately in the four control passes to the reinitialization step contr by the way continue applies only to Loops not to switch a continue inside a switch statement inside of a loop causes the next Loop iteration as an example this fragment processes only positive elements in the array a negative values are skipped for open print I equal 0 semicolon I less than n semicolon i++ closed pen open curly brace if open p a subi less than zero closed P continue this line skips the negative elements and then the rest of the body of the loop dot dot dot is will run only for the positive elements of the loop and the loop finishes with a Clos curly brace the continue statement is often used when part of the loop that follows is complicated so that reversing a test and indenting another level would Nest the program too deeply it’s time for a bit of an aside now that we have seen the break and continue language structures in C that also have made it into C like languages and learned about middle tested Loops it is time to revisit the structured programming debate and the need for priming operations when a program must process all data until it finishes and still handle the there is no data at all situation in the previous chapter the author somewhat skirted the issue by using a top tested while loop and a side effect statement with residual value that was compared to eof to decide when to exit the loop int C colon while open parthey open parentheses C equals get Char open pren close paren close parentheses not equal eoff close parentheses open curly brace process your data close curly brace and just for fun now that we do know about the for Loop let’s rewrite this loop as a for Loop to make sure we really understand how for loops work int C semicolon for open print C equals getchar open print Clos print semicolon c not equal eof semicolon C equals getchar open PR close PR close PR curly brace process your data close curly brace for the for Loop now you will almost never see a read all characters until eof written this way because because it is not the way KR told us KR told us to use a y Loop for this but the four Loop formulation is probably clearer to many than the while formulation especially to a reader who’s not familiar with the assignment side effect idiom commonly used in C in particular the four formulation does not require that the assignment statement has a residual value of the value that was assigned the first part of the four is a priming read the second part of the four is a top text tested exit criteria that works both for no data and after all data has been read and processed and the third part of the four is done at the bottom of the loop to advance to the next character or encounter eof before going back to the top and doing the loop test the call up to get Char is done twice in the four formulation of the read all all available data loop and while we don’t like to repeat ourselves in code it is a if it is a small and obvious bit of code perhaps this code is more clear with a bit of repetition so with all this is background you can take this page of the document and sit down with a friend at a coffee shop and debate as long as you like about which is the better formulation for the read all available data but if at that coffee shop you ask Dr Chuck’s opinion neither of these is ideal because in the real world we build data oriented Loops that usually do a lot more than get one character from standard input my formulation of a data loop will upset the structured programming purists and probably upset kernigan and Richie as well but but I write code in the real world so here is my version int c semicolon while open print one Clos print open curly prce C equals getchar if open print C double equals eof close pen break process your data and then close curly brace to end the loop and if I wanted to skip blanks and new lines I could use both break and continue further angered angering the structure programming purists int c semicolon while open parentheses one closed parentheses open curly bra C equals get charar open parentheses closed parentheses semicolon if open parentheses c equal equal eoff close parentheses break if open parentheses c equal equal quote space quote or c equal equal quot back slash and quote close parentheses continue then process your data close I use this middle tested approach because usually the data I am processing is coming from a more complex Source than the keyboard and I don’t want a function with two to three parameters stuck inside of a sign side effect statement in a while test and also sometimes you want to exit Loop not just based on the return value from the function but instead based on the complex structure that came back from the function itself as these data processing Loops get more complex the middle test Loop is a tried and true pattern even kernigan and Richie point out its benefits above and with that I have now triggered endless coffee shop conversations about the best way to write a data handling Loop section 3.9 Goos and labels C provides the infinitely abusable go-to statement and labels to Branch to form the go-to is never necessary and in practice it is almost always easy to write code without it we have not used goto in this book nevertheless we will suggest a few situations where go-tos might find a place the most common use is to abandon processing in some deeply nested structure such as breaking out of two Loops at once the break statement cannot be used directly since it leaves the only the most inter Loop innermost Loop thus four open parentheses dot dot dot close parentheses four open parentheses dot dot dot close parentheses open curly brace do some stuff if open parentheses disaster close parentheses go to error semicolon close curly brace dot dot dot dot dott dot and then error colon and then clean up the mess this organization is Handy if the error handling code is non-trivial and if errors can occur in several places a label has the same form as a variable name and is followed by a c it can be attached to any statement in the same function as the goto another example consider the possibility of finding the first negative element in a two-dimensional array multi-dimensional arrays are discussed in chapter 5 one possibility is for open parentheses I equals 0 semicolon I less than n semicolon i++ closed parentheses four open parentheses J equals 0 semicolon J less than M semicolon j++ Clos parentheses if open parentheses V sub I subj less than zero close parentheses go to found other and then you handle and you keep going and then found colon include is where it comes to uh jumps to code involving a go-to can always be written without one but though perhaps at the price of somewhat repeated test or an extra variable for example the array search becomes found equals z for open pry I equals z semicolon I less than n Ampersand Ampersand exclamation found semicolon i++ for open parentheses J equal 0 semicolon J less than M Ampersand Ampersand exclamation found semicolon j++ found equals V sub I subj less than than zero if found continue else not found although we are not dogmatic about the matter it does seem that go to goto statements should not should be used sparingly at if at all I would add before we leave control flow I need to say that I agree with structure programming experts as well as kernigan and Richie in that the go-to is universally a bad idea there are a lot of little details that make them a real problem things like how the stack Works in function calls and how code blocks happen and patching the stack up correctly when a go-to happens in the middle of a deeply nested mess you might be tempted to use a go-to when you want to exit multiple nested Loops in a single statement break can continue only exit the innermost Loop the authors use this example above but are quite lukewarm when describing it as a use of go-to usually if your problem is that complex putting things in a function and using return or adding a few if statements is a better choice the Dr Chuck middl tested Loop data processing solves this because the loop is always the innermost Loop also as new languages were built the concept of exceptions became part of language design and was by a by far more elegant solution to a path of some deeply nested code that just needs to get out so most of the time you think the goto might be a good idea you should lean towards a throw catch pattern to make your your intention clear it is one of the reasons why we prefer languages like Java or python over C when writing general purpose code this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 1970s and 1980s as computer science evolved from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the ideal book to learn SE programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the sea language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable applications [Music] welcome to chapter four functions and program structure in this chapter we’re going to start digging a little deeper part of the goal of this course is to get you to the point where we can talk about how things really work eventually in the next course we’ll even go down to Hardware hardware and architecture and Gates and so it’s it’s time to start opening things up and looking at how things work and so this is a good time to do so and the big thing we’re going to learn among other things is the concept of a stack how pass by reference works how how pass by value and pass by reference work a little bit about recursion recursion is a a thing that I worry about a lot um well we’ll get there and a pre-processors these are all things where we’re really stting it’s I’m not just it’s not so much about just how functions work but how functions are implemented and how that affects how they work so the first thing I want to talk to you about is a really Nifty computer science concept called a stack a stack is a data structure that we use and it has a couple of attributes the idea of a stack is we we start with an empty stack and we put things on the stack and then we take things off we take them off the last thing we to put on is the first thing we get off and they go up and they go down you can push things onto them and take things off of them we can approximate this with a python list so so we start with an empty list we append the string one to it and the stack has a one on it it’s kind of growing up from the bottom and it’s going to shrink from the top and then we append a two to it and then we our stack is now one and two so the bottom thing in the stack is one and the top one is two and then we append a three to it and we have one two three on the stack at that point we pop pop says give me the most recent pushed thing and then take it off so we pop off three and the stack with one and two again this is also known as a last in first out or lifo q q is like a line of things and so the the last thing in is the first thing you got out so that’s a stack and we’re going to use Stacks in function calls so historically when we talk about call by value and call by reference we basically say that call by value means that somehow this value like in the main program ma with a variable with a value of 42 ends up being copied into the function and the parameter op is got a is got a copy of the 42 it’s not the original ma it’s the copy of 42 so 42 gets passed in the function one and op is a copy of 42 so then inside the function we can subtract 10 from it and then we can see that but then when we get back in the main function we see that Ma is been unchanged and it’s like oh we built a little wall around the function and nothing inside the function happens the outside world is unaffected by it and that’s a great oversimplification of call by value of course call by reference means the stuff un function can affect outside the function but let’s talk a little bit about how a stack is used to accomplish this so just to use some terminology C calls these variables that are allocated inside the function before the function starts as the automatic variables and frankly int Ma = 42 in main is an automatic variable inside the main because main is a function inside a seat program that happens to be the one that starts everything out so if we get to the point where it says int ma equals 42 and then it prints ma being 42 at that point on the stack the C runtime is allocated one integer and we’ve assigned 42 to it so that’s what the stack looks like at that first print statement in Maine then we call the function one and pass m in and this is where the C runtime Library kind of before everything starts out in the function one it allocates what’s called a stack frame and a stack frame includes the parameters op and the automatic variables that are inside of that function and so in this case we’re going to get two variables we’re going to get op as an integer and TN as an integer and before the program starts up the value 42 is copied from ma into op and so the stack frame is the context in which that function operates so when it first starts you see that op has 42 you also see we have two copies of the number 42 and we have a parameter op and then we have the the automatic variable the TN then the next line runs okay and that point op is changed op equals op minus TN and so op becomes 32 but you’ll notice that on the stack out beyond the stack frame the stack frame is our current execution of the function one beyond the stack frame the 42 is still there we can’t see it we’re we’re in the function right now and we’re only seeing the top part of the stack we’re not seeing the part of the stack that belongs to the main program so that’s where it prints out 32 so 32 in the function says op is 32 and that’s fine and then we return and that’s when the C runtime removes the stack frame pops those things off the stack it remembers how much it put on and it pops all the stuff off the stack that it put on and then it basically comes back into Ma and the stack frame for the main program has one variable in it and it’s Ma and it has 42 and that’s because one operated in its stack frame and now the main program is back to operating in the same stack frame you can almost think of to this as like one never happened right from Main’s perspective it had some variables one ran and a stack frame was created some of the main data was copied into the one stack frame one operated in its stack frame and then the stack frame went away right before one or right at the moment that one returned and the return value ends up in the stack frame too I just haven’t shown you that and these don’t send return value the the return value comes back uh from the stack frame but you can see how main started with a stack with one one variable on it and then it one ran and all that stuff happened and then it kind of was undone and that’s where the changed variable just kind of went away and so the stack it’s as if nothing ever happened except it went up and then it went back down now one thing we notice and and in Python we see this too where you say everything is called by value which implies a copy um except for things like certain objects and calling method and objects and if but if you look at say this function zap and we pass in X and X is starts out as original and then it calls the zap function and it passes in and it’s got the original then it gets changed inside the inside the zap function and that change uh prints out but then when it comes back it is back to the original so X is back to the original in the main code and you might say oh that looks right and that that’s actually quite intuitive and that that python has made it so a call by value inside of this ins call by value to the zap function it happened meaning that nothing change nothing changed outside of the zap function and it was a call by value not a call by reference now I’m not going to go into it at least not right now talking about why that really worked and it’s it’s less about call by value and call by reference and more about the fact that Y is really a pointer to an object and when y equals changed executes inside of Zap the object pointer it points to a different object and then but X never changed and so python has a slightly different runtime but it leads to this notion that seems like a string variable in Python is call by value now if we look at the similar but quite different code inside of C we see the main has a a a character array X of unknown length which is original and that just unknown length means that it say it’s uh looks like eight characters plus a back sl0 which is nine characters and it prints out kind of like a string it’s a character array with a terminator and then we Call Zap pass X in and then inside of zap zap takes a character array as its parameter and it can print out the word original when it starts and then it copies changed into it and then it says at the end it’s it’s the why is at the end is changed but then we come back and back in the main program it got changed so does that mean it was called by reference or what and the answer is sort of and this is where it kind of helps so it turns out that when you are passing an array into a function in C you’re not actually passing the contents of the array so most time we think of that 42 being copied if it’s an integer if it’s just like a scaler thing like a float or an INT or a Char or something that’s being copied but when you have an array that could be gigantic so it doesn’t actually copy in the whole array so when X is being passed into zap and being received as y we’re not actually passing the string because that could be a million characters for all we know so it’s not like it makes an extra copy of a million characters what it’s doing is it’s passing in the address of the start of the string not on the stack but somewhere else it actually could be on the stack somewhere but it’s not in the stack frame and the word original is not copied into the stack frame the stack frame only includes a pointer or the address X is the address of this letter O and then Y is also the address of the letter O which means when we’re calling stir copy we are overwriting those characters oh and by the way I carefully made sure that the string changed was shorter than the string original or my program could have blown up because this is C and arrays don’t get bigger python strings get bigger but arrays don’t in a couple more lectures we will build a data structure where it’s like a python string and we can add to it and you’ll see that the code is very complex a character array is very simple okay and so it’s not exactly a pass by reference it is a pass by location and if you happen to misuse that location meaning you write to that location you write to location now this might have been in like readon memory something your program might have blown up so you better be sure what you’re doing when you start messing inside of a function with an array that’s been passed to you now sometimes you’re supposed to sometimes we tell you to write that another thing that you’re going to see in this is the reference to register variables uh this is another rather historical notion and in my opinion it really had to do with uh convincing uh really skilled Assembly Language programmers that they could get the same performance out of sea that they were used to getting inside Assembly Language and so what are registers well when you have a central processing unit and you have memory the data lives in the memory and the registers live in the central processing unit and depending on the speed of things a register might be you know 40 times faster than regular memory and so if you could keep a variable like I in a loop you could keep that in a register that’s faster and so what we can do with saying register int X is say hey by the way next few lines X is a really important variable and I expect to use it a lot so if you can possibly not store this in memory please do so and that’s why the only kind of weird thing about the register is you can’t get the memory address of a register variable now in mon compilers we have runtime optimizers that are miraculous I mean they border on mirac even the simplest of runtime optimizers that speed the code up at runtime are miraculous and saying this is a register or that’s a register might actually confuse things so all the register does is hey I am never going to ask you the address of this variable so don’t bother putting it in memory if you don’t feel like it okay so it’s it’s probably but I also think I think it’s kind of fascinating and fun to think about this think about how early sea developers were so deeply connected to their Assembly Language that is at the runtime uh recursion recursion recursion recursion when a function calls itself it’s called recursion it’s a powerful it’s a beautiful concept there is places when if you’re given a tree like structure like you parse some XML or something and you’re reading through the XML recursion is such a pretty way to write code I’m about to show you a very simple recursion example that are two things first they’re really inefficient and silly uses of recursion and they mislead you as to why you should use recursion and they misleadingly kind of tell you that like recursion is great let’s use it for something it doesn’t e is not well used for so so really in this section I’m not trying to show you what recursion is used for well I’m more interested in giving you a really artificial synthetic example to show how the call stack works and how recursion works with the call stack so here we have I mean some tortured code it is not pretty code this is a I’m I’m writing code that if given a number like uh three adds up 1 plus 2 plus three okay and gives me six there are so many ways to do this there’s even a close form solution that doesn’t even require a loop that’s called algebra but we’re going to use recursion so if you look at the int main I’m going to say sum up three that means sum up things one two three so sum up is being called from Main and then I’ve got the return value and I say Su and you’ll notice in the print out that Su is the very last thing that comes out and so if you walk through sum up you see that there is a parameter called above that’s coming I call that above because it’s coming from whoever’s calling us there’s a parameter below which is we’re going to compute a value and send it down to the next copy of ourselves down and then sum is the sum of the the above value and the sum of the below values and then R Val is I mean actually sum is just coming back from the call to ourselves and then R Val is adding those two things together and I do this in exceedingly slow motion with print statements everywhere that just makes this look ugly because really the only thing that matters is where it says sum equals sum up below and what we’re doing is we’re calling the same function again so if you look at Main and you see the sumup call that is going to create a stack frame and in that stack frame it’s going to have a whatever the three number is we’re going to make an above variable copy three into the above variable and allocate a below sum and R valve so our stack frame is going to have four integers on it and then the function starts working and the way the r recursion works is there’s always got to be a time at which it stops this is kind of like going down down down and it has to work its way back up if it goes down forever that’s called a stack Overflow and then your computer runs out of memory and your application blows up so you know have to have a time at which the stack uh algorithm stops so what we’re saying is if we’re being told to sum up up one or less well we Define the sum of that as one so we just return the sum of everything up to one as one and that’s our way of stopping the recursion at the bottom and then what we do is we take below and we subtract one from it so if we’re being called with three below becomes two and so you see that over in the lower stack frame below is two right below is two and we’re about to go down deeper into the call tree and um so we’re going to we’re going to call sum equals sum up below so what happens now is we’re passing two in to another stack frame and so there’s not really a cop another copy of the code but there’s another stack frame and so now we’re calling sum up with two as the parameter that’s our below but then we see the stack frame and now this is the stack frame that’s kind of on the left hand side there above in this stack frame is two and then execution begins and we subtract one from below well above is not less than one so we subtract one and above below becomes one because it’s 2 – one and we’re going to go down so it says down one which means it’s going to again say sum equals sum up below and below in this case is one and so it makes another stack frame there’s a so we’re actually there there’s a maximum of like three calls here and then it’s going to work its way out so then it calls another stack frame that’s not shown on the right hand side and then it runs runs with one as above and then above is less than or equal to one so it returns one and that’s why it says in one and it doesn’t say anything because then it’s returned and it returned the value one so now the third stack frame comes off and now we’re in the other stack frame and sum is what the return value of the sum up call was so it says back one and then it says above now we’re now we’re in the stack frame that’s on the right hand side so sum is one below is one above is two and so we compute R Val which is 1 + 2 and that’s three and we print that out and that’s kind of where the where we’re indicating and then we return the three right and then it returns R Val and it runs some more it gets three back then it adds the adds the three to it and returns one more time and the stack all pops up and eventually you get six and this is a I mean you can look at this as long as you like I don’t this code is like a foolish way to make this calculation like most artificial recursion examples the key thing here is just think about the stack frame right every time you call in another stack frame happens call in stack frame happens and then when the return value happens it goes back to that stack frame so the stack frame is a way of pausing execution at the moment create a new stack frame execu in that stack frame and if you need to have a yet another stack frame and so this idea of creating stack frame with the parameters and automatic variables each time you call a function copying the parameters into that stack frame and then executing the function in that stack frame we’re not making extra copies of the function we are just creating a new stack frame that’s what the essence of recursion is is the fact that you have a stack and each call makes a stack frame and if you recursively call again you just make another stack frame and so it’s almost easier in my mind to Think Through how stack frames work than it is to think through how recursive code works now I want to talk a little bit about the C preprocessor it’s it’s the last thing of this chapter and it’s in some ways orthogonal to functions and program structure I mean it it is part of program structure and so I’ve talked a lot about how wonderfully the C compiler and eventually Unix solve so many problems of uh software source code portability and things like indianness and character arrays and masking shifting not being necessary that those were awesome but the problem was is that c has always operated in an environment the language has changed uh in the early days it uh it wasn’t standardized by 84 it got standardized ancc came out a lot of people used it outside its original creation and so a lot of things got fixed in the first decade of C’s use the language evolved a lot the language kept kept evolving and a lot of the things that would make it evolve are things like integers went from 32 bits in some situations to 64 bits and then you have to say well what is a long is long 64 long 32 because in some it started with int being 16 bits and long being 32 and then long with 64 well for a while then ins were 32 and Longs were 32 and then ins were 32 and Longs were 64 and what would happen if ins were 64 and it had to do with computer architecture 64 bits right and so sometimes you would have a bit of code and it just what you knew you wanted a 32bit thing and you weren’t sure if an INT or a long or a short was going to give you 32 and so you had to say you know I really need different source code like if I’m working on a pdp1 I got one thing and if I’m working at interd 732 I want another thing CU really I want a 32 a 32-bit integer and now there’s actually int 32 in some of these things because you do need to know sometimes you’re using 32-bit integer then libraries changed there’s calling sequences that changed because again as computers got bigger and bigger and memory got bigger and dis drives got bigger you would be in a certain version of an operating system and and the the calls to reading files might be slightly different and so it’s not really that the source code was portable it’s the the the the calling sequences to library started to change um Hardware evolved operating systems evolved C started running on non-unix because C originally started on Unix but then it quickly went to other operating systems because it was such a powerful concept but sometimes in these other operating systems just things were kind of different because they weren’t working on Unix and so the pre-processor really was a an effective way to patch your source code so that you could say look I I wrote this Source Code 10 years ago and it worked on a pdp1 and now I’m going to run this on an IBM 3 60 architecture and I don’t want to change that there’s a few changes I need to make that have nothing to do with sort of the what what a for Loop looks like but it has to do with like what library I’m calling or what the return type for that Library might be so the pre-processor allowed us to put variations in the source code and the pre-processor it’s really feels weird because it’s it’s syntax syntax is very different because the pre-processor is kind of a line oriented processor and has these pound things right these these um like pound if def pound Define pound else pound end if and pound include that’s even a pre-processor so what the pre-processor is is a not a compiler at all it is a source code to source code translator it expands the include files and then it makes changes so in the top example where you see pound include stdio.h you can actually run GCC minus capital E and says just run on the pre-processor and shows me what comes out you take you know 10 12 lines of code on the left and it puts out hundreds and hundreds of lines of code on the right I’m only showing you a subset of it but the biggest part is the fact that include std. is literally expanded and then that is C code without the pound include okay so that’s the pre-processor but then another example here is I’m creating this use underscore long this is not really a variable this is a compiled time variable so I’m going to create a new string called intore 32 and if Ed long has been defined I’m going to make int 32 be along else I’m going to make intore 32 be an INT and again this could be a thing where I’m compiling for different architectures and I want this variable IP address to be a 32-bit integer and I need it to work on different operating systems so in this case um because use long is not defined int 32 as a string substitution like a macro string substitution before the compiler even does anything turns in32 into int and so that’s what the uh five lines of pound if Def and all that stuff do is it says change this in32 string in my source code into int and so what we see on the right is really C code what we see on the left is kind of c pre-processor plus c code and so the pre-processor transforms source code to source code so I was looking around at some old code that I happen to have grabbed and put into uh GitHub which was some code from 1994 from X Mosaic 1.2 and for those of you took my internet history technology and security you know that X Mosaic was the first web browser that was portable across multiple operating systems which and the more and then eventually Mosaic ended up on uh Unix systems with x windows that’s why it’s called X mosaic and it went to the mac and went to the PC and so it was really many unix’s Mac and PC and what we’re seeing here on the right hand side is actual source code from that which was written in like 1993 1994 and what you see is a bunch of if defs in if and defs and some comments and like there’s a if def Solaris 9 broken um and it has to do with like where do we find the error messages on this across all these weird operating systems because the way they put error sometimes they would use extern which are Global variables defined inside the runtime and we would just look at those variables we would make a function call and it would write into these Global variables but then that Global variable might be different so this is actually from some code that was HTT p and C that was some early network connections now these days you know we just do this stuff in like pound import requests in Python but in those days the C libraries for network connections were really different meaning that they were just you know here comes the network here’s this language C It’s Been Around by you know 89 991 we were the network was there and so we were building libraries but then how each Library worked in each operating system was a little wonky and so they had to write different C code to compensate for the different operating systems that this C program a web browser would be running on and so all these if defs mean that one source code with a few predefined constants compile time constants could then work on a wide range of of operating systems and so yes the C language itself is portability portable but we also want to be portable over time and so sometimes Library Val libraries change operating systems change um and we want to be able to compensate for that and so this is an important part of C these days it’s less important um because a lot of the libraries have stabilized and they don’t change quite so much and so this code here would probably just be a bit of socket code and the errors would come back the same way no matter what version like um VMS is an operating system that doesn’t exist anymore think C it doesn’t exist anymore NEX doesn’t exist anymore Solaris doesn’t exist anymore so these are all operating systems that don’t even exist anymore but this code was portable across all those things things and actually I I compiled all this and you can kind of take a look at it I made a a video where I re resurrected this code oh it’s got to be eight or nine years ago on a Macintosh which is an evolved from next I don’t know if I could get it to work again but back then I got it to work on a Macintosh and I said to find it as next and so I compiled this C code and I there’s there wasn’t there is an x- windows on Macintosh I got the x windows Library I got all this stuff working and I told it you’re next and then I recompiled the C code and eventually something came up and I I made a video about it and so because I knew that it’d be very difficult to keep this thing working over time but to go from 1994 to 2014 um and recompile something in you know 20 years later uh that’s still pretty impressive that that next code would still work uh things like the V VM code VMS code there’s no VMS computers that I know of uh these days so just it just shows that the idea of you know portability is a it it some of it is simple and elegant and was laid down in 1978 but then there are things outside the programming language that were evolving uh and still are evolving to this day and if you are doing uh C coding today or C++ coding today you may be using things that start with pound sign which are compiler directives rather than um C code so with that uh dive into chapter four and uh learn about [Music] functions welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles sance and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter four functions in program structure functions break large Computing tasks into smaller ones and enable people to build on what others have done instead of starting over from scratch appropriate functions can often hide details of operation from parts of the program that don’t need to know about them thus clarifying the whole and easing the pain of making changes C has been designed to make functions efficient and easy to use C programs generally consist of numerous small functions rather than a few big ones a program May reside on one or more source files in any convenient way the source files may be compiled separately and loaded together along with previously compiled functions from libraries we will not go into that process here since the details vary according to the local system most programmers are familiar with Library functions for inut and output like get Char and put charart and numerical computations like s cosine and square root in this chapter we will show more about writing new functions 4.1 Basics to begin let us design and write a program to print each line of input that contains a particular pattern or string of characters this is a special function of the Unix utility program grap for example searching for the pattern the’ in the set of lines now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party will produce the output now is the time men to come to the aid of their party the basic structure of the task Falls neatly into three pieces while there’s another line if that line contains a pattern print it although it’s certainly possible to put the code for all of this in one main routine a better way is to use the natural structure to Advantage by making each part a separate function three small pieces are easier to deal with than the one big one because irrelevant details can be buried in the functions and the chance of unwanted interactions minimized and the pieces might even be useful later in their own right while there is another line is get line a function we wrote in chapter one and print it is print F which someone has already provided for us this means that we need to only write a routine which which decides if the line contains an occurrence of the pattern we can solve that problem by stealing a design from pl1 the function index s comma T Returns the position or index in the string s where the string T begins or minus one if s doesn’t contain T we use zero rather than one as the starting position in s because C arrays always begin at position zero when we later need more sophisticated pattern matching we only have to replace index the rest of the code can remain the same recall that because the modern stdio.h defines a getline function whenever the book writes this function to teach a feature of functions we reame it to get underscore line given this much design filling in the details of the program is straightforward here’s the whole thing so you can see how the pieces fit together for now the pattern to be searched for is a literal string in the argument of index which is not the most general of mechanisms we will return shortly to a discussion of how to initialize character rais and in chapter five we will show how to make the pattern a parameter that is set when the program is run this is also a new version of getline you might find it instructive to compare it to the one in chapter one pound include stdio.h pound Define MAX Line 1000 Main open parth Pary closed parentheses open curly brace Char Line open square bracket MAX Line closed square bracket semicolon while parentheses get Line open parentheses line comma MAX Line closed parentheses greater than zero Clos parentheses if open parentheses index open parentheses line comma double quote the double quote close parentheses greater than or equal to zero close parentheses print F open parthey double quote percent s double quote comma line Clos parentheses semicolon and a close curly brace to finish the main function next function is getline get Line open parentheses s comma limb closed parentheses Char s open square bracket close square bracket semicolon int limb semicolon open curly brace int C comma I semicolon for I equal 0 semicolon I less than Lim minus1 and Pen C equals get Char open p Clos pen Clos pen not equal EF double Amper sand c not equal double quot back slash N double quote semicolon Plus+ I close parentheses S Sub I equals c that Loop basically read until it found a new line or and Def file if open parentheses cble equals quot back slash and quot close parentheses open curly brace S Sub I equal C plus plus I semicolon Clos curly brace closing the f s subi equals quote back0 quote semicolon to terminate the string properly return open par I Clos PR semicolon to return the length of the line and then close curly brace to finish the getline function and now the new code index open parentheses s comma T close parentheses Char s open square bracket close square bracket comma T open square bracket close square bracket semicolon I would note that when we are declaring a character array and we don’t give the length of the array that means that we’re inside of a function the length of the array exists but it was from the calling calling code so j s open square bracket closed square bracket T open square bracket closed square bracket semic equalent means parameters s and t are strings of some length and we will use back sl0 to know when that length is done beginning the code in index with an open curly brace int I comma J comma k semicolon and then we have two nested for Loops for open print I equals 0 S Sub I not equal to back0 semicolon I ++ open curly brace for JAL I comma K = 0 semicolon t t subk not equal to Back sl0 and Double Amper sand s subj equal T subk semicolon j++ k++ semicolon if open PR t subk double equals quot back sl0 quote Clos PR return open PR I close peren semicolon close curly brace return open pen minus one close peren semicolon curly brace each function has the form name argument list if any in parenthesis argument declarations if any open curly brace declarations and statements if any Clos curly brace as suggested various parts may be absent a minimal function is dummy open pen closed pen open curly brace closed curly brace which does nothing a do nothing function is sometimes useful as a placeholder during program development the function name may also be preceded by a type if the function returns something other than an integer value this is the topic of the next section a program is just a set of individual function definitions communication between the functions is in this case by arguments and values return by the functions it can also be via external variables the functions can occur in any order in the source file and the source program can be split into multiple files so long as no function is split the return statement is the mechanism for returning a residual value from the called function to its caller any expression can follow return return open parentheses expression close parentheses the calling function is free to ignore the return value if it wishes furthermore there need there is no need to have an expression after the return in that case no value is returned to the caller control also returns to the caller with no value when EX ution falls off the end of the function by reaching the right closing brace it is not illegal but probably a sign of trouble if a function returns a value from one place and no value from another place in any case the residual value of a function which does not return one is certain to be garbage the C verifier lint checks for such errors mechanics of how to compile and lot toy program which resides on multiple source files vary from one system to the next on the Unix system for example the CC command mentioned in chapter one does the job suppose that three functions are in three files called main.c getline Doc and index. C then the command CC main.c get line. C index. C compiles the three files and PR places the resulting relocatable object code in files main. o get line. o and index. O and loads them all into an executable file named a do out if there is an error say in main.c that file can be recompiled by itself and the result loaded with the previous object files with the command CC main.c get line. o index. o the CC command uses the C suffix versus Theo suffix naming convention to distinguish source files from object files I would note that this CC example exactly as the authors has wrote it does not quite work as described in modern SE compilers if you want to compile your source code and leave the compiled object code around after the compile you add the minus C option to the compiler call Modern C compilers generally do accept multiple files with either C or. O suffixes and comi combine them into a runnable application section 4.2 functions returning non- integers so far none of our programs has contained any Declaration of the type of a function this is because by default called a function is implicitly declared by its appearance in an expression or statement such as while open print get Line open print line comma MAX Line Clos print greater than zero Clos print if a name which has not been previously declared occurs in an expression and is followed by a left parentheses it is declared by context to be a function name furthermore by default the function is assumed to return an INT since Char promotes to INT in Expressions there is no need to declare functions that return Char these assumptions cover the majority of classes including all of our examples so far I would add that’s not true quite true anymore in modern C languages you are required to provide a type for each function if you leave off the type for a function declaration at a minimum you will give a get a Stern warning message but sometimes functions do not intend to return anything at all and so so the void type was invented to indicate that a function returns nothing the rule of requiring a type on a modern function definition in C even if it’s void allows the compiler check to make sure all of your return values in a function match the expected return type back to the text but what happens if a function must return some other type many numerical function like square root S and cosine return double other specialized function functions return other types to illustrate how to deal with this let us write and use the function a to F which converts its argument string s to its double Precision floating Point equivalent a2f is an extension of a to I which we wrote versions of in chapters 2 and three it handles an optional sign and decimal point and the presence or absence of either the integer or fractional part we note that this is not a high quality input conversion routine takes doing everything takes a bit more space than we care to use here in this book first a to F must declare the type of the value it returns since it’s not int because float is converted to double in Expressions there is no point in saying that a to F returns float we might as well make use of the extra precision and thus declare it to return double the type name precedes the function name like this double A to F open parentheses s closed parentheses char s open square bracket closed square bracket open curly brace double Val comma power int I comma sign semicolon for I equal 0 semicolon s subi double equals quote space quote or SBI double equals quot back slash and quote or SBI double equals quot backt quote semicolon i++ semicolon that’s skips the white space s equal 1 if s subi dou equals quot plus quote or s double equals quote minus quote s equals and now we’re going to use a turn operator here pen S Sub i++ close bracket double equals quote plus quote close Pin question mark one colon minus one semicolon and basically tells us it it makes sign be one or negative 1 based on the presence or absence of a plus or minus for Val equals 0 semicolon s subi greater than or equal to quot 0 quote double Amper s subi less than or equal toble quot 9 quot I ++ close PR Val equals 10 * Val plus s subi minus qu0 quot semicolon what this is doing is multiplying the current value by 10 in effect shifting it left and then adding in that new lower empty spot um the digit that we’re encountering which is somewhere between the character Zero and the character nine continuing if parentheses s subi double equals quote. quote Clos parentheses i++ four open parentheses power equals 1 semicolon S Sub I greater than or equal to qu0 quote double Amper sand S Sub I less than or equal toot 9 quot semicolon I ++ open curly brace Val equals 10 * Val plus S Sub I minus quot 0 quote again Shifting the number to the left as it’s as we encounter characters Power Star equals 10 semicolon close curly brace return open parentheses s times Val over power close parentheses semicolon close curly brace second and just as important the calling routine must state that a to F returns a non-int value the Declaration is shown in the Pro following primitive desk calculator barely adequate for checkbook balancing which reads one number per line optionally preceded by sign and adds them all up printing the sum after each input this example is from page 70 of the textbook pound include stdio.h pound Define MAX Line 100 Main open parentheses close parentheses open curly brace double sum comma a to F open parentheses closed parentheses semicolon Char Line open square bracket MAX Line Clos square bracket semicolon sum equals z while open parentheses get Line open parentheses line comma MAX Line close parentheses greater than zero close parentheses print F quote back SLT percent. 2f back sln comma sum plus equals a to F open parentheses line closed parentheses close parentheses semicolon close curly brace that code use the plus plus side effect operator and merge the called to a to F right into the parameter of the second parameter of print F the Declaration double sum a to F open parentheses closed parentheses says that sum is a double variable and that a to F is a function that returns a double value as a pneumonic it suggests that sum and a to F parentheses dot dot dot are both double Precision floating Point values unless a to F is explicitly declared in both places C assumes it returns an integer and you will get nonsense answers if a to F itself and the call to it in main are typed inconsistently with the with in the same source file it will be detected by the compiler but if as is more likely a to F were compiled separately the mismatch would not be detected and a to F would return a double which main would treat as an end and meaningless answers would result Lind catches this error given a to F we could in principle write a to I to convert a string to an integer in terms of it int a to I open parentheses s closed parentheses Char s open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon open curly brace double A to F open parentheses closed parentheses semicolon return open parentheses a to F close parentheses s close parentheses close parentheses semicolon Clos curly brace note the structure of the Declarations in the return statement the value in the expression and return expression is always converted to the type of the function before the return is taken therefore the value of a to f a double is converted automatically to int when it appears in a return since the function a toi returns an INT the conversion of a floating point value to int truncates any fractional part as we discussed in chapter two more on function arguments in chapter one we discussed the fact that function arguments are passed by value that is the called function receives a private temporary copy of each argument not its address this means that the function cannot affect the original argument in the calling function within a function each argument is in a a local variable initialized to the value with which the function was called when an array name appears as an argument to a function the location of the beginning of the array is passed elements are not copied the function can alter elements of the array by subscripting from this location the effect is that arrays are always passed by reference in chapter five we will discuss the use of pointers to permit functions to affect non- arrays in calling functions a bit of a a digression since including a array as an argument passes the location or memory address of the array into the function the function cannot can change the items in the array using array subscripts in particular the array contents are not copied when an array is passed into a c function when we get to strs in a future chapter we will find that the content of strs also are passed using the address of the entire struct so strs are passed by reference as well when thinking about pass by reference or pass by value remember that a Char variable is a single item similar to int and passed by value I.E it is copied in C strings are arrays of characters so they are passed by reference python follows this design for the same efficiency reason is C normal single variables like int or float are copied before being passed into a function and therefore passed by value collections like list or dict are passed into functions by reference so the contents can be changed within a function python strings are not technically copied when being passed into a function but the way assignments happen in Python make it seem like strings are passed by value since they can never be modified you can learn more with a bit of web research but the easy way is to imagine in Python that strings are passed by value with a clever trick to avoid requiring a copy for every function call PHP follows the same pattern of passing numbers and strings by value and passing arrays as reference PHP passes strings by value without recever without requiring a copy again using clever runtime code because in Java JavaScript and PHP strings are objects of course which we haven’t discussed much yet those languages can make sure that strings act as if they were passed by value and not passed by reference the way they are always passed in C C made decision on its runtime based on getting the maximum performance out of the hardware of the 1970s at the expense of making it too easy to write code that overwrites memory and leads to corrupted programs that have dangerous and undefined Behavior languages like PHP Java and JavaScript add a small amount of runtime overhead to do things like store the length of an array and make sure we programmers don’t over reference the array and overwrite random bits of our programs code or data the creators of C placed more priority on speed and efficient use of memory than safety it is like driving an autom automobile in the rain without ABS automatic braking system it is fast but dangerous and should be reserved by highly skilled and very careful programmers and drivers and those drivers should probably be on a race course by the way back to the text by the way there is no entire L satisfactory way to write a portable function that accepts a variable number of arguments because there is no portable way for the called function to determine how many arguments were actually passed in a given call thus you can’t write a truly portable function that will compute the maximum of an arbitrary number of arguments as well the max functions that are built in to Fortran and pl1 it is generally safe to deal with a variable number of arguments if the called function doesn’t use an argument that was not actually supplied and if the types are consistent print F the most common C function with a variable number of arguments uses information from the first argument which is the formatting string to determine how many other arguments are present and what their types are it fails badly if the caller does not supply enough arguments or if types are not what the first argument says it is also non-portable and therefore must be modified for different programming environments alternatively if arguments are of known types it is possible to Mark the end of the argument list in some agreed upon way such as a special argument value often zero that stands for the end of the arguments interestingly modern languages like python PHP and Java go to Great Links to make variable length argument lists work predictably and portably the Syntax for variable length argument lists in these language can be a bit obtuse at times but at least it’s allowed documented reli iable and portable section four external variables a c program consists of a set of external objects which are either variables or functions the adjective external is used primarily in contrast to internal which describes arguments and automatic variables defined inside functions external variables are defined outside any function and are thus potentially available to many functions functions themselves are always external because C does not allow functions to be defined inside other functions by default external variables are also Global so that all references to such a variable by the same name even from functions that are compiled separately are references to the same thing in this sense external variables are analogous to Fortran common or pl1 external we will later see how to define external variables and functions that are not globally available but but instead only visible within a single source file because external variables are globally accessible they provide an alternative to function arguments and return values for communicating data between function any function May access an external variable by referring it to by name if the name has been declared somehow if a large number of variables must be shared among functions external variables are a more convenient and efficient than long argument list as pointed out in chapter one however this reasoning should be applied with some caution for it can have a bad effect on program structure and lead to programs with many data connections between functions a second reason for using external variables concerns initialization in particular external arrays may be initialized but automatic I.E internal arrays may not we will treat initialization near the end of this chapter the third reason for using external variables is their scope and lifetime automatic variables are internal to a function they come into existence when the routine is entered and disappear when it’s left external variables on the other hand are permanent they do not come and go so they retain values from one function invocation to the next thus if two functions must share some data yet neither calls the other it is often most convenient if the shared data is kept in external variables rather than rather than passed in and out via arguments let’s examine this issue further with a larger example the problem is to write another calculator program better than the previous one this one permits plus minus asterisk and Slash and equals equals will print our answer because it is somewhat easier to implement the calculator will use reverse polish notation instead of infix notation reverse polish notation is the scheme used by for example hulet Packard pocket calculators in Reverse polish notation each operator follows its operators operand an infix expression like open parentheses 1 minus 2 closed parentheses star open parentheses 4 + 5 closed parentheses equals is entered as 1 2 minus 45 + star equals parentheses are not needed in Reverse polish notation the implementation is quite simple each operand is pushed onto a stack when an operator arrives the proper number of operands two for binary operators are popped the operator applied to them and the result is pushed back onto the stack in the example above one and two are pushed then replaced by their difference neg1 next four and five are pushed then replaced by their sum N9 and then the product of -1 and 9 which is9 replaces them on the stack and then the equal sign operator prints the top element without removing it so intermediate steps in a calculation can be checked the operations of pushing and popping a stack are trivial but by the time airor detection and Recovery are added they’re long enough so it’s better to put each in a separate function then to repeat the code throughout the whole program and there should be a separate function for f fetching the next input operator or operant thus the overall structure of the program is while next operator or operand is not end file if it’s a number push it else if it’s an operator pop operands do the oper operation and push the result else error the main design decision that has not yet been discussed is where the stack is that is what routines access it directly one possibility is to keep it in Main and pass the stack and current stack position to the rettin that push and pop it but N Main doesn’t need to know about the variables that control the stack it should only think about pushing and popping so we have decided to make the stack and its Associated information external variables accessible to push and pop but not to main translating this outline to code is easy enough the main program is primarily a big switch on the type of operator or operand this is a more typical use of switch than the one shown in chapter 3 this sample code is from page 74 of the textbook pound include stdio.h pound Define Max op 20 pound toine number quote zero quote this is going to be a single we found a number and pound toine two big quote N quote a signal that the string is too big main open print closed parentheses open curly brace int type semicolon Char s open square bracket Max op Clos square bracket semicolon double op two a to F open parentheses closed parentheses comma pop open parentheses Clos parentheses comma push open parentheses closed parentheses semicolon while open parthey open parentheses type equals get up open parentheses s comma Max op closed parentheses closed parentheses not equal e f closed parentheses switch open parentheses type closed parentheses open curly brace case number colon note that number is a predefined constant above push open parentheses a to F open parentheses s close parentheses Clos parentheses semicolon break case quote plus quote colon push open parentheses pop open pin Clos pin plus pop open pin Clos pin Clos pin semicolon break semicolon case quote asteris quote colon push open pin pop open pen Clos pin asterisk pop open pen Clos pin Clos P semicolon break semicolon that was the multiplication case quote quote colon op two equals pop open Forint close print push open print pop minus op2 Clos print semicolon break semicolon that was subtraction case open pin slash Clos pin colon Op 2 equals pop open pin semicolon if op two not equal 0.0 push open print pop open print Clos print SL Op 2 close print semicolon else print F double quote zero divisor popped back sln double quote close print semicolon break case quote equal quote colon print F open PR double quote backt percent F back sln double quote comma push open pin pop open print close print close print close print semicolon so to print it we pop it and push it and then print the residual value of the push function the next line is break semicolon case quote C quote colon clear open print Clos print semicolon break semicolon case too big colon print F double quot percent. 20s space dot dot dot is too long back sln double quote comma s close Pin semicolon break semicolon default colon print F open print double quote unknown command percent C back sln double quote comma type open print Clos print semicolon break semicolon close P close curly brace to finish the switch statement and then close curly brace to finish the main so now we’re going to have a separate file that has some of these functions defined this file is on page 75 of the textbook this file will be compiled separately but then later linked all together with the main program but we’re going to Define push pop and clear in this file pound include stdio.h pound toine maxv Val 100 maximum value that’ be the maximum value of our stack the maximum size of our stack maximum depth of our stack now we are declaring variables outside of any function these are the external variables int SP equals z double Val open square bracket Max Val closed square bracket semicolon and so those variables are external variables and they’re outside of all of the functions but we can use them in any function and there’s just one copy no matter what function we’re using in so now Define our functions double push open pen F Clos pen double F semicolon open curly brace if open pen SP less than Max Val Clos pen return open pen Val open square bracket SP Plus+ closed square bracket equals F Clos pen semicolon else open curly brace print F double quote air colon stack full back SL N double quote Clos print semicolon clear open print Clos print semicolon return open print zero close PR semicolon close curly brace to finish the else and then close curly brace to finish the double function the push function and now we Define the pop double pop open PR close print open curly brace if open pen SP greater than zero closed pen return open PR Val open square bracket minus minus SP close square bracket Clos curly brace semicolon else open curly brace print F open print double quote air colon stack empty back slash n close quote close double quote close PR semicolon clear open PR close PR semicolon return open pen zero close pen semicolon close curly brace to finish the else and then close curly brace to finish the double and the last function we’re going to Define is the clear function which is quite simple clear open pen Clos pend open curly brace SP equals zero semicolon Clos pend I would note that just read this one carefully um they’re very good at using side effect operators and side effect assignments and to keep this code very simple and succinct um and you really have to understand a lot of the other stuff that you’ve covered in the book up to this point back to the text the command C clears the stack with a function clear which can also be used by push and pop in case of error we’ll return to getop in a moment as discussed in chapter one a variable is external if it is defined outside the body of any function thus the stack and stack pointer which must be shared by push pop and clear are defined outside the three functions but if main itself does not refer to the stack or stack pointer their representation is carefully hidden thus the code for the equal operator must use push open print pop parentheses par closed parentheses closed parentheses semicolon to examine the top of the stack without disturbing it notice also that because plus and multiplication or commutative operators the order in which the popped operands are combined is irrelevant but for the minus and slash operators the left and right operands must be distinguished this example code above shows why it’s important to remember the k&r C arrange rearrangement license as it applies to operators that are associative and commutative if the code for the minus operator were W written push open print pop open print close print minus pop open print Clos print Clos print semicolon there is no guarantee that the left pop will run before the right pop and since these functions access Global variables and have side effects it is important to force the compiler not to rearrange the order of the function calls to force the evaluation order the code is broken into two statements op two equals pop open pen Clos pen semicolon push open open pen pop open pen Clos pen minus op to Clos print semicolon now you might think that the lesson here is that the KRC Arrangement license which was done to allow optimization in performance is a bad idea but the more important lesson is that writing low-level utility functions like push and pop that use Global variables and high side effects is a dangerous pattern in any programming language section 4.5 scope rules the functions and external variables that make up a c program need not all be compiled at the same time the source text of the program may be kept in several files and previously compiled routines may be loaded from libraries the two questions of Interest are how are declarations written so that variables are properly declared during compilation and how are declarations set up so that all the pieces will be properly linked or connected when the program is loaded the scope of a name is the part of the program over which the name is defined for an automatic variable declared at the beginning of a fun function the scope is the function in which the name is declared and variables of the same name in different functions are unrelated the same is true of the arguments of the function the scope of an external variable lasts from the point at which is it is declared in a source file to the end of that file for example if Val SP push pop and clear are defined in one file in the order shown above that is int SP equals 0 double Val open square bracket Max Val close square bracket semicolon double push open pen F Clos pin open curly brace do do da close curly brace double pop open print Clos PR open curly brace dot dot dot close curly brace clear open p close PR open curly brace dot dot dot close curly brace then the variables Val and SP P may be used in push pop and clear simply by naming them and no further declarations are needed on the other hand if an external variable is to be referenced before it is defined or it is defined in a different source file from the one in which it’s being used then an extern declaration is mandatory it is very important to distinguish between the Declaration of an external variable and its definition a declaration announces the property of the variable its type its size Etc a definition also causes storage to be allocated if the lines int SP semicolon double Val open square bracket Max Val closed square bracket semicolon appear outside any function they Define the external variables SPN Val and cause the storage to be allocated and also serve as the Declaration for the rest of that source file on the other hand the lines exter INTP xter double Val open square bracket close square bracket semicolon declare for the rest of the source file that SP is an INT and Val is a double array whose size is determined and allocated elsewhere but they do not create variables or allocate storage for them there must be only one definition of an external variable among all the files that make up the source program other files may contain extern declarations to access it there may also be an extern declaration in the file containing the definition any initialization of an external variable goes only with the definition array sizes must be specified with the definition but are optional with the extern Declaration although it is not a likely Organization for this program Val and SP could be defined and initialized in one file and the functions push pop and clear defined in another then these definitions and declarations would be necessary to tie them together in file one we would see int spals 0 semicolon double Val open square bracket Max Val closed square bracket semicolon and then in file two exter int SP semicolon X turn double Val open square bracket close square bracket semicolon double push open pren F Clos pen open curly brace dot dot dot Clos curly brace double pop open pren close pen open curly brace do dot dot close curly brace clear open pren close pen open curly brace dot dot dot close curly brace because the ex turn declarations in file two lie ahead and outside the three functions they apply to all one set of declarations suffices for all of file to for larger programs the pound include file inclusion facility discussed later later in this chapter allows one to keep only a single copy of the extern Declarations for the program and have that inserted in each source file it’s as it’s being compiled let us now turn to the implementation of getup the function that Fe fetches the next operator or operand the basic task is easy skip blanks tabs and new lines if the character is not a digit or a decimal point return it otherwise collect a string of digits that might include a decimal point and return number a single signal that a number has been collected routine is substantially Complicated by an attempt to handle the situation properly when an input number is too long get up reads digits perhaps with an intervening decimal point and until it doesn’t see anymore but only stores the ones that fit if there was no overflow it returns number in the string of digits if the number was too long however getop discards the rest of the input line so the user can simply retype the line from the point of air it returns too big as the Overflow signal this example code is from page 78 of the textbook and you can view it at http://www.cc.com code page 78 get up open print s comma Lim Clos print Char s open square bracket close square bracket semicolon int limb semicolon open curly brace int i commac c semicolon while open PR open PR C equals get CH open PR close PR close PR double equals quote space quote or C equals quot SLT quote or C equals quot back sln quote close pen semicon skip all the blanks if C is not equal quote. quote and open PR C less than quote 0 quote vertical bar vertical Bar C greater than quote 9 quote Clos PR close P return return open PR C Clos PR S Sub 0al C 4 pen I = 1 semicolon open PR C equals get chart open PR close PR close PR greater than or equal to quote 0o quote and C less than or equal to quote 9 quote semicolon i++ inside the for Loop if I less than limb S Sub I equal C if open for n cou equals quote. quote closed pen open curly brace we begin to collect the fraction if open pen I less than limb Clos pen S Sub I equal C four open PR i++ C equals get Char open p Clos PR close PR greater than or equal to quote 0o quote ersan ersan C less than or equal to quote 9 quote semicolon i++ Clos per if open p i less than limb Clos pen S Sub I equals c close curly brace to close the if statement where we’re collecting the fraction if open pen I less than limb closed PR open curly brace this means the number is good unet to CH open PR C closed pen semicolon S Sub I equals quote back0 quote semicolon return open print number Clos print and recall that number is a predefined constant close Cur curly brace else open curly brace if it’s too big we’re going to skip to the end of the line while open PR c not equal quote back slash and quote and c not equal eof open PR C equals get Char open par closed par semicolon s sublim minus one equals quot back sl0 quote semicolon return too big semicolon close curly brace to finish the if and then close curly brace to finish the function recall that too big is a a constant that indicates that uh We’ve read too much back to the text what are get CH and unget CH well it is often the case that a programming reading input cannot determine that is read enough until it is read too much one instance is collecting characters that make up a number until the first non digit is seen the number is not complete but then the program has read one character too far and that is a character it is not prepared for the problem would be solved if it were possible to unread The Unwanted character then every time the program reads one character too many it could push it back on the input so that the rest of the code would behave as if it never been read fortunately it is easy to simulate UNG getting a character by writing a pair of cooperating functions get CH delivers the next input character to be considered unget CH puts the character back on the input so the next call to get ch will return it again how they work together is simple unget CH puts puts the pushed back characters into a shared buffer a character array get CH reads from the buffer is there’s anything there and then it calls get Char if the buffer is empty there must be an index variable which records the position of the current character in The buffer since the buffer and index are shared by get CH and unget CH and must retain their values between calls they must be external to both routines thus we can write get CH and unget CH and their shared variables as follows this is on page 79 of the textbook we can see the code at http://www.cc.com code and go to page 79 pound include stdio.h pound Define buff size 100 char buff open square bracket buff size close square bracket semicolon int buff P equals 0 semicolon those or the external variables outside any function here’s the first function get CH open pen close pen open curly brace return open parentheses open parentheses buff P greater than zero close parentheses question mark buff open square bracket minus minus buff P close square bracket colon get Char open print close PR close PR semicolon close curly brace to finish the get CH function the unget CH function pushes a character back on input unget CH open PR C Clos PR int c semicolon open curly brace if open print buff P greater than buff size print F open PR double quote unget CH colon too many characters back sln double quote Clos PR semicolon else buff open square bracket buff p++ closed square bracket braet equals c semicolon and then close curly brace to finish the unget CH function we have used an array for push back rather than a single character since the generality may come in handy later section 4.6 static variables static variables are a third class of storage in addition to the X turn and automatic that we’ve already met static variables May either be internal or external internal static variables are local to a particular function just like automatic variables are but unlike automatics they remain in existence rather than coming and going each time the function is activated this means that internal static variables provide private permanent storage in a function character strings that appear within a function such as the arguments of print f are internal static an external static variable is known within the remainder of the source file in which it’s declared but not in any other file external static thus provides a way to hide names like buff and buff p in the get ch unget ch combination which must be external so they can be shared yet which should not be visible to users of get CH and unget CH so there’s no possibility of conflict if the two routines are compiled in one file as in static Char buff open square bracket buff size closed Square Brack ET semicolon static int buff P equals z semicolon get CH open PR Clos PR open curly brace dot dot dot close curly brace unget CH open print C close PR open curly brace dot dot dot close curly brace then no other routine will be able to access buff and buff p in fact they will not conflict with the same names in other files of the same program static storage whether internal or external is specified by pref prefixing the normal declaration with the word static the variable is external if it’s defined outside of any function and internal if defined inside a function normally functions are external objects their names are known globally it is possible for a function however to be declared static this makes its name unknown outside the file in which it’s declared in C static kind otates o not only permanence but also a degree of what might be called privacy internal St static objects are known only inside one function external static objects variables or function are are known only within the source file in which they appear their names do not interfere with variables or functions of the same name in other files external static variables and function s provide a way to conceal data objects and any internal routines that manipulate them so that other routines and data cannot conflict even inadvertently for example get CH and unget CH form a module for character input in push back buff and buff P should be static so they’re inaccessible from the outside in the same way push pop and clear form a module for stack manipulations Val and SP should would also be external static 4.7 register variables the fourth and final storage class is called register a register declaration advises the compiler that the variable in question will be heavily used when possible register variables are placed in machine registers which may result in smaller and faster programs the register declaration looks like register int X semicolon register Char C sumol and so on the in part may be omitted register can only be applied to automatic variables and the formal parameters of a function in this latter case the function declaration looks like f open PR C comma n Clos print register int C comma n semicolon open curly brace register in I semicolon and then dot dot dot close curly brace in practice there are some restrictions on register variables reflecting the realities of the underlying Hardware only a few variables in each function may be kept in registers and only certain types are allowed the word register is ignored for excess or disallowed declarations and it is not possible to take the address of a register variable a topic that will be covered in chapter 5 the specific restrictions vary from machine to machine as an example on the pdp1 only the first three registered declarations in a function are effective and the types must be int Char or pointer as a quick aside the description of the details of the implementation of the register Mo modifier on the pdp1 is a delightful Peak into how the C compiler generated runtime code on that particular system in the 1970s as compilers have become more sophisticated the compiler could decide which variables to keep in registers far better than the programmer could and since how variables would be allocated to registers might be different on different Hardware architectures the register indication is generally ignored by modern C compilers so you should probably never use it in your code as a matter of fact I wrote The Following sample C program and compiled it with the minus capital S option so I can see the generated Assembly Language with and without the register declaration with optimization there was no difference between the code generated with or without the register declaration the reason the generated assembly code was identical once you take a look at it was regardless of the use of the register keyboard was that the C Optimizer on my armm based computer in 2022 realized the best way to implement the code was to keep both of the variables in registers because the loop code was so simple and the CPU in my computer has plenty of registers and optimized any loading and storing of the data for these variables right out of the program in 1978 the authors likely included the register function as a feature to convince the experienced Assembly Language programmers that they should write all but the lowest lowest level code in C so write a little tiny bit in C and then I mean write a little tiny bit in Assembly Language and write everything else in C so here’s an example that’s not in the textbook it’s on page 81 if it were in the textbook you can see this code at http://www.cc.com code page 81 and this is code that I wrote to play with the register keyword to mostly convince myself it was pointless to use it but here we go pound include stdio.h int main open print Clos print open curly brace int compute semicolon register int itter semicolon scan F open print double quote percent D close quote comma Ampersand compute close parentheses semicolon PR F open parentheses double quot compute space percent D back sln double quot comma compute closed parentheses semicolon four open print iter equals z semicolon iter less than 1,000 semicolon iter Plus+ close parentheses open curly brace compute equals open parentheses compute time 22 closed parentheses * 7 if compute greater than 1,000 compute equals compute modulo 1000 close curly brace print F open print double quote compute space percent D back sln close quote comma compute semicolon close curly brace now some of these I wrote this code in a way that tries to convince the the the optimizer that I’m actually going to use these values that’s why I read the value from input as compared to a constant it would actually optim the optimizer so so so smart that it would just eliminate all the constant calculations so but that’s my sample U playing with register section 4.8 block structure C is not a block structured language in the sense of pl1 or alol in that functions may not be defined within other function on the other hand variables can be defined in a block structured fashion Declarations of variables including initializations may follow the left brace that introduces any compound statement not just the one that begins a function variables declared this this way supersede any identically named variables in outer blocks and remain EX in existence until the matching right brace for example if open parentheses n greater than Z closed parentheses open curly brace in I semicolon declare a new I for open parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than n semicolon i++ close parentheses and dot dot dot the rest of the for Loop and then a closed curly brace for the if the scope of the variable I is in the true branch of the if this I is unrelated to any other I in the program Blu structure also applies to ex internal variables given the Declarations int X semicolon F open parentheses closed parentheses open curly brace double X semicolon dot dot dot Clos parentheses then within the function f occurrences of X refer to the internal double variable outside of f they refer to the external integer this is same is true of the names of formal parameters for example in Z semicolon outside of any function f open parentheses Z closed parentheses double z semicolon open curly brace dot dot dot Clos curly brace within function f z refers to the formal parameter not the external variable section 4.9 initialization initialization has been mentioned in passing many times so far but always peripherally to some other topic this section summarize some of the rules now that we have discussed the various storage classes in absence of explicit initialization external and static variables are guaranteed to be initialized to zero automatic and register variables have undefined or Garbage values simple variables not arrays or structures may be initialized when they are declared by following the name with an equal sign and a constant expression int x = 1 semicolon j s quot equals single quote back/ single quote single quote semicolon a constant of a single character that is a single quote itself long day equals 60 * 24 semicolon which is the minutes in a day for external and static variables the initialization is done once conceptually at compile time for automatic and register variables it is done each time the function or block is entered for automatic can register variables the initializer is not restricted to being a constant it may in fact be any valid expression involving previously defined values even function calls for example the initializations of the binary search program that we wrote in chapter 3 could be written as binary open parentheses x comma V comma n closed parentheses int X comma V open square bracket close square bracket comma n semicolon open curly brace int low equals z semicolon in high equals nus1 semicolon and in mid followed by the rest of the function and enclosed curly brace instead of initializing these as the first executable statements and we would do this with binary open pen x comma V comma n Clos pen int X comma V open square bracket close square bracket comma n semicolon open curly brace int low comma mid comma High semicolon low equals z semicolon High equals n minus1 semicolon and so forth in effect initializations of automatic variables are just shorthand for assignment statements which form to prefer is largely a matter of taste we have generally used explicit assignments because initializers and declarations are harder to see automatic arrays may not be initialized external and static arrays may be initialized by following the Declaration with a list of initializers enclosed in braces and separated by commas for example the character counting program of chapter one which originally was main open parency closed parency open curly brace int C comma I comma n white comma n other int n open Square braet 10 Close square bracket semicolon n white = n other equal 0 for open parentheses I equal 0 semicolon I less than 10 semicolon I ++ closed parentheses n digit sub I equals z and then the rest of the code followed by a Clos curly brace finishing main this could be written instead using initializers as follows int and white equal 0 semicolon int n other equals z semicolon int n digit open square bracket 10 Close square bracket equals open curly brace 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma 0 comma Z Clos curly brace 10 zeros in a row in separated by commas and in braces and then the main code is simply main open PR close Pin open curly brace int comma C comma I and then the rest of the main code close curly brace the idea is is that with the initializers with the external variables outside of the main function you do not need to initialize them even with a for Loop in the beginning of the main program these initializations are actually all unnecessary since they’re all zero anyways but it’s a good form to make them explicit anyway if there are fewer initializers than the specialized size the others will be zero it is an error to have too many initializers regrettably there is no way to spe specify the repetition of an initializer nor to initialize an element in the middle of the array without supplying all the intervening intervening values as well character arrays are a special case of initialization a string may be used instead of the braces and comm’s notation as in Char pattern open square bracket closed square bracket equals Double quot T H double quot semicolon this is a shorthand for the longer but equivalent Char pattern open square bracket closed square bracket equals open curly brace single quote T single quote comma single quote H single quote comma single quote e single quote comma single quote back slash zero single quote Clos curly brace semicolon when the size of an array of any type is omitted the compiler will compute the length of the array by counting the initial initializers in this specific case the size of pattern is four three actual characters plus the terminating back sl0 I would note that the primary difference between C and C influence like languages like Java PHP and JavaScript this key is that c strings are character arrays while in the other languages strings are objects these string objects do have inside themselves an array of bytes or characters but they also keep track of things like the length of the string and provide functionality like extract a substring in the methods in these objects in C there is a set of Library functions that perform string operations like compare two strings while string comparison is built into the string objects in each of the other languages strings as character arrays allow programmers to build very fast low-level code in libraries and operating systems but to write the code well you need to understand what is really going on at the low level section 4.10 recursion C functions may be used recursively that is a function may call itself either directly or indirectly one traditional example involves printing of a number as a character string as we mentioned before the digits are generated in the wrong order order low order digits are available before for high order digits but they have to be printed in the other way around there are two solutions to this problem one is to store the digits in an array as they are generated and then print them in reverse order as we did in chapter 3 with I to a the first version of print D follows this pattern this is sample code on page 85 of the textbook you can view the sample code at www. cc4 /c code page 85 example one pound include stdio.h print D open pen n close pen int n open curly brace Char s open square bracket 10 closed square bracket semicolon in I semicolon if parentheses n less than zero parentheses open curly brace put Char open prin single quote Dash single quote Clos peren semicolon n equal minus n semicolon Clos curly brace I equal Z semicolon do open curly brace S Sub i++ equals n modulo 10 plus quot 0 quote which gets the next character while parentheses parentheses n/ equal 10 close parentheses greater than Z closed parentheses semicolon then we reverse the string while open print minus- I greater than equal to zero Clos pen put Char open pen s subi Clos pen semicolon close curly brace to end the print D function the alternative is a recursive solution in which each call of print D first it calls itself to cope with any leading digits then prints the trailer digit after that call returns this is an example on page 85 of the textbook in its example two pound include stdio.h print D open pen n close pen Inn semicolon open curly brace in I semicolon if open for n less than Zer Clos pren open curly brace put chair open pren single quote- sing single quote close pen semicolon Nal minus n semicolon close curly brace to finish the if if open print open print I equal n/ 10 Clos print not equal zero close print print D open print I Clos print semicolon that’s the recursive call and after the recursive call comes back we do put Char open pen in modulo 10 plus single quote 0 single quote close print semicolon close curly brace to end the print D function when a function calls itself recursively each invocation gets a fresh set of all the automatic variables quite independent of the previous set thus in print D 123 the first print D has Nal 123 it passes 12 to a second print D then prints three when that one returns in the same way that second print D passes one to a third which prints it and then prints two recursion generally provides no saving in storage since somewhere a stack of values is being processed or has to be maintained nor will it be faster but recursive code is more Compact and often much easier to write and understand recursion is especially convenient for recursively defined data structures like trees we will see a nice example in chapter six as as an aside uh recursion recursion recursion recursion is a beloved Concept in computer science it is often taught early in most programming courses because it is just so cool most examples are sadly like Computing factorial or the example above converting an integer to a string and they’re not good uses of recursion actually but when you do finally find yourself in need of traversing a tree based structure like an XML document or parsing a mathematical expression with parentheses recursion is the ideal solution so the problem in a sense is not recursion but when it is taught and what examples are used interestingly kernigan and Richie include the correct warning about using recursion when it is not the best solution in the above text and it Bears another read back to the book in cursion generally provides no saving in storage since somewhere a stack of values is being processed or has to be maintained nor will it be faster but recursive code is more Compact and often much easier to write and understand recursion is especially convenient for recursively defined data structures like trees we will see a nice example in chapter six I couldn’t have said it better section 4.11 the c pre-processor c provides certain language Extensions by means of a simple macro pre-processor the pound Define capability which we have used is the most common of these extensions another is the ability to include the entire contents of other files during compilation file inclusion to facilitate handling of pound defines and declarations among other things C provides a file included feature any line that looks like pound include space double quote file name double quote is replaced by the conts of the file name the quotes are indeed mandatory often a line or two of this form appears at the very beginning of each source file to include common pound defined statements and extern declarations for Global variables pound includes may be nested pound include is the preferred way to tie declarations together for a large problem and in a large program it guarante that all the source files will be supplied with the same definitions and variable declarations thus eliminating a particularly nasty kind of bug of course when an include file is changed all the files that depend on it must be recompiled macro substitution a definition of the form pound Define yes one calls for a macro substitution of the simplest kind rep replacing a logical name by a string of characters names and the pound Define have the same forms of as the C identifiers the replacement text is arbitrarily normally the replacement text is the rest of the line a long definition may be continued by pacing a backslash at the end of the line to be continued the scope of the name defined with pound Define is from from its point of definition to the end of the source file names may be redefined and a definition may use previous definitions substitutions do not Place take place within quoted strings so for example if yes is a defined name there would be no substitution in print F open print double quote yes double quote Clos print since implementation of pound Define is a macro prepass not part of the compiler proper there are very few grammatical restrictions on what can be defined for example alcohol fans can say pound Define then and then nothing pound Define begin open curly brace pound Define end semicolon Clos curly brace and then write approximate alol if pen I greater than zero Clos pen then begin a = 1 semicolon b = 2 end it is also possible to Define Mac macros with arguments so the replacement text depends on on the way the macro’s called as an example to find a macro called Max like this pound Define Max open PR a comma B open PR open PR a Clos PR greater than open PR B Clos print question mark open print a Clos print colon open print B Clos print Clos print now the line x equals Max open print p+ Q comma r+ s closed BR semicolon will be replaced in the pre-processor by the line x equals open print open PR p+ Q Clos print greater than open PR R plus s Clos PR question mark open PR p+ Q Clos print colon open pen r+ s Clos pen Clos print semicolon this provides a maximum function that expands into inline code rather than a function call so long as the arguments are treated consistently this macro will serve for any data type there is no need for different kinds of Macs for different data types as there would be with functions of course if you examine the expansion of Max above you will notice some pitfalls the expressions are evaluated twice it is bad if they involve side effects like function calls increment operators or perhaps push and pop like we’ve used before some care has to be taken with parentheses to make sure the OD order of evaluation is preserved consider the macro pound Define Square open print X Clos print equals x * X when it is invoked as Square open print Z + one close print there are even some purely lexical problems there can be no space between the macroon name and left parenthesis that introduces the argument list nevertheless macros are quite valuable one practical example example is the standard IO library to be described in chapter 7 in which get charar and putchar are defined as macros obviously put chart needs an argument thus o avoiding the overhead of a function call per character Pro process other capabilities of the macro processor are described in appendex a as a bit of a long aside in this section we are talking about the pre-processor is probably a good time to talk bit about why we use this terminology for those of you with a computer science degree from back in the day many of you wrote a compiler as a senior project just like I did building a compiler was a great project because part of the goal of computer science is to understand the technologies that make programming proc possible from the language syntax down to the hardware the compiler that translates our source code into machine code is an essential part of the technology stack that we use early compilers for languages like the early Fortran variants tended to be translators they just translated code one line at a time from a high level language to Assembly Language you could think of early Fortran programs in the 1950s and the 1960s as just more convenient ways to write Assembly Language for programmers that knew Assembly Language you always needed to be aware of Assembly Language and the translation that it was going to write fast Fortran programs were small and optimization was done at the for Trend level often leading to some hard to understand code by the mid 1970s programming languages were based on parsing Theory and we used what is called a grammar to define the language kernigan and Richie kept I/O statements out of the C language to keep its formal definition I.E its grammar as simple as possible as these new languages emerged they allowed for more theoretical and Powerful approach to converting source code to machine language the theoretical advances in compiler and language design me that parts of the compiler might be reusable across multiple programming languages each language could have its own syntax and grammar rules and they could be plugged into the compiler and poof you would have a new programming language it got to the point where Unix system Unix systems had a tool called Yak which stood for yet another compiler compiler you would give it a grammar for your new language and it would make a compiler for you as a matter of fact the job JavaScript language that was created in 10 days back in 1995 was possible because Brendan Ike had a lot of experience with compiler generators he defined a grammar for JavaScript and generated his first compiler part of what made a compiler generate generator possible is the idea of a multi-step compiler or the tasks of a compiler were broken down into a series of simpler and more well-defined steps here are the steps of a typical C compiler in the 1970s first a pre-processor step that takes code with syntax like pound Define and P include as its input and produces raw code output with those instructions processed and or expanded the pre-processor processor was a ctoc transformation next a parser step that took the raw C code applied the grammar to the language and created what is called a parse tree think of the tree is a hierarchy of statements grouped into blocks grouped into functions Etc a things like a loop where just one node in a parse tree after that a code generation would turn the parse tree into some kind of simplistic portable internal code that expanded things like loops and if and elf statements into code after that a code optimization that looked at the internal code and moved things around eliminating any redundant computations say don’t compute the same things twice this step is why the authors make such a big Foss about how there are times where C might do things in a slightly different order in an expression even in the presence of parentheses remember the KRC Arrangement license back in Chapter 2 that rule removes constraints on the compiler’s optimization step so it can generate the most efficient code I would note that all the steps up to this point did not depend in any way on the actual machine language of the system that they were running on this meant a pre-processor parser code generator and code Optimizer could literally be written in C and used on any architecture the final step is a code generator that takes the optimized intermediate code and generates the actual assembly and machine language for the processor for fun you can add the minus capital S parameter to your C compiler and see the resulting Assembly Language output for your system if you look at the machine language generated on Intel or AMD processor and compare it to the machine language on an armm processor it will look very different because all but the final compiler steps did not depend on the computer where the program is being run you could actually create a c compiler on a new computer architecture by writing a code generator on the new computer then running all but the last step of the compiler on one computer then copying the internal code generated by the compiler to the new compiler and running the code generation step on the new computer then you actually have a working C compiler on the new computer and the first step is usually to recompile the C compiler itself from source code to produce a fully native C compiler on the new computer that can compile all the rest of the C code you have including possibly the mostly portable elements of the Unix operating system on the new compile yes describing how to cross compile and bootstrap a c compiler onto a new computer hardware architecture can give you a headache if you think about it too much but this notion of bootstrapping a c compiler onto a new architecture was an important technique to move C and Unix to a wide range of very different computer architectures we see this in action as the Unix like Mac OS operating system over the past 20 years was delivered initially on a Motorola 68,000 family processors then on power PC processors and then on Intel processors and most recently on arm-based processors built by Apple using the software portability patterns that come from C and Unix and described by kran and Richie in this book Apple now made makes their own Hardware that can be tuned and evolved over time as their operating system and their applications requirements dictate the use of a grammar by the way is to define a programming language is one of the reasons that syntax errors are so obtuse the compiler is not looking at your code like a human it is following a very set of simple rules to parti your code and it’s stuck with something ilog logical and gives you a message like unexpect unexpect expected statement block or constant on line 17 and the error is nowhere near line 17 modern compilers are more sophisticated of course than the steps above but these steps give you a sense that the compiler does many things to make it so your code can actually run very efficiently and given that kernigan and Richie were building a programming language c a more mostly portable operating system written in C Unix and a mostly portable C compiler written in C some of them their Innovative work and Research into compiler design finds it its way into this book so we have a section in this chapter called the C preprocessor so here we are at the end of chapter 4 and it’s a good time to talk about the word address up to this point in the book if you count them the word address has been used 10 times without a precise definition beyond the notion that data is stored in memory and the address of the data is where the data is stored in memory in the next chapter this notion of the address where the data is stored becomes very real and tangible as we explore pointers as well as the Ampersand and asterisk operators up to now an experienced JavaScript PHP or Java programmer can view c as just another set of similar syntax rules with a few quirky runtime bits but in the next chapter we will deeply explore the concept of data allocation and location it turns out that every programming language pays a lot of attention to data allocation and location but the runtime environments of modern languages work very hard not to expose you to those details just because modern languages hide the difficult bits from us it does not mean that those languages solve the problem using magic eventually the problem needs to be solved and that is why the comp and lowlevel runtime elements of language like PHP JavaScript and Java are usually written in C so the Builders of those languages can solve the difficult data storage and allocation problems for you this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 1970s and 1980s as computer science evolved from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the ideal book to learn SE programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the sea language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable applications [Music] hello and welcome to our lecture on kernigan Richie chapter 5 putting some context around it chapter five is functions and program structure so the first thing I want to call your attention to is section 5.1 I actually think that section 5.1 is the most poignant and beautiful section in the book everything you’ve learned up till now everything talked about size of data Etc has led to the point where you can read 5.1 and understand every word of it you should enjoy reading it I think of it as like a love letter from the creators of sea to Future computer scientists so 5.1 is important uh we’ll talk a little bit about Pointer arithmetic uh 5.6 we’ll look at the sort of The Duality between pointers and integers then we’ll hit call by reference and call by value that are Ena B in C by pointers and then look at the biggest security hole that c has caused over the past 40 plus years uh buffer overflow now the the the the chapter gets a little dense um in some of the sections and so I’ll I’ll just have you skim some of those sections this is the essential example of pointers we have two variables int X and Y we have a variable PX which is of type pointer it points to an integer that’s what instar means we store 42 in X and we store the address of X into PX using the Ampersand operator and then we use the address of X which is in PX and then we use a lookup operator or a dfference operator star PX it says go to the memory location pointed to by PX and load me an integer and put that into Y and so we can see when we print out X is 42 and Y is 42 and P X is a long hexadecimal number that is some memory location inside the actual computer and so ERS send and asterisk and in Star the star as as a sort of a modifier for a type are the the important things one of the things that You’ probably never seen in Python is the ID function we’ve used functions like type and dur and there are ways for us to inquire about variables and constants ID is a way to ask ask for the idea of something now in cpython and and just to be clear there are multiple versions of python cpython is the classic one it’s the implementation of python that happens to be written in C uh there are other implementations of python um and so what I’m telling you with this ID function is something that will work for the moment in cpython but not necessarily every other one if you print it out and you say what is X and what is the ID of X it’s kind like the address and if you look at the documentation it says don’t think this is the address right and it says the python ID function is not intended to be dereferenceable meaning we’re not supposed to look up memory from that the fact that it’s based on the memory address is a cpython implementation detail that other python implementations do not follow now if you download the source code k501 py I actually have a completely unauthorized implementation of a lookup a dfference and it has to know the type of the thing that it’s D referencing y equals DF of PX and it can then give me back that integer pointed to by the address but this is not guaranteed to work it’s not supposed to be how it works it just is there is kind there things have addresses and in cpython at least for this particular version of python that I’m using you can use that pointers gives us the ability to do call by reference and so you know if you’ve done python you see that we we we have a I had a slide in an early version of my python class that said uh sorry python doesn’t do call by reference it only it only does call by value and that means that within a function you change the parameters and nothing happens but some languages do have call by reference which means the parameters that come into a function are somehow handles that allow us to actually change the values in the main programmer or where where we’ve been calling from so the language Pascal and c and C++ PHP and C have this notion a formal notion of call by reference and languages that don’t have it are like Python and Java and JavaScript now these there is a notion the fact that I said this is for simple types like integers objects are passed in but then if you call methods in objects you can actually change the data that the object has but it’s not like you’re changing the object you’re changing the object’s data so let’s take a look at a bit of code now the first example is actually Pascal now Pascal is a programming language that was written by uh Nicholas verit and in Switzerland in 1970 and it had a call by reference and it had this notion of VAR and so you’re creating a function name Funk takes two parameters one is a call by value which is a and then the other one’s call by reference which is a b and we set a and b to two new numbers and then in the main program we set x = 42 yal 43 and then we call the function and you’ll notice there’s no extra like syntax in the function and then we come back and you will see that uh the Y variable is changed and the X variable is not and then the C version of this we have you know x = 42 y = y = 43 and then when we call Funk we say we’re going to pass in x and then Ampersand Y which is the address of Y and if you go back to the very first example in section 5.1 we’re passing in a number which we’re actually passing in by value but the value is the address and then inside the function we take a and then a pointer to B PB and we say that a is just an integer and PB is an address of an integer by adding the little asterisk there so the address where it’s at has been passed by value but using that value we can dreference it and get to the thing so we say a equal 1 and we say star PB equals 2 that says store two as an integer into the location pointed to by PB and then when you come back the second parameter will have been changed y will have been changed and X will not be changed if we take a look at a few other languages so here we have the C code again um python uh 1989 doesn’t have the notion of pass by reference and so one of the things that I think is a an excellent compromise uh that is the case in Python is the notion of returning a tupple not just a single value but a topple return and so that way we could if we really wanted to get back a value more than one value um we could return a tupple and then in the main program we assign the tupple so if we really wanted X and Y to change from uh inside the function we could do so by just explicitly saying function is going to return two values and we’re going to change them both and if we look at PHP which is 1994 um we see a very elegant I think now whenever you look at PHP you got to realize the dollar sign is just part of the variable name that’s just the first character of all variables in PHP so what we do inside a function is we say Ampersand dollar B which is the second parameter is B dollar B and we’re expecting to change it and you’ll note that we don’t change the syntax inside the function dollar Bal 2 dollar AAL 1 the syntax doesn’t change and when we make the call Funk dollar X comma dollar y we don’t change that either and yet call by reference works so if you look at all these examples other than the weird dollar sign convention I would say that the simplest and most elegant is probably the PHP implementation right because we don’t have to do anything inside the function except I’m planning on changing this now C sh which is much later 2000 um has this notion of ref which is somewhat a call a throwback to um Pascal but also you know it’s the Amper sand thing and um but the one thing I like about it is inside the C defunk you have to kind of agree the calling code by saying refx is in a sense agreeing that it is aware that X is likely to be changed by that function and so that’s that’s called by reference now you know we’re in a cclass and so Amper sand and asterisk are how we do it so again that’s just it’s it’s really quite straight forward inside a c code as long as you are very good at understanding what the asterisk and Ampersand do in C another important thing that’s easily understood with a very simple bit of code is pointer arithmetic the key to pointer arithmetic is that a pointer to an integer is different than a pointer to a character now both these point pointers are the same size because they are an address and addresses are all the same size but if you add one to a character pointer that actually adds one to the address and if you add one to an integer pointer then it adds four and that’s because on each integer takes four characters and so when you’re doing increments and subtracts Etc you are when they’re pointers it it increments based on the type of the thing that’s pointed to so a pointer is not just a pointer it’s a pointer to a thing with a type and when you’re incrementing and decrementing the type that’s being pointed to is more important than the fact that it’s a pointer it goes up and goes down but it doesn’t always just go up and down by one pointers are not integers so if you go back to chapter 2 there was from the book a table of the sizes of things and so if you look in the PDP 11 integers are 16 bits and Honeywell 6000 there’re 36 bits and IBM 370 there 32 bits and inata 832 there’s 32 bits now I’ve added a line to this that tells the number of bits in addresses in these systems and you can see if you compare the int numbers to the address numbers that in all the cases except the pdp1 the the integer is larger than the address which means that there is extra space in the address and we can almost treat addresses as unsigned integers now the pdp11 is a little weird in that 16 to 32 is a range of delivered computers over over the years and uh not all computers had full memory and not all applications use the entire memory of the entire computer so um most of the time you can conveniently put an address into an integer and then get that address back out and not have truncated um that address or messed it up so treating pointers as integers almost works and the long longer in longer ago in history it was the more likely it did work addresses are generally positive numbers that often start from zero sometimes Heap numbers come down and sometimes stack numbers go up or whatever but most computers did not come with a maximum memory installed and and if you’re a multi-user computer you didn’t give all the systems memory to every application and we tended to use very little memory in applications we’re very careful about it so it just never ran into the problem of our memory address is not fitting into integers so in the early 70s applications could get away with having a function that returned an address return it as an integer and then copy it into a pointer without conversion and so by like the early 80s the notion of a void pointer gave us a way to have a generic address that is a pointer to something we don’t know what type it is cuz all addresses are addresses but what they point to is different and so uh if you take a look at the Alec function which we’ll play a lot more in the next chapter the Alec says oh give me 42 bytes and give it back to me as a pointer give me a pointer to 42 new bytes that you just allocated so if you go in the early 70s Alec returned an INT but then we would cast it to whatever type we wanted so we would say Alec 42 would give us an address that’d be an integer but then we cast it to an integer star which is a no loss C pass and then we would store it by the time in the 1978 CNR book we tended to call it a charar cuz the 42 is how many characters we’re going to allocate and then you would take the pointer to a character and cast it to a pointer to an integer and so Alec of 42 would give us 14 integers actually I think if I got my multiplication right but in modern C we have this pointer void pointer which basically says look Alec is going to return an address and you have to cast it to something so Alec 42 returns a void star which is cast it to an instar which is a lossless cast and not something that’s going to confuse the compiler and then we store it in our inar variable and so void you’ll everything you’ll ever touch will be using void um but I just wanted to give you a little bit of the history of it and why void’s kind of not mentioned in this 1978 book every time in the class I’m like hey it’s time to learn about security and everybody got kind of groans like oh no back when I taught HTML injection and SQL injection and cross-site scripting in all my previous classes and here’s the classic XKCD where um the mom has named their child with a bit of SQL and some single quotes and some comments and um that’s all fun it’s important that we as software developers are aware of how the things that we build could be corrupted by those with uh those with uh in evil intent right so it has come time to talk about that for C probably the single worst security hole in all of computing history from 1950 to today even before c was a thing is what’s called buffer overflow and it has to do with the fact that the there is no sense that a string of characters has a length it’s has an allocated length but it doesn’t have a runtime length and so when we put more data into a string than can hold the string it just keeps on storing beyond the end of the string it doesn’t like push make a little more space and so this is from the Wikipedia page where you have an eight character um string followed by a two character integer or something and we copy the string excessive which is a nine character which includes nine characters and the sl0 the zero and that completely overwrites by just trying to write into the a string it overwrites the B variable as well and so that’s buffer overflow it’s sort of like somehow we’re going to push too much into this variable so that it extends where it’s been allocated and that never is detected and then it keeps going on and it means that you can do all kinds of things with buffer overflow you can change variables you can like turn on super user permission who knows you got to look at the source code you got to carefully construct a sort of nasty attack but the attack Vector is the fact that string arrays bounds are not checked when we’re copying stuff in and if you write bad code or if the system writes bad code it’s just going to go wiping out memory so it turns out that the probably the the the worst offender of this is the gets function and this was part of standard C for a long time and so here what I’m doing is I’m I’m creating a 15 character uh string array a character array which is 15 elements and I’m calling get S and the problem with get S is like somebody’s going to give us that data and it’s not us and then I print it out so the first first thing you see is when I compile a pit of code that has gets the compiler is upset I have greatly uh simplified the errors it just it comes up with three errors and this is a subset of one of the errors the compiler is telling you don’t use gets if you didn’t hear what I said the first time don’t use gets and so so the compiler is not happy but it it’s like you know people write that so we’re going to run it okay a. out which starts the code as soon as that line gets runs the runtime of the C standard sd. says before it prompts us for the data it actually adds a print statement it’s not our print statement it’s the library saying you really really should not be using gets and if you think this program is trustworthy you’re probably wrong so I Type Hello World which is 11 characters hello space world yeah it’s 11 characters hello world’s 11 characters I type 11 characters in that includes the 12th character which is the back SL zero and that fits into s S15 a 15 15 element string uh character array in the variable s so the program works just fine then I type a. out again and it once again tells me please don’t use gets you’re going to be in so much trouble and now I type in dead a bunch of a hello and a bunch of spaces and then world and it prints out hello bunch of spaces and world but has overwritten all kinds of unknown data after the S15 so that’s you know that’s like 30 or 25 or 30 characters and it the first 15 are in s but then the next 15 are somewhere else and S is on the stack because it’s an automatic variable in Main and it goes wiping out the rest of the stack now it turns out that the cun time puts things on the stack to kind of Mark or to catch this overflow and so what happens is as soon as that code finishes it says abort trap six which is basically the C runtime saying you know what I’m not going to let this program proceed any further because there has been an array that got messed up and it’s not that it caught it’s not that it caught the array messing up it didn’t know how long it was it just put characters in but what it did is I put something after the array and then it checked for it later and that got wiped out and it’s like okay you wiped out my magic little secret and so I’m going to not let you continue and so we don’t you want you to use get S um and this is a buffer overflow and I I can give you eventually maybe we will look at some much more complex examples of this where we try to like use something like get us to manipulate what the program does rather than just blow the program up but this is a very simple example of buffer overflow so in summary pointers are the beautiful most beautiful part of SE they’re complex but basically pointers make it so that a high level language can function like a low-level language if we don’t have pointers and I mean not even kind of crappy python ones I mean pointers that we can look up and then D reference officially and formally and not have it be a sneaky way that we’re doing it that means means that you can do the things that operating systems need to do the kinds of things that we used to write Assembly Language for meaning we’re going to here’s a buffer of memory we’re going to copy this buffer we’re going to do another thing and there there’s another buffer and there’s a link list of all the different buffers so understanding pointers leads you to the path of Assembly Language machine language and then ultimately Hardware so you should not rush through this material pointers are really really important everything we’re going to do from now on pointer is just I’m just going to say pointer pointer pointer just like I say object oriented over all the time I’m going to say pointer all the time sections 57 and 510 through 5 52 are a little dense so what I really want you to do is understand the stuff I just talked about and the corresponding sections and chapter six will be more fun because we’ll be doing much more with the pointers rather than just what is a pointer [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles S and this is my reading of the 1978c programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter five pointers and arrays before we start chapter 5 a quick note from your narrator from time to time I have been adding some of my interpretation to this book but I won’t be adding anything to this chapter I think that sections 5.1 through 5.6 contain some of the most elegantly written text in the book concepts are clearly stated and the example quote is short direct and easy to understand pointers are the essential difference between C and any other modern programming language so pay close attention to this chapter and make sure that you understand it before continuing this chapter is as strong now as it was in 1978 and so without further Ado we read and listen as kernigan and Richie teach us about pointers and arrays a pointer is a variable that contains the address of another variable pointers are very much used in C partly because they are sometimes the only way to express a computation and partly because they usually lead to more Compact and efficient code than can be obtained in other ways pointers have been lumped with a go-to statement as a marvelous way to create impossible to understand programs this is certainly true when they are used carelessly and it is easy to create pointers that point somewhere unexpected with discipline however pointers can can also be used to achieve Clarity and simplicity this is the a aspect that we will try to illustrate section 5.1 pointers and addresses since a pointer contains the address of an object it is possible to access the object indirectly through the pointer suppose that X is a variable say int and that PX is a pointer created in some as yet unspecified way the unary operator Ampersand gives the address of an object so the statement PX equals Ampersand X semicolon assigns the address of x to the variable PX PX is now said to point to X the Ampersand operator can be applied only to variables and array elements construct like Amper sand open pren X+1 Clos pren and ersan 3 are illegal is also illegal to take the address of a register variable the UN the unary operator asterisk treats its operand as the address of the ultimate Target and accesses that address to fetch the contents thus if Y is also an INT y equals star PX semicolon assigns to Y the contents of whatever p PX points to so the sequence PX = Ampersand X semicolon yal star PX semicolon assigns the same value to Y as does y = x it is also necessary to declare the variables that participate in all of this int X comma y semicolon int star PX semicolon the Declaration of X and Y is what we have seen All Along The Declaration of the pointer PX is new int star PX semicolon is intended as a pneumonic it says that the combination star PX is an INT that is if PX occurs in the context star PX it is equivalent to a variable of type INT in effect the syntax of the Declaration for a variable mimics the syntax of expressions in which the variable might appear this reasoning is useful in all cases involving complicated declarations for example double A to F open parentheses closed parentheses comma star DP semicon says that in a particular expression a to F open PR Clos print and star DP have values of type double you should also note the implication in the direction declaration that a pointer is constrained to point to a part particular kind of objects pointers can occur in expressions for example if PX points to the integer X Then star PX can occur in any context where X could y equal star PX + 1 sets y to one more than x print F open parentheses double quote percent D back sln double quote comma star PX close perin prints the current value of x and D equal Square OT open pin open p double Clos pen star PX closed per n produces in D the square root of x which is coerced into a double before being passed to square root expressions like y equals star PX + one The unary Operators star and Ampersand bind more tightly than arithmetic operators so this expression takes whatever PX points at adds one and assigns it to Y we will return shortly to what y equal star open print PX + one Clos print might mean pointer references can also occur on the left side of assignments if PX points to X Then star PX equals 0 sets X to Zero and star PX plus equals 1 increments it as does open p star PX Clos pen plus plus the parentheses are necessary in this last example without them the in expression would increment PX instead of what it points to because unary operators like star and Plus+ are evaluated right to left finally since pointers are variables they can be manipulated as other variables can if py is another pointer to int then py equals PX copies the contents of PX into py thus making py point to whatever PX points to section 5.2 pointers and function arguments since C passes arguments to functions by call by value there is no direct way for the called function to alter the variable in the calling function what do you do if you really have to change an ordinary argument for example a sorting routine might exchange two outof order elements with a function called swap it’s not enough to write swap open parentheses a comma B closed parentheses semicolon where the swap function is defined as and this is sample source code on page 91 of the textbook and you can see it at ww w. cc4 e.com code this is a wrong swap by the way this this is showing you the code that you’re not supposed to do swap open PR X comma y Clos print int X comma y semicolon open curly brace in temp semicolon temp equals X xal Y semicolon y equals temp semicolon Clos curly brace because of call by value swap can’t affect the arguments A and B in the routine that called it fortunately there is a way to obtain the desired effect the calling Point program passes pointers to the values to be changed the call is swap open parentheses Amper sand a comma Ampersand B closed parentheses semicolon since the operator Ampersand gives the address of a variable Ampersand a is a pointer to a in swap itself the arguments are declared to be pointers and the actual operands are accessed through them so the correct code is on page 92 swap open pin PX comma py Clos pen int star PX comma star py semicolon open curly brace int temp semicolon temp equals star PX semicolon star PX equals star py semicolon star py equals temp semicolon and close curly brace one common use of pointer arguments is in functions that must return more than a single value you might say that swap actually returns two values the new values of its arguments as an example consider a function get int which performs a free format input conversion by breaking a stream of characters into integer values one integer birth call it int has to return the value that it found or an Ile signal when there is no more input these values have to be returned as separate objects for no matter what value is used for eof that could also be a value of the integer one solution which is based on the input function scanf that we will describe in chapter 7 is to have get int return eof as its function value at finds end of file and other any other returned value signals a normal integer the numeric value of the integer it found is returned through an argument which then must be a pointer to an integer this organization separates the end of file status from The Returned numeric value the following Loop fills an array with integers by calls to get in int comma n comma array open pin size Clos pen semicolon for n equals 0 n less than size double Amper sand get int open print Ampersand V Clos print not equal eof semicolon n plus plus close parentheses array subn equals V each call sets V to the next integer found in the input notice it is essential to write Ampersand V instead of v as the argument to get int using plain V is likely to cause an addressing error since gettin believes that it’s been handed a valid pointer get in is an obvious modification to a toi which we wrote earlier the sample code is on page 93 of the textbook and you can see this sample code at http://www.cc.com code pound include stdio.h get int open print PN close print int star PN semicolon open PR open curly brace int C comma sign while open print open print C equals get CH open print close print close print double equals quote space quote or C equals quot sln quote or C equals back SLT quot close paren semicolon this Loop we’ve done before and it skips the white space s equals 1 semicolon if open pen c equal quot plus quote or C equals quote minus quote Clos pen open cly brace sign equals open pen couble equals quote plus quote close pen question mark 1 colon minus one semicolon C equals get CH to advance the character semicolon and then close curly brace that those four lines record the sign now for Star PN equals z c greater than or equal to quote 0 quote and C less than or equal to quote 9 quote colon semicolon C equals get C open pen closed pin close curly brace star PN equal 10 * star PN plus C minus quot 0 quote star PN star equals sign if open PR c not equal to EF Clos print on get CH open print C Clos print semicolon return C throughout get int star PN is used as an ordinary int variable we have also used get CH and unget CH as described in chapter 4 so the one extra character that must be read can be pushed back down to the input section 5.3 pointers and arrays and see there is a strong relationship between pointers and arrays strong enough that pointers and arrays should really be treated simultaneously any operation which can be achieved by array subscripting can also be done with pointers the pointer version will in general be faster but at least to the uninitiated somewhat harder to grasp immediately the Declaration int a sub 10 finds an array a of size 10 that is a block of 10 consecutive objects named a sub z a sub one dot dot dot a sub n the notation a subi means the element of the array I positions from the beginning if PA is a pointer to an integer declared as int star PA then the assignment PA equals Ampersand a sub Zer sets PA to point to the zeroth element of a that is PA contains the address of a Subzero now the assignment x equals star PA will copy the contents of a sub Z into X if PA points to a particular element of array a then by definition PA points to the next Element no if PA points to a particular element of an array a then by definition PA plus one points to the next element and in general PA minus i points to I elements before PA and Pa plus I points to I elements after thus if PA points to a sub Zer star parentheses PA + one Clos parentheses refers to the contents of a sub one PA plus I is the address of a subi and star P print and star openr PA plus I is the contents of a subi these remarks are true regardless of the type of the variables in the array a the definition of adding one to a pointer and by extension all pointer arithmetic is that the increment is scaled by the size of the storage of the object that is pointed to thus in PA plus I I is multiplied by the size of the objects that PA points to before being added to PA the correspondence between indexing and pointer arithmetic is evidently very close in fact a reference to an array is converted by the compiler to a pointer to the beginning of the array the effect is that the array name is a pointer expression this has quite a few useful implications since the name of an array is a synonym for the location of the zeroth element the assignment PA equals Ampersand a subz can also be written as PA equals a rather more surprising at least at First Sight is the fact that a reference to a subi can also be written as star open PR A+ I Clos PR in evaluating a subi c converts it to Star open pren A+ I close pren immediately the two forms are completely equivalent applying the operator Ampersand to both parts of this equivalence it follows that Ampersand a sub I and A+ I are also identical a plus I is the address of the I element Beyond a as on the other side of this coin if PA is a pointer Expressions may use it with a subscript PA a subi is identical to Star open print PA plus I Clos print in short any array and index expression can be Rewritten as a pointer and an offset and vice versa even in the same statement there is one difference between an array name and a pointer that must be kept in mind a pointer is a variable so PA equal a and Pa A++ are sensible operations but an array name is a constant not a variable constructions like a equals PA or A++ or P equals Ampersand a are illegal when an array name is passed to a function what is passed is the location of the beginning of the array within the called function this argument is a variable just like any other variable and so an array name argument is truly a pointer that is a variable containing an address we can use this fact to write a new version of sterlin which computes the length of the string the sample code is on page 95 of the book and you can see it in http://www.cc.com code page 95 in sterin open PR s Clos PR Char star s semicolon open curly brace int and semicolon four open parentheses n equals 0 semicolon star s not equal back0 quot semicolon s++ close per n n++ return open print and Clos print semicolon Clos curly brace incrementing s is perfectly legal since it’s a pointer variable s++ has no effect on the character string in function that called sterland but merely increments the sterland private copy of the address as the formal parameters in a function definition Char s open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon and and Char star s semicolon are exactly equivalent which one should be written is determined largely by how Expressions will be written in the function when an array name is passed to a function the function can its convenience believe that has been handed either an array or a pointer and manipulated accordingly it can even use both kinds of operations if it seems appropriate and clear it is possible to pass part of an array to a function by passing a pointer to the beginning of the subarray for example if a is an array F open PR Ampersand a sub 2 Clos PR and F open print A+ 2 Clos print both pass to the function f the address of the element a sub 2 because Ampersand a sub 2 and a + 2 are both pointer expressions that refer to the third element of a within F the argument declaration can read F open print array Clos print int array Open Bracket close bracket semicolon dot dot dot or F open print array Clos print in Star array semicolon dot dot dot so far as f is concerned the fact that the argument really refers to a part of a larger array is really of no consequence section 5.4 address arithmetic if p is a pointer then p++ increments P to point to the next element of whatever kind of object P points to and P plus equals I increments P to the point I elements Beyond where it currently does these and similar constructions are the simplest and most common form forms of pointer or address arithmetic C is consistent and regular in its approach to address arithmetic its integration of pointers arrays and address arithmetic is one of the major strengths of the language Let Us illustrate some of the properties by writing a rudimentary storage allocator but useful in spite of its Simplicity there are two routines Alec open pren and closed PR returns a pointer P to n consecutive character positions which can be used by the caller of Alec for storing characters free open print P closed print releases the storage thus acquired so it can later be reused these routines are rudimentary because the calls to free must be made in the opposite order to the calls on Alec that is storage managed by Alec and free is a stack or last in first out the standard seed Library provides analogous functions which have no such restrictions and in chapter 8 we’ll show how improved versions as well in the meantime however many applications really only need a trivial alet to dispense little pieces of storage of unpredictable sizes at unpredictable times the simplest implementation is to have Alec hand out pieces of a large character array which we will call Alec buff this array is private to Alec and free since they deal in pointers and not array indices no other routine need know the name of the array which can be declared as external static that is local to the source file containing alakin free and invisible outside it in Practical implementations the array May well not even have a name it might be obtained by asking the operating system for a pointer to some unnamed block of storage the other information needed is how much Alec buff has been used we use a pointer to the next free element called Alec CP when Alec is asked for n characters it checks to see if there is enough room left in Alec buff if so Alec Returns the current value of Alec P I.E the beginning of the free boach and then increments it by n to point to the next free area free P merely sets Alec P to P if p is inside Alec buff this next code example is on page 97 of the textbook you can you can see the code at http://www.cc.com code pound include stdio.h pound toine null Zer it’s a pointer value for in the error report pound toine Alex size 1000 the size of the available space static Char Alec buff open square bracket Alex size closed square bracket semicolon static chair Char star Alec P equals Alec buff next free position initialized to the start of the array Char star Alec open print and Clos print return a pointer to nend characters int and semicolon open curly brace if Alec CP plus n less than or equal to Alec buff plus Alec size Clos pen open curly brace meaning we have space Alex CP plus equals n return Alex CP minus n Clos parentheses semicolon close curly brace else if there’s not enough room return open pin null Clos pin semicolon close curly brace free open PR P Clos print this function will free the storage point2 by P Char star P open curly brace if open PR P greater than equal to Alec buff and P less than Alec buff plus Alex size Alex CP equals P close curly brace some exclamations in general a pointer can be initialized just as any other variable can though normally only meaningful values are null discussed below or an expression involving the address of a previously defined data of the appropriate type the Declaration static Char star Alex CP equals Alec buff defines Alex CP to be a character pointer and initializes it to point to Alec buff which is the next free position when the program starts this could also have been written static Char St star Alex CP equals ENT Alec buff Subzero semicolon since the array name is the address of the zeroth element whichever is more natural the test if open foren Alec p plus n less than or equal to Alec buff plus Alex size checks if there’s enough room to satisfy a request for n characters if there is the new value of Alec P would be at most one beyond the end of Alec buff if the request can be satisfied Alec returns a normal pointer notice the Declaration of the function itself if not Alec must return some kind of signal that there’s no space left C guarantees that no pointer that validly points to data will ever contain a zero so a return value of zero can be used to signal in an abnormal event in this case no space we write null instead of zero however to indicate more clearly that this is a special value for a pointer in general integers cannot be meaningfully assigned to pointers but zero is a special case tests like if open for n Alec P plus n less than or equal to Alec buff plus Alex size and if open print P greater than or equal to Alec buff and P less than Alec buff plus Alex size shows several important facets of pointer arithmetic first pointers may be paired on certain circumstances if p and Q point to members of the same array then relations like less than greater than equal Etc work properly P greater than Q is true for example if P points to an earlier member of the array than Q the relations double equals and not equals exclamation equals also work any pointer can be meaningfully compared for equality or inequality with null but all bets are off if you do arithmetic or comp comparisons with pointers that point to different arrays if you’re lucky you get obvious nonsense on all machines if you’re lucky your code will work on one machine but collapse mysteriously on another second we’ve already observed that a pointer and an integer can be added or subtracted the construction p+ N means the nth object beyond the one p currently points to this is true regardless of the kind of object p is declared to point at the compiler Scales N according to the size of the objects P points to which is determined by the Declaration of P for example on the PDP 11 the factors are one for Char two for INT and short and four for long float and d and float and eight for double pointer subtraction is also valid if p and Q point to members of the same array P minus Q is the number of elements between p and Q This fact can be used to write yet another version of sterland sterl open pin s closed pin Char star s semicolon open curly brace Char star P equals s semicolon while star P not equal back slash single quote back sl0 single quote Clos pen p++ semicolon return open pen P minus s Clos pen semicolon Clos curly brace in its declaration p is a initialized s that is to point to the first character in the Y Loop each character in turn is examined until back sl0 at the end of scene since back sl0 is zero and since while tests only whether the expression is zero it is possible to emit the explicit test and such Loops are often written as while open pen star P close Brin p++ semicolon because P points to characters p p++ advances P up to the next character each time and P minus FS gives the number of characters Advanced over that is the string length pointer arithmetic is consistent if we’d been dealing with floats which OCC occupy more storage than chars and if P were a pointer to a float p++ would advance to the next float thus we could write another version of Alec which maintains say floats instead of chars merely by changing Char to float throughout Alec and free all the pointer manipulations automatically take into the account the size of the object pointed to so nothing else has to be altered other than the operations mentioned here adding or subtracting a pointer in an integer subtracting or comparing two pointers all other pointer arithmetic is illegal it is not permitted to add two pointers or to multiply or divide or shift or mass them or add float or double to them Section 5 .5 character pointers and functions a string constant written as double quote I am a string double quote is an array of characters in the internal representation the compiler terminates the array with a character back sl0 so programs can find the end the length in storage is thus one more than the number of characters between the double quotes perhaps the most common occurrence of a string constant is arguments to functions as in print F open PR double quot quot hello comma world back sln double quot when a character string appears like this in a program access to it is through a character pointer what print F receives is a pointer to the character array character arrays of course need not be function arguments if message is declared as Char star message then the statement message equals double quote now is the time double quot semicolon assigns message to a pointer to the actual characters this is not a string copy only pointers are involved C does not provide any operators for processing an entire string of characters as a unit in the language we will illustrate more aspects of pointers and arrays by studying two useful functions from the standard IO library to be discussed in chapter 7 the first function is Stir copy open print s comma T which copies the string t to the string s s the arguments are written in this order by analogy to assignment where one would say s equals T to assign T to S the array version is first stir copy open print s comma T Clos print Char s open square bracket close square bracket comma T open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace in I semicolon I equals z semicolon while open PR open pren S Sub I equals T sub I Clos pren not equal quote back sl0 quote close parentheses i++ semicolon close curly brace you’ll note in that while statement that there is a copying of the actual characters as an assignment and then the side effect of the result of that assignment is compared to the new line to the end of string which terminates the while loop for contrast here is a version of stir copy with pointers and this is on page 100 of the textbook and you can see all the code in the textbook at http://www.cc.com codee and again this is example number two on page 100 stir copy open pren S comma T close pren Char star s comma star T semicolon open curly brace while open par open Print Star s equals star T Clos print not equal single quote back sl0 single quote close print open curly brace s++ comma uh semicolon t++ semicolon close curly brace close curly brace to end the function because the arguments are passed by value stir copy can use SNT in any way it pleases here they are conveniently initialized pointers which are marched along arrays a character at a time until the backslash terminates then T has been copied to s in practice stir copy would not be written as we showed above a second possibility might be and this is the third example on page 100 of the textbook stir copy open BR s comma T Clos PR Char star s comma star T semicolon open curly brace while pen pen star S Plus plus equals star t++ Clos print not equal quot back sl0 quote close print semicolon curly brace this moves the increment and S&T into the test part the value of star t++ is the character that t pointed to before T was incremented the post fix Plus+ doesn’t change T until after this character has been fetched in the same way the character is stored in the old position of s before s is incremented the character is also the value that is compared against back sl0 to control the loop the net effect is that the characters are copied from T to S up to and including the terminating back sl0 as the final abbreviation of this solving this problem we can observe that the comparison against back x0 is redundant so the function is often written as and now this is the first sample code on page 101 of the textbook stir copy open print s comma T Clos print Char star s comma star T semicolon open curly brace while open Print Star s++ equals star t++ Clos print semicolon Cur brace although this may seem cryptic at first the notational convenience is considerable and the idiom should be mastered if for no other reason than you will see it frequently in C programs the second routine is Stir comp open PR s comma T which compares the character strings s and t and returns negative zero or positive according to as s is lexographic less than equal to or greater than T the value returned is obtained by subtracting the characters at the first position where s& disagree this is the second example on page 101 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code stirm open print s comma T Clos print Char s open square bracket close square square bracket comma T open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace in I semicolon I equals z semicolon while S Sub I double equals T subi Clos PR open print S Sub I ++ double equals single quote back slash 0 single quote Clos print return zero return open print S Sub I minus t sub I Clos print semicolon close curly brace the pointer version of stir comp is the first example on page 102 of the textbook stir comp open p s comma T Clos pen Char star s comma star T open curly brace four open prin semicolon star s equal star T semicolon s++ comma t++ Clos pint if open PR star s equal equal single quote back sl0 single quote close pren return open pren Z close print return open Print Star s minus star T Clos print semicolon close curly brace since plus plus and minus minus are either prefix or postfix operators the combination of star and Plus+ and minus minus occur although less frequently for example star r++ P increments P before fetching the character that P points to Star minus minus p decrements p first section 5.6 pointers are not integers you may notice in older C programs a rather Cavalier attitude towards copying pointers it has generally been true that on most machines a pointer may be assigned to an integer and back again without changing it no scaling or conversion takes place and no bits are lost regrettably this has led to the taking of liberties with routines that return pointers which are then merely passed to other routines the requisite pointer declarations are often left out for example consider the function stir Save open print s Clos print which copies the string s into a safe place obtained by a call to Alec and returns a pointer to it properly this should be written as this this is the first example on page 103 of the textbook you can see the sample code at http://www.cc for.com code pound include STD live. charar Ser stir Save open print s Clos pin save a string somewhere Char star s semicolon open curly brace Char star P star Alec open PR Clos PR semicolon if open PR open PR p equals Alec open PR sterland open PR s Clos PR plus one Clos PR Clos PR not equal null Clos PR stir copy open PR P comma s close PR semicolon return open PR P Clos print semicolon curly brace in practice there would be a strong tendency mistaken tendency that is to emit declarations this is the example two on page 103 pound include stdlib.h stir Save open print s Clos print open curly brace Char star P semicolon if parentheses parentheses p equals Alec open p sterlin open p s Clos PR plus one close print close print not equal null Clos PR stir copy open print P comma s Clos print semicolon return open print P close print semicolon this will work on many machines since the default type for functions and arguments is int and int and pointer can usually be safely assigned back and forth nonetheless this kind of code is inherently risky for it depends on the details of the implementation and machine architecture which may not hold for the particular compiler you use it is wiser to be complete in all declarations the program lint will warn of such constructions in case they creep in inadvertently section 5.7 multi-dimensional arrays in general rectangular multi-dimensional arrays are used in computational programs like a weather simulation and were a way back in the day to write C code that could accept Fortran multi-dimensional arrays as parameters so that computational or statistical libraries could be written in C arrays of pointers are a mapping to the typical operating system and string manipulation use cases that are more the core of C applications we also call these ragged arrays because each row can be a different length this also works well as data is dynamically allocated in C as compared to the more static allocation approach that’s typical in forr multi-dimensional arrays uh now to the textbook C provides for rectangular multi-dimensional arrays although in practice they tend to be much less used than the arrays of pointers in this section we will show some of their properties consider the problem of date conversion from the day of the month to the day of the year and vice versa for example March 1st is the 60th day of a non-leap year and 61st day of a leap year let us Define two functions to do the conversions day of year converts month and day to the day of the year and month day converts the day of the year into the month and the day since this latter function returns to two values the month and day arguments will be pointers month day open parentheses 1977 comma 60 Ampersand M comma Ampersand D Clos parentheses sets m to3 and d to one which is March 1st these functions both need the same information a table of the number of days in each month 30 days half September Etc since the number of days per month differs for leap years and non-leap years it’s easier to separate them into two rows of a two-dimensional array rather than try to keep track of what happens in February during computation the array and the functions performing the Transformations are as follows this is example number one on page 104 of the textbook and you can see the code at http://www.cc.com code static int d a tab open PR to close PR open PR 13 close PR equals open curly brace open curly brace 0 comma 31 and then a number of numbers close curly brace comma open curly brace 0 comma 31 29 and then a bunch of numbers close curly brace close curly brace semicolon day of the year open print year comma month comma day int year comma month comma day semicolon open curly brace int I comma leap semicolon leap equals z year modulo 4 equals 0 and year modulo 100 not equals z or year modulo 400 equals equals z semicolon for open PR I equal 1 I less than month I ++ Clos print day plus equals Day tab open square bracket leap close square bracket open square bracket I close square bracket semicolon return open pen day close pen semicolon close curly brace then the month day function month day open pen year comma Year Day comma P Monon comma pday close pen int year comma Year Day star P month comma star p day semicolon open curly brace in I comma leap semicolon leap equals year percent 4 Double equals z and year percent 100 not equals z or year percent 1400 double equals z for I equal 1 Year Day greater than date tab open square bracket leap close square bracket open square bracket I close square bracket semicolon I ++ close parentheses Year Day minus equal Day tab open Square parenthe open square bracket leap closed square bracket open square bracket I closed square bracket semicolon star P month equals I star pday equals Year Day semicolon Clos parent the array Day tab has to be external to both day of year and month day so they can both use it dat tab is the first two-dimensional array we’ve dealt with in C by definition a two-dimensional array is really a one-dimensional array Each of which elements is also an array hence subscripts are written as Day tab open square bracket I closed square bracket open square bracket J closed square bracket rather than Day tab open square bracket I comma J close square bracket as in most languages other than this a two-dimensional array can be treated much the same in the same way as other languages elements are stored by rows that is the rightmost subscript varies fastest as elements are accessed in storage order an array is initialized by ini list of initializers and braces each row of a two-dimensional array is initialized by a corresponding sublist we started the array datab with a column of zero so that month numbers can run from the natural 1 to 12 instead of 0 to 11 since space is is not a premium here this is easier than adjusting indices if a two-dimensional array is to be passed to a function the argument definition declaration in the function must include the column Dimension the row Dimension is irrelevant since what is passed in as before it is a pointer this is in this particular case it’s a pointer to objects which are arrays of 13 ins thus the array Day tab if it’s to be passed to a function f the Declaration would be F open PR Day tab Clos pren int Day tab open square bracket 2 close square bracket open square bracket 13 close square bracket semicolon open curly brace dot dot dot Clos curly brace the argument declaration in F could also be int dat tab open square bracket close square bracket open square bracket 13 close square bracket semicolon since the number of rows is actually irrelevant it could also be SE as int open prin star Day tab Clos prin Open Bracket 13 close bracket semicolon which says that the argument is a pointer to an array of 13 integers the parentheses are necessary since the brackets have higher precedence than asterisk without parenthesis the Declaration int star datab sub3 Clos square bracket semicolon is an array of 13 pointers to integers as we shall see in the next section section 5.8 pointer arrays pointers to pointers since pointers are variables themselves you might expect that there would be uses for arrays of pointers this is indeed the case let us illustrate by writing a program that will sort a set of text lines into alphabetic order than a stripped down version of the Unix utility sort in chapter 3 we presented a shell sort function that would sort an array of integers this same algorithm will work except that now we have to deal with lines of text which are of different lengths and which unlike integers can’t be compared or moved in a single operation we will need a data representation data structure that will cope efficiently and conveniently with variable length text lines this is where an a array of pointers enters if the lines to be sorted are stored end to end in one long character Ray maintained by Alec perhaps then each line can be accessed by a pointer to its first character the pointers themselves can be stored in an array two lines can be compared by passing their pointers to stirum when two outof order lines have to be swapped or exchanged the pointers in the pointer array are exchanged not the text lines themselves this eliminates the twin problems of complex storage management and high overhead that would go with moving the text of the actual lines the Sorting process involves three steps read all the lines of input sort them and then print them in order as usual it’s best to divide the program into functions that match this natural division with the main routine controlling things let us defer the Sorting step for a moment and concentrate on the data structures and the input and output the input routine has to collect and save the characters in each line and build an array of pointers to the lines it will also have have to count the number of input lines since that information is also needed for sorting and printing since the input function can only count cope with a finite number of input lines it can return some illegal line count like negative one if too much input is presented the output routine only has to print the lines in order in the order in which they appear in the array of pointers this next code segment uh is actually a combination of three successive sample code segments uh starting on page one 6 of the textbook and it’s pretty complex so you might be uh best it might be best for you to see them on http://www.cc.com code line 106 example one okay pound include stda o.h pound include string.h pound Define lines 100 the maximum lines of support to be sorted main open PR close PR Char line PT TR open bra open square bracket lines closed square bracket semicolon int n lines which is the number of lines red if open print open print end lines equals read lines open print line PTR comma lines close PR close PR greater than or equal to zero Clos PR open curly brace sort open PR line PTR comma end lines Clos pen right lines open pen line PTR comma end lines Clos pen Su colon close curly brace else print F open PR double quote input too big to sort back sln close double quote close pen semicolon and close curly brace to end the main program this next routine is actually from page 107 of the textbook but we combined them into one pound to find maxan 1000 read lines open pren Line PTR comma Max lines Clos per in Char Star Line PTR open square bracket Clos square square bracket sum Co this is an array of pointers to characters an array of pointers pointers being you know long like four bytes characters being generally one bite int MAX Line semicolon open curly brace int Len comma end lines semicolon Char star P star Alec open PR Clos PR comma line open square bracket max length closed square bracket semicolon so just to recall Alec is a function we we did later I mean did earlier that allows us to allocate uh uh some text of uh a varying length and then lines so max Len is a place that we’re going to uh read each line into beginning the code of read lines end lines equal zero while open pen open pen Len equals get Line open print line comma MAX Line Clos print Clos print greater than or equal to zero Clos print if open print end lines greater than or equal to Max lines Clos print return open print minus one Clos print semicolon else if open print open print P equals Alec open print Len close print close print double equals null Clos print return minus one so those two tests basically make sure that we don’t get too many lines and that we have enough space in our Al Dynamic data area that Alec is managing for us so continuing with the if we’re at the else opens curly brace line sub Len minus one equals quot back0 quote semicolon stir copy P comma line Clos print semicolon line PTR sub n lines Plus+ equals P semicolon Clos curly brace that finishes the else segment return n lines semicolon and close curly brace to finish the read lines function now at a high level we’re reading a line into a allocated automatic variable line and then we are calling Alec to get another cop place a copy that line then we’re making a copy of that line and then we are remembering the pointer to the beginning of that line in line PTR and that’s the essence of it okay right lines open pren Line PTR comma end lines Clos pren Char Star Line PTR open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon again an array of point characters int n lines semicolon which is the number of character pointers in line PTR open curly brace in I semicolon four pen I equal 0 semicolon I less than n lines semicolon i+ plus Clos print print F open print double quote percent s back sln double quote comma line PTR subi Clos pin semicolon Clos curly brace a simple Loop that goes through the the array of character pointers and then prints each one out using print F the main new thing is the Declaration for line PTR Char Star Line PTR sub open square bracket lines closed square bracket semicolon says that line PTR is an array of lines elements each element of which is a pointer to a Char that is line PTR sub I is a character pointer and star line PR PTR subi accesses a character since line PTR itself is an array that was passed to right lines it can be treated as a pointer exactly in the same manner as our earlier examples and the function can be written instead as right lines open pen line PTR comma end lines closed pen Char Star Line PTR open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon int and line semicolon open curly bra Cas while open PR minus minus end lines greater than or equal to zero close PR print F open prin double quot percent s back sln double quot comma Star Line PTR ++ Clos PR semicolon that code by the way was on page 108 example one of the textbook Star Line PTR points initially to the first line but each in increment of line PTR advances it to the next line while in lines is counted down with input and output under control we can proceed to sorting the shell sort from chapter 3 needs minor changes the Declarations have to be modified and the comparison operation must be moved into a function but the basic algorithm is Remains the Same which gives us some confidence that it will still work and this is the second example on page 108 of the textbook and you can see this example at http://www.cc.com code sort sort open PR V comma n Clos PR Char starv open square bracket Clos square bracket semicolon in and semicolon open curly brace so we’re getting an array of pointers to the beginnings of lines and how many of those pointers matter and the rest of it is shell sort with the stir comp being used um to do the string comparison so it’s a three nested for loop with a simple if test in it so here we go open curly brace for the sort function int Gap comma I comma J semicolon Char star temp semicolon and that’s a pointer to a character for open print Gap equals n / 2 slash I mean semicolon Gap greater than zero semicolon Gap slash equals 2 close parentheses four I equal Gap semicolon I less than n semicolon I ++ close parentheses four open print Jal IUS Gap semicolon J greater than equal to Zer semicolon J minus equals Gap Clos pren open curly brace so that’s sort of the shell part of the shell sort and now we have to do our comparison if open pin stir comp open pin V subj comma V subj plus Gap Clos pin less than or equal to zero Clos pin break and note that that’s only breaking the third deep for Loop which it just goes and then runs the next iteration of the second for Loop now we do the swapping temp equals V subj semicolon V subj equal a V subj plus Gap semicolon V subj plus Gap equal temp now that’s just swapping pointer values so the the strings that are pointed to by these two pointers V subj and V subj plus Gap if they’re out of order we’re going to swap the pointers in the array and move them so that if you then go through like we did in right lines earlier then um they come out in order but we literally read the data once we copy it once into the its final destination using Alec Alec and stir copy but Al once we sort it which is the most complex part of the calculation we’re only moving the pointers back and forth so this sort is very efficient and requires no extra uh memory than uh what we had before the sort so that’s really nice and it sorts in place so back to the text since any individual element of V which is an is to line pointer PTR is a character pointer temp could also should also be one so one can be copied to the other we wrote the program about as straightforwardly as possible so as to get it working quickly it might be faster for instance to copy the incoming lines directly into an array made by read lines rather than copying them into line and then into a hidden Place maintained by Alec but it’s wiser to make the first draft of something easy to understand and worry about efficiency later the way to make this program significantly faster is probably not by avoiding an unnecessary copy of the input Lines Just instead replacing the shell St sort by something quicker and better like quick sort is much more likely to make a real difference that matters in chapter one we pointed out that because while and for Loops test the termination condition before executing the loop body even once they help to ensure that the programs will work at their boundaries in particular with no input it’s Illuminating to walk through the functions of the Sorting program checking what happens if there is no input text at all section 5.9 initialization of pointer arrays consider the problem of writing a function month name open pren and Clos pren which returns a pointer to a character string containing the name of the MTH month this is an ideal application for an internal static array month name contains a private array of characters strings and returns a pointer to the proper one when called the topic of this section is how that array of names is initialized the syntax is quite similar to the previous initializations this is sample code from page 109 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code charar month name open print Clos print so the return value for this function is a character pointer int n semicolon open curly brace static Char star name open square bracket close square bracket equals open curly brace quote illegal month quote comma double quote January double quote comma double quote February double quot comma and so forth down to double quote December double quote Clos curly brace semicolon the body of the function function is one line return open pen open pen n less than one or n greater than 12 Clos pen question mark name Sub Zero colon name subn close pen semicolon Clos curly brace the Declaration of name which is an array of character pointers is the same as line PTR in the Sorting example the initializer is simply a list of character strings each assigned to the Corr responding position in the array more precisely the characters of the E string are placed somewhere else and a pointer to them is stored in name subi since the name size of the array name is not specify the compiler itself counts the initializers and fills in the correct number section 5.10 pointers versus multi-dimensional arrays newcomers to see are sometimes confused about the difference between a two-dimensional array and an array of pointers such as name in the example above given the Declarations int a open square bracket 10 Close square bracket open square bracket 10 Close square bracket semicolon and int star B open square bracket 10 Close square bracket semicolon the usage of A and B may be similar in that a sub 55 and B sub 55 are both legal references to a single integer but a is a true array all 100 storage cells have been allocated and the conventional rectangular subrip calculation is done to find any given element for B however the Declaration only allocates 10 pointers each must be set to point to an array of integers assuming that each does point to a 10 element array then there will be 100 storage cells set aside plus the 10 cells for the pointers thus the array of pointer uses slightly more space and may require an explicit initialization step but it has two advantages accessing an element is done by IND direction through a pointer rather than by a multiplication and an addition and the rows of the array may be of different lengths that is each element of B need not point to a 10 element Vector some may point to two elements Others May point to 20 and some to none at all although we have phrased this discussion in terms of integers by far the most frequent use of arrays of pointers is like that shown in month name to store character strings of diverse lengths section 5.11 command line arguments in environments that support C there is a way to pass commandline arguments or parameters to a program when it begins executing when main is called to begin execution it is called with two arguments the first conventionally called argc is the number of command line arguments the program was in invoked with the second argv is a pointer to an array of character strings that contain the arguments one per string manipulating these character strings is a common use of multiple levels of pointers I would note that back in 1978 the two largest bodies of code were likely the AT&T Unix kernel itself and Unix utilities like grep LS or the login shell so writing an operating system was fresh on the mind of the authors while writing this book these topics find their way into the text of this book in a sense a likely second order goal of the book was to train programs that might learn C and then might help build and maintain Unix the 1978 edition of this textbook fits nicely into a series of AT&T Bell Labs technical reports like the portability of C programs in the Unix system written by Stephen C Johnson and Dennis M Richie published in the bell’s system technical Journal volume 57 number six part two July through August 1978 Pages 2021 through 2048 you can see this one online if you search for it back to the textbook the simplest illustration of the ne necessary declarations and use is in the program echo which simply Echoes its command line arguments in a single line separated by blanks that is if the command Echo hello comma world is given the output is hello comma World by convention arv subz is the name by which the program was invok so AR C is at least one in the above example AR C is three and AR arv subz arv sub1 and r v sub 2 are Echo hello comma and World respectively the first real argument is argv sub one and the last is argv sub sub Arc minus one and if Arc is one there are no command line arguments after the program name this is shown in the source code to Echo and this source code is on page 111 of the textbook and you can see this source code at http://www.cc.com codee pound include stdio.h pound include string.h main open pen Arc comma AR Fe Clos pen int Arc semicolon Char star arv open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace in I semicolon for open p i equal 1 semicolon I less than RX c semicolon I ++ close pen print F open pen double quote percent s percent C double quote comma arv subi comma open pen I less than r z minus one closed P question mark single quote space single quote colon single quot back slash n single quote close parentheses semicolon close curly brace to end it since argv is a pointer to an array of pointers there are several ways to write this program that involve manipulating the pointer rather than indexing an array let us show two variations and this is the example number two on page 111 of the textbook pound include stdio.h pound include string.h main open pen Arc comma arv Clos pen int argc semicolon Char star arv open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace while open pen minus minus r c greater than zero Clos print print F open PR double quote percent s percent C double quote comma star Plus+ arv comma open print ARG C greater than one Clos peren question mark single quote space single quote colon single quote back slash NN single quote close PR semicolon Clos curly brace since arcv is a pointer to the beginning of an array of argument strings incrementing it by one plus plus RV makes it point to the at the original array argv sub1 instead of arv Sub 0 each successive increment moves it along to the next argument star argv is then the pointer to that argument at the same time argc is decremented and when it becomes zero there are no arguments left to print another version the third version on page 111 of the textbook pound include stdi Doh pound include string.h m open p Arc comma arv Clos pin int Arc semicolon Char star arv open square bracket closed square bracket semicolon open curly brace while open pin minus minus r c greater than zero close pen print F open pen open pen RC greater than one close pen question mark double quot percent s blank double quote colon double quot percent s back sln double quote comma star Plus+ argv Clos PR semicolon Clos curly brace this version so shows that the format argument of print F can be an expression just like any of the others this usage is not very frequent but worth remembering as a second example let’s make some example uh enhancements to the pattern finding program from chapter 4 if you recall we wired the search pattern deep into the programing and this is an obviously unsatisfactory arrangement for flexible code following the lead of the Unix utility GP which stands for the generalized regular expression parser let us change the program so that the pattern to be matched is specified by the first argument on the command line This is example one on page 112 of the book which you can see at http://www.cc.com code pounding clude stdio.h pound include string.h pound toine MAX Line 1000 Main open pren Arc comma arv Clos P int Arc semicolon charar arv open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace Char Line open open square bracket MAX Line closed square bracket semicolon if open PR Argy not equal to closed PR print F double quote usage colon find pattern back sln double quote Clos pin semicolon else while open pen get Line open pen line comma MAX Line Clos pen greater than zero Clos pen if index open pen line comma RV sub one Clos pen greater than or equal to zero Clos pen print F open pen double quot percent s double quot comma line Clos PR semicolon close curly brace the basic model can now be elaborated to illustrate further pointer constructions suppose we want to allow two optional arguments one says print all the lines except those that match the pattern the second says preced each print each printed line with its line number a common convention for C programs is that an argument beginning with A minus sign introduces an optional flag or parameter if we choose minus X for except to Signal the inversion and minus n number to request line numbering then the command find Space minus X space minus n the with the input now is the time for all good men to come to the aid of their party should produce two comma for all good men optional arguments should be permitted in any order and the rest of the program should be insensitive to the number of arguments which were actually present in particular the call to index should not refer to RV sub 2 where a single flag argument and to argv sub one when there was no single flag furthermore it’s convenient for users if option arguments can be concatenated and as in find space- NX space the here is the program and this program is on page 113 of the textbook and it is complex enough that I suggest that you take a look at it at http://www.cc.com SLC code it’s it’s about 35 lines long the commentary on the program hopefully now you’re watching looking at it argv is incremented before each optional argument and argc is decremented if there are no errors at the end of the loop argc should be one and star argv should point to the point to the pattern note that star ++ arv is a pointer to an argument string open pin star Plus+ arv Clos print open square bracket 0o square square bracket is its first character a parentheses are necessary for without them the expression would be star Plus+ open paren arv subz close print which is quite different and wrong an alternate valid form would be star star Plus+ arv section 5.12 pointers to functions in C a function itself is not a variable but it is possible to define a pointer to a function which can be manipulated past to functions placed in arrays and so on we will illustrate this by modifying the Sorting procedure written earlier in this chapter so that if the optional argument minus n is given it will sort the input lines numerically instead of lexographic graphically a sort often consists of three parts a comparison which determines the ordering of any pair of objects an exchange which reverses their order and a sorting algorithm which which makes comparisons and exchanges until the objects are in order the Sorting algorithm is independent of the comparison and exchange operations so by passing different comparison and exchange functions to it we can arrange to sort by different criteria this approach is taken in our new sour the lexographic comparison of the two lines is done by stir comp and swapping by swap as before we’ll also need a routine num comp which Compares two lines on the basis of numeric value and Returns the same kind of condition indication as stir comp does these three functions are declared in Main and pointers to them are passed to sort sort in turn calls the functions via pointers we have skimped on error processing processing for arguments so as to concentrate on the main issues this sample code is from page 115 of the textbook which you can view at http://www.cc for.com slode pound include stdio.h pound include string.h pound Define lines 100 Main open paren Arc comma arv Clos parent int argc semicolon Char star Ary open square bracket close square bracket sumon open curly brace jar Star Line PTR open Open Bracket lines close square bracket semicolon this is the pointers to the text lines so we’re going to be reading in the lines saving them and keeping an array of the pointer and then we’re going to sort that way int end lines of semicolon int stir comp open print Clos print comma num comp open print Clos print which are comparison functions int swap open print close print semicolon int numeric equals z and this is going to be one if it’s a numeric sort first we par the arguments if open print AR C greater than one % % arv sub 1 Sub 0 equal equal quote minus quote and RV opens bracket one close bracket Open Bracket 1 close bracket double equals quote and quote close perin numeric equals 1 if open pen open pren end lines equals read lines open pen line PTR comma lines Clos print Clos print greater than or equal to zero Clos print open curly brace if openr numeric Clos PR sort open pren Line PTR end lines num comp comma swap Clos PR semicolon else sort open print line PTR comma n lines comma stir comp comma swap Clos pen right Lines line PR PTR comma end lines Clos pen close curly brace else print F open PR double quote input too big to sort back slash N double quote Clos pin semicolon stir comp num comp and swap are addresses of functions since they’re known to be functions the Ampersand operator is not necessary in the same way that it is not needed before an array name the compiler arranges for the address of the function to be passed the second step is to modify our sort function and this is the first example on page 116 of the textbook sort open pen V comma n comma comp comma ex C Exchange close pen Char star V open square bracket closed square square bracket semicolon that’s our pointer array of pointers int and semicolon int open pren star comp Clos PR open pren close PR comma open pren Star Exchange Clos pen open pen Clos pen semicolon that declared the type and the fact that these are Pointers to functions it’s a little more complex here in the called code open curly brace int Gap comma I comma J semicolon and now we’re going to do the three nested for Loops for the uh quick sort no shell sort um and then the only really change is in the code checking to see if the uh two items pair of items are out of order and then what we do so for open print Gap equals n over 2 semicolon Gap greater than zero semicolon gra Gap slash equals 2 close PR four open pren I equals Gap semicolon I less than n semicolon I ++ Clos pren four open PR Jal IUS Gap semicolon J greater than or equal to Z semicolon J minus equals Gap Clos PR open curly brace and now here starts the different code if open print open Print Star comp Clos print open print V subj comma V subj plus Gap Clos print less than or equal to zero Clos print break open Print Star ex exchange Clos print open print Amper V subj comma Amper V subj plus Gap Clos print semicolon close curly brace for the for Loop and then close curly braas for the sort function and so really all we’re doing is we’re checking the the order of the two items B subj and B subj plus Gap and if they’re out of order IE less than or equal Zer I mean greater than or equal to U greater than zero then we just exchange them with the provided exchange function and so the key thing here is it looks exactly like the previous time we wrote this code except we’re calling the pointer to the comparison function and the pointer to The Exchange function which is makes this flexible um so it can handle different kinds of data back to the textbook The Declaration should be studied with some care int open print start comp close print open print close print says that comp is a pointer to a function that returns an INT the first set of parentheses are necessary without them int star comp open print Clos print would say that comp is a function returning a pointer to an INT which is a quite different thing the use of comp in the line if open PR open print start comp Clos print open print V subj comma V subj plus Gap close print less than or equal to zero Clos PR is consistent with a declaration comp is a pointer to the function and star comp is the function and open Print Star comp Clos print open print V subj comma V subj plus Gap close print is the call to it the parentheses are needed so the components are correctly Associated we’ve only we’ve already shown stir comp which Compares two strings here is num comp which Compares two strings on a leading numeric value this is sample code from page 117 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code numc open print S1 com S2 Clos print Char star S1 comma star S2 semicolon open curly brace double A to F open print Clos print comma V1 comma V2 V1 equal a to F open print S1 Clos print semicolon V2 equal a to F open print S2 Clos print semicolon if open print V1 less than V2 Clos print return open print minus one else if open PR V1 greater than V2 closed P return open PR one closed P semicolon else return open pin zero Clos pin semicolon Clos curly brace the final step is to add the function swap which exchanges the two pointers this is adapted directly from what we presented earlier in the chapter swap open print PX comma py Clos print Char star p PX open square bracket close square bracket comma star py open square bracket close square bracket semicolon open curly brace Char star temp semicolon temp equals star PX semicolon star PX equal star py semicolon star py equals temp semicolon close curly brace there are a variety of other options that can be added to the Sorting program some make challenging exercises [Music] this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 19 7s and 1980s as computer science evolved from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the ideal book to learn C programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the sea language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable [Music] applications so hello welcome to chapter 6 in this chapter we talk about structures but so much more there is a mid chapter surpris in this book and I’m sure that it’s so surprising that it’s caused a few too many people to drop out a a computer science first computer science course and that’s because in section 6.1 through 6.4 we’re learning the C language and we’re learning just what a structure is it’s a simple beautiful elegant concept it’s a sort of a wrapper for a whole bunch of types it groups them together so that you can create a new type and it really at this point is the last foundational component of the cor C languages cor C language and then in section 6.5 they the authors pivot to talking about data structures and that is the applications of C structures and it’s the foundational notion in computer science it’s the kind of thing where how do you build a python dictionary and C um and and so this this is a a pattern we call the knee of the curve where things are going along just fine up to 6.4 like oh here’s a for Loop and here’s a string and here’s an array and here’s even a pointer that that’s not that hard and structures are not that hard but then when we start talking about applications of structures what we call data structures and structures was named because data structures was a concept but how we use structures is a quite a Next Level thing we’re kind of leveling up so I want you starting from here chapter six is the last real chapter that I’m going to cover but it is expanding because chapter 6 is the beginning of a whole additional course a course on data structures so I want you if you’re rushing I want you to slow down I want you to take your time and understand because if you understand this you can literally you have a doorway into a lot of computer science we’ll talk about recursion even by the end and so just don’t rush work on Mastery these are complex Concepts they are not natural to understand and so before we start I want to do something different I want to read you a poem one of my favorite poems from Robert Frost uh I was lucky enough fortunate enough to be a good friend of Bob Frost who was a grandson of Robert Frost Bob Frost had a connection to the University of Michigan Robert Frost has a Michigan and University of Michigan uh connection and um I loved this poem that I’m about to read you uh long before I met Bob Frost the grandson of Robert Frost so the poem that I talk a lot about and really it’s one line miles to go before I sleep this is the poem called stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening and to me it it speaks of the notion that Journeys are not short nor easy and it’s okay accept that so here we go Dr Chuck in poetry whose woods these are I think I know his house is in the village though he will not see me stopping here to watch his Woods fill up with snow my little horse must think it queer to stop without a farmhouse near between the woods and frozen lake the darkest evening of the year he gives his harness bells a shake to ask if there is is some mistake the only other sounds The Sweep of easy wind and dowy Flake the woods are lovely dark and deep but I have promises to keep and miles to go before I sleep and miles to go before I sleep so the essence of this is that you have come a long way to get to 6.4 in this book and it may feel like you’ve gone long enough and you should just pat yourself on the back but after 6.4 there are miles to go before I sleep but the good news is when you’re done you can relax so what I want you to do is take your time things get much more complex really fast going forward and I don’t want to lose [Music] you structures structures is the mo one of the most beautiful parts of SE like pointers it’s a userdefined type that contains sort of one or more types within it we call things like X and Y in this case uh members of the structure X is a member of the struct point and Y is a member of the struct point the dot operator allows us to take a variable that is a structure variable that has all these members within it and then access the members of the structure so an example kr601 doc we have struct Point open curly brace double X semicolon Double Y semicolon closed curly brace semicolon and this defines a new type it doesn’t allocate any data and then we say Point P1 comma P2 semicolon and that actually allocates two points which is four doubles named P1 and and two of each point is P1 and P2 then I say p1.x equal 3.0 and I say p1y = 4.0 and then I say P2 = P1 which copies all the fields into the corresponding locations in P2 and then I print them out and I get three and four and so that’s BAS basic structures simple clean elegant understand every line of this memorize it when you do a in a sense call by value with a structure the entire structure is placed on the stack and so you don’t want to make structures too gigantically big you know if they’re like 10 to 40 bytes of characters they’re not all that bad but when we make struct Point pm and set X and Y to three and four and then we call Funk with funk open print PM Clos print PM is a structure that is in the scope of the main program and then we’re calling Funk and passing it in and then we’re accepting it as a structure inside of funk and the key thing there is at this point it’s a sort of copy call by value where the entire structure is allocated on the stack and then passed into Funk so if we change it inside Funk PF dox = 9.0 and pfy = 8.0 it changes locally and can print it out and then when it Returns the PM that’s in the main program is unchanged and that’s because the entire structure PM is duplicated into the stack frame for function Funk operating inside function Funk we’re only messing with the copy that’s in our stack frame and then when we sort of undo that it restores PM back to the way it was so those are just plain structures but pointers to structures are where we get a lot more powerful so here we have another same struct with a double X and A Double Y and now we say struct Point PT which is a regular old variable and Then star PP which is a pointer to a structure an address of a structure and you can take the address of a structure just like you can take the address of an integer a structure is a very fundamental type so PP equals Ampersand PT copies the address of the actual structure PT into the variable PP PT dox equal 3.0 0 or open Print Star PP Clos print doy equals 4.0 so if we have a pointer to a structure we have to use the asteris to sort of look up the actual structure and then we can do structure things with it like set the doy value there’s a shortcut take an address dreference it with the asterisk and then use the dot they’re combined into kind of what we call the arrow operator which is pp-h greater than Y which is the same as open paren star PP Clos par n.x and so this we call it the arrow operator and so it’s kind of a shorthand and it’s used all the time and you’ll see when we look later at things like PHP they adopted this Arrow operator most other object oriented languages tend to use the dot operator but others use the arrow operator so if we’re going to pass a structure by reference you use the Amper sand in the call and the asterisk inside the function so we create stru Point PM set X and Y within that to three and four respectively then we print it out and then we call Funk but now we call it with Ampersand PM which says pass in the address of PM and then in the function we take in PP and we declare its type as struct point star PP which means we are getting as a parameter an address not the value and then we use the arrow op operator PP Arrow X = 9 PP Arrow yal 8 we print that in the function but because PP just points to PM it’s also changed in the copy that’s in the main so PM is being changed at the moment that PP is being changed and so when it comes back you see that the value is 9 and 8 in outside of the function so this is simply passing by reference it almost be better call it pass by address so if you take a look at the stack frame what you see is when we’re calling Funk open pren Ampersand PM Clos PR we are making a copy of the address and putting that into the stack frame and then passing that stack frame into Funk and so now Funk has an address of something it happens to not be in its domain meaning that PM is still in main but we can work with the arrow operator and actually make changes in the underlying object and so the key there is that you could change PP but PP Arrow X you’re actually changing the single copy that is in pm at that point storage allocation now pretty soon we’re going to be dynamically allocating things we’ve always said that oh you create a Char array of char with Open Bracket 10 there’s 10 things in that what if we want more and we’ve said you can’t reallocate this stuff but now we have this thing we’re going to start allocating so it turns out when you’re allocating things you have to know how big they are okay and so there’s this size of operator so size of so if we take struct Point PT and star PP which means we have a a structure with two doubles in it and then a pointer to a structure with two doubles of it and we simply say what is the size of the structure and it’s 16 because each double is eight and then what is the size of a pointer to a structure and that is eight because eight is how big addresses are the fact that doubles and addresses happen to both be the same thing is not relevant here addresses are on most C systems eight characters you can also because it’s an operator not just give it a variable but also give it a type so we can say size of open per N struct Point close per n and that also will be 16 because the size of a struct if we were going to allocate it is 16 characters so size of returns the size of something in characters and so we have this function called m and Malik you have to include stdlib.h to do it and so now what we’re going to do is create a the structure Point again and we’re going to create a pointer we’re going to not actually allocate it so that struct point star PP allocates an8 character address not the actual double two doubles now what we do is we say PP equals first and we’re casting this we’re casting The Returned address from Malik pen struct point star pen Clos pren that is casting it to a pointer to a struct a pointer to a point and then we say Malo open PR size of struct Point Clos print Clos print and so that says Malik 16 because a struct point is 16 characters so Malik goes and finds some free memory for us in its pool of free memory and gives us back an address which we then convert to a pointer to a point and then we store that in PP and at that point we have data we have a a working structure and we can set the x and the Y value just as the normal way whether we use the arrow operator or the star and Dot operators we can access that information the next thing we’re going to talk about is combining all these things dynamic memory and structures to create lists and this is a simple Python program lines equals list Hand equals open open pren romeo. txt then Loop through and then append each line after stripping the new lines and then printing them out so lines is a list object now underneath it there is a data structure which by the end of this course you’re going to get to know really well but this will print out the four lines from romeo. txt and this is kr67 py now we’re going to build this list structure and then we can store some data in it the entries of the list are going to be stored in dynamically allocated memory and each list contains some data and then links to other members and so we’re going to create a thing called struct L node open PR Char star text which is a pointer to a list an array of characters of of unknown length struct L node star next semicolon colos curly brace semicon and so if you construct a real live uh link list you need also to have two variables struct L node star head and struct L node star tail and if we end up with a link list of three things head points to the first item in the list and then within that there is the text the text points to some string in this case it’s the letter c and then the next is an address of the second thing in the list in that second thing text points to is and next points to the third thing in the list and then next in the third thing in the list points to a value called null which is our indication that it’s an address to Nowhere null and zero are pretty much the same thing all addresses are nonzero so we look for an address of zero and that tells us that we’ve got to the end and then in order to append to this list we have another value which is a pointer called tail which points to the last element in the list when we start the list head and tail both point to null and so ultimately what we’ve done is we’ve created a dynamically allcable structure where we can put put sort of any number of lines in it and so it’s kind of like a python list so the first line of this the while statement reads a value into line a string value into line the next line from the file right and so we have a pointer to a character that we pre-allocated Above This and That points to the variable fun uh three characters plus an end of string and then the next thing we’re going to do is allocate a new string that is the same length plus one so we’re going to allocate four characters using Malik sterland line plus one which is going to give us four then we’re going to get that address back and we’re going to cast that to a Char star and then we are going to assign that to save so that’s the the place we’re going to save this new item the next thing we’re going to do is allocate a brand new L node a brand new node in our list and we’re going to maloc size of struct L node and then we’re going to cast it to a struct l node star and then we’re going to sign that into a struct l node star variable named new we we saved our string and we’ve got a pointer to that save string and a pointer to a empty at this point uh L node then what we do is we connect with um if tail is not equal to null tail next equals new so we take the not the about to be second to last item and we connect it to the last item and then what we do is we take the text pointer inside of our newly allocated list node and point it at the saved copy of our string in dynamic memory and then we point the next to be null and then we simply Advance tail so that next time we do this tail is pointing to the new end of the string now we’ve got one more thing that we’ve got to do and that is if head is null we have to set head to new this is only that’s only going to happen on the very first one and so at this point our list has three entries it went from two entries to three entries and so we can go back up and read the next line and this sequence of statements will figure it out so I would just say take your time on this one thing that we learn when we’re working on linked data structures inside of C is you got to draw a picture I I literally can’t do this for from memory I just draw the picture and then it’s really easy to do so sometimes you want to walk through a link list so we tend to call this we make a variable called Cur current which is a struct l node star a pointer to an L node and so this is the same as looping through a python list We Set current to head because that’s where we’re going to start going through the list and then we print out current text which prints the print C out and then we go to the bottom of the loop and then we advance current to current next it’s kind of like adding plus one but we just went from the first item in the list to the second item in the list and then we do it again and we are printing out the third item of the list and then we current equals current next gets to null and so then the list is over and we have printed all of them out so in addition to creating link lists we’re going to do many different things with link lists we’re going to delete things we’re going to sort things we’re going to find things we’re going to look things up we’re going to change things so one of the things that will save you a lot of craziness when working with link lists is always draw pictures and arrows it’s just it’s just necessary and frankly those programming exams all they ever tell you is to draw these pictures sometimes draw a picture of a hashmap as as a good example so I’m just going to show you some pictures rather than showing you a bunch of code and then I think you can produce the code um uh later so I want to show you how you delete an item from a singly linked list so first you got to find it you got to do the walking of the link list which I just showed you you got to walk through and you got to find the item that you want to delete now if you walk through and you don’t find it there’s nothing to delete so our goal is is to delete the line is is and so but you got to handle three cases there’s the easy one which is where the thing you found is in the middle of the list or if the thing that you found is at the start of the list or if the thing you found is the last item in the list and again you got to draw pictures and you may have to draw them separately because we we’re going to be adjusting head and tail in addition to the next values now it turns out when you’re going to do a delete you want to not only track the current item in the list you want to track the previous item in the list so as you’re walking down the list you look you current moves ahead and preve moves right behind it so preve Trails current by one item you can see that current the the is line is the one we’re going to delete and it’s pretty simple the only real thing that you’ve got to change is you take PR next and you point it at ker next right so you can see on the right hand side that the the little link from the C to the fun has just B P pass the is now you do have to deallocate the struct L node and the string but that’s pretty much all you need to do and so the middle is really easy you find it you keep track of prieve you have current and then you just kind of bypass it by moving next so that’s the easy one the next thing that you got to do is what if it’s the first node and in this case prieve will point at null because we have not really seen more than one PR only goes non-null when we’ve passed the first one so current is pointing itead let’s say we want to delete the line that says C and so we notice that preve is null and so what we do is we actually just move the head to Kern next all right you can see in the on the right hand the head just points now the head has now bypassed that first line and that’s all we’ve got to do except clean up the memory of the first entry uh both the string and the struct L node so that’s pretty easy you detect by noticing that preve is null because you you’re catching it in the first time through the loop and preve trails current by one and if you have not seen the second one preve is still null so that’s a pretty easy one but you got to check it you got to check all so this one is if preve is null you’re sitting at the front so you mess with head and that’s all you’ve got to do other than get rid of the data and free it up the last note is perhaps a little bit trickier and so at if you look and how you know you’re on the last node is C next is null right because if you’re pointing at the very last node in the list then the next is null so if C next is null then what you’re doing is you know you’re deleting the last one and so you first set pre next to be null because that’s the new last one and then you have to update tail to point to preve so tail was pointing at cerr at the current and then tail at the end points to proeve and then you got to clean up your data of that formerly last item in the list so now we’re going to talk about doubly link lists and the main purpose to have doubly link lists is to be able to reverse a list python is easy there’s a method in the list object called reverse what we’re about to see is exactly how reverse works so you just read the lines in and you say lines. reverse and then you print them out and they come out and backwards order now somebody probably G van rossom who wrote this in the first place in 1991 he is writing a doubly link list to make reverse easy so if you remember how we did the um deleting where we kept track of prieve well in a doubly link list we actually just have preve in the L node and so in addition to the text we’re going to store we’re going to have a pre pointer and a next pointer and um at the beginning of the list the pre will be null and at the end of the list next will be null it’s called a doubly link list because it has both reverse and forward chains of pointers and we keep them working all the time so it turns out that making a doubly link list in terms of code is not that different we have another thing in the L node we now have three things Str struct L node star preve and as we’re linking a new thing onto the end of the list we basically take new preve the new new item we’re adding and we copy tail into that because tail points to the last one we’re adding a new one to the last one and the previous one is tail and then we do that before we set tail to new so we add a new one and then we set tail to new so it’s not that hard so this is an example of the three item list with all of the previous and nexts properly uh properly shown and so you it it just links together once you draw these things in a picture and you get the understanding of what they’re talking about they’re not too hard and section 6.5.1 in the book which I added actually um walks through this W link list in some details so I won’t replicate that here now let’s just say that you have a doubly link list and you want to now reverse it well it’s pretty simple you set current to tail same as long as current stays n not null and then say current equals current prieve so you’re you’re sort of popping back up one at a time so the second time through the loop current has followed the preve from the last item and now it’s on the second to last item and then it does it again and then it goes to the top and then the last time it goes up to the preve of the top one and finds null and then the uh loop finishes because current has become null and you printed out the three lines cool is C backwards so this is just an example in k69 Doc and I won’t walk through it in this lecture I’ll let you take a look at that that um it’s quite common to encode all this stuff in uh some functions rather than just in straight line code it’s not all that hard you don’t want to pass in uh the the list structure and the line um a list is passed in by reference and so you have to say Ampersand my list on this list add function and inside the function you do uh you have the list be a pointer to that structure and then you have to use the arrow syntax inside of the function the next thing I want to talk about is unions a union is like a structure but it it reallocates the same memory over and over whereas a structure allocates more memory this says I’m going to take this same piece of memory and I’m going to view it different ways and so it’s the same area and you can assign multiple types to it this this is useful in like Network protocols and pulling bits out of uh memory Etc and so in my current sample I’ve got my union sample open curly brace in I semicolon Char CA bracket 4 bracket semicolon float F semicolon Clos curly brace semicolon what I have done here is allocated in a sense four bytes integers in this case are 32 bits ca4 is four bytes which is 4 * 8 is 32 and floats are 32-bit floating Point numbers so that’s the same amount of memor so instead of being 4 * 3 or 12 bytes this is actually Four bytes that I can see it I can I can view it either as an integer or as a character array of four characters or float and I’ve carefully lined them up so that they’re the same width allocate Union sample U and then I set the integer version of that that 4 bytes to 42 and then I print it out and you can see the hex floating Point that’s a complete failure is 0. z is like it’s not a very good big floating Point number and then the as a character string it is an asterisk and then I take you.ca which is viewing that same area of memory as a character array and I copy quote capital a BC into it and you’ll see that it prints out as a string as ABC the floating Point number is still zeros it’s still kind of a bad floating Point number um but then I see the hex as 00 63 6241 now this is a little Indian computer that I’m running on it so the a is the 41 the B is the 62 and the C is the 63 and the zero is the end of string indicator and so that’s why I picked very carefully only copying a three character string into a four character array so I could copy that end of end of string indicator then I take u.f which is taking that exact same memory and perceiving it as a floating point and I put 1/3 into it so now when I print that out it’s 0.33 lovely when I print it out as a string it is pretty bad and so it turns out that uh the first three characters are the string but there’s no zero at the end of the string so that greater than is there and it just keeps on going it goes into memory and it’s it you know that all that stuff that’s greater than at sign question mark HK that’s just random garbage on the stack somewhere that because the percent s is wandering randomly through memory at this point and then if I print that out as hex and if if we wanted to we could learn something about the I floating Point format but 3E AA aaab is 1/3 and that is a base two repeating 1/3 with a exponent and uh floating Point Internal formats are not the sub object for this course I’ve accomplished everything I wanted you to know about C so the next topic is going to be object orent programming but not just how to use object-oriented programming in python or whatever C doesn’t have it what I want to do is look at if we were writing python itself in C which is what C python is how would we have to build things like a list structure a a list object a string object and a dictionary object how would we build them and we’ll take a look at other programming languages that have objectoriented features like C++ and Java and Etc and so really the next bit is going to be about the implementation details for objectoriented programming [Music] welcome to C programming for everybody my name is Charles S and this is my reading of the 1978 C programming book written by Brian kernigan and Dennis Richie at times I add my own interpretation of the material from a historical perspective chapter six structures a structure is a collection of one or more variables possibly of different types grouped together under a single name for convenient handling while we talk about data structures and how to use them in every language this section is about understanding how software developers carefully control the low-level shape of their data items to solve their problems when you first learn about the C struct keyword you might think it’s equivalent to a python dict a dynamic key Value Store like a PHP array Java my apppp or JavaScript object but nothing is further from the truth these other languages provide us with easy to usee data structures where all the challenging problems are solved this chapter tells or or told the creators of python PHP Java and JavaScript how to solve the complex problems and build convenient and flexible data structures which we now all use in those objectoriented languages one way to look at this code in this chapter is to think of it as a lesson on how one might build Python’s list and dict data structures if the code in the chapter takes you a little while to figure out mentally make a note of thanks for all the hard work that mod languages invest to make their highlevel data structures flexible and easy to use back to the textbook the traditional example of a structure is a payroll record an employee is described as a set of attributes such as name address social security number salary Etc some of these in turn could be structures a name has several components as does an address and even a salary structures help organize complicated data particularly in large programs because in many situations they permit a group of related variables to be treated as a unit instead of separate entities in this chapter we’ll try to illustrate how structures are used the programs that we will use are bigger than many others in the book but are still of modest size section 6.1 Basics let us revisit the date conversion routines of chapter 5 a date consists of several parts such as the day month and year and perhaps the day of the year and the month name these five variables can all be placed in a single structure like this struct date open curly brace in day semicolon int month semicolon in in year semicolon int Year Day semicolon Char M name open square bracket 4 closed square bracket semicolon curly brace semicolon the keyword struct introduces a structure decoration which is a list of decorations enclosed in braces an option name called the structure tag may follow the word struct as with date here the tag names this kind of a structure and can subsequently be used as shorthand for the detailed declaration the elements or variables mentioned in a structure are called its members a structure member or tag and ordinary I.E non-member variable can have the same name without conflict since they are always distinguished by context of course as a matter of style one would normally use the same names only for closely related objects the right brace that terminates the list of members may be followed by a list of variables just as for any basic type that is struct open curly brace dot dot dot closed curly brace X comma y comma Z semicon is syntactically analogous to int X comma y comma Z semicon in the sense that each statement declares X Y and Z to be variables of the named type and causes space to be allocated for them a structured declaration that is not followed by a list of variables allocates no storage it merely describes a template or the shape of the structure if the Declaration is tagged however the tag can be used in later definitions of the actual instances of the structure for example given the Declaration of date above struct date D defines a variable D which is a structure of type date and external or static structure can be initialized by the following by following its definition with a list of initializers for the components struct date D equals open curly brace 14 comma 7 comma 1776 comma 186 comma Double quot jul L double quot Clos curly brace semicolon a member of a particular structure is referred to in an expression by construction of the form structure name do member the structure member operator dot connects the structure name and the member name to set leap from the date in structure D for example leap equals D.E modulo 4 equal 0 and D.E modulo 100 not equal to zero or D.E modulo 400 equal 0 semicolon or to check the month name if open PR stir comp open PR d.m name comma double qu Aug double quot close pren equals 0 close PR dot dot dot or to convert the first character of the month name to lowercase d.m name subz equals lower open pin d.m name Subzero closed pen semicolon structures may be nested a payroll record might actually look like struct person open curly bra Char name open square bracket name size close square bracket semicolon Char address open square bracket Adder size Clos square bracket semicolon long zip code semicolon long SS number semicolon double salary struct date birth date semicolon struct date hire date semicolon close curly bra semicolon the person structure contains two dates if we declare M as struct person M semicolon then. birthd dat. Monon refers to the month of birth the structure member operator dot associates left to right section 6.2 structures and functions there are a number of restrictions on C structures the essential rules are that only operations you can perform on a structure are to take its address with Amber sand and access one of its members this implies that structures may not be assigned or copied to as a unit and that they cannot be passed or returned from functions these restrictions will be removed in forthcoming versions porista structures do not suffer these limitations however so structures and functions do work together comfortably finally automatic structures like automatic arrays cannot be initialized only external or static structures can this prediction was indeed accurate modern C compilers do support the copying of a structure with a single assignment statement given that a c structure is just a fixed length block of memory it’s easy easy to generate machine code to copy it a key bit to remember that when the C structure is copied it is done as a shallow copy a shallow copy copies the values of the variables and the pointers in the structure but does not make copies of any data which the pointers point to a structure that contains other structures I.E not pointers to structures then those structures are shallow copied as well back to the text let us investigate some of these points by rewriting the date conversion functions in the last chapter to use structures since the rules prohibit passing of a structure to a function directly we must must either pass the component separately or pass a pointer to the whole thing the first alternative uses of day of year which as we wrote in chapter five D.E day equals day of year open print D.E comma d. Monon comma d. day Clos print semicolon the other way is to pass a pointer if we’ve declared higher date as struct date higher date semicolon and Rewritten day of year we could then say higher date. Year Day equals day of year open print % higher date Clos print semicolon to pass a pointer to higher date to day of year the function has to be modified because its argument is now a pointer rather than a list of variables this example code is on page 122 of the textbook and you can see it at http://www.cc.com code struct date open curly brace int day semicolon int month semicolon int year semicolon int Year Day semicolon int M name open square bracket 4 Clos square square bracket semicolon closed curly brace semicolon static int Day tab open square bracket 2 close square bracket open square bracket 13 close square bracket equals open curly brace open curly brace 0 comma 31 comma 28 comma 31 comma 30 comma 31 comma 30 comma 31 31 comma 30 comma 31 comma 30 31 Clos curly brace comma and then another list just as long as that Co with a closed curly brace and a semicolon that just initialized the lookup table for the days in each month now on to the function day of year open pin PD close perin struct date star PD semicolon open curly braks in I comma day comma leap semicolon day equals PD minus greater than day semicolon leap equals PD minus greater than year percent 4 equals 0 and and PD minus greater than year per 100 not equal to zero or PD minus greater than year per 400 equal 0 semicolon four open print I equal 1 semicolon I less than PD minus greater than month semicolon I plus plus close print day plus equals Day tab open square bracket leap close square bracket open square bracket I close square bracket semicolon return open pen day closed pren semicolon close curly brace the d The Declaration struct date star PD says that PD is a pointer to a structure of type date the notion exemplified by PD minus greater than year I think I’ll call that at this point PD right arrow because that’s really what it is it’s the minus greater than looks like an arrow to the right so I’m going to call it right arrow but it’s really two characters PD right arrow year is new if p is a pointer to a structure then PD right arrow member of structure refers to the particular me member the operator right arrow is a minus sign followed by a greater than since PD points to the structure the year member could also be referenced as open Print Star PD Clos print doe but pointers to structures are so frequently used that the right arrow notation is provided both as a convenient shorthand the parentheses are necessary in open penar PD Clos P.E because the Precedence of the structure member operator dot is higher than the pointer lookup operator asterisk both right arrow and Dot associate to left from left to right so P right arrow Q right AR M and .b birthdate Doon are open print P WR Arrow Q Clos print right arrow M and open print. birthdate close print. Monon for completeness here is the other function month day Rewritten to use the structure this is the first example on page 123 of the text which you can look at the source code at http://www.cc.com codee I won’t read the struct and the date the struct date definition and the struct int static int dat tab definition we’ll just go month day month day open pen PD Clos pen struct date star PD semicolon open curly brace in I comma leap semicolon leap equals PD right arrow year percent 4 equals 0 and PD right arrow year percent 100 not equal to zero or PD right arrow year perent 400 equal 0 semicolon PD right arrow day equals PD right arrow year day four open print I equal 1 semicolon PD right arrow day greater than Day tab sub leap sub I semicolon i++ Clos print PD right arrow day minus equals Day tab sub leap sub I semicolon PD right arrow month equals I semicolon close curly brace the structure operators right arrow and Dot together with parentheses for argument lists and square brackets for subscripts are the top of the precedent hierarchy and then thus bind very tightly for example given the Declaration struct open curly brace int X int star y semicolon close curly brace star P semicolon then plus plus P right arrow X increments X not P because the implied parenthesis is Plus+ open PR P right arrow X Clos print parentheses can be used after The Binding open print Plus+ P right arrow X increments P before accessing X and open print p++ Clos PR right Arrow X increments P afterward the last set of parentheses is unnecessary in the same way star P right arrow y fetches whatever y points to Star P right arrow y ++ increments y after what after accessing whatever it points to just like Star s++ open PR star P right arrow Y close print Plus+ increments whatever y points to to and star p++ right arrow y increments P after accessing whatever y points to section 6.3 arrays of structures structures are especially suitable for man managing arrays of related variables for instance consider a program to count the occurrences of each C keyword we need an array of character strings to hold the names and an array of integers to hold the counts one Poss possibility is to use two parallel arrays keyword and key count as in Char star keyword open square bracket n Keys close square bracket semicolon int key count open square bracket n Keys close square bracket semicolon but the very fact that the arrays are parallel indicates a different organization is possible each keyword entry is really a pair Char star keyword semicolon int key count semicolon and there’s an array of the pairs the structure declaration struct key open curly brace Char star keyword semicolon int key count semicolon closed curly brace key tab open square bracket n Keys close square bracket semicolon defs an array key tab of structures of this type and allocates storage to them each element of the array is a structure this could also be written struct key open curly brace Char star keyword semicolon int key count semicolon Co closed curly brace semicolon struct key key tab open square bracket n Keys close square bracket semicolon since the structure key tab actually contains a constant set of names it’s easiest to initialize it once and for all when it’s defined the structural initialization is quite analgous to the earlier ones the definition is followed by a list of initializers enclosed in braces struct key open curly brace Char stock R keyword semicolon int key count semicolon close curly brace key tab open square bracket close square bracket equals open curly brace double quote break comma 0 comma double quote case comma 0 comma double quote Char comma zero comma and so forth down to double quote unsign double quote comma Z comma double quote while double quot comma 0er close curly brace semicolon these initializers are listed in pairs corresponding to the structure members it would be more precise to enclose initializers for each row or structure in the braces as in open curly brace double quote break double quote comma zero closed curly brace comma open curly brace double quote case double quot comma zero Clos curly brace comma and so forth but the inter braces are not necessary when the initializers are simple variables or character strings and when all are present as usual the compiler will compute the number of entries in the array key tab if the initializers present and the open square bracket closed square bracket is left empty the keyword counting program which begins with a definition of key tab the main routine reads the input repeatedly by calling a function get word that fetches input one word at a time each word is looked up in key tab with a version of binary the binary search function we wrote in Chapter 3 of course the list of keywords has to be given in increasing order for this to work here is the first example on page 125 of the textbook you can see this at http://www.cc.com code pound include stdio.h pound toine maxw 20 pound toine letter quote a quote main open PR Clos PR open curly brace int n Comm T semicolon Char word open square bracket Max word close square bracket semicolon while open print open PR T equals get word open PR word comma Max word close PR close PR not equal eoff close PR if open PR t equal letter Clos PR if double open PR open PR n equals binary open print word comma key tab comma n Keys close print close print greater than or equal to zero close print key tab subn dokey count Plus+ four open pen n equals z semicolon n less than n Keys semicolon n++ if open open PR key tab sub n. key count greater than zero close PR print f double quote percent 4D space percent s back sln double quote comma key tab subn dokey count comma key tab sub n. keyword close pren semicolon and then a close curly brace to finish main binary to find the word in the in the table binary open PR word comma tab comma n close print charar word semicolon ruct key tab open square bracket close square bracket semicolon int n open curly brace int low comma High comma mid comma cond low equals z semicolon High equal n minus one semicolon while open pren low less than or equal to high closed pen open curly brace mid equals pren low plus High Clos print over two semicolon if open PR open PR cond equals stir comp open PR word comma tab comma open square bracket mid close Square bracket. keyword close print close print less than zero close print high equals mid minus one semicolon else if open pren Con greater than zero Clos pren low equals mid plus one semicolon else return open print mid Clos PR semicolon close curly brace to finish finish the while and then return open print minus one Clos print semicolon close curly brace so that’s really a rewrite of the binary function from the earlier part where we’re just taking the keyword and the count and uh and look and looking up in the array but then using the dot keyword to find the actual keyword back to the text we’ll show function get word in a moment for now it suffices to say it returns letter each time it finds a word and copies the word into its first argument the quantity n Keys is the number of keywords in key tab although we could count this by hand it’s a lot easier and safer to do it by Machine especially if the list is subject to change one possibility would be to terminate the list of initializers with a null pointer and then the loop along key tab just runs until the end is found but this is more than is needed since the size of the array is completely determined at compile time the number number of entries is just the size of key tab divided by the size of the struct Key C provides a compile time op unary operator called size of which can be used to compute the size of any object the expression size of open pen object closed pen yields an integer equal to the size of the specified object the size is given in unspecified units called bytes which are the same size as a Char closed pen the object can be an actual variable or an array or structure or the name of a basic type like int or double or the name of a derived type like a structure in our case the number of keywords is the array size divided by the size of one array element and this computation is used in a p pound define statement to set the value of n Keys pound Define n Keys open print size of open print key tab Clos print divided by size of open print struct key Clos print Clos print now for the function get word we have actually written a more General get word than is necessary for this program but is not really much more complicated get word Returns the next word from the input where a word is either a string or of letters or digits beginning with a letter or a single character the type of the object that is is the returned function as a function value it is the letter if the token is a word eof Rend of file or the character itself if it’s non-alphabetic this sample code is on page 127 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code pound toine letter quote a quote pound toine digit quote zero quote get word open paren w comma Lim close Pin Char starw colon semicolon int limb semicolon open curly brace int C comma T semicolon if open pen type open print C equals star w++ equals get CH open print close print close print not equal letter Clos print open curly brace start W equals quot back sl0 quote semicolon return open for C close for semicolon close curly brace that if statement has got some stuff going on in it you might want to look at it very closely while open print minus minus limb greater than zero closed print open curly brace T equals type open print C equals star w++ equals get CH open print Clos print Clos print semicolon if if open print T not equal letter and T not equal digit Clos print open curly brace unget CH open PR C Clos print semicolon break semicolon close curly brace star open pin wus one closed pin equals quote back0 quote semicolon return open pin letter close Pin semicolon close curly brace close curly brace that that example code has a lot of stuff about pointers and incrementing pointers and dereferencing pointers ET ET so take a good look at that code back to the text get word uses the routines get CH and unget CH which we wrote in chapter 4 when the collection of alphabetic of an alphabetic token stops get word has gone one character too far the call to unget CH pushes that character back on the input for the next call get word calls another function called type to determine the type of each individual character for input here is a version that’s only for asky this code is the second example on page 127 of the textbook at http://www.cc.com code Type open paren C Clos paren int c semicolon H C open curly brace if open paren C greater than or equal to quote a quote and C less than or equal to quote Z quote or C greater than or equal to quote uppercase a quote and C less than or equal to quote uppercase Z quote Clos PR return letter semicolon else if open p c greater than or equal to quote 0 quote and C less than or equal to quote 9 quote close pen return open pen digit close Pin semicolon else return open pen C Clos pin semicolon close curly brace the symbolic constants letter and digits can have any values that do not conflict with nom non-alpha numeric values and eof the obvious choices are quote a quote and quote zero quote get word can be faster if calls to the function type are replaced by references to the appropriate array type the standard C library provides macros like is Alpha and is digit which operate in this manner section 6.4 pointers to structures to illustrate some of the considerations involved with pointers and arrays of structures let us write a keyword in program again this time using pointers instead of array Industries as an aside I would note that it’s a classic early assignment in any programming language to do a word frequency program here is a Python program from my python for everybody course to count words from an input stream handle equ equals open open parentheses single quote romeo. txt close single quote comma quote R quote close parentheses words equals handle do read open print Clos print.it openr close PR counts equals dict open PR close PR for word inword colon counts subword equals counts. getet open print word comma 0er Clos Print Plus One print open print counts close print this section in this book implements a less General word counting program in C the code depends on several functions from earlier in the book and the codee below is pretty complex where the programmer only has access to low-l language without powerful and easy to use data types like Python’s list or dict it is likely that GTO van rossom read this book took a long look at this code and designed the dict data structure in Python so the rest of us could write a data parsing and word frequency programming program in the above six lines of code without worrying about dynamic memory allocation pointer management string length and a myriad of other Det details that must be solved when you’re solving this program in C since python is open source you can actually look at the C code that implements the dict object in a file called dict object. C it is almost 6,000 lines of code and includes other files or utility code there thankfully we only have to write one line of python to use it counts equals dict open friend close PR we will leave the complex bits to the C programmers that build and maintain this section is not showing us how to use the python dict object rather it is showing how one would build a dict like structure using C so continuing with Section 6.4 pointers to structures the external definition of key tab do not need a change but Main and binary do need modification this is example on page 129 of the textbook and that is available at www . cc4 e.com code pointer version of Counting C keywords main open print Clos print open curly brace int T semicolon Char word open square bracket Max word close square bracket semicolon struct key star binary open print Clos print comma star P semicolon while open PR open PR T equals get word open print word comma Ma word close print Clos print not equal e close PR if open PR t equal equal letter Clos print if open print open print b equals binary open print word comma key tab comma in Keys Clos print Clos print not equal null Clos print P right arrow key count Plus+ for p equals key tab P less than key tab plus n Keys semicolon P plus Plus close parentheses if open print P right arrow key count greater than zero close print print F open print double quote percent 4D space percent s back slash N double quote comma P right arrow key count comma P right arrow key word and now we look at the binary search struct key star binary open pin word comma tab comma n close Pin Char star word struct key tab open square bracket close spur bracket semicolon int n open curly brace int cond semicolon struct key star low equals ersan tab Subzero semicolon struct key Star High equals Ampersand tab subn minus1 semicolon struct key equals mid while open pen low less than or equal to high closed pen open curly brace mid equals low plus High minus low / two if open p open pin cond equals stir comp word comma mid right arrow key word close print close print less than zero Clos PR High equals midus one semicolon else if Clos PR con greater than zero Clos PR low equals mid + 1 semicolon else return open pen mid Clos pen semicolon close curly brace to finish the while and then return open pen null close Pin close curly brace there are several things worthy of note here first the Declaration of binary must indicate that it returns a pointer to the structure type key instead of of an integer this is declared both in Main and in binary if binary finds the word it returns a pointer to it if it fails it returns null second all the accessing elements of keydb is done by pointers this causes one very significant change in binary the computation of the middle element can no longer be simply mid equals pen low plus High Clos pin divided by two because the addition of two pointers will will not produce any kind of useful answer even when divided by two and is fact illegal this must be changed to Mid equals low Plus open pen High minus low closed peren / two which sets mid to the point point to the element halfway between low and high you should also study the initializers for low and high it is possible to initialize a pointer to the address of a previously defined object and that is precisely what we have done here in main we wrote for open print P equals key tab semicolon P less than key tab plus n Keys semicolon p++ Clos print if p is a pointer to a structure any arithmetic on P takes into the account the actual size of the structure so p++ increments P by the correct amount to get to the next element in the array of structures but don’t assume that the size of a structure is the sum of the sizes of its members because alignment requirements for different objects C potentially may cause holes in the structure finally an aside on program format when a function returns a complicated type as instruct key star binary open print word comma tab comma n Clos print the function name can kind of be hard to see and or find with a text editor alternately another style is sometimes used on two lines now struct key star on the first line in binary open pen word comma tab comma n close PR the spacing is mostly a matter of personal taste pick the form you like and hold to it section 6.5 self-referential structures before we start this section a slightly longer aside from your narrator up to now I’ve resisted the temptation to augment the book with my own bits of code but we have reached the single point the book where I feel that there is too big of a conceptual leap between two sections so I’m going to add some of my own narrative between section 6.4 and 6.5 the rest of this chapter talks very nicely about binary trees and hash tables both essential low-level data structures in computer science and both excellent ways to understand pointers and how C can be used to build data structures like the python dictionary however the author skipped separately describing the structure of of a dynamic Dynam dynamically constructed link list which is the first and foundational collection data structure in computer science and should be understand understood before moving to tree and hashmap structures link lists form the foundation of the Python list object Java array object PHP numeric key arrays and JavaScript arrays the link list can be dynamically extended and items can be added in the middle efficiently as well as being pushed or popped on or off the front or back of the list link lists are used also to implement cues as well as other aspects of operating system I will attempt to mimic the authors’s writing style in this new section of the book I’ll write some sample code using a more modern dialect of C so it’s easier to run on a modern compiler section 6.5.1 linked lists bonus content suppose we want to read a file and print the file in reverse order we don’t know how many lines will be in the file before read the file so we can’t simply use an array of pointers to Strings and character Rays like lines in a sense we need a dynamic array that grows as we encounter new lines when we reach the end of the file we then just Loop through our stored lines from the end to the beginning so we can print them out in reverse order one solution is to make a data structure called a doubly link list of character strings in addition to each line of data we will store a pointer to the previous line and the next line as well as well as a pointer to the first item the add to the list and then we’ll call this the head of the list and then the most recent item we’ve added to the list which we will call the tail of the list we will see a singly link list as part of the hashmap data structure in a following section a single link list can only be traversed in a forward Direction a doubly link list can be traversed either forwards or backwards given that our link list of strings will keep expanding as we get new lines we avoid hardcoding array sizes like pound to find Max Len 1000 in the previous chapter we were building a program to sort a file going back to the description of a line in our doubly linked list it is clearly a structure with three components struct L node open curly brace Char star text semicolon struct L node star preve semicolon struct L node star next semicolon Clos curly brace this recursive definition of l node might look chancy but it’s actually quite correct it is illegal for a structure contain to contain an instance of itself but struct L node star preve declares prieve to be a pointer to an L node not an l- node itself we’ll write this code in a more modern seed dialect using modern memory allocation and IO routines provided by the standard seed Library this code is on page 130 of the textbook available at http://www.cc.com code pound include stdio.h pound include STD live. pound include string.h pound toine MAX Line 1,000 this is the length of the line not the number of lines struct L node open curly brace Char star text semicolon struct L node star preve semicolon struct L node star next semicolon Clos curly brace semicolon now we have our main program to print the lines in reverse and we will use int main open print Clos PR because we’re coding in a modern dialect of C open curly brace struct L node star head equals null semicolon struct L node star tail equals null semicolon Charline submax line semicolon while open print fgs open print line comma MAX Line comma STD in Clos print not equal null Clos print open curly brace Char star save equals open print Char star Clos print Malik open print sterlin open print line Clos Print Plus One Clos print suic colon stir copy save comma line struct L node Star new equals open print struct L node star Clos print Malik open pen size of struct L node close pen close pen semicolon new right arrow text equals save new right arrow next equals null new right arrow preve equals tail and tail equals new if head equals equals null close pen head equals new semicolon close curly brace to finish the while now we’ll print it all out four open PR instruct L node star current equals tail semicolon current not equal to null semicolon current equals current right arrow prev close parentheses open curly brace print F open print double quote s close uh double quote comma current right arrow text close pen semicolon close curly brace to finish the four and then close curly brace to finish the main interestingly if we wanted to print the list in for forward order or if we did have only a singly link list our Loop would look as follows four open pen struct L node star current equals head semicolon current not equal to null semicolon current equals current right arrow next close PR open curly brace print F open print double quote percent s double quote comma current right arrow text Clos pen semicolon Clos curly brace in general we use the variable names head tail and current as well as next and preve or similar names when writing code that builds or uses a link list so other programs will quickly understand what we are talking about after a while reading a for Loop to Traverse a linked list becomes As Natural as reading a for Loop that progresses through a sequence of numbers section 6.5.2 binary trees suppose we want to handle the more General problem of counting the occurrences of all the words in some input since the list of words isn’t known in advance we can’t conveniently sort it and use a binary search yet we can’t do a linear search for each word that is arrived to see if it’s already been seen the program would take forever more precisely what is the expected running time and it would grow quadratically with a number of input words how can we organize the data to cope efficiently with a list of arbitrary words our solution is to keep the set of words seen so far sorted at all times by placing each word into its proper position in the order as it arrives this should this shouldn’t be done by Shifting the words in a lineary array though that takes too long instead we will use a data structure called a binary tree the tree contains one node per distinct word each node contains a pointer to the text of the word a count of the number of occurrences of the word a pointer to the left child node and pointer to the bride child of node no node may have more than one more than two children it might have only zero or one the nodes are maintained so that any node in the left tree contains only words that are less than the words at the node and the right tree only contains words that are gr to find out whether a new word is already in the tree one starts at the root and compares the new word to the word starting into that node if they match we found it if the new word is less than the tree word the search continues down the left otherwise the right child is searched if there’s no child in the required Direction then the word is not in the tree and in fact in fact the proper place for it to be is the missing child this search process is inherently recursive since the search from any node uses a search from one of its children accordingly recursive routines for inserting and printing will be the most natural going back to the description of a node is clearly a structure with four components struct t- Noe open curly brace Char star word in count semicolon struct t- node star left semicolon struct t- node Star right semicolon Clos curly brace this recursive Declaration of a node might look chancy but actually it’s quite correct it’s eal illegal for a structure to contain an instance of itself but struct te node star left semicolon declares left to be a pointer to a node not a node itself the code for the whole program is surprisingly small given the handful of supporting routines that we’ve already written these are get word to fetch input and Alec to provide space for squirreling the words away the main routine simply reads words with get word installs them in the tree with tree this is the first example on page 131 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code pound include stdio.h pound toine maxw 20 pound toine letter single quote a single quote main open pen Clos pen open curly brace struct t- Noe star root comma star Tree open print Clos print semicolon Char word open square bracket Max word close square bracket semicolon int T semicolon root equals null while open pen open pen T equals get word open pen word comma Max word close Pin close Pin not equal eoff close Pin if open pin t equal letter close Pin root equals Tree open pin root comma word Clos pin semicolon tree print open pen root Clos print semicolon close curly brace tree it’s itself is straightforward a word is presented by main to the top level root of the tree at each stage that word is compared to the word already stored at the node and is percolated down either to the left or right subtree by a recursive called a tree eventually the word either matches something already in the tree in which case the count simply is incremented or a null poter pointer is encountered indicating the node must be created and added to the tree if a new node is created tree returns a pointer to it which is installed in the parent node this is the example on page 132 of the textbook at http://www.cc.com code pound includes string.h struct t- Noe open curly brace Char star word semicolon int count semicolon struct T node star left semicolon struct T node Star right right semicolon closed curly brace semicolon struct t- node star Tree open pen P comma W close print we’re going to install w at or below P struck T node star P semicolon Char star W open curly brace struct t- node star T Alec open pin Clos pin semicolon Char star stir St stir Save open p close p semicolon int cond semicolon if open print pble equal null Clos print open curly brace we’ve got a new word p equals T Alec open print Clos print to make a new note P right arrow word equals stir Save open print W Clos print semicolon P right arrow count equals 1 P right arrow left equals P right arrow right equals null close curly brace else if open print open print cond equals stir comp W comma P right arrow word close print close print double equals z close print P right arrow count Plus+ indicate that we’ve seen the word one more time else if open print cond less than zero Clos print lower will go into the left part of the tree P right arrow left equals tree P right arrow left comma W Clos PR semicolon else P right arrow right equals Tree open PR P right arrow right comma W Clos print semicolon return open print P Clos print semicolon close curly brace and that’s a bit of code it’s not much and it’s beautiful recursion is happening the return P at the very end is really really important because we’re kind of always overriding it but we’re okay so um The overriding Works its way back up to the recursion because it’s recursive it’s using pointers where we go back to the text storage for the new node is fixed by a routine called tallic which is an adaptation of the Alec we wrote earlier it rep turns a pointer to a free space suitable for holding a tree Noe we’ll discuss this more in a moment the new word is copied to a hidden place by stir say the count is initialized and the two children are made null this part of the code is executed only at the edge of the tree when a new node is being added we have unwisely for a production program omitted error checking on the values returned by stir save and T Alec tree print prints the tree in left sub tree order at each note Prince its left subtree all the words less than this word then the word itself then the right sub tree all the words greater if you feel shaky about recursion draw yourself a tree and print it with tree print it’s one of the cleanest recursive routines you can find this example code is on page 133 of the textbook which you can see at http://www.cc.com code I won’t read The Struck T node code just tree print tree print open pen P Clos pen struct T node star P semicolon open curly brace if open pen P not equal to null Clos pen curly brace open curly brace tree print open pen P right arrow left close pen semicolon print F percent 4D space percent s back slash N double quote comma P right arrow count comma P right arrow word some close parentheses semicolon tree print open PR P right arrow right Clos PR semicolon close curly brace for the if and then close curly brace for the tree print function again I agree with the authors and that is one of the cleanest and most beautiful and most applicable uses of recursion that you will probably ever see in all your I’m not a fan of recursion in all uses cases but you really can’t do this any other way well back to the text pract as a practical note if the pre tree becomes unbalanced because the words don’t arrive in random order the running time of the program can grow too fast as a worst case if the fors are already in order this program does an expensive simulation of linear search there are generalizations of the binary tree notably two three trees AVL trees and I would add balanced binary trees which do not suffer from this worst case Behavior but we will not describe them here before we leave this example it’s also worth a brief digression on a problem related to storage allocators clearly it’s desirable that there only be one storage allocator in a program even though it allocates different kinds of objects but if one allocator is to process requests for say pointers to chars and pointers to struck T noes two questions arise first does it meet the requirement of most real machines that objects of a certain types must satisfy alignment restrictions for example integers must often be located uneven addresses second what declarations can cope with the fact that Alec necessarily returns different kinds of pointers alignment requirements can generally be satisfied easily at the cost of some wasted space merely by assuring ensuring the allocator always returns a pointer that meets all alignment restri restrictions for an example on the pdp1 it is sufficient that Alec always returns an even pointer since any type of object may be stored at an even address the only C cost is a wasted character on the odd length requests similar actions are taken on other machines thus the implementation of Alec may not be portable but its usage is the Alec of chapter 5 does not guarantee any particular alignment in chapter 8 we’ll show how to do the job right as an aside by now you know that when the authors mentioned the pdp1 they are sharing some aspects of the challenge of making cwork on previous generation computers with short memory words and small amounts of memory and at the same time making them work well on the incoming generation of computers with larger words and more memory the research thought and care that went into making sure the C code was portable across multiple generations of computer hardare Ware is on display in the previous paragraph the question of the type declaration for Alec is a vexing one for any language that takes its type checking seriously in C the best procedure is to declare that Alec returns a pointer to char and then explicitly coers the pointer into the desired type with a cast therefore if p is declared as Char star P semicolon then open peren struct t-e star Clos print P converts it into a t- node pointer expression thus tallic is written as struct t- node star T Alec open pren Clos pren open curly brace Char star Alec return open pren open print struct t- node star Clos print Alec open print size of open print struct t- node Clos print Clos print close print this is more than is needed for current compounds but represents the the safest course for the future I would add that these concerns that the author’s mention in this section are also nicely resolved in modern C compilers in the NC version of C they introduce the notion of the Void type the void type indicates the lack of a type much like null is used to indicate not a valid pointer or not a flying toy in 1978 because the charart type was generally the most native type on any system it was often used as the generic pointer needed to return memory from an allocation function in modern C we use pointers to void and then cast The Returning pointer to be a pointer to whatever struct or other data we just allocated if we were writing Alec the Alec routine in this book using modern C it would return a pointer to void the 1978 version is Char star Alec open pin Clos PR and the modern version is void star Alec open PR close Pin we’ve left the book alone we haven’t used void throughout the book but it is a testament to the foresight of the authors that all the pointer casting code in this book still works today the same regardless of whether the memory allocation functions return Char or void pointers to the allocated data section 6.6 table lookup as an aside in this section we finish our quick tour of the implement M ment ation of the Three core data structures in computer science one the link list two the tree and three the hashmap as described in this section A singly Link list is also part of a hashmap implementation so you can compare it to the doubly link list code introduced in the earlier bonus section 6.5.1 this section is worth understanding well because not only is it an excellent review of pointers and structures but also because one of the most common questions on a face-to-face programming interview is draw a hashmap on the Whiteboard and explain how it works this is an easy question if you study and understand this section of the book and almost impossible if you have not in some ways this section is the most intricate data structure that’s described in the book it is why it is so popular in coding interviews chapters is seven and eight talk about lots of practical things like input output of the Unix operating system elegant data structures and their use are Core Concepts in computer science understanding them highlights the difference between a good programmer and a computer scientist in a sense understanding how a hashmap is the secret handshake of computer science and it is the secret handshake because of this book and this section of this book written back in 1978 and used in a course that the person interviewing you may have took when they were in college hashmaps were difficult for them to understand back then and so if you understand the concept then you must be solid so I hope you pay close attention to this section and remember the handshake back to the text in this section we will write the innards of a table lookup package as an illustration of more aspects of structures this code is typical of what might be found in the symbol table management routines of a macro processor or a compiler for example consider the C pound defined statement when a line like pound Define yes one is encountered the name replacement Tech the name yes and the replacement text one are stored in a table later when the name yes appears in a statement like inw equals yes semicolon it must be replaced by one there are two major routines that manipulate the names and replacement texts install open pin s comma T close Pin records the name s and the replacement T in the table s and t are just character strings look up open print s Clos print searches for s in the table and returns a pointer to the place where it was found or null if it wasn’t there the algorithm used is a hash search the incoming name is converted to a small positive integer which is then used to index into an array of pointers an array element points to the beginning of a chain of blocks describing the names that have the hash value and if it is null then no names have hashed to that value a block in the a block in the chain is a structure containing pointers to the name the replacement text and the next block in the chain a null next pointer marks marks the end of the chain struct and list open pen Char star name semicolon Char stard def semicolon struct end list star next semicolon close curly brace semicolon the pointer array is just pound toine hash size 100 static struct end list star hashtab open square bracket hash size Clos square bracket semicolon the hashing function which is used by both lookup and install simply adds up the character values in the string and forms the remainder modulo the array size this is not the best possible algorithm but it has the Merit of extreme Simplicity hash open pen s Clos pin Char star s semicolon open curly brace int hash Val four open curly brace hash valal equals zero star s not equal quote single quot back sl0 single quote semicolon Clos pen hash Val plus equals star s++ semicolon return open pen hash Val modulo percent hash size Clos prin semicolon closed curly brace as an aside hashing functions are one of the foundational Notions in computer science hashing functions are used for every from high performance in memory structures organizing databases data digital signing Network packet check sums security algorithms and much more the above text is a really great example of a really simple hashing function you should understand this simple presentation well so that when you encounter a more complex implementation or use of hashing you can fall back on this text to understand that at its core hashing is a very simple concept so much of this chapter is a succinct example of some of the most powerful Concepts in computer science please don’t look at the eight code lines of code above and think I got that and just jump to the next bit this chapter is showing you the way of the master programmer wax on wax off be patient slow down and enjoy your time time here back to the text the hashing process produces a starting index in the array hashtab if the string is to be found anywhere it will be in the chain of blocks beginning there the search is performed by lookup if lookup finds the entry already present it just returns a pointer to it if not it returns null here’s the code struct end list star lookup open pin s Clos pin Char star s semicolon open curly brace struct and list star NP semicolon four open pin NP equals hashtab sub hash open pen s Clos pen close square bracket semicolon NP not equal null semicolon NP equals an NP right arrow next close parentheses if stir comp open print s NP right arrow name close print double equals 0 return open print NP close print semicolon return open print null Clos print semicolon close curly brace install uses lookup to determine whether the name installed is already present if so the new definition must supersede the old one otherwise a completely new entry is created install returns null if for any reason there’s no room for a new entry struct and list star install open pin name common def close Pin jar star name comma stard def semicolon open curly brace struct end list star NP comma star lookup open PR Clos PR semicolon Char stir save comma star Alec open PR close PR semicolon int hash file semicolon if open print open print NP equals lookup open PR name close print close print double equal null close Pin open curly brace I.E it’s not found NP equals open pin struct end list star Clos pin Alec open print size of open Print Star NP Clos print Clos print semicolon if NP equals null return null that means the allocation failed if open pen open print NP right arrow name equals stir Save open print name close print close print double equals null Clos print return open p null Clos pint semicolon hash Val equals hash open PR NP right arrow name closed print semicolon and P next equals hashtab open square bracket hash Val close square bracket second semicolon hashtab open square bracket hash Val close s bracket equals NP semicolon we’re actually pushing these new ones to the head of this singly link list and so those last two statements push the the most recent top of the list forward and then replace with a new one at the top of the list the list does not stay in any order so we have a Clos curly brace to end all that if for the not found code closed curly brace else this is the already code already there code free open pin NP WR Arrow defa Clos pin semicolon free the previous definition that’s the string part of the the uh the pound Define if open print NP right arrow def equal stir Save open print defa close print close print equals no close print return open print null Clos print semicolon return open print NP Clos print semicolon Clos curly brace so that last bit there was to if you have a pound Define with the same keyw and a different later you have a later a different uh definition you can replace the definition and so that last bit was replacing the definition again this code is pretty intricate it’s really both the hash table and a singly link list going on at the same time so take a close look at this on page 136 of the book stir save merely copies the string given its argument to a safe space obtained by a call to Alec we’ve showed this code in chapter five since calls to Alec and free may occur in any order and since alignment matters the simple version of alic is just not adequate here see more in chapters 7 and 8 as an aside one of the reasons that the authors make vague forward-looking statements when they talk about dynamic memory is that large-scale memory management in a programming language is still a subject of active research 40 years later back in 1978 it was absolutely not a settled topic you can see this when the authors build a simple non-production memory allocation scheme with their own Alec and free routines backed by a fixed length static extern array of characters Dynamic allocation is essential to writing competency programs but it is likely that the production grade dynamic memory support was still somewhat non-portable when the book was written so they use Simple self-contained implementations in this book modern dynamic memory support is through the Malak C alic and free functions in the standard Library these functions request dynamic memory blocks from the operating system and manage those areas on behalf of your C code on Unix and Unix like systems the memory allocation layer asks the underlying operating systems for blocks of memory through the sbrk interface even with virtual memory programmers must carefully manage their use of dynamically allocated memory because memory is never unlimited section 6.7 Fields when storage space is at a premium it may be necessary to pack several objects into a single machine word one especially common use is a set of single bit at flags and applications like compiler symbol tables externally imposed data formats such as interfaces to Hardware devices also often require the ability to get at pieces of a word as an aside we are going to go now from lowlevel programming to even lower level programming the Unix operating system is written in C and Unix needs to have for example an implementation of the internet Pro protocol so it can be connected to the internet one of the most important internet protocols is the transmission control protocol TCP in order to implement TCP you need to send very precisely formatted data across the network the data is very tightly packed in order to save precious Network bandwidth.
the exact format of a TCP header is described in the TCP Wikipedia page if you look at the header you will find that it bits 96 through 99 TCP expects a 4-bit integer that defines the data offset exactly what this data means is less relevant unless you’re actually writing the TCP implementation but it does demonstrate that we need to control our data layout at times on a bit bybit basis this section covers how we can use struct to build up a TCP header in C which can be parsed and set without using masking and shifting operations with hard-coded numbers the section below is simpler than constructing a valid TCP header using a carefully pack struct but it does lay the groundwork for these more complex situations now back to the text imagine a fragment of a compiler that manipulates a symbol table each identifier in a program has certain information associated with it for example whether or not it’s a keyword whether or not it’s external Andor static and so on the most compact way to encode such information is a set of one bit Flags in a single Char or int the usual way this is done is Define a set of masks corresponding to the relevant bit positions as in pound Define keyword 01 pound Define external 02 and pound define static 04 the numbers of course must be powers of two so that the shifting works then accessing the bits become a matter of bit fiddling with shifting masking and complimenting operators which were described in Chapter 2 certain idioms a appear frequently Flags vertical bar equals external vertical bar static turns on the external and static bits in Flags while flags and percent equal till open pen external or static closed pen semicolon turns them off and if open pen open pen Flags Amper sand pen external vertical bar static Clos pen Clos pren equal equals z dot dot dot is true if both bits are off although these iums are readily mastered as an alternative C offers the capability of defining and accessing Fields Within A Word directly rather than by bitwise logical operators a field is a set of adjacent bits within a single int the syntax of field definition and access is based on structures for example the symbol table pound defines above could be replaced by the definition of three Fields struct unsigned is keyword colon one semicolon unsigned is extern colon one semicolon unsigned is static colon one semicolon closed curly brace Flags this defines a variable called flags that contains three onebit Fields the number following the colon represents the field width in bits the fields are declared unsigned to emphasize that they are really unsigned quantities individual fields are referenced as flags. is keyword flags. is extern ETC just like other structure members Fields behave like small unsigned integers and may part participate in arithmetic Expressions just like the other integers thus the previous examples may be written much more naturally as Flags is underscore extern equals Flags is static equals 1 semicolon turn the bits on flags is exter equals Flags is static equals 1 semicolon to turn the bits on flags. is xtern equals flags. is static equals z turns them off and if open prin flags. is extern double equals 0 and flags. is static double equals z close print dot dot dot to test them a field may not overlap an INT boundary if the width would cause this to happen the field is aligned to the next int boundary Fields need not be named unnamed Co Fields with a colon in width only are used for padding the special width zero may be used to force alignment to the next int boundary there are a number of caveats that apply to Fields perhaps the most significant fields are assigned left to right on some machines and right to left on others reflecting the nature of different Hardware this means that although fields are quite useful for maintaining internally defined data structures the question of which end comes first have to have has to be carefully considered when picking apart externally defined data other restrictions to bear in mind fields are unsigned they may only be stored in ins or equivalently unsigned they are not arrays and they do not have addresses so the Ampersand operator cannot be applied to them section 6.8 unions a union is a variable which may hold at different times object objects of different types and sizes with the compiler keeping track of the size and alignment requirements unions provide a way to manipulate different kinds of data in a single area of storage without embedding any machine dependent information in the program for example again from a compiler symbol table suppose constants may be in Floats or character pointers the value of a particular constant must be stored in a variable of the proper type yet it is most convenient for table management if the value occupies the same amount of storage and is stored in the same place regardless of its type this is the purpose of a union to provide a single variable which can legitimately hold one of several types as with Fields the syntax is based on structures Union UT tag open curly brace int IAL semicolon float F Val semicolon Char star P valal semicolon Clos curly brace U Val the variable U Val will be large enough to hold the largest of the these three types regardless of the machine it is compiled of compiled on the code is independent of Hardware characteristics any one of these types may be assigned to U Val and then used in Expressions so long as the usage is consistent the type retrieved must be the type most recently stored it is the responsibility of the programmer to keep track of what type is currently stored in Union the results are machine defend dependent if something is stored as one type and extracted as another type syntactically members of a union are accessed as Union name. member or Union pointer right arrow member Justice for structures if the variable U type is used to keep track of the current type start in U Val then one might see code as if open pin you type double equals int Clos pen print F pen double quot percent d/n double quot comma U IAL close paren semicolon else if open paren UT type double equal float close paren print F open PR double quote percent F sln double quot comma U val. fval close pen semicolon else if open pen U type double equal string close pen print F double quote percent s back sln double quote comma U val. pval close PR semicolon else print F open print double quote bad type percent D and U type back sln double quot comma U type Clos pren semicolon unions may occur in structures and arrays and vice versa the notion for accessing a member of a union in a structure or vice versa is identical that to that for nested structures for example in the structure array defined by struct open curly brace Char star name semicolon int Flags semicolon int utype semicolon Union open curly brace int IAL semicolon float F Val semicolon Char star P Val semicolon Clos curly brace U Val semicolon Clos curly brace Sim tab open square bracket n Sim close square bracket semicolon the variable IAL is referred to as simab sub. val. IAL and the first character of the string P Val by star simab sub. U.P in effect a union is a structure in which all the members have offset zero the structure is big enough to hold the widest member and the alignment is appropriate for all types in the Union as with structures the only operations currently permitted on unions are access accessing a member and taking the address unions may not be assigned to passed to functions or returned by functions pointers to unions can be used in a manner identical to pointers to structures as an aside the above limitations on unions are just no longer accurate like structures modern C compilers can assign the contents of the Union to another Union variable you can also pass unions into functions by value and receive a union as the return type of a function the storage allocator in chapter 8 shows a union can be used to force a variable to be aligned on a particular kind of storage boundary section 6.9 typ def C provides a facility called type def for creating new data type names for example the Declaration typed def space int space length semicolon makes the name length a synonym for INT the the type length can be used in declarations casts Etc in exactly the same ways int can be length Len comma Max Len semicolon length star lengths open square bracket close square bracket semicolon similar the Declaration type def Char star string semicolon makes string a synonym for Char star or a character pointer which then may be used in declarations like string P comma line PTR open square bracket lines closed square bracket comma Alec open pen closed pen semicolon note that the type being declared in a type def appears in the position of a variable name not right after the word type def syntactically type def is like the storage class extern static Etc we’ve used uppercase letters in these examples to emphasize the names a more complicated example we could make type deps for the tree no shown earlier in the tra chapter type def struct T node open curly brace Char star word semicolon int count semicolon struct T node star left semicolon struct T node Star right semicolon close curly brace tree node comma star tree PTR this creates three two new type keywords called tree node which is a structure and tree PTR which is a pointer to the structure then the routine tallic could become tree PTR T alic open PR Clos print open curly brace Char star Alec open print Clos PR semicolon return open print open print tree PTR Clos print Alec open print size of open print tree node Clos print close print Clos print semicolon close curly brace it should be emphasized that a type def declaration does not exactly create a new type in any sense it merely adds a new name for some existing types nor are there any new semantics variables declared this way have exactly the same property as variables who whose declarations are spelled out explicitly in effect type def is like toine except that since it’s interpreted by the compiler it can cope with textual substitutions that are beyond the capabilities of the C Macro preprocessor for example typ def int open PR star PFI Clos print open print Clos print semicolon creates the type PFI to mean pointer to a function returning integer which can be used in contexts like PFI stir comp comma num comp comma swap in the sort program in chapter 5 there are two main reasons for using type def declaration the first is to parameterize a program against portability problems if type defs are used for the data types which may be machine dependent only type deps need to change when the program is moved one common situation is to use type def names for various integer quantities and then make an appropriate set of choices of short int and Lawn for each host machine the second purpose of type defs is to provide better document mentation for a program a type called tree PTR may be easier to understand than one declared only as a pointer to a complicated structure finally there’s always the possibility that in the future a compiler or some other program such as Lind may make use of the information contained in typed def declaration to perform some extra checking on the program this work is based on the 1978 C programming book written by Brian W kernigan and Dennis M Richie their book is copyright All Rights Reserved by AT&T but is used in this work under fair use because of the book’s historical and scholarly significance its lack of availability and the lack of an accessible version of the book the book is augmented in places to help understand Its Right Place in a historical context amidst the major changes of the 1970s and 1980s as computer science evolved from a hardware first vendor centered approach to a software centered approach where portable operating systems and applications written in C could run on any hardware this is not the ideal book to learn C programming because the 1978 Edition does not reflect the modern sea language using an obsolete book gives us an opportunity to take students back in time and understand how the SE language was evolving as it laid the groundwork for a future with portable applications [Music] hello and welcome to objectoriented patterns a historical perspective we’re going to cover a number of different things in this lecture first we’re going to do a bit of review of object orientation from previous courses that we’re going to take a look at historical perspective across a bunch across time and a bunch of different programming languages important the important part about that is that object orientation is a concept it’s not just a syntax and so by looking at different syntaxes we’ll have a better understanding of the underlying concept then what we’re going to do is we’ll look at how one might have used C to build object Orient support into a language like say python for example or C++ and then we’re going to look at building a python string class in C a python list class in C and then a python dictionary class in C sort of showing how C is also the foundation of most modern object-oriented languages so if you take a look at the other courses that I’ve taught I have been teaching objectoriented if you taken my courses I have been teaching you object orientation for a long time one of the things you’ll notice is that um I just keep coming back to it if you look at python for everybody chapter 14 is about object orientation I I claim that Django for everybody is is really a class and object orientation because D Jango itself is a a collection of cooperating objects you you create Jango applications by creating objects that are being sent messages which is very much a purely objectoriented concept I cover object oriented JavaScript particularly because JavaScript is a little bit different I cover that in both Django for everybody and in web applications for everybody and so we’re going to take a look at all these different uh syntaxes of object orientation and then we’re going to try to build our own objects but in a non-ob Orient language IE C I am not going to teach you object orientation in this lecture I am going to do a very very brief review on my other lectures mostly what I wanted you to know was terminology so the most important terminology is a class A Class is not an object it’s a template to make objects it’s like the cookie cutter in the cookie methodology an attribute is some data that you can contain in each instance of the class and a method is some code like a function that operates within the context of the instance of the class the object is a particular instance of the class Stamped Out from the class when a new instance of the class is requested so you have one class then you have many many instances so if you do a user defined class in Python you see that we have a special keyword class which is different than defa and within it we have attributes and we have methods so the methods look like functions but in particular the methods inside of a class always have this first parameter which by convention we call Self you could call literally anything else but if you did people would be confused because the convention is so strong that SF is always the first parameter of every method inside a python so in it is the instance and then two parameters and then we can look at attributes like self.x and self.y and then assign them in this case to the X and Y from the call so we have a couple of methods like def dump and again a dump itself is a zero parameter method but it always has the instance and then we look within it we can say self.x and self.y and look at all the attributes and we can use the ID function which we learned in the last chapter which is kind of like an address lookup function in Python and so what we have here is we have a little method called origin which takes the distance for our point from the origin to our point and takes the square root of the the two sides of the triangle squared so if we then get out of the the class definition and move into the actual code we call PT equals 4050 that is how we call the Constructor point is the class name and then the parameters to the Constructor are four and five in that example point. dump that’s the dump method inside a point and you can pass the parameter PT which is the instance so PT ends up being the instance of this point object but the more common syntax is to not use the class name and the method name and explicitly pass self in but instead in the next line we see print origin and then pt. origin well pt. origin is expanded to point. origin and then the first first parameter is kind of added on which is PT which is the instance now I’ve got a Dell Dell parentheses PT closed parentheses and that is the destructor now in Python the destructor would get run automatically at the end of the program so in this case that Destructor is a little bit redundant so now I want to take a bit of a historical look at object orientation so if you’ve seen any of my other classes I try to put the programming languages that were learning in context and these are the common programming languages like Python and PHP and JavaScript and now we’re teaching C and so if you look at this the idea is is you can see that the language C has been the inspiration for virtually all of the modern languages that we we use today and that I’ve taught you um python inspired is INS while the syntax of python doesn’t look like C python has been inspired we see things like there’s formatted printing that talks directly to the underlying C implementation because cpython not every python but the C python that we normally use is written in C so c as we’ve said many times in this class already is profoundly influential in the syntactical evolution of procedural programming language so we’ve seen this before but if we think about object orientation object orientation the inspiration and evolution of object orientation really took sort of a different path through a bunch of languages that you may or may not have seen or heard so the oldest language on this is Fortran in 1955 and alal 60 UH alol 60 I don’t have it marked as like that alol 60 was inspired by Fortran uh Fortran um but probably the better thing to say was that alol 60 was created in spite of Fortran so Fortran was loved by some and not loved by others and alol 60 is more what the computer scientist of the day in 1960 decided so there’s a a series of languages that were popular in computer science but not necessarily popular in general purpose programming like uh simulus 67 which took a lot of the objectoriented ideas from um elal 60 and um Pascal which is a procedural language which is another language that uh I learned in the in the 70s when I was going to school and um if you look for so so algol and simula were languages that were mostly procedural but had objectoriented Concepts in them I always think of the most objectoriented languages as small talk it it you know it’s not necessarily the first one but it feels like it’s the one that developed the notion of object orientation the most but it it really took inspiration from an earlier language which was lisp and so lisp was an early early 1960 interpreted language uh lisp was often thought of as the foundations of artificial intelligence now scheme in 1975 was a direct derivative of lisp inspired by Lis kind of the next generation of lisp 15 years later and it had a bunch of objectoriented Concepts in it as well and so you can kind of see where where the object-oriented notation the object-oriented Notions were evolving kind of independently from the preferred syntax and in the’ 70s when C came along it really changed the way we think of a syntax and so it inspired C++ inspired Java JavaScript C and PHP but then what happened is each of these things kind of took different inspiration from different object orientation so there’s a there’s really almost independent inheritance of where the inspiration for the language came from versus where the inspiration for the objectoriented pattern and probably the biggest thing that you see is C++ which is early 80s took its inspiration both from simula and from C so it it it was the a hybrid language that tried to take the object-oriented notations from simula and layer them on top of the procedural syntax of C now another interesting thing here is is that python in 1991 um was quite aware of C++ and so if you look at a PHP which in 1995 was not at all objectoriented it wasn’t object oriented till 2000 python was objectoriented in sort of almost 1991 92 because the computer scientist of the day were quite aware of these kinds of things and so python sort of implemented object orientation almost as soon as python was implemented and so like I said python 1991 implemented object orientation and I I really like the object orientation in Python PHP implemented non-ob oriented ’95 but then added objects in 2000 Java took a lot of inspiration from C++ Java was trying to be the next C and so it’s got a lot from C it’s got a lot from C++ and then C Shar was inspired by C++ and Java but then JavaScript is kind of like the outlier JavaScript even though it came out in 1995 and was very much informed by Java it took its object-oriented pattern more from scheme which is a more pure object orientation rather than an objectoriented layer and so JavaScript among all of these things that we’ll look at JavaScript is sort of the outlier in terms of its object and approach and if you’ve taken classes for me in the past I’ve mentioned that before because JavaScript has first class functions and the way you create things etc etc etc so we’re going to take a look at some of these object Jo implementations over over time I’ve already talked about the python inspiration I flip Python and C++ Plus in the early days because at least python we kind of know um C++ is 1980 Java ‘ 95 JavaScript in 95 PHP in 2000 and then C in 2001 [Music] n [Music] it was highly collaborative in the sense that this was a group of you make up a number 30-ish people who were all interested in much the same kinds of things although with tentacles off into you know theoretical computer science math and so on uh physical sciences kind of thing but mostly a lot of us at least we’re we’re basically software people BNA came to uh B Labs I think in 1979 after getting his PhD at Cambridge um and he was interested in simulation you know he known uh simula in particular which was an object probably one of the very first object-oriented languages and he wanted to do simulation but C was kind of the language that people used at Bell labs and so what he did was to try and take some of the good ideas from SIM in particular class ideas and put that on top of c and for a long time the implementation of C++ was B basically translate C++ into C and then you could run it anywhere so it’s one of many pragmatic engineering decisions that BNA made that if you want it’s hard to get people to buy into a new language if they have to carry an enormous amount of infrastructure and support and other baggage with it whereas if it’s one more program that then fits perfectly into your existing environment as a language as libraries and all the rest of it much easier and so C went through a period of evolu well it’s still evolving uh but starting there in the very early you 1980 81 something like that the two languages were very much together because we’re all in this one group and Babs would fit comfortably in this Corridor this building um and be which certainly new see inside out and then was developing this new language that ran on top of it that stressed C compilers so that was useful because the code that that his pre-processor generated was astonishing and I think some of the ideas in C++ then retrofitted back into C in particular the obvious one of how you declare the arguments for a function I mean that’s just that was better and a handful of other things so for a while the two languages you could say that c was a pretty close perfect subset of C++ uh I think that’s evolved in both directions and so it’s less true now than it was but for a long time you could take a seek program and just run it through a C++ compiler and it would work there’s a general observation that people write code differently than computers write code and so machine generated code tends to stress in particular the compiler or the language for which you’re generating and and so in the C++ to C example were you know incredibly deeply nested constructs of one sort or another you know parentheses that made lisp look tame um and then very convoluted pointer kinds of computations as well function pointers all kinds of and so it was definitely a stress test and also generating things that had odd sizes and so on that were not expected or at least paths that had maybe not been thoroughly tested in a given compiler I think a lot of people did not think that C+ plus was right in some sense it had various warts blemishes and so on many of those were again direct result of be’s engineering judgment if you want this thing to take off the more culturally compatible it is the more likely it will do that if you make something that’s wildly different people are going to kind of ignore you and so um and so some of the syntactic problems of C++ that are still with us are you know the same syntactic problems that usually can see for quite a while when I was trying to teach C++ to people I would show them the translation that goes from a C+ plus object into C and you know it’s basically just pointers into structures with the compiler kind of keeping the names apart so you don’t have to think about them and and seeing that translation you could see how objectoriented programming could be done at essentially no overhead because it’s just structure pointers and um and funny function name and you can pass function pointers around and so it was all pretty well behaved and I think that understand I mean it helped me understand what was going on in C++ and objectoriented programming and so on I think in modern languages and python a fine example of that there’s an incredible amount of magic going on there and I don’t quite know how it’s done as well as it is I mean I can sort of Imagine but but the mechanisms to make some of those things list comprehensions with lambdas in them and so on I how the heck does that work [Music] I was trying to characterize what is C++ particularly useful for what did I actually build it for and what is its strength today after almost 30 years of evolution and and so and and also where’s the limits to where it is so the way I see it is there’s a core domain for C++ and uh that’s what you would call traditional uh um systems programming but that’s not the right term because it’s just a style of language and a style of programming so I go a little bit further I said what is it that that that requires the kind of services that C++ has what is the sum of all these applications I’ve been dealing with where did it work and where was it essential and I came up with the phrase infrastructure and I I roughly Define it as if it breaks uh somebody gets hurt or somebody gets ruined these are the kind of foundational uh things in our systems that must work for the system for the societ to work the the the the question I’m trying to phrase is what matters in those areas and I’ve come up with some Notions of compact data structures um very strongly typed interfaces for maintaining ability and for minimizing errors um a heavier emphasis on algorithms or uh random code because we we need reliability we need the stuff to be comprehensive ible analyzable we want to make sure that it’s actually correct and so the paper I was writing come from from that kind of of thinking what is the right Style and what are the supports for that style we need for infrastructure software for for for software that must be dependable and we can get real examples um sort of the the keys of some of the modern operating system the the basics of our phone system the brakes in my car um how do we make that dependable how do we uh make sure that the space probes don’t uh get the logical equivalent of the blue screen of death halfway to Mars where we can’t send a a repair man how do we make sure that they actually go into the right orbits and JPL lost a um a probe of Mars because two groups um had communicated nicely they thought but in fact one of them spoke Imperial measures and the other one spoke uh the SI system the MKS system and the result was uh a misn navigation that sent U more than 500 million worth of equipment into the wrong orbit not not a good idea it was the work of 200 good Engineers lifetimes work down the drain uh and that could have been avoided by an ever so slightly Improvement in the interfaces uh between the parts of that program so things like that I’m interested in so there’s a core area where I think the the facilities for C++ the kind of they’re not perfect the kind of things I would like the kind of things I work on are essential and then there’s a uh huge gray area where uh you have choices they can help in my opinion but they’re not essential then you have areas where it uh probably is unsuitable to apply that kind of uh of stringency and technique I mean I I want to essentially get 100% reliability if I’m putting up a small application for my own use or or if somebody is trying to push out a a little cute uh web app they don’t need that kind of reliability and maybe what I’m talking about in terms of programming is not for them but I think the really important thing here is that realize that there are different techniques different languages that apply to different areas and we have to recognize this we can’t have a single language for everybody a single technique of using that language for everybody um we can’t have a single tool chain or single kind of of system um and from there we can go a little bit further we probably don’t need the same kind of training for uh education for for everybody the engineer software develop or whatever that is building infrastructure um say the mechanism that automatically updates the software on uh on a cell phone uh has to have a different education different knowledge different training from the one that makes a little game um because the one can actually destroy um a whole day or um or a whole week for millions of people by a little slip um maybe even somebody gets hurt if the 911 calls don’t get through bad things happen and it’s not just the software that runs on it it’s the update software it’s anything in the chain of of safety critical uh issues that has to be dealt with but somebody doing that has to think differently from somebody who writes a little application uh maybe to make a couple of of of bucks uh uh quickly uh there’s nothing wrong with that but they have to think different as a matter of fact if you apply this very stringent engineering oriented thinking to to little commercial apps you’ll probably be a year late to Market and uh it will be irrelevant on the other hand if you took the attitude of of first to Market is the only thing that happens and apply them to uh the steering wheel of my car uh no that’s not a good idea these people have to think different and the way you get people to think differently is to is to give them different educations we we don’t have an ANC standard programmer and and we shouldn’t have if it was we should have several and I think the field has to in some sense clean its up its act before somebody else comes in and try and cleans it up for us this notion that you can sort of make your own constants and have the seconds after the constants is that is that a feature that you added at some intermediate stage or is that simple sort of operator overloading we were observing that we’re getting a whole zoo of little suffixes out of uh the various fundamental types so the U suffix is for unsigned and L is for long I think and I can’t remember them all anymore and we thought you know you can do anything in C++ but you can’t make your own little Ro and then I had observed separately that there was techniques that were effective except that people would not used them because no notation was too ugly uh the Unix example is one of units example is one of those uh you’ve been able to do everything in the Unix example I showed not quite as elegant but you can do everything showed for the last 10 years libraries have been available uh there was a nice one from firmy Labs back to nice places and nice people again uh but it wasn’t used as much as it should because the users didn’t believe in the notation they they didn’t like it and so we were looking at how can you basically clean up People’s Source Code how can we make code look the way it would look in an ideal language how can we make code look much as it does in the textbooks so the units sample is simply a way of getting your code to look uh the way the equations look in your physics textbook I mean we know how to avoid that Mars climate o a problem everybody had been taught it in physics in high school first make sure your units match then do the detail calculation so why didn’t people do it it was too combersome and it was too ugly when they did it or too costly if they used um runtime techniques so I uh together with with friends we we thought this problem was worth addressing try to figure out what Solutions we had went through several Evolutions I I think the the last finishing touches was done by David um and it’s it’s now standard um this is one of the features that is not shipping widely today but wait a year and that that example will probably run your computer too is are there other kind of examples where you’ve let people um from within a class create their own literals Beyond sort of suffixes when I started out the C++ I provided conr structors which allows you to to construct objects of a certain type from arguments and and that has been very effective and people have used Constructors as um as if they were literals but they weren’t there was a runtime cost so the first thing we did with C++ uh Ox C+ plus 11 was we introduced uh constant Expressions as a more fundamental unit this was work between me and my colleague Gabriel d r and we have con exper functions that can be evaluated at compile time and we have conext for types so that you can use type Rd programming at compile time this is very important in sort of the high performance Computing and in the embedded systems world that was what we did to address that constant expression evaluation is much more General much much easier to use and yes more more pretty uh in C++ 11 at an earlier versions so that just strengthens what the direction we’ve gone before uh so you could write complex one comma uh two to make a complex number in C++ in 1984 um today you can write the same thing and have the complex number uh created at compile sign and therefore say put in ROM I don’t know why you would want a complex number on ROM but you might want a point which is the same thing point of what two now you still have to write point or complex and the other uh thread in uh of thinking in C++ work was to generalize and make safer the initialization and so it happens that if you know the type you need like you have a function returning uh a complex number you can simply write open curly 1 comma 2 and it says oh 1 comma 2 is supposed to make you a complex number and it will make a complex number and return it and if you happen to be a compil time you’ll do that at compile time so things work together you get better notation you get better performance and anything you can do at compile time works even better in a concurrent system because you can’t get a race condition on a constant if it’s been calculated before the program starts you can’t get the threading problems so open curly means find a Constructor for the thing that I’m about to put this in yes it looks at where the destination is and it says is there a two two parameter Constructor or a three parameter Constructor or whatever or if it’s just a struct it’ll take the first element and put in the first element and second it does it for a struct as well oh yeah see I should I haven’t played in C++ in a while that’s a great idea refers to say uniform and uh uniform initialization it’s little little initialize if it can and if there’s any ambiguity of course finds the ambiguity if you’re in a context where the like you’re calling a function and the target could be a point or a complex number it’s a tough luck go or tell me so the the the error checking has actually been improved C++ 11 is slightly better at finding bugs than C++ uh 98 was I mean I come from the the school of philosophy that says that the compiler is your best friend when you generate um Cod when you build programs and uh to make it your best friend you actually have to have more types if everything is an integer well what can the type system help you you there no it can’t if everything is a floating Point number it can’t tell you whether it’s Imperial or or SI units and you get books so you need type brid interfaces and for that you need to be able to build U cheap types basically and flexible types that’s easy to use uh simple and so we worked from complex of 1 comma Z One comma 2 or something like that so curly is is 1 comma 2 and the type is optional only needed when it’s needed and then finally we can now write uh if we wanted to uh 1 + 2 I Define I as the uh unit for the um imaginary parts and you get complex arithmetic without ever saying complex it’s down in the definition of the ey suffix [Music] so we’re going to take a look at some of these objectoriented implementations over over time I’ve already talked about the python inspiration I flip Python and C++ in the early days because at least python we kind of know um C++ is 1980 Java in ’95 JavaScript in ‘ 95 PHP in 200 and then C in 2001 so here’s the example that I uh showed you before uh talked about it before you have a Constructor double underscore andit double underscore with self as the first parameter um self.x the again the key thing is self is by convention self is not a language construct um it just so happens that the first parameter of method calls is to the instance and we almost exclusively use the word self for that that is a very early 1991 implementation of an objectoriented syntax on top of a mostly procedural language now if we take a look at C++ C++ was initially implemented as a pre-processing past and it sort of did sort of one for one textual Transformations and so class was not a keyword in the language public that’s not a keyword in the C language there was syntactic transformation that kind of transformed it into C and then run it through the C compiler and so we say I mean and this is this is pretty elegant and you can absolutely see how python was inspired by C++ so class Point open curly brace uh double X and Y are the attributes and the Constructor by convention is the exact it’s a function that has no type the Constructor is the exact same name as the class so in this case I’ve got point with an uppercase p and then the Constructor parameters um come in now the interesting thing is as you have to declare as double X and Y as the attribute variables and then within the function you can think of the double XY as almost like extern scope means they’re Global across all functions so you have this weird thing where you can’t have AE parameter like you could in Python you can’t have a parameter the same name as an instance variable or you’ll be confused and so you’ll notice I called the XC and YC as my parameter variables so that I know that those are um parameters in the Constructor and so I can copy XC into X and YC into Y and um it also means if you look at the dump code you see like you don’t have to say self.x you don’t you just say X and Y because X and Y are doubles they’re instance y extern variables as it were and the same is true in the the origin function that’s returning the otk of x^2 + y^2 you don’t have to have self or this or anything else so if we take a look at the main program on that first line Point PT open pin 4.0 comma 5.0 we are both allocating uh a point instance and uh calling the Constructor and setting it up then we use the dot syntax pt. dump open PR close close print semicolon uh to dump it out and then we can call pt. origin and then that will return us a uh double and so you’ll see this sort of dot syntax um that that is becomes pretty common in every every language that comes afterwards so let’s take a look at Java now recall that Java was inspired both by C and C++ and really wanted to be like the super language and you see that it looks a lot like like C++ but it does introduce the concept of this so that it Scopes the external variables that are the instance variables you access an instance variable by saying this.x and this.y rather than just X and Y and I I think it’s actually more elegant this way so we say public class point and then double X comma Y which are the instance variables and then the the Constructor is using the C++ Convention of point with no type uh double x and double y are the two parameters this dox equals X and thisy equals y close close curly brace now I I like this better because the this using this does not uh keeps me from having to make weird function parameter variable names I can make them what I want to be and this is the way using this is the way that we contextualize that so if we look at the dump method we see um the use of this uh and and this is not just by convention this is a language element so this is the pointer uh you’ll see you can see from the output um it actually prints out the class that it is and some kind of uh reference like ID like thing and so Java actually if you start printing objects out it tells you what its type and what instance it is it’s not necessarily an address but it probably is related to the address somehow but then we print out this.x and this doy and then if we look at the Double origin method we see it’s this.x time this.x plus this.y * this.y so you see the sort of use of of this throughout then if we look at the main program we see Point PT equals new point 4.0 comma 5.0 this is where we see the use of this new operator where you’re saying look call The Constructor and I like this I I like the sense that you’re you’re calling the Constructor on purpose you’re not calling it implicitly and then you end with PT as the instance of this object and so for me uh this feels pretty good pt. dump is a good example of calling a method within the instance and pt. origin uh is uh similar if we take a look at JavaScript and recall that JavaScript is the weird one JavaScript did not take its inspiration from C++ c++’s syntax was kind of influenced by the fact that it was initially a pre-processor to the language would see and it some would some computer scientists would think that that’s a rather impure way to think about object orientation and so the JavaScript when it was created the idea was is to be more pure in object orientation and so the concept of first class functions there is because it has first class functions there is no class keyword the class keyword was really useful when it was a pre-processor the thing that uh JavaScript does take is the concept of this now the interesting thing is if you look at everything on the screen from function point to the closed curly brace this is the Constructor The Constructor constructs everything it constructs the attribute variables and it actually constructs all the methods as well so if we look at the line this.p party equals function open print Clos print open curly brace we are setting in a sense a attribute variable to source code this is an anonymous function there’s no name to the function so most functions are named but this function has no name that’s a JavaScript thing it’s a first class function thing we are basically not running that function with the two lines of this.x equals this.x plus1 and console.log blah blah blah those lines aren’t running they’re being compiled and then they’re being the code to execute that is being assigned into the attribute variable party so so it doesn’t run it it reads it and stores it in party you can literally later print out this. party and you will see the source code to that function and the same is true for this. dump it’s an assignment statement and then similarly this. origin and you see within those methods you see this.x and this.y which is taken directly from uh job we also see the concept of new in PT equals new. 4.0 5.0 we’re explicit and I like this I like the idea of saying please call the Constructor from the point class and pass these two variables in and then we see the C++ inspired syntax of pt. dump to call a method in the PT instance and pt. origin to call a method in uh instance if we look at PHP now the key to PHP was is PHP is a procedural language uh when it was created in uh in ’94 and it became an objectoriented language in PHP 4 and then five it was late to the party so it could be inspired by everything by JavaScript by Java by by um by C++ by simula by scheme all of those things and so the PHP object orientation is is kind of pretty as a result of that now one of the things that happens in PHP is it’s got some weird language syntax things in that variables have have to start with a dollar sign thank you Pearl for that um and the dot operator is used for concatenation in PHP so we couldn’t use the dot operator to look up instance variable or a method inside of an instance PHP borrowed the C Arrow operator which is minus sign greater than now the interesting thing is is if you go back to pointers the the arrow operator is what you do when you have a pointer to a structure and so in some ways that is a throwback to see in a beautiful way because I think kind of under the covers and as we shall C when we are starting to implement object orientation in C ourselves we’re going to see that pretty much we get pointers to an instance is a pointer to something rather than a thing and so we we see this this Arrow x equals dollar X and the Constructor we see the Constructor is a double underscore construct so the um uh PHP kind of use the single underscore and double underscore as sort of metadata about the meaning of things and double underscore are things you’re not supposed to call they’re supposed to be private and then we have a function dump and you see the concepts of this inside of dump and origin you see this in the main code you see dollar PT equals new 4050 well it’s following the new from java and others and then we call PT Arrow dump dump and then dollar PT Arrow origin it pretty much works like most of the other ones except that you never use dot because dot is concatenation in PHP and I’ll be honest I love dot for concatenation except for the fact that PHP is different than every other language that I use every other language us as Plus for concatenation of strings now C is a 2001 so C was inspired kind of by everything and so you see that c is uh clearly very C++ oriented but with some javess to it so you see the double XY in the class which is the uh two instance variables you also see that not there’s no use of this and so you see that we have to name the parameters differently because X and Y are in effect Global across the entire class and then we have you know void dump there and then we see that it’s just using X and Y no need to use this it’s it’s tough for me to decide which of these two ways I like better um I guess that this is this feels more EXP to me um so I like Java and JavaScript in that respect self and the I like self also if we look at the origin function we see um X starx and plus Yar Y and so we don’t need to use this we again see a very uh Java oriented Point PT equals new point openr 4.0 comma 5.0 point. dump we’re using the dot operator to look at instance variables and methods within the uh within the class and then point. origin so now that we’ve looked at sort of a survey of the different kinds of object-oriented languages that are that are today and we can sort of see how they derived ideas from one another now we’re going to actually try to build an object in a non-object oriented language so we’re going to build like a python object in [Music] C so now what we’re going to do is we’re going to try to build objects in C C doesn’t have obor support so in a sense we’re going to do it by writing functions and using structures and pointers Etc so we’re kind of answering the question about how was Python’s object-oriented layer layered on top of a c structure so we can kind of put ourselves in the position of uh G van rosom as he was building python in 1991 and say how are we going to make this syntax work how are going to um in C which is underneath all of this how can we make this syntax work and so this is just review you know we got class point we got a Constructor takes two parameters self is our instance pointer and we got dump and we got origin and then if we look at the main program we create a new Point call The Constructor we can we can see that point. dump that is the function name dump inside a point but then we’ve also got to pass the instance in or the shortcut syntax and so the pt. origin open print Clos print that is kind of paying more homage to the way C++ would have called Methods and then of course the Dell operator at the end so let’s build ourselves some code in C we are building in effect a point object in C so we’re going to just start with a structure and the structure is going to be point and there’s some instance VAR Ables we’re going to just allocate a double X and A Double Y inside of it but then the methods are kind of weird we are going to take the Dell method the dump method and the origin method and we’re going to Define them as pointers to functions so void open PR star Dell Clos print open print construct point star self Clos print semicolon the void is the return type of this function star Dell means a function named Dell that code is not here but this points to a function somewhere else and then the construct point star self that’s the first parameter right and so construct point star self is the fact we’re going to have one parameter it’s going to be named self and it is a pointer to a structure and we’ve got something similar to in dump um the origin is pretty much the same except it’s got a return value okay and so that now is a structure this is C so the structure is going to allocate one double two doubles which is uh should be eight bytes each and then three pointers which is8 bytes each so we got 8 * 5 that’s going to be 40 bytes it’s a it’s not a dynamic structure it is exactly 40 bytes of allocation because C structures are just memory and so it’s not like you can sort of throw more stuff in there you got to Define it you got to Define what type it is and it’s going to allocate space we are going to use a naming convention for now and we’re going to create the dump function and the dump function is going to take a self parameter and we’re going to name it pointcore dump that’s just a naming convention and we’re going to name the first parameter as it comes into our function self just like python we’re going to print out object point at and then percent P which is the way we print a pointer out so self is a pointer xals percent F yal percent F and then we’re going to print out self and self Arrow X and self Arrow y now remember that kind of looks like uh uh PHP uh because self is a pointer to a structure not a structure itself so we use the arrow operator to both dreference self and then look up the attribute uh the uh attribute variable X so if you look at the output you see it’s object point at big long HEX number for the address and xal 4 y = 5 and then we have the void Point Dell which is very similar construct point star cell so the first parameter to Dell is self and you’re all of the first parameters are always going to be self when we create these functions that we’re going to treat as methods and then we’re going to free that’s all that’s going to do is call free on the pointer where we pre originally allocated it then we’re going to create the origin method and again take a single parameter self and we’re going to return the square root of self x * self X Plus self y * self Y and that’s going to have return value and then we’re going to go and do the Constructor and the Constructor structor is going to return a pointer to a point and it’s called Point new we’re going to sort of follow the new convention and it’s going to take two parameters an X and A Y so the first thing we’ve got to do is we got to allocate the 40 bytes size of star P which is a double a double two doubles and two pointers to functions which I think I’ve got it right is 40 characters and then we’re going to set the we’ll get that address of 40 characters back we’re going to set the x value to be X from The Constructor y-value to Y from The Constructor call and then we’re going to set the dump pointer to Amper Sand Point dump now this is done on purpose where Point dump is defined earlier in the file and then P origin is the same thing point aend point origin so in each object that we’re creating we are going to record the address of three in global functions right they’re named Point underscore but these are just regular old functions in the global function namespace right now you know we don’t we don’t have namespaces we’re in C folks we can’t sort of do that fancy stuff so we just use a naming convention to accomplish it and then when we’re done with the Constructor we do return P so that whatever is calling us gets their instance back so p is the instance but we are in the Constructor allocating and filling the instance up with data and it’s just a struct it’s just 40 bytes of memory with some labels so in the main code we say struct point star PT equals pointcore new and then PR 4.0 comma 5.0 and this looks a lot like oo code except it’s not we’re using a struct a pointer to a structure and we’re calling a global function called Point new we just happen to have named it in a way that looks a lot like object orientation and so now what we can do is we can say PT Arrow dump which means go look up the dump variable inside the point object that’s pointed to by PT and then call it but we still have to pass in PT as that first parameter because that is self that is the instance so all these functions dump Dell origin all need to have as their first parameter self and so PT dump looks up dump but then we still have to put PT in as a parameter and that syntax we’re going to do the same thing for PT Arrow origin open print PT Clos print and then to clean things up and in this case we need to well the F the program is done but you know you need to free up allocated memory so the memory is allocated in the Constructor 40 bytes is allocated in the Constructor and then those same 40 bytes are deallocated with by calling free in the destructor and so we we fall intents of purposes there is other than conceptually there is no objects involved in this there’s strs there’s pointers and there’s functions the fact that you can get a pointer to a function means that we’ve kind of imitated it and again I look at this as how GTO van rossom actually was like facing this and thought to himself how am I going to figure this out how am I going to make it look like this is object orientation so this is this is kind of probably some of the code looked a lot like this in the early days of python and then there was kind of a simple syntactic transformation layer in the in the python sort of parsing to call the things with naming conventions so you can do a lot of object orientation with naming conventions and if you recall C++ started as a language pre-processor and so again you could almost look at this as how did C++ get built right C++ had some oo syntax that then transformed the oo syntax into C code that looks a lot like this which is oh we got some functions the functions have name and conventions and we create a struct and that struct has data in it but it also has pointers to function in it and we’ll call the data the attributes and we’ll call the pointers to the functions the methods and voila we have objectoriented programming so up next we’re going to actually implement the python string class or at least a little bit of the Python string class [Music] so now we’re going to switch from my little point class which is just two doubles to an actual string class so what’s interesting about the python string class is that you can extend it and so we’ve been talking a lot about pointers and arrays and even when you call Malo you can’t just keep extending things whereas in Python thankfully we can just extend things we create a string we can append H to it and we can print it append L world and print it and then assign it to some other string and then print that and get get its length and we never had to allocate or deallocate any memory during this time when you get done looking at the code what we’re going to have to do to allocate and deallocate memory what you should be thinking is wow I’m glad I’m programming in Python I’m glad that GTO van rasum gave me a string class rather than a character array of fixed length an expandable string class rather than a character array of fixed length so we’re going to create in C using our little Convention of naming a string class and so if we look at the code what we’re try going to try to do here is we’re going to basically emulate the python syntax but in C so we’re going to start by making a structure pyer structure we’re going to get a pointer back we’re going to name that X we’re going to call the Constructor pyer new we’re going to dump it we’re going to have a little dump we’re going to append an H to it we’re going to dump it again then we’re going to pend a whole string now H in C is a character and lo world is a multicar string and so we’re appending many characters we’re going to dump that then we’re going to assign it to a completely new string and then we’re going to print it out like Pi give me the string version of this object or the length of it and then we’re going to delete it throw it away so you can see all of the Python operations are sort of mimicked but with naming conventions in C now the one thing you’ll notice here is in this main code we never allocated any memory and we never deallocated any any memory that is within the object now within the object we have a responsibility to properly allocate and deallocate but one of the interesting things here is is I haven’t shown you the code to do any of that and so you don’t know that but that’s cool because we can use this as long as we do a new play with it and then do a Dell we can do stuff with it it underneath pyer it does all of that memory management for us and that’s one of the beautiful things about an object-oriented approach again the syntax on the one side if in C is pretty heavy but and the syntax on the on the other side which is the U the python is pretty light but the idea is is that in Python we never had to worry about o making a string too long or Too Short or having buffer overrun or anything like that so as we dive in we have to realize that part of the job of this pyer object is to handle all memory allocation on our behalf so we as programmers can write much simpler code okay so now we are going to build the pyer class we’re going to create a structure called pyer and in that we’re going to have three things the length of the string we have how much data we’ve got allocated in the string and then Char data is the actual character array and so we have to have a character array inside of it we’re not we’re not going to let the outside code touch this character array directly we’re going to completely manage it inside this object we got draw a little bubble around us and it’s like you can do stuff you can use my object but I’m going to deal with everything for you so don’t mess around with my internal stuff so what we would think of is all of this instruct pyer is sort of private and see we don’t have a good way to force it to be private um but in the concept of object orientation length Alec and data would be something we’d think of it as private in our Constructor we are being asked to create a new python string and we’re going to return a pointer to that structure when it’s done so the first thing we do is we alloc alloc it now int int is usually 32 bits so that’s four uh Alec there’s 48 there’s probably 16 characters in pyer um when we do Malik size of p is 16 that’s the number 16 and so it’s going give me 16 characters now the the key thing is is that that is not allocating the actual string data it’s just allocated eight bytes for a pointer to the string star data is a pointer and that first Malo is only giving us the pointer not the actual data so then we just sort of set it up we say our length of the string is zero there’s nothing in it our allocated length of the underlying data string is 10 and then we immediately call Malo to get 10 characters so now data is a 10 character character array and Alec tells us how much we’ve allocated because it’s our job inside this thing to keep track of that stuff and then just to be good we throw back sl0 uh at the zero position in that allocated character we don’t know what the rest of them are we just know that the first one is zero and then we return the pointer to the structure not the pointer to the data the pointer to the structure and this gets called inside the main as TR struct pyer star x equals pister new and when we’re done we get back this cool little two pieces of data that have been dynamically allocated and it’s all it’s all ready for us to do cool stuff with we got the struct we’ve got the Constructor and then we’ve got the destructor which is pyell and that again passes in s now calling free now if you recall there are two allocated things one is the data which is the character array that we’ve got we’ve got to get rid of that and then we got to get rid of the object itself and so at the end of Dell we have given back all of the data that we’ve alled now one thing important here is the order of these two statements matters a lot so when we free self we’re not supposed to access self anymore after that point I’m I’m sure there could be some data just laying in there that’s not been ruined but you just don’t know and so that’s why we have to free self Arrow Data before we free self just because it’s just wrong to do that in the other order and so we do a piser dump and in that we dump out the length we dump out how much we’ve allocated so far and what the data is in it so far.
and then pyer Len pyer Len returns an integer and it takes self as a parameter the key to this is it returns self length and you might ask why it is that we don’t just let our are calling code access self length and this again is encapsulation we don’t want to refal the fact that we’re keeping track of length in this variable because we don’t want the calling code to be messing with it remember that length data and Alec are kind of private and so instead of saying just go look at self length no I would like you to call my function and I will give you the thing you want so you just call the Lend function and pass in the instance and that allows me to change the name of length it allows me to interpret length differently allows me to do all kinds of things but at least the object writer is in control of the contract with the outside world so by hiding all the data and giving methods to a we call these accessors to access this data is a good idea now the underscore stir if you think of python it’s like you can say stir open print close print anything inside the parentheses and it converts it to a string well it just so happens that we’re going to maintain self. dat as a valid string So when you say take this string object and convert it to a string ready for printing I’m just going to return the pointer to the string we’ve been maintaining all along internally we have some other methods that we’ve got to add we’ve got to add an append to add a single character you can see that it’s got two parameters it’s got self and a single character CH you got a pend s which is a got two parameters the self the instance and a whole character string which is a pointer to a character then we have a sign which is uh got two parameters one is self and one is a pointer to a character string now I’m not going to give you these lines of code I’m going to give you an assignment to write these lines of code I’m going to show you how they’re supposed to work but I’m not going to give you the code so I’m telling you that pyer append is about 10 lines of code pyer append s is just one line of code it’s a for Loop pyer a sign is about three lines of code so pyer append s calls pyer append and pyer assign calls pyer append s and so we do a lot of reuse here so let’s take a look at how these are going to be used in our main program we say struck pyer starx equals pyer new which is give me a new string object and then we’re going to append A Single Character H to it and then we’re going to append s a multi character string and we’re going to dump it each time and then we’re going to overwrite our object with a completely new string and so the key thing is you have got to build this this is what you’re going to build okay but I’m talk a little bit about how to do it so let’s walk through what you might need to do in pster append now recall that when we set this thing up we created length we allocated 10 characters and a 10 character array and had data point to that 10 character array and we remembered that we had 10 characters so the first thing that a pen does is it checks if the the the length is greater than what we’ve allocated meaning that you know if we’re going to put in character Zero like the letter H we can just depend it and then update length we still have 10 characters allocated and we’ve used one of them um and so we can just start appending into data right and we have to put a a zero at the after it so that the data is a valid string all the time and so if you kind of imagine that we create the new object we have a new object that has a length of zero and it has 10 character array and it has a a string and character in the first character we’re good we have 10 allocated and we know we have 10 allocated then if we add an H character A Single Character H all we have to do is add H into that array data Subzero in that case and then update length to be one and then say data sub one is back sl0 so that we terminate it correctly so after that first line the data is H it’s a valid H string so we’ve appended a single character we’ve updated the length and then we have terminated the string and then we go to the next line in C where we just in this case we’re going to append the letter e and we look at the length of the of it because it tells us where to put it the length is one so we put it in sub one and add back sl0 and then we check to make sure that we have space for it because we’ve got 10 but we’ve only used two we’ve really used three because h e end of character string so we really use three but the length of the string we’ve got is three so as long as no one asks us to append more than 10 characters aend is a pretty simple operation you just add to the the character array that we’ve already got allocated okay but of course it gets interesting you can pen h e l l o space w r and at that point we have uh nine characters in our length of the string that’s in data is nine we’ve got it properly terminated so we have used the 10th character to terminate the string so we’re really good things are great but now the problem is we have got to append the L after the R so we have to append the L after the R so what we have to do is we have to call a function we called Malo in the Constructor and now in a pen we’re going to have to call Alec to say ooh I asked for 10 characters but now I want to extend that from 10 to 20 characters and realic does that realic says here’s a pointer and it knows how many characters it is please reallocate this pointer take this date in this pointer and give me make it 20 long instead of 10 long it might have to copy it so let’s take a look at what realic does so we can extend the size of a dynamically allocated area by calling realic with the current pointer to the area and the new size so in the Constructor you see that we Malik 10 and then we’re in the pend and we say if the length is greater than self alic minus 2 we don’t have space for two characters left then we going to have to reall so what we’re going to do is we’re going to change this from 10 to 20 characters so we’re going to take self aloc which is 10 and add 10 to it so now self aloc is 20 and then we’re going to set self data to a to realic the old self data 20 characters so this this realic takes a pointer and a new size and gives us back a new pointer now it actually may have to move it in memory so you can’t assume that self data is the same before and after but you can assume that if it had to move the data to find you a 20 character slot in its free space that it will have copied all the first 10 characters will be copied and then you’ll get a new parameter and that’s why you see self data on both sides both in the call to realic and as the assignment statement so we go back here and we can see that oh yeah now we have 20 and it’s got plenty of space for the L and the D and the back sl0 so now we’re going to show the code that’s going to basically test our class we’re going to create a new we’re going to dump it we’re going to append A Single Character H we’re going to dump it we’re going to append a string one way to make this simple is just have append s call append repeatedly for nine characters because appending nine character string is the same as appending nine characters not appending one character time nine times then a sign assigning a completely new string which means that you got to you got to take length back and you got to set some things and you got to check the size and do a whole bunch of stuff and then we’re going to ask the pcore stir to give us back a printable string and then we’re going to ask the p stercore l Len to tell us how long this thing is and so you get to write some code not too much code probably 15 lines of code um but it is code that you will need to think deeply about and you’re going to need to understand the structures you’re going to need to understand the pointers etc etc etc up next we are going to make a list [Music] class so the next class that we’re going to build in C is an emulation of what you would do if you were building the python list class in C so let’s just start start by taking a look at sort of a python and uh C version of this thing in Python we created a new list then we append a whole string then we print it then we then we have another string then we print it we have another string we print that we ask how long is the list we do an index which is a positional lookup saying where is the string Brian then we say if Bob’s in the list where’s it or we say we can’t find Bob so we have to do an if then else and use in because otherwise we’d have to use a TR catch because if you do an index to a with a string that’s not there in Python it’s going to blow up so we can either do an if then else or we can do a TR catch it’s sort of six and one half a dozen and the other but in C we’re going to effectively call py list new to create a new list we’re going to call py list append and again remember all the time we’re calling these things that are like methods we’re always putting the instance as the first parameter in this case LST is the instance so we’re going to append hello work we’re going to print it we’re going to append catchphrase we’re going to print it we’re going to append Brian we’re going to print it then we’re going to look at the list length of the list then we’re going to look up Brian and we’re going to look up Bob and in this case I made it so that the index just gives us back negative one to say I didn’t find Bob so that I didn’t have to try catch because it’s like a little bit more SE like and then we do a py listor Dell to clear up the memory we are about to switch from being the consumer of the list object to the the builder of the list object and our job as the Builder of list object is to dynamically allocate all the data that we need to make this thing work and so we don’t get to see the details of that all we know is there these functions that we can call and this structure that we can use and if we call the functions right somebody else is going to deal with all of the dynamic memory that makes this work and you’ve done linked lists in previous assignments so link list should not be completely foreign to you but now we’re taking an object-oriented approach to implementing a link list and hiding the implementation detail within the object which is an important part of objectoriented programming so here’s like some basic stuff and some of this should start looking pretty familiar we got a l node which is short for list node we got a pointer to a character string um and then we have a pointer to the next one so we call that one next by convention next is not a keyword next is just a really common convention when we’re making link lists and then we and that’s just the node so link list is a list of nodes but then there’s kind of the list itself and that’s what the struct py list is and it’s got a pointer to the head and a pointer to the tail and just a counter and so if we create the new list P list new we are going to allocate the the py list object which is a pointer which is 8 2.6 and four should be 20 bytes and then we’re going to that’s what star p is going to be then we’re going to set the head to null and the tail to null to indicate that we have an empty list we’re just we’re not creating a list with things in it and set the count to zero and we’re done so it’s it’s pretty straightforward in some ways it is this list is easier in some ways than the the python uh string was now the destructor is a little trickier because we actually have to go through the list and we have to free up all of the text areas not just the um not just the the struct L nodes but we’ve also got the charar text that we’ve got to get rid of so what we’ll see here is we’re going to in the pyus Dell we’re going to carefully start at the head and then Loop through and remember that I free Cur has got to be the last thing we do with Cur once we say free CER for the that’s the L nodes we got to do the free CER we’re not supposed to touch CER ever again so you’ll see I say free Cur text which is the string that’s pointed to in the current node then I look up next and I I’m looking up next before I call free C because I’m not supposed to use C afterwards so I say next equals KR next give me the next pointer before I wipe out cerr I wipe out cerr and then I say C equals next and so I just I I created that next variable inside that function just to kind of get past the free Cur so I didn’t have to say C equals KR next after I called free Cur and then Loop goes through and it slowly but surely cleans up all of the L noes might be zero there might be no hell nodes and head head will be null at that point and W won’t even run but you got to free the text and you got to know where the next pointer is then you free the the current one and then you advance to the next pointer and jump up to the while loop and then do the rest and then and only then afterwards do you free the self which is the actual py list object these structures tend to point to structures that tend to point to structures and you got to when you’re ding them when you’re freeing them you got to free them from the outside the think of it as a tree you got the leaves and the branches and then the trunk and then The Roots You Got to you got to free them from the leaves inwards and so just be real careful about this that’s part of the reason that I give you so much sample code where I do the Dell for you because I just don’t want it to mess up if we take a look at the step of freeing the dynamic memory you’re going to see that it’s going to if we have a head and we have a tail here um the first thing it’s going to do is it’s going to the L node that is the head and then it’s going to the first thing that’s actually going to be freed is the text and then it’s going to free the L node then it’s going to advance to the next L node which has is it’s going to free the is then it’s going to free the fourth thing which is the second L node and then it’s going to advance to the third L node and then it’s going to free the fun which is the fifth thing freed and then it’s going to free the last L node and it’ll notice that next is is is null and so we’re done with there was a three node list and then the last thing we do is we free the the py list itself so that the order in which we free these things is really really important and you think of it as the leaves outwards right the C is fun those are three strings that have been allocated those have to be freed first before we free the L node that happens to point to them so every little bit of order matters the one thing I want you to do in this one is I want you to make the list output instead of it being dump I you’ll notice I called this one print not dump and I want it to look exactly like Python’s list output which means it’s got to open Square brace it’s got the strings in double qu single quotes comma space in between them Etc and don’t try to use string concatenation to do this because you’re in C you’re not in Python you don’t even know how long these strings are going to be what you need to do is you need to cleverly write a loop that uses print out so think of this as you can only use print F don’t use a string because you don’t have strings just use print F and remember that print F doesn’t add a new line unless you actually put the new line in so it’s pretty easy to do print F Open Bracket then print F single quote print F the string print F single quote print F comma etc etc so you got to it’s about 10 lines of code and and you know enjoy yourself I think you’ll do a pretty good job of this and you’ll be impressed when you’re all done and then you think oh I’m walking down the path of GTO van rosom because GTO van rosom had to write exactly these lines of code now he actually was probably using a string class which I just told you not to use because he didn’t want to uh he didn’t want to call Print F directly so he wanted to make it so you can convert to a string but whatever you’re walking theth path that GTO van rossom walked while he was building the list object that’s what I want you to do here’s some more methods some are easier some are hard um Len is really easy uh index is not too bad it’s a for Loop that you Loop through you look for a value and then you’re just return negative 1 if you don’t find it you just return the position you got to kind of add to go 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7even and return the seven if you find it aend is a bit tricky but hey that was chapter six you should know how to do that you’ve actually by this point in chapter 6 you would have written one of these things so go consult your own code at that point and so here is the ultimate test case of our list class you were just going to mimic that python code we’re going to append a hello world string append a catchphrase string append a Brian string print them all the time we’re going to print the length and we’re going to do a index lookup for Brian and Bob and then we’re going to delete it we always delete it because we’re not in Python so we’re carefully deleting it and other than the negative one for Bob being 404 in the python cuz that was kind of a joke um it is identical right we’re really starting to build what looks like a python list so up next it’s pretty much you guessed it we did a string we did a list yep it’s a dictionary we’re going to actually build a dictionary in our next bit [Music] so now we’re going to build a python dictionary class and here is the code that we would put in our dictionary I I kept the strings really short because of of of all the uh I want the examples to be pretty short and easy um so what do we do we create a dictionary and we use the you know bracket square bracket operator to create a key it’s a key value pair the key Z match it goes to catchphrase we print it out the dictionary Z goes to W which is replacing catchphrase with W because if you overwrite the same key you have to put the same Val the the you have to replace the value and then we’re going to throw three more things y maps to b c maps to Capital C and A maps to D that’s just so that it’s not sorted too badly and then I print it out and then I um print the length of it I do a get and with a default value of 404 so sometimes I get the for z i get the W and then for X is not there so I get the 404 again kind of an homage to the HTTP error code 404 not found and then I use it write a little for Loop for key indict uh Etc I can print the key value pairs out we’ll do the same thing in C and again this is almost a perfect transformation literally we first create the dictionary with calling a new then we uh put the word catchphrase in the Z key then we print it then we put a w in the Z key which should overwrite it we print that and then we set the y key to be B the C to be Capital C the a to be capital D and then we print that and then we ask how long is it and then we do a get to look up under the Z key and the X key one of which is there one of which is not there and I get a null back in that situation I guess I was a little SE like in my get code and then I dump it out and I do a struct d Noe Loop go from the head until it’s null and I print out the key and the value from each of those uh dictionary nodes and then I delete it at the end so this is the code now again notice we don’t know much about looking things up we don’t know how the length is maintained we don’t know how the static and dynamic allocation is going to happen we now have a contract with a bunch of Library code that is going to implement ment this dictionary object for us and do all of them memory manipulation on our behalf again we start with the basic stuff the big thing we’re going to do is we’re going to not just have a value it looks a lot like a link list we’re going to have a key value pair the pi dict has a head and a tail and a count just like the py list and if you look at the the the Constructor it’s pretty much like the Constructor for the list we allocate the uh dict Pi dict um uh structure and we set the head and tail to null to indicate empty and we set the count to zero and we’re done and the same with the dell the Dell is very much like the link list Dell we are have to because we’ve allocated the key the key is also going to be a dynamically allocated pointer to a character array so we got a free curve key along with curve value but then everything else is the same we we we pre preload the next value then we free Cur then we move to the next value and then when it’s all said and done we free self which is the pi dict value when it’s all said and done we can call the new and then we can uh set a key like catch froze and the key thing there is the key and value are both Malik uh bits of memory just like you know before we had the text which was a Mal bit of memory and copied and we had to free it but now we just have two things and so the key and the value are two things that are that are going to be Mal and then copied into the Malik area so some methods for you to build the lens should be pretty easy similarly that we have a print that’s going to be pretty and I want you to match exactly the output of the Python and so it turns out that we can make a method called find which returns a d node rather than get returns a string D and P find returns a d Noe and then we can use find both in get and in put now we use it pretty much in get to go find it and then return um the the value cuz we have the key we look up find it by key and then return the value so that’s pretty pretty easy to do the get once you have find so the find is find is a for Loop where you’re going to go and you’re going to find it and if you find it you’re going to send it back okay and if you’re not you’re going to send a null back now you better check if it’s null right including in the get you got to you got to check if it’s null um but then in the put what you do is you look up the old one with pictor find and if you get one if old is not equal to null then you’re updating the key updating the value for the key and if not you’re adding it now the thing about the else Clause here is it looks a lot like a link list because really if you if you look at this thing it is a linked list it’s just there’s two values in each one we’re not doing anything magical now more Advanced Dictionary implementations might use hashmaps or binary trees or other things like that like that were in chapter six that we didn’t talk too much about but for now we’re just going to make our dictionary be a linked list but instead of just a value it’s a key and a value so we can look it up by key and so we’re not doing too much tricky stuff to make our dictionary really by just adding a bit to a list so let’s just take a look at how this is going to work in sort of the real world as it runs so remember we have kind of the dictionary itself which is a head and a tail and a count and then we have the dictionary nodes which is our key and value and the next one now the key and the value are not the actual strings they’re just pointers to Strings which means we’re going to have to use Malik to when we get a key and we get a value we’re going to have to Malik and copy both of those things um so if we start and we see Pi diore new we’re going to get a a dictionary with head and tail that point to null and then if we add catchphrase well we’ve we we allocate the Z we allocate and copy the key Z and we allocate and copy the value and put those in key and then next is null and head and tail point to this thing so we’ve allocated three things we’ve allocated a a d node and we’ve allocated a character two character arrays using Malik okay so then let’s say we’re going to run the next line of code which is setting the key Z to W now when you’re in the put code you go and you call F mind and you see that there is a thing there is already a z in there so what you’ve got to do is you’ve got to replace catchphrase so you actually before you go and make a new value you have and copy W into it you want to free the old stuff and so you tend to free the catch free the value that was in there before and then you Malo and copy in for the new value so if you’re done at the end of this you will have catchphrase somewhere in Magic free space we don’t know where how C does magic free space but it does do it so at the end of the second put you still have one entry but the value has been changed from pointing at catchphrase to pointing at w then we add y equals B well you do a find and there is no y key so now it’s more like a link list you create a new D Noe and you pend it to the end just like in a link list and then you save the key and Point Key at it and then you save the value into new Malo space and then point value at that and then we go to the next one where we point C that we we don’t find c in there so we create a new uh uh D node and then we we do a Malik of the the key and a Malik of the value and we point to those and then copy the data into those two Malik areas and then Point Key and value at those Malik areas and you can kind of see that this is really at this point it’s unless we find the key uh in there already it’s just link list that happens to have two character arrays that are dynamically allocated and copied one for key one for Value that was a bunch of object orientation it was kind of a walk down the path that gido van rosom took probably in the first few weeks of him building the string class list class and dictionary class chances are good he built something very very similar and then he’s like okay now I got to make this better but uh you know if I was just writing this thing he’d probably just type this out it’s kind of pretty for computer scientists who’ve been doing algorithms data structures their whole lives it’s like well why don’t I just make a class that does this you know now that I now that I’ve got sort of an object-oriented Universe let me hide all of the dynamic memory and that’s really what we’re doing we’re hiding the dynamic memory and the implementation details and all the for loops and while Loops they’re being hidden they’re important and if you were to look at the source code to stir list and dict in Python you’d see they’re allocating and reallocating they’re doing it a lot more clever than what we did um you don’t want to call realc too many times but for for now it works we’re doing small stuff um there is an infinite number there’s an infinite array of optimizations to make all of this way faster and more impressive um but that’s that’s really for another time so we’ve kind of got the idea of the the Baby Steps From A procedural language with pointers structures and dynamic memory allocation how you would take the step using those underlying things in a procedural language to build basic objects and support those objects perhaps as you’re building a new language like [Music] python hello and welcome to our continuing series of lectures on improving our implementation of a python object so what we’ve been doing is we have been building a series of of implementations of approximate implementations of some of the things that we find in Python like the python dictionary and so we the last thing we worked on with this python dictionary class and in the previous implementation was just a link list with a key now we’re going to eventually have to build all kinds of different implementations and so the part of what we’re doing is we’re working toward abstraction where we’re separating what the object is that we’re interacting with from how we build it underneath and so we’re going to do things like move our methods into the structure instead of just using prefix style naming conventions and just reduce the need to look inside the class or inside the structure that is holding our class for code that’s in our calling code so we don’t want to have to look at the class uh the class values inside the class so this is just continuing along understanding object or principles the three implement the three principles of object orientations are encapsulation abstraction inheritance and polymorphism and so for now we’re bundling more things together that’s encapsulation and we’re working on abstraction and that is thinking about separately how we are going to use this object from how we’re going to build the object we’re going to reveal less and less of our implementation details to the caller okay and so for a while we just said well we’ll just take the class and add like an underscore and name it etc etc and it seems absolutely simple enough and in some ways you see that C++ does exactly that when it’s um compiling C++ to C code um but it just it seems like it’s simple enough and it seems like you would keep it straight but it turns out to be a bad idea in practice so python strings which I can write python code and not have to look up documentation are real objects that follow the principle of encapsulation everything that you touch is inside of the object like uppercase searching for something PHP strings are kind of more archaic in that PHP p is more of a SE likee way of thinking about things and they’re a type and then there’s a bunch of libraries that know how to use this type and so I’m going to show you some ickiness in PHP but I do love phps so don’t I’m not just criticizing PHP PHP has a lot going for it but the in the language and the library there are some annoyances so let’s take a look at a little bit of python and some equivalent PHP and so you sort of see this this notion that name of convention seems tempting but it’s not necessarily a great idea so in Python we say x equals a string we call x. find and has the first parameter the thing we’re looking for and then we have yals x. replace old new and so the the first parameter is the old string and the second parameter is the new string and then we say how long this thing is and so everything’s very consistent but if we look at PHP it’s almost identical except it’s calling libraries right so dollar X a string with old in it and then we’re going to use Stir pose that is the position in a string and the first parameter is the what they call the Hy stack and then the second parameter is with which we call the needle but then we look at the replacement which is equivalent of x. replace and Python and it’s not stir replace it’s stir underscore replace so do we use underscores or we not use underscores and then the the thing that just drives me crazy is what is the what would you expect the first second and third parameter of PHP stirl well if I was writing it it would be the The Source string the old the old search string and the new thing to replace it with but that’s not what it is the stir replace says old string new string and then the string we’re doing the searching in you you can go look this up but PHP talks about how there were generations of things like stirp I think is one of the earlier ones um sterland basically is that’s one of the new that’s one of the older ones and so it’s consistent with stir pose but not consistent with stir replace and so the naming conventions is just less than ideal and and you can just see from a programmer understanding is just really simple that if we look at the python says yals x. replace old new I can remember that calling sequence and I can never remember a stir uncore replace in PHP so the thing we’re going to do here is we’re going to put the methods in the structure and so we see some of our C code before and after and so we create a pi dict and then you’ll notice that just like what PHP did I called those pictor put PCT underscore Len and pict underscore get I was consistent because I always used underscores and pict is the name of the structure pictor Dell and so I was pretty consistent with that but now what we’re going to do in the name of encapsulation is we are going to take all those methods make them be part of the structure we’re going to find that they’re just pointers to the methods but we are going to have Global methods we’re just not going to access them through their Global names so we’re going to create a new new pict saying pictor new but then we’re going to call to put something in we’re going to call DCT Arrow put and remember we have to make this first parameter like the self parameter C that’s just always going to be that first parameter because we’re sort of doing it python style and then you kind of know that Z is the key and catchphrase is the value and so that’s the that’s the calling sequence and again that DCT comma is just because we’re not an objectoriented language and so we put self in there again homage back to exactly the way that python did it and why they did it the way they did it because they were creating an object-oriented framework on top of a non-ob oriented environment just like we are and then you look at DCT arol Len and of course putting DCT in is the first parameter is redundant but necessary and we can do a DCT get and we in effect other than the first parameter which is DCT we are putting the key in and away it goes and then we could call the Dell method but now you’ll notice that every single method that is associated with a pi dict is in the pi dick structure so let’s talk about how we’re going to do do that and why and so this all kind of falls under um leaky abstractions meaning that when we’re in the main calling code and we sneak in and Peak at the data attributes inside the class we call this leaking and later we’ll talk about iterators and why we iterators seem inconvenient and clunky but what they their whole job really is is to hide uh implementation details to make a cleaner abstraction when the calling code depends on this the internal implementation names and coaches that’s what it is to be leaky so we need to define a contract between the class and its calling code from above that we won’t change and we’re going to call this contract on interface AB another kind of word for that is abstraction and so if we look at all the code in our earlier implementation the whole thing is leaky right um especially if you look at that for Loop where it says for struct D node C equals DCT arrowead c not equal null C equals c next print c key and C value and and so what happens is that should trigger a little like that says don’t look inside these things and this is we later we’ll talk about uh iterators how far we go and how we actually what we looking this code that we’re looking at right here I think it’s pretty but it kind of violates the abstraction boundary because we’re looking too deeply into what the fact that this is even a link list we don’t know there’s a link list it may may not be a link list it may be some other kind of a structure it may be a tree or whatever and we will later get to the point where we will make these things different implementations not just a link list and so that’s that’s this idea that like you you should be like oh no I’m there’s this little wall but now I’m looking inside and then when you’re looking inside that’s when you kind of violating the abstraction boundary or we call it a leaky abstraction what this leads to is the notion of not all object attributes are the same and so we have when we’re going to build an object we are going to decide what parts of these things are the contract and what parts are leave us alone we’re going to hide this stuff and so the the concepts in object rning programming are that things that the calling code is allowed to see whether they be data or methods are called public things that are like reserved for class use only are private and then when we start talking about inheritance which we won’t talk about too much there’s this middle class called protected and that is stuff that classes and derived classes can look at but um but not the calling code so protected is sort of more like private from the point of view of the calling code so if you look at the abstraction boundary that we have here we see that the place where the abstraction boundary is sort of failing is that if that is that head and tail we want to make an abstraction boundary and um and say that look that the motion of head and the tail that’s going to be all ours and that’s going to be all inside um and that’s inside the abstraction boundary and you’re not supposed to mess with it so if we look at how we do this in Java there is a keyword called private and so Java we’re making a point class and we’re making it two double values that we’re saying X and Y are private which means you can’t access it outside of this class the Constructor is public and the dump is public and so you see that the that that just means that you can’t access X and Y outside of the class but you can access dump and the Constructor in C++ you see a private and a public and so private says this double X and Y are things that can only be used inside the class and public is the Constructor can be used outside the class and the dump can be used outside the class and this is just syntax that they put in now interestingly access control and python is a little sort of wonkier because python doesn’t really put things like public and private so what python is doing and you’ve seen these across all the python you’ve done where you see these double underscores dunders as it were like the Constructor you’re not supposed to call the under underscore underscore and nit underscore underscore that’s just when you create an object that’s what happens um and so that in the init is an internal method it’s a private method underscore uncore X andore uncore Y are totally valid variable names except we’re marking to the outside world hey you’re not supposed to act access these and then deaf dump the fact that we didn’t put double underscore in front of it means that it’s public and so double underscore are is the signal inside of python to do access control and we look at some of the stuff that C++ really does this was borrowed in many ways from how C++ does things internally so up next we’re going to talk about this map and the abstraction and the kinds of things that we do uh under the covers of the implementation details of the abstraction [Music] so now we’re going to dive into the notion of abstractions we’re going to take an interface and kind of compare it across a number of different languages we’re going to call this abstraction a map a map is a common term that we use kind of abstractly to describe key value Collections and each different language tends to have on a different name for that C++ they actually call it a map python calls it a dictionary Java also calls it a map but with an uppercase and in PHP we call it arrays and in JavaScript are they’re actually objects and then we’re going to look at the iterator pattern as an abstraction for looping across multiple implementations so let’s take a look at some samp example um python code that’s playing with a dictionary class so we created dictionary at the very beginning then we fill it up with some uh key value Pairs and so you’ll notice that like d subz equals 8 and D subz equals 1 that’s got to be a replacement so so there’s no eight in there after that second uh replacement we then print it then we do a get of Z to see if it’s there and then we do a get of X and it’s not there so we see x equals 42 when it executes then we say give me an iterator of the items in this dictionary and so what that basically is going to do is an is the iterator itself is not a list in earlier version like python 2 when you ask for the items you tended to get a fully filled out list but that’s a waste of memory so the iterator is simply a data structure that is keeping track of where in the list we are and then we call it next over and over and over to advance through the iterator so we don’t have to make complete copy of all the data we just have a little pointer that advances through so items is a relatively small data structure I mean it doesn’t include all the data in the dictionary it just is itself a pointer to something it’s all internal remember abstraction is like hey I can give you the next thing internally there’s pointers and all kinds of crazy things inside these iterators which we shall soon see so if you print out items you will see that it’s like an item iter Ator for dictionaries that’s what that class dict item iterator is telling us but then we can call the next function which is built into Python and say hey iterator do your job and hand me back the next thing or if we’ve let reach the end of of the dictionary false now come in any order these have any ordered dictionaries of course um but we get back the entry or we get back false so we say while entry then we print the entry and then we say hey give me the next one and then Loop up to the top and when it becomes false we’re all done and so what you see because this is an order dictionary as you see Z1 X9 B3 A4 and then it finishes so this we’ve not we don’t know about next Arrow next we don’t know even the in this case we’re just getting a tuple back so we do know that but if we take a look at the same kind of concept in PHP uh we make an array and we fill it up Z gets to be eight Z gets to be one and that’s an overwrite and then we put three more things in and we can print them out and we see that it’s kind of an ordered dictionary as it were X zy ba and then we do a get and we’re using the null coals operator which is the double question mark so we say give me a subz and if that doesn’t exist then give me back 42 so it’s kind of like a get but that’s a that’s a PHP 7 and later so we look up uh X and we don’t get it so we see x equal 42 and then we run through an iterator and again there again there’s structures inside of arrays but we know nothing about how PHP implemented the arrays we just know that if we say for each a as key is assigned value we can print out K and V and so this is a very abstract way of saying I want to go through all of them I want the keys and values give those back to me but I don’t care how you do it whether you make extra copies of the data Etc so that’s another iterator pattern now in C the data structure we created is a map and if you read this you’ll see that talks about how the implementations work etc etc etc but this C++ equivalent of a dictionary is in effect a map and so this is some C++ code the first thing we see is we’re going to create a map and in this l than greater than syntax you’re seeing that the map is mapping a string to an integer so the key in this case is a string and the value is an integer the previous two languages didn’t care so much about types and so that’s that’s why they but now we’re in C++ which cares greatly about types and so now we say MP subz equals 8 then MP subz equals 1 which again is a replace operator then y b and a are set to 2 three and for respectively and um and then we do like a get operation and this one is a little funky and see why they didn’t give us a get operation I do not know but what this is using is a Turner operation and saying MP count how many Z keys are inside this thing and if it’s greater than zero we print out MP subz and if it’s if it’s not greater than zero or zero then we print out 42 which functions like a python get on a dictionary so this syntax is funky you can go like Google it there’s just no that it’s like there’s two ways you can do it and neither of them makes me particularly happy because I think that for a map-like object a get a get with a default is uh pretty valuable um the notion of running through and Counting means you found it or didn’t find it and if you found it why don’t you give it back to me but they just don’t have a get but now we see an iteration so it says for auto auto is a type but it’s an automatic type and it knows um that this um MP is a map string int and so it creates this current pointer which is a pointer to not exactly a m map string it’s a map entry but we don’t have to care about that there’s a there’s actually a type cerr the variable cerr has a type whatever the MP begin is going to give us back as a type and it knows that based on map string int and it makes Cur the right type so this is like whatever type you want but it is not any type it’s a very precise type and that’s a that’s a sort of a Hallmark of C++ is all the types are very very precise so it’s a for Loop you see the three semicolons the initial initialization Clause Auto Cur equals MP begin says Hey we’ve got our iterator get me started begin go to the beginning of it and give me the first one and as long as is not equal to MPN the the the the N there are no more that’s kind of like their null um and then plus plus Cur so we’re incrementing Cur and then there’s a key and a value and they don’t call them key and value they call them first and second that’s the thing coming back from MP begin has a attribute first and attribute second and we call the ccore St to convert that to a C string so I can use print F so I don’t have to use C out just because I don’t know why I didn’t want to see out in this one but you see an abstraction where the first and the second are known but because this is a key in a value that’s not such a big deal okay and so that’s doing the same thing in C++ in Java they have a interface you see the word interface here an interface that named map less than greater than K comma V and and just like in C++ this is saying a map is a key and a value but what we’re putting in here is the type of the key and the type of the value so we’re going to make a map that has a string key and an integer value you might say why didn’t I do string string and that’s because it makes it just easier when I’m writing so much C code um it it also will be fun when we actually count things if you remember from a long time ago we did counting but map is the class and string integer there’s that um this is kind of polymorphism where it can be a map that Maps strings to integer or integers to Strings or strings to Strings or who knows what to who knows what else meaning this map is exceedingly flexible and it doesn’t care what kind of type it’s it’s using as long as the type meets some basic criteria so here’s a bit of java code that does the same thing that we’ve been doing and so we see that we’re going to make this variable map lowercase is of type map map of strings to integers and we’re going to create a new tree map of strings to integers and the new creates a new object now the difference between a map and a tree map is a map is an interface and a tree map is an implementation the tree map says we’re going to build this key value store but we’re going to store our data in a tree and that says to a computer scientist that it’s going to have a certain performance and memory footprint trees are a great way to store key value data um but they they’re they take a little bit more memory than a link list as we will later see um um and so we’re we’re choosing an implementation the other thing where it says tree map that you might use is what’s called a hashmap which is a simpler map implementation but doesn’t keep things in order so you can choose the map doesn’t change but you can say I’d like this to be a tree map or a hashmap they’re both key value stores one is an ordered key value store and a hashmap is a unordered key value store and they both have different performance behaviors and internal implementation details but it doesn’t matter because they’re both maps and this code that we write we could literally change tree map to hashmap and the code would work exactly the same but the order of the key value payers might be a little bit different now you’ll notice that when we’re putting stuff in We call we call a method map. put so everything we’ve seen so far says like map Open Bracket quot Z quote close bracket equals 8 Java chose not to do what’s called operator overloading and so it really does everything in a method so the kind of things that you think are going to be done with an assignment statement or uh some other syntax tend to be done it’s like okay we’re going to do everything with methods and parameters Now map is the object instance that’s being worked on and Z where that’s basically saying map subz equals 8 and we’ll do an aut of Z1 which is going to overwrite you’ll see I’m doing the same thing in each one of these things and then put in YB and a with two three and four respectively I can print it out and if you look at the print out it looks a lot like what it looks like in Python there’s this thing called get or default map. getet or default which is you know if the key Z is in there give it to the value or just give me 42 as a default and in the first case z is there and the second case X is not there so you see X is 42 that’s not a bad name for it it’s a little more verose than get it’s pry pretty much the same as what we do in Python and then we have an iterator and now you see in this for Loop you see kind of the notion of the fact that the iteration variable is has a type so we don’t have this Auto later versions of java may have an auto but now I’m explicitly showing you it’s not a map string integer it’s a map. entry which is an entry inside of a map it’s an abstract interface to the entry inside of a map each entry that’s got to match the string integer that’s in the map and so there’s a map string integer which is the whole map and then there’s a map entry which is one of the entries but this map entry is also kind of an iterator right so we’re going to iterate and move forward so it’s not just the key and the value it’s really the key and the value and the position but we don’t see the position all we know is we keep we use this four syntax which is kind of like a four in in Python and we call map. entry set which is I want a set of all the entries and that map entry set does not construct a giant in memory list and then go through it that actually creates a single map entry with the key in the value of the first one and then you hit it again and it gives you the second one you hit again it gives the third one and pretty soon it gives you null which means that the loop is going to stop and the entry itself does have a key and a value now key and value are known in the map entry interface so you say entry. getet key and entry. getet value now that they’re using um methods to give us back the key and the value versus in the previous things you saw attributes being used in the iterators and that’s because Java is obsessed with preferring to use access accessor methods like Getters and Setters versus just grabbing attributes and the key thing is is they can add just a little bit of business logic if they want rather than having to do something and then have the key and the value already completely computed sitting in an attribute for you to use entry get key sometimes it just grab something that’s already got computed or it might actually go do something or do some work and so by putting these things in what they what Java calls Getters and Setters in this case we’re not seeing a we’re not seeing a Setter so much um but making it so that instead of it being entry. key it’s entry. getet key open print close print that’s a very Java way of thinking about this so we started by talking about a simple python dictionary where we fill it up we use get then we create an iterator and then we abstractly Loop through that iterator and that’s what we wanted to accomplish in this section just to see how that is done in a wide range of different languages because the map abstraction is kind of like this thing that we use as software developers and then it’s a kind of a sealed thing and then under Underneath It All the magic [Music] happens so I want to talk about the C++ programming language for just a bit because C++ plays a really really important role in the development of object-oriented programming C of course came out like 72 through 78 and then C++ came out in 80 and then both C++ and C co-evolved uh through the early 1980s and then you see things like C and Java and Python and PHP all informed heavily by C++ if we look at how object oriented was happening kind of before C++ it there was there was it was like C++ wasn’t really appreciated by the typical mainstream procedural programmer of the day and so things like algol and simula they it was kind of like there were tribes that liked procedural and tribes that liked uh uh objectoriented but then C++ came along and sort of pretty much unified it which meant that you know you probably learned python as your first programming language and you were using object or programming from the time that you started and C++ is what sort of unified that and it was the C++ as the quickly number one procedural programming language and then C++ as the number one um object Orient programming language that kind of made brought order to the notion of procedural objectoriented hybrid Etc and sort of everything that kind of came after 1980 was really strongly influenced and informed by C and C++ so let’s take a look at how this sort of changed over time by looking at some syntactical influence so C++ which was the earliest which is a pre-processor plus a compiler it turned into a compiler on its own eventually but it has this concept of a map that has uh a separately selectable uh type of the key type of the value and it uses the square brackets map open square bracket Z close square bracket equals 8 and that is in effect a put right that’s like a insert into the map um or update of the key and it’s a pretty Su synct syntax and so python came up with a way python really didn’t want to make a more complex syntax than C++ so python worked on its language to make it so that you could just say d equals di I and it was a typeless language and so we don’t care the fact that it’s going to be strings mapping to integers because you can map lots of things to lots of things in Python but it did follow the D subz equals 8 and again you you use this from the beginning when you first started programming in Python and you thought that was just natural but what’s really going on is more like what Java did in 1995 we’re not going to use the square bracket to do put stuff into a map we’re going to be more pure here and we’re going to create methods now if you look in under the covers in Python you see that that is really a method that does that insert of the The Key Of Z and the value of eight but if you look at Java it says map string integers so we again have this notion of a generic class capital map map string integer map which is our object variable equals new tree map string integer which of course is choosing the underlying implementation and then they have the syntax of a Setter style map. put and then they’re giving the key and the value as two different parameters there’s choices that each of these languages are making and I’ll try to highlight them as we go through it I want to talk a little bit about how C++ and its object approach and design made it so that a class like the map works almost the same as like a sort of a low-level class like a float or an in and it has access in particular to kind of the special characters or operators like square brackets or plus or minus how that happens and it is that you can create a specially named method inside of a C++ class that the compiler will consult and call when it encounters certain what you think of as language syntax meaning that as it’s parsing the language syntax like square brackets it’s like oh I’ve got some code to do some work here this concept is called operator overloading meaning that the operator the behavior of the operator is controlled by the writer of the class you are writing a class so in this bit of code here I’ve created for no particular reason a a class that I call 10 integers in a row and I have a array of 10 integer values but that’s private so that’s something that the outer class can’t talk to right so you can’t say 10 in 10 like in the main you 10 dot values is like no you’re not allowed to touch that because it’s private but then what I do is I create a public method which is the square brackets operator method the method to be called when the comp compiler encounters square brackets my class name my object name followed by square brackets call me now the first thing we see is the return type of this operator square bracket operator code is an integer reference an integer that can either be read or written which means it can be on the left or right hand side of an assignment statement and the parameter that it’s being given is an integer index which is the thing inside of the square brackets now it is a reference because of the Amper sand but it is a constant reference meaning we are not allowed to change it inside of this function okay so const means we’re leaving it alone which means we’re not allowed to say index equals 42 inside the operator the square bracket operator method and so what we’re returning is that private variable values sub index but we returning a reference to it so wherever it appears in the original C++ code in the main what happens is that reference can be like I said on the left or right side of an assignment state so let’s take a look at how this works in the main code I am going to create a variable called 10 of type 10 int and then I say 10 sub 1 equals 40 which means I’m storing 40 in position one but when it sees that 10 sub one it says oh oh this little class has an operator square bracket operator so I better call that little method pass the one in then that returns a reference to values sub one and then into that reference the 40 is assigned now python doesn’t have return a reference and it doesn’t have a caller reference C kind of does but it’s very they’re pointers and so references and pointers are different references you’ll notice there’s no special syntax to dreference a re a reference whereas you have when you get a pointer you got to have special syntax to D reference a pointer so this notion of call by reference and return by reference is like impressive in C++ and allows it to do a lot of things and allows us to have this seemingly native line of Code 10 sub 1 equals 40 which is really just a bunch of method calls amazing and then we immediately say print t sub1 contains and then 10 sub one and again when this is kind of a right hand side of an assignment statement it’s looking it up it calls the method the operator the square bracket operator method passes one into it and then we return value sub one and then that’s what gets printed out and so then we say 10 sub5 = 10 sub 1 + 2 and now we see 10 sub one on the right hand side of an assignment statement which calls that same code in the operator brackets method within the class passes in the one returning the reference to Value sub one but then that reference is just 40 and then we add two to it and then we assign it into 10 sub five which is again calling the in operator method to get a reference to values sub five and that assignment happens all I really did was kind of faked it but I I used it to show you this like lovely ability to do operator overloading when I first found my way into Java my greatest disappointment in because I taught a C++ class and then I learned Java I wasn’t a wiiz at C++ but I really thought it was pretty elegant so for me my brain was so I didn’t Learn Python first I learn C++ first and I’m like hey that’s what object Orient ought to be and then I’m likeing go on Java Java didn’t do that Java basically does not want and did not want as a choice to take values by reference in in method calls and even more it did not want to return references in the return values of method calls that those two things the Ampersand in the return type and the Ampersand in the call parameter call those are essential for C++ to accomplish this and Java did not want to return references in particular because it has to do with garbage collection and variables going out of scope etc etc and if you return a reference you don’t know when it’s out of scope Etc um these are powerful complex and potentially quite dangerous things right but the C++ design was hey you are a samurai warrior and you are going to you are going to use these very wisely and we don’t want to take power away from you we want to give you all the power that you might want and just trust that you’re not going to make mistakes right and so ches that Java make and python make are like no no no we don’t want you to make mistakes so we’re not even going to give you this kind of thing there are other ways to do everything U things like topple returns in C is a good example of um kind of an homage to this notion of returning things is not always just a single thing so um but C++ is kind of unique now again um python emulated the C syntax that was quite beautiful that was a result of C’s support for operator overloading and here’s the here’s the thing where like it all comes together so python saw the beautiful syntax that C++ when you did the right things the compiler would give you this let you use this beautiful syntax and still call your methods inside the object but they didn’t want to do the call by reference and return by return reference that the C++ did and so what they did is they did basically a syntax transformation if you look python is in this sense very Java likee in that everything has to happen through methods but then there’s these hidden methods okay let’s take a look at the code so I’ll create a dictionary named X and then we say x sub 1 equal 40 and again we know what this means that means somewhere in the key the key under the key one there’s 40 now I can print this out by saying X doore get item Dore open print one close print that’s taking the index inside of the square brackets and passing it to a predefined python understood rule for or what get item the the the square brackets turn into double underscore get item double underscore or X is the object and the parameter is the syntax so if we think about it on the right hand side of an assignment statement where we’re just reading it it’s just doing a get right it’s kind of doing a getter like thing give me item one and then out comes the 40 and that’s how the print of x sub one is a 40 that’s really what happens under the covers is there is a class which hasore uncore get item underscore uncore defined in it as a method and that’s how it loads x sub one so if we go down another line and we say x sub 5al x sub 1 + 2 seems simple enough and and literally for years python software developers don’t even need to know that this is miraculously and beautifully complex but what this translates into at runtime by compiler syntax transformation is the x sub one on the right hand side turns into a x.g get item pren one which pulls up the 40 and then plus two gets added to it but then that expression is passed into x. set item in position five so the the left hand side of the assignment statement is the x of five equals part and that’s calling set item so if it’s doing a square bracket look up on the right hand side it’s calling get item and if it’s doing a square bracket on the left hand side an assignment statement it’s doing a set item so this means that there was no need to return references no need to process references none of the Hoops that C++ went through and so you see that python did not did not choose to implement the way C++
did but they supported the very elegant syntax now and then you’ll see that Java in 1995 takes it uh or 94 takes it one step further in that they’re not not even going to give you that cool syntax they’re like no we’re going to say just do x.p put and x.g get and call it good if you if you know that X is an object and you need to do a get in the put do the get in the put we’re not going to do this little syntax transformation that makes it pretty and we’re also not going to give you uh operator overloading because again operator overloading requires references because it allows the class to return a thing that can be used on either the left or right hand side and again Java did that because they did not want to make their memory management more complex um so it it’s a hard to argue but what this kind of shows you is like the amazing interplay between these languages um JN strrip went to school in Denmark and started working on C++ in Denmark but then was hired to go to Bell labs in New Jersey where he met and worked with for a number of years uh bejn strrip and Dennis Richie and all the folks at Bell Labs that gave us Unix and C over the decades and so C++ kind of came to the world from Bell Labs from Murray Hill and and G van rasum who was in Netherlands at the time really was just looking at all this stuff and using all this stuff and an expert in C and C++ and back in those days we tended to look a lot like the code that C++ generated and G’s like I’m just going to I’m going to borrow these are really good patterns and so that’s how we see so much influence of not just the syntax but the actual runtime conventions and and like if if you look at some of the generated C++ code the concept of private is often done with underscores they use underscores a lot Python’s like yeah I’ll just borrow that I’ll just use double underscore as my signal of this private and a way you go so to show the influence that C++ and C had over python both in the syntax and in the runtime we can take a quick look at some internal details of how python works and python turns out to have almost identically implemented operator overloading in as as C++ but we don’t see it it’s all internal you have to kind of look so so on on the left hand side that’s the code that I just got done going through that’s the C++ code that has the private values and then the public uh operator overload and now if we look on the right hand side we see a class 10in and I’m creating a double underscore values which is values private as a dictionary and then I’m going to define the set item this this is like a private method called set item and then a private method called get item python basically has the left side and right side assignment of of uh of bracket lookup operators different and the set item is the left-and side and the get item is the right hand side uh you’ll see that in the set item I’m just taking self values sub index equals value and I’m in the in the getter I’m returning self underscore value sub index so that’s the right hand side so if we look at the code I see let’s make a 10 int on the variable 10 10 sub 1 equals 40 now python transforms that 10 sub one syntax into a set item of 10 comma the number one comma 40 and then call set item and you can see of course it worked right the three values are self index and value well self is 10 which is the object instance the index is the thing inside the square brackets and the value is the result of the expression on the right hand side it’s not just 40 but it’s the expression on the right hand side and so that goes in right we see the print 10 sub one well that is a right- hand side reference to 10 sub one so that’s going to called get item self is 10 and then index is the one and we’re going to just return it and that’s going to print out a nice little happy little integer which is exactly the variable 40 so it says 10 sub one contains 40 and at this point it should be obvious what’s going on when I say 10 sub 5 equals 10 sub 1 plus 2 well the 10 sub one on the right hand side turns into a get item that gives us back the 40 Value then the 40 and the two are added together to finish the right hand side of the expression then we’re going to sign that into T sub five which then turns into a set item of 10 comma 5 comma 42 and then that stores 42 in position five in our private variable values private values variable and then I print it out which is the left hand side lookup of 10 sub five which calls get item again with uh self is 10 and index is five and so we get the 42 and so you see how they’re so similar inside I mean again like if you look at generated C++ code from early C++ code compilers you’ll see these dual underscores used in various places which means that python in its internal implementation used the same patterns as C++ did in its internal implementation Pon chose not to do call by reference and return by reference Java chose not to be not to do call by reference and return by reference and Java chose not to do the S the fancy syntax transformation but you know who knows maybe maybe one of these days Java could do that syntax transformation and be like whoa Java has everything and then to some degree python has shown the way about how you do this without doing um without doing call by reference and again that Amper sand operator and Ampersand index on the left hand side that’s the like scary part where language designers are like I’m not sure I want to go do that because C++ is not a a garbage collected language but Python and Java are garbage collected languages and that’s not the only reason that’s that Python and Java didn’t want to do call by reference but it is one of the reasons that you kind of it just simplifies to know that there when a function is done it’s done there’s not like sneaky little pointers inside that function that need to stay alive so it allows you to throw stuff away when functions are finished okay enough of that just again I’m just trying to show you in the simplest possible examples the kinds of design decisions that all these language and Library designers were doing as they built the languages that we know love and use today [Music] so it’s time to stop deep diving into objector Theory and get to writing some code so we’re going to start with something simple going to do encapsulation the second thing we’re going to do is iteration but for now we’re just going to do encapsulation and then in the next section we’ll do iteration and really most of this code you’ve already done we’re just kind of refactoring it and moving things around and taking these you know functions that we named by convention and we allowed the Callin code to use and uh and moving them into the class using some pointers so a real accomplishment here is the map Arrow put the map Arrow get and the map Arrow Dell these things are now named and accessed in such a way that they are attributes the the functions we’re calling are attributes in the class itself and so other than that it’s not that different we and so it’s not that big of a deal the other thing we’re going to do is be a little more explicit about what things in these classes are public and what things in this class that we’re building are private so we’ll start with the map entry this is the structure that makes up the nodes of the link lists the key is a character string and the actual value is an integer that we we’re just going to make it simple to gotta we got to dynamically allocate the key like we’ve been doing um and then we have a PR and a next the key there is the pre and the next are double underscore so that means they’re private but we are going to decide that key and value are public and we just indicate that much like python would do by not putting double underscores in front of it and remembering in our mind that they’re allowed to be used in in calling code the map structure uh most of it looks pretty simple we have a head we have a tail and we have a count you’ve been maintaining those for some time now those are private attributes so we’ve renamed them in such a way that they have double underscores in front of them and then we have a series of public methods we have five of them the key thing is these are Pointers to functions and that’s what void starp put that’s parentheses starp put that means that there is a we’re allocating a variable in the structure named put and it is a function pointer that will return a void it’s a pointer to a function that returns a void so not only are we defining the attributes that’s we’re going to use to access the function we’re also defining the calling sequence it returns a void and it takes three parameters a struck map pointer itself Char star key and int value so when it’s all said and done this is not putting the code in here as it might say in JavaScript for example what is is a single 64-bit number which is a pointer to the beginning of a function now the function method signature has to match so we’re defining the method signature but in terms of allocating we’re really allocating one pointer for put one pointer for get one pointer for size one pointer for dump and one pointer for Dell and again you know you look at get well get takes as its first parameter a pointer to the map which is self a key that we’re going to use to do the lookup and then a default value to return and then get returns and int and so that that’s pretty straightforward it took me a little while to get the pattern right about because the parentheses here are really really important because we’re both defining the attribute name and the rules of its use and the method signature of the function that we’re eventually going to point to okay but that’s pretty much it right we we’re just going to put these things in and so the Constructor is pretty straight forward it’s not that different than the Constructor that you did we got to build these functions double uncore map put double M get map size they’re they’re outside of this they’re above us in the source code somewhere and we’re just saying P Arrow put which is an attribute put public attribute put is equal to Ampersand the address of the double _ mput function super simple a Ampersand is address of address of that function get is address of that function size is address of that function dump is address of the function and we’re done and and this is kind of showing you that the this is let’s see head is a 64-bit pointer tail is a 64-bit pointer count is probably a 64-bit integer or a 32-bit integer put get size dump and Dell are all 64-bit so the size of the map itself the map structure is about you know 10 words or less and that again has to do with uh efficiency right but you probably have most of the code you need for map put map get map size map dump and map Dell so map dump is pretty simple you know the if we look at this the you know it’s a the self is the pointer to the map so it has a head and a next and we’re going to just go through it until Cur is equal to null we got a map entry which is the type now we don’t double underscore the C because that’s really just an automatic variable inside this function that has nothing to do with the outside world and you’ll notice that we’re just as access UND double uncore head we’re accessing double uncore next because we’re in the class right and so that those are private but they’re totally legit to access them when we’re building a dump tool inside the class so private things are accessed in the methods in the class that’s normal right we don’t have to hide those I’ll tell you when I’m building something like this the first thing I want to get to work is some kind of a dumper because how I mean when I write this code before I hand parts of it over to you I have like map dump map dump map dump map dump every line I put a map dump and eventually when stuff starts working I start taking the map dumps out so just debug debug debug debug always so that’s that’s why I’m just like I couldn’t write this code if I didn’t have a map dump and so I’m going to make you guys do it as well so the destructor like most destructors the key thing is to draw the picture and figure out what parts were dynamically allocated and then call free or which parts came from Malak and then make sure you free them and so we’re just going to Loop through and again we’re in the class so we’re happily using double underscore attributes we’re going to Loop through we’re going to and the order this is always important but by now it should make sense we’re going to free the key because remember that’s a string point that we miked we do not need to free the value that’s just actually part of the map entry struct and when we’re going to get rid of that in a second we’re going to we’re going to advance to the next one first and then we’re going to free the current map entry and then we’re say current next and we’re going to Loop up and So eventually we’re just going to go through the link list and free the key and then free the entry itself and we’ve given back all of our data and then we’re all done with that we actually free the 10 words or so that is the map structure again this should start to look familiar to you so get is pretty simple as long as you have some code that like is map find um you know map find is going to do all the hard work but it but map fine can look at underscore head and and um and all that stuff and next and look at all that write some for Loops should be not too hard um and again underscore underscore map find is private but we’re in the class and so just have fun talking to the private stuff matap put is something you’re going to have to write but if you think about it if you get map find and it returns you that it will and you’ve done this before you’ve used a findik method to find the thing in the link list and you update it if you found it it’s really simple you just change the value in return and if not you add it to the end of the L you construct a new map entry and you add it to the end of the list and so again I just hope by now you can knock these things out and so that’s basically it I mean if you really think this is was a very simple section where all we’re doing is changing from globally named functions we’re enforcing the rules of private double underscore and then we’re taking those pointers we’ve declared pointers to functions in our map and then our Constructor sets them up and the rest is really just refactoring code that you pretty much already [Music] have so now we come to the last section of this module and that is iterators it’s it’s all been building up to iterators and this is a situation where you might say wow I don’t like iterators iterators seem like a more complex way to write Loops than just looking at like head and next and sneaking in and violating the abstraction boundary but as you’ll see in the overall next module you’re going to have to have very different underlying data structures and we want to be able to write the same code over over and over again so at at some level what we’re doing here is we’re building a map implementation that can be a link list a hashmap list I mean a hash based map a list based map or a tree based map and what we want is this code right here this code should not change we should say hey give me a map we got a map entry we got a map iterator those are all part of the contract that we have with the object be it a link list tree or map or hash we’re going to do a put put put put dump get get now we’re going to iterate the hash won’t even have like a it doesn’t have a head and the next it’s not going to work right so we’re going to have to say hey there’s this abstraction give me an iterator for your map okay and we don’t know what’s in the iterator we don’t need to know what’s in the iterator the only thing we need to know is it has a method called Next that’s it so we’re basically saying let’s get started give me an iterator from the map call the iterator method passing the map instance as a parameter and give me back iterator and then we write a while loop and we say hey iterator give me the next thing it is up to the iterator to start at the beginning and then adance advance and move down and when we get null we break if not we print key and value from the CER now CER is of type map entry there’s a map iter iter next and then CER is what we get back from iterator so we get from iter iter next we get back a map entry and so if you recall key and value are public in the map entry so we we could have I could have had you hide those behind sort of Getters and have a get key and whatever and name those underscore but we’re just going to leave them public attributes for now if we really going to be the if we were implementing Java I mean right now we’re kind of hardcoding this string key integer throughout so it’s going to be okay and then of course we call the destructor on the iterator once we’re kind of done with that Loop and then we call the destructor on the overall map and this code should be roughly the same when we go from link list hashes to trees this is the moment and it’s this iteration pattern so I’m going to do a bunch of pictures and so I just want to we I’ve been drawing some pretty complex pictures on these things but by now the whole pattern of what next means and preve and these things being null a doubly link list and the key pointing to another little uh you know a Char star key which points to another little stat Ally allocated thing and the head points to the tail and head and the tail and all that stuff I’m just going to for this section really simplify these pictures to say look there’s a variable called Head somewhere and it points to a zal 22 then it points to a w equals 42 and then that’s the last one and that points to next there points to null and so I’m going to really use a suin representation of Link list uh going far forward uh if we re review what we don’t want to do right we do not want our call and code to know about count we do not want it to know about head we don’t even want it to know about next within the entries right we don’t want to know that we do want to know about key and value and so the calling code where Map arrow number underscore head current underscore next no no no no no that’s not allowed right those are private so in our calling code if we’re if we’re looking at things have underscores technically we could do it because there’s nothing in C that’s stopping us right we create those things right so we don’t want to call head or count because then if we change when we’re doing a map head’s not there anymore I mean a hash head’s not there next doesn’t work I mean we got to hide that we got to like wrap it we got to create a strong abstraction around this notion of starting a loop and then iterating one iteration of a loop Loop and then ending the loop we have to abstract that away this is the concept of separation of concerns our calling code does not need to be concerned about how the object can lo be looped through right so we need a generic notion of looping so you can think of the iterator object itself as thing you create and it sort of starts at the beginning and then you hit it Boop next give me another one give me another one give me another one and inside the iterator the state is changing it’s like advancing and it just gives them to you one at a time you can’t ask it for the same one once you it’s been given to you it’s sort of like ratcheted down to the next one so if we look at this python code we uh well we start with a dictionary a maps to one B to two c to three and we print it and there’s the dictionary and we say oh let’s convert that to a list and that list is the keys which is ABC and then say give me an iterator from that dictionary we print that out and we print the type of it it is of type dictor key iterator object and so the iterator itself is not the entire dictionary it is not a list of all the keys it is an internal structure that python is going to maintain and then we’re going to poke it by calling next next next now the whole next thing that’s probably calling an internal method like double _ next Double underscore so next is part is is is part of the Python language so if you look at the while loop it’s a while true Loop we say item equals next so that means give me the next available item in the iterator and then Advance it and if we’re past the end return me false and I say if item is false break and otherwise I print the item and so I’m getting the items a b and c the key thing here in Python just we’re using python to keep it as simple as possible is we the the iterator is something that’s created the iterator doesn’t contain all the data the iterator contains pointers inside of it so that it knows what what to do next and we repeatedly probe the iterator with the next call to get the next thing and that both advances returns and indicates when we have run out of things so it’s weird because we’re so used to say like for blah in blah or for this that but that’s that’s not how iterators work iterators want this next thing to happen the C code to do the iterator you create it you Loop next through and the C1 is going to look pretty much the same as the python one so if we look at the map it structure it is going to have the kind of things that we we’ve needed we just are going to pull them in so the concept of current like we’ve used the variable Curr in the past for these Loops is in the map iter structure and it’s private so we’ve moved that from a sort of a variable that was in the main scope to inside this and made it private the only public things we have are a next method and a d method and so now what we have is a simple contract you can see our our kind of outside contract for this class is it’s not cre it’s created by the map class but once it’s constructed next and Dell are the only thing that you can do with this and that’s that and then we get to decide inside this class and so when we construct it we’re basically going to start it we’re going to allocate the right size we’re going to take the current and point it at the first item pulling from the head of the link list and then we’re going to set the two methods next and Dell based on the address of the implementations of the functions that implemented and then we’re done right and so because we’re inside of the map and that’s map iter so this is what you get when you go Map arrow itter you get this code um and so we’re totally allowed to do everything private with map because again the developer of the map class is the same person or team that’s develop developing map itter and if we wanted to change head to you know X we could because we would just go inside all our code and change it but head is not exposed to the calling code so they wouldn’t notice that change again that’s that’s the key at the moment the Constructor is called before the first call to next this is what the map bter looks like current is pointing to the first item in our length list then the Y Loop starts and it calls head now you’ll notice that it’s kind of got this weird thing where it grabs the current and that’s because current starts at we could have implemented this differently but the way I did it was current is pointing at head and I have to for the return it’s got to return at the first call to next I grab current and then I Advance current so that at the moment that it Returns the return value is b equal 14 and current now points at 21 d equal 21 preparing for the next call to the next function okay so then it comes in and R Val grabs 21 and that’s what we return and then we advance to 19 and you can kind of see Val and current Chase each other down this link list so the we return f equals 19 and then current points to null and then we notice that current is null and then we return null to tell our calling code that we are finished so to start the iteration to Prime the iteration we call the map object and say hey give me an iterator for the map and we get that back and we’re going to store that in our variable iterator then we’re going to start an infinite Loop that says while one or while true uh C equals it or next give me the next one which the first time two is going to give me the first one then if I got a null I’m done with a loop otherwise I print the key and the value of the one I got and then I go up and I iterate to the next one print it up print up print up print oop I got a null and then I delete the iterator and this is super equivalent to what we do in Python where we say x equal give me the iterator for the dictionary X and the variable it then while true we advance to the the advanc next of it otherwise give me false if we got a false we’re done and otherwise we printed it so these two are very very parallel and you’ll notice that Java and C++ don’t do iterators the same thing but I wrote this code to mimic Python’s way of doing this so it’s been quite a long uh Journey we really focused on AB exraction and encapsulation and we’ve done it with iterators and all we’ve done now is we’ve laid the groundwork for multiple implementations of the map we shouldn’t have to change our main code anymore we should be able to put a we we build a list map a list map and then we’re going to build a hash map and we’re going to build a tree map those have increasing complexity and improved performance characteristics and now you really you’re going to start start seeing why we say have abstraction so that we can fool around underneath the abstraction and accomplish really cool things and get closer to what python really does underneath of a dictionary [Music] implementation hello and welcome to the last lecture in this course we’re going to talk about tree maps and hash Maps up till now we’ve built a map abstraction we’ve looked at how iterators work we’ve created a link list implementation of the hash abstraction and now we’re going to go and build a hash version and a tree version of that same thing if you recall some lectures ago I read a Robert Frost poem you know miles to go before I sleep well that’s where we’re at now we’re coming to the end of this miles to go although as you’ll see the end is really just the beginning of the next phase and with a little foreshadowing if you have been with me for a very long time all the way since python for everybody which for me was recorded a number of years ago already this is the first complete piece of code that I showed you and that was the code to count the number of words in a file by splitting them then creating a dictionary and then counting them and we’re going to finish this lecture by implementing this in C but I’m getting ahead of myself so the idea here is we’re exploring you know different key value implementation Alternatives we we built a unordered Java based hashmap which is like a python 2 dictionary if you recall python 2 had unordered hashmaps which meant you sort of ended up with your stuff coming out in a random order it was the same order but every time you inserted something the order might change now Python 3 they tend to later versions of Python 3 they tend to be ordered which are more like the list map that we did we’re going to have a a map that is sorted that’s more like Java’s tree map with an iterator and it is sort of chapter 6.5 or section 6.5 of the book um and it is a combination of a tree map and a link list map um but uh Java doesn’t have such thing which really kind of surprises me they got a tree map and they got a hashmap but they don’t have a linked tree map or a linked map so here we go now these these the two abstractions were I mean two implementations we’re going to build uh kind of you see them in Python you see them in C++ and you pretty much see them in um jva as well but we’re going to do our own thing so I would say to you when you’re writing this code um I I don’t want you to think that when I wrote this code that I gave you with samples or when I wrote These slides that it was easy for me um the concept of trees and hashes are pretty straightforward but then you got to solve the little problems of how to take the previous and hook it to the current and hook the next to the to the next the current next to the next from the pre and so you you got to draw pictures and this is this is actual picture that I drew I really wrote all this code from scratch I mean I didn’t come up with the idea of a tree from scratch but I wrote this code from scratch and you can see that the like when I was building the the tree map um my goal was to find the right place in the tree to insert the next item and so you see I’ve got this 1 three five 7 9 11 13 so I kind of constructed this tree that was right it was in order um and then I was trying to figure out where I might put four and where I might put eight and where I might put 14 and then um I kind of had this notion when I was writing the picture that I you’ll see I had the words lowest node greater than and I cross them all out because that wasn’t enough and you’ll see when we get there that I have the lowest node greater than and the greatest node less than and I’ve got to get both of those things and so as we work our way down the tree we got to keep track of this I’m I’m getting way ahead of myself like many data structure programming tasks they if you you can draw the picture and it makes a lot of sense you see the hash map which is the first one we’re going to do that’s really just nothing more than a bunch of Link lists a hash function picking the the head instead of one head it has in this case four heads um so that one turns out to be easy and that’s the first one that we’re going to do but when I wrote this I mean I knew what I was doing I knew what a tree was I knew what a hash was that that’s the easy part the hard part’s writing the code now taking the code from someone else like if you’re taking it from python or C++ or Java that’s easy thank heaven they wrote it and they tested it and we have nice tested working implementations so you shouldn’t have to write this stuff in most languages and so we’re just understanding how to write it but if you do it right you’re going to make mistakes and you’re gonna you’re going to be 80% right but then it’s going to be real hard to debug this stuff so part of what you need to figure you need to accept the fact that you will un you’re not likely to write it perfect the first time and debugging is difficult you’re going to print out a bunch of like percent PS and hex values and stuff and you’re going to just go through it slowly like what did I do wrong because the main programs for the programming assignments that I give you are really kind of like unit tests they’re sort of pushing your implementation to see if it’s cap AP of handling all of the common situations and so don’t don’t stress if it doesn’t work right away they my my implementations didn’t work right away they they failed you you can you know if you can go to some website and get the solution I mean if you’re going to do that just go to Python and make a dictionary if that’s your goal your goal is to struggle with doing something that you understand you know how to do it you know what a tree is you kind of know that you got preves and nexts and lefts and rights but you still got to write the code in making one or two mistakes and then fixing those one or two mistakes is essential to understanding so with that up next we’re going to talk about the [Music] hashmap so now we’re going to talk about a hash based implementation of our map and this is the answer to the world’s most common programming interview question but we’re going to do hashmaps and then tree Maps tree maps are harder so hashmaps turn out to be beautifully simple and that’s kind of the reason that um Everyone likes these is interview questions because the interviewer can remember the answer a tree map they might have trouble remembering and so it’s the perfect thing in an interview to say draw me a hashm because they know the they still remember the answer from when they went to school they’ have to do a little review to get the tree map right so here we go so let’s talk a little bit about our hash map implementation it’s got a weird order and once you see the data structure internally it’ll be clear why there’s a weird order it is like a python 2 dictionary and it’s like a Java hashmap it’s very similar to both of these things I’m guessing the code we’re going to write is very similar to when when GTO made his first dictionary it’s going to have extremely fast insert looked up just like python 2 dictionaries and Java hashmaps it’s going to be iterable like Java’s python 2’s dictionaries and Java’s hashmaps and it builds on link lists surprisingly it’s really easy to build a hash list hashmap if you understand link lists and so it’s it’s covered in chapter 6.5.1 and 6.6 in kernigan and Richie 6.5.2 is literally the hardest part of the book and that’s why we kind of start with 6.6 and then kind of go back to 6.5 okay so let’s take a look at our data structures and how we’re going to go from the list map to the hash map so our our our list map is pretty simple we’ve got the entries in the map which are key value which we’ve decided are going to stay public we’ve got the pre and the next for the map entry which is just you know we’re going to link these things together and then list map itself it’s got a head and it’s got a tail and maybe a count and a few other things and then the methods Etc because we’ve done encapsulation so the hash map entry if you look at it it’s pretty much identical and that’s because the entries in a hashmap are just part of a link list the key to the hashmap is there’s multiple link lists and we see that in struct hashmap andore buckets says how many buckets we have in a in a more sophisticated hashmap implementation we would have the number buckets grow as size grew and the the list got too long but we’re going to keep that so that’s called rehashing and we’re going to keep that out of our conversation so but we’re going to have a number of buckets and in this case it’s going to be eight so those are called hash buckets and then we’re going to have heads plural we’re going have eight of them and Tails eight of them but within a particular head and a tail it really is a hashmap so as you’re writing the code for the hashmap go back to the list map I mean literally copy the list map code and then change the singular to plural and you’ll see some of the things I show you in the actual code so if we look at how a list map looks it’s got a head and it’s got a bunch of entries that have preves and necks I’m not even showing the preves and the arrows I’m just showing the next but assume there’s always preves there because it’s a way for us to link things in but if you look at the hashmap so you take the actual key you run it through a hash function which creates some big number no matter how but it is just a number no matter how long the key is it can be one character or 2,000 characters eventually the hash runs a calculation that gives us back a number sort of a pseudo random number that has you know equally likely and there’s a whole science of hashing and then we take a modulo and in this case we have four buckets so we take this hash calculation modulo four and that gives us a number from 0 through three and with that number we picked the linked list and then we add it to the link list just as if we were doing this with a link list so the M once we’ve done the hash and we picked a bucket it really is exactly the same as a link list so a hashmap with four buckets is the same as four link lists and you pick the linked list by the hash computation and has computation is deterministic and predictable so wherever we put D it’s going to be in bucket one one and we can look it up in bucket one we can store it in bucket one Etc and so for inserting m equals 90 that’s going to Hash into into bucket two and we’re going to put it in that that link list okay so it is beautifully simple now what is a hash calculation this is actually from my uh postgress for everybody course basically the hash Maps large data items to a single a single number basically and these are called hash Val values so the whole concept of a hash function when used with a modulo in this case I’ve got 16 modulo 16 in this picture it Maps a big string into some fixed number of buckets and often the buckets are power of two but they don’t have to be it’s really a modulo operation and so there’s a whole um there’s a whole science of hashing and hash functions and it turns out the hashing and hash functions are a big part of security and digital signatures and all that stuff and so there is there are people who spend their whole lives researching how to build good hash functions and so there’s this this sha 256 compression function you can go look it up you can see what’s going on here is like the arrows are shifting and the plus with a circle is exclusive ores and they sort of both show you um the shifting and the exclusive or and they give you a diagram of how these things and they shift an exclusive or yada and they’re taking the pieces of a a value it’s computed in a loop and updated and what they’re showing you is what happens each iteration through the loop and so um the idea is is we are going to take a string string array and we’re going to take a number of buckets and the idea of a hash is it is just some integer number and we’re going to go through each of the items each the characters in The String that’s the four star stir star stir plus plus and we’re going to take the current value of hash in this case we’re going to shift it three to the left and then we’re going to exclusive or it with the character we’re looking at so you can say shift three exclusive or shift three exclusive or so you could think of it as like an accumulation but the exclusive or is a nice form of accumulation in that it it increases the randomness the pseudo randomness of this thing and so exclusive or just turns out to be a super valuable calculation and so this is this Loop is going to run so many times and so we’re going to print it out you’re going to see the hex if we’re just taking the letters Hi you can see kind of the internal hash value growing and changing and you can kind of see it going from uh right to left as it sort of grows um and there’s new data being put in bitwise it’s a bit you know bit exclusive or but at the very end it says return hash percent buckets which takes the modulo operator of the number of buckets and in this case I’m going to be using eight buckets just to run the hash function right give me the bucket for this string so you can see me running different things on the right hand side and getting back the ultimate final buckets so hi goes in bucket one hello goes in bucket seven and World goes into bucket four this is this is really inspired by you know the the the shifting and the masking but I’ve simplified it so you can kind of see what’s going on and in our particular hash it’s it’s good enough for our purposes but it’s probably going to have collisions when treated against a whole series of random data it’s not going to be as good and that’s where a fancy hash like shot 256 would be helpful so now that we understand the basic data structures and how hashing functions work let’s up next we’re going to take a look at actually building a hashmap or at least adapting our list map and turning it into a [Music] hashmap so now that we understand what a hash function is we’re going to actually build our hashmap implementation but what we’re really going to do is make a copy of our list map code and change as few things as possible possible you’ll be impressed with how easy this really is if you have a bit of working list map code this is the new Constructor and I can call your attention to the changes right remember we have a number of buckets we have a however many head however many buckets we have we have eight heads and eight tails so we’re going to look in the Constructor so we’re going to allocate a hashmap it’s not that big right you still got it’s still got the functions for our encapsulation to put get size dump and it that’s not changed at all except it’s called hashmap instead of list map the buckets is set to eight we’re going to initialize all eight buckets to had a head of null and a tail of null cuz remember this is just eight link lists and count we set to zero pretty straightforward especially if you understand the hash list and if you don’t go back and watch that lecture don’t just like go oh I didn’t understand what hash list was I’ll just keep on not understanding and and use Chad GP it’s like well I I don’t know what to do if that’s how you’re going to go through this assignment but if you have and understand a working hash list this is easy easy easy we’ve been using list map find before and all it does is it finds a hashmap entry if it’s already there and so we send in the whole hash map self which is very you know python object oriented pattern where the first parameter is always self we have a key we’re looking up and then we’re telling it to start in a particular bucket and that’s the real change if you have hash list find it doesn’t have a bucket hashmap findind has a bucket and so this code is exactly the same as hash list find except instead of starting at head we’re have an array of heads and we use bucket to figure out the thing and then we Loop through it we’re in the right bucket something above us figured out what bucket it go through and so if we look at hashmap get which is taking a key and having a default and having a self we say hey compute the bucket from the key and however many buckets we have which in this case might be and then we do a struct hashmap star rvel go find it passing in the bucket if the if the return is null from find we return the default otherwise return the value so again there’s one line changed between the code from list map get to hashmap get so let’s do a quick review of what we do in map put now this is not the hashmap put this is maput this is our list mput so we call find if we find it then we’re just going to update the value and we’re done if we don’t find it we allocate the new entry we set it’s next to null and we link it into the list and this is the place where you should be drawing a picture if the head is null that means we have an empty list then self head is this new thing if the self tail is not equal to null we’ve linked it at the end then we’re going to update the tail Etc so draw these pictures and these are the parts where you’ll mess it up you you will get these wrong and it’s okay to get these wrong put like a print statement in every line here if you’re having trouble right and you got all the cases in this this nice nice little four lines of code captures the cases okay so remember we’re inserting at the end so what do we do for hashmap put we have a bucket we’re going to run a a hash computation to figure out which bucket it is then we’re going to call hashmap find and we just tell it to find it in the bucket so in the linked list sub three or sub four or whatever and if we found it we update the value and return otherwise it’s time to insert so we allocate a new one we set it’s next to null and then we know which bucket it is so in this we looked at the previous code it was for one link list and for this current code there’s eight link lists but we already know which link list we’re dealing with and so literally you can take the word head and change it to head sub bucket everywhere you see head here you can change it to head sub bucket tail subet and literally when I wrote this code that is exactly what I did I did it slowly not to mess up and of course the compiler help me if I forgot something but that’s as simple as it is to transform the put from a list map to a hashmap of course the dump we have to do a little bit differently we want to show all the buckets and so we’re showing what bucket it is the key value pair but other than that it’s a it’s really a pretty straightforward stuff to do the hashmap dump remember I told you that writing a debug tool is essential so you can change your main code to dump dump dump dump dump because you’ll mess it up right you will not write this code perfectly and you need to be able to debug it so now let’s take a bit of a REV view of the list map iterator so recall that the iterator is its own object we’ve got the entry we’ve got the iterator and we got the map itself and the map iterator is allowed to do all the internal stuff because the whoever is writing these things writing them at a group so we could think of it as like a protected value and so um really the essence of the map iteration iterator is a current so we’re going to call the public part of it is next and Dell and the private part is what the current thing is because we’re going to we don’t get to see the current but we can use next to get the current back and so the idea is as we can call next next next next next rather than looking at current recall that the way the iterator works is you ask for the iterator and then you hit the iterator with the next and you go until you you’re done and when you find something you print it out and we can do the same thing in C C and as well as python if we think about how to do the iterator for a hashmap it’s a little little different we must move we must start at generally we start the first bucket and we must move through all the buckets eventually we got to get to because we got you know eight or four link lists we got to go through all of them and we got to go down each of them but if we’re looking for the next item and we got to skip empty buckets so we kind of got a bit of a complex while operation and so one of the things we’re going to do is when we create the map Eder we are going to store a reference to the hashmap so when we construct the map hashmap iter we’re going to know which which bucket is an internal value current is an internal value and map is an internal value which we’re going to use to remember that map that we’re an iterator for and then we’re going to have an next anadell this is the Constructor and we’re saying make an iterator given a hashmap we make the iter structure we remember a pointer to the map in case we’re going to need it later the current bucket we’re going to look at is zero and the current map entry is the head of the zero bucket and then next and Dell are just capsulated methods basically and then we return it now that first bucket may or may not be an empty list right so that first B you know there might be just one bucket the third bucket might have a list in it and 0 one and two won’t have anything in it so remember but so we starting at the top bucket and our current is pointing to the head of the the first bucket which may be null the tricky bit is the itter next and we remember we given the map itter we don’t get map but we’ve stashed map in underscore map if self current equals null in the old days in a list map we knew we were done and we could just return null but now we have to go down a bucket so self this is the iterator bucket goes from like 0 to one so we increment it and if the self the current bucket we’re looking at in the iterator is greater than or equal to the maximum number of buckets we have now got to the last bucket and we return null and then what we do is we say okay that must mean we have more buckets so we say self current is equals self map that’s our little stashed version of the map and we’re going to go we’ve already incremented self bucket and so we’re going to grab the next head and then we’re going to Loop up to the top now at this point if that bucket is empty we’re going to do it again and we’re either going to go through this y Loop enough times until we either have exhausted the buckets or we have found a bucket that has an entry in it then we got to do a little trick grab the current so the only way we’re coming out of this Loop is if self current is not null because if self current was null we would have wilded our way through and then return null eventually after we exhausted the buckets in the while loop above so the r Val is self Curren if self current is not equal to no we’re going to go to the next and then return rep Val I’ve given you the code go through it carefully It’s tricky to write what I would do is I would like print these Co this code out and draw the picture Okay draw the picture so let’s take a look at a hashmap iterator in action so this is what it looks like when we’ve just got constructed and we’re in the first call to next current is pointing at the first item in the first link list the link head Subzero we’ll fall through we look at this self- current value and it’s not equal to null which is great which means we have something to return so that so we don’t have to go through the sort of scanning across null entries so we skip the while loop and we simply set R Val to self current and if it’s not equal to n we advance that and then we return R Val and so at the end it looks like this the current has been Advanced to the to the next thing we’re going to return on the second so the first call returns FAL 19 that’s the r Val and the next thing is going to be H equal 17 but now we give it back to the calling code and away we go so now we come in in the second call it’s going to do kind of the same thing current is going to have pointed to H equals 17 it’s not going to it’s not null and so we simply take Rett Val andb self. current and then we advance it as long as current is not equal to null and because it was pointing to H equal 17 it is we’re going to advance but now as we exit this second call current is going to be null but we’re going to take care of that on the third call so don’t worry about that R Val is H equal 17 and current equals null so now we’re done with the second call so now we come into the third call and in this situation we are pointing at the zero bucket and current is null so the Y Loop is going to take over so while self current equals null which is true right now we are going to run the code say self bucket plus plus which is the bucket number in the iterator and we’re going to ask is the bucket number in the iterator greater than or equal to the number of buckets in the map if we are we’re done we we’re at the last one but we’re not so we’re not going to return null we’re going to say self current equals self map head self sub bucket so we’re going to go down to bucket sub one now and we are going to make current point at bucket whatever the head of bucket one is and that’s okay we found an empty bucket because remember I said you got to skip empty buckets but we’re still in the while loop while goes up says oh self current is still null I mean I just moved to the next bucket but self current is still null so I add one to the bucket the bucket becomes two we check to see if we’re done right if it’s greater than or equal map buckets return no which it’s not because we are we’re at bucket one and self current is equal to self map Remember map is our remembered version of the whole map so we can see all the heads because we got to work through the heads so now self current points to b equals 14 and now the Y Loop goes back up and now self current is not null because it’s pointing to the b equals 14 item so it pops out of that while loop and drops down and says R Val equals self current which was b equal 14 and then it advances is self current and self Curren becomes null again but that’s okay because we’re going to return Bal 14 on the third call so just to review we returned f equals 19 on the first call we returned H equal 17 on the second call and return b equal 14 on the third call and now it’s going to loop back up and we’re going to see the fourth call and so the fourth call is going to come in and um current was D equal 21 and so it’s pretty simple we’re we’re we’re not going to run the Y loop at this point um we’re going to return D equal 21 we’re advaned current so current is now pointing to null and now in the fifth call current is null but now that’s going to trigger us working in the Y loop we’re going to add one to the bucket the bucket is going to become four and we say if this bucket inside this iterator is greater than the total buckets in the map return null and we’re now done the fifth call returns null that tells the calling code that we are at the end of the list so if you keep yourself straight and you draw pictures like this and you think it through this is a surprisingly small amount of code to build a complete iterator for a hashmap I I kind of mentioned this in passing but we still have more work to do a thing called rehashing it’s not that hard and feel free to feel free to try it um at some point if these link lists get too long our performance starts to suffer and so one of the things that hashes do is in the middle of an insert they’ll have something we call a load factor and it’s like whoop this these buckets we have each bucket would have a length and we might check all the bucket lengths and if it got to be like over 10 or 15 or something we would go from we would have to rehash these things you don’t have to reallocate you just have to make go from four buckets to eight buckets and then you recalculate the hash modulo 8 and figure out which bucket it belongs in and reconstruct all these things and so it’s not impossible to do a rehash doubling the bucket and reducing the average chain length but we are not going to do that in this particular thing because we’re going to keep it simple so the hashmap iterator while complex is surprisingly simple it’s really very simil similar to the list iterator the the the key thing is that we’ve got to have that y Loop that sort of Skips if we’re at the end of one list it’s got to get to the beginning of the next list and it’s got to skip empty buckets now this is why you can see because that the things in the list are in somewhat random order the the buckets the the mapping of any key to any bucket is in random order and this is why when you think of python 2 we we can look in Python 2 and we say oh if if you iterate through a map they come out in the same order but there is no predictable order but if you do it twice you’re going to get the same order and the fact that the order might change if you do inserts or deletes that has to do with the rehashing so we’re we’re kind of at the point where we have built the two foundational types of python 2.0 we’ve built a list and we built a dictionary python 2.0 but next we’re going to move like to python 3.0 and start creating a link list that maintains sorted order and can be iterated in key order uh and so that’s going to be our [Music] tree so up to now we’ve done all the easy stuff so it’s time to do the linked tree map which really is kind of a modern flexible key Value Store um this is a nice key value store that you would want to use if you were a software developer um our linked tree map is ordered like python order dictionaries it stays sorted meaning that not only does it stay in order it stays in sorted order we insert things and they go in in order like a Java tree map you can be iterated like a C++ map or an ordered dictionary but not a Java tree map this just boggles my mind while you can’t well we’ll talk about actually why they didn’t do it but it’s not that hard why why they so um and we’re going to have fast lookup so the problem with a A list map is it’s got a lot of nice features and we can make a sorted list map and we’re going to in this section um but the problem with the list map is lookup is slow and so we’re going to actually pretty much use the tree part to do fast lookup and you can see this in 6.5.2 of the textbook so we are going to do something that’s pretty common in data structures and that is we’re going to maintain two whatever the entries and they’re going to maintain simultaneously a sorted link list through the entries and a binary tree and so we’re going to look at them separately and then we’re ultimately going to find them together we’re going to put them together so let’s talk about what a tree is a tree is a structure that the tree map you see has a left and a right so the things to the left are things where the key is lower than the current right so H equals 42 the question is where would a go well a goes to the left where would T go well T goes to the right so the idea of the tree is that whatever entry you’re in there’s a key in that in the entry and then you can either go left or right based on the comparison of the key and instead of having a head and a tail there is just a root so the root is the top entry of this tree and then there’s a series of left and right choices that you make and each entry has a left and a right and the tree map entry has a key value pair and we’re going to keep key and value as um public because it’s just an entry but now there is no next right this is why we are using abstraction because we’re not even going to give them next we’re going to have a left and a right okay and that’s we’re not going to show that we’re not going to let people see that we’re just going to give them a set of methods to mess with our tree map and we’re going to deal with all this stuff and we need a left and a right to do it so just taking a look at how it works is let’s just say we’re going to in this current tree that I’ve sort of built they’re not always balanced I happen to balance it just because it looks better on PowerPoint slides but let’s just say we’re going to insert in this tree a a g equals 25 so it’s got a a key of G and a value of 25 so what you do is you start at the root and you compare it and you say oh G is less than H so we’re going to go down the left hand side so you can think of it as you’re walking down the left hand side then you are encountering D equals 8 and then you’re like Okay g is greater than D so we got to take the it’s like driving a car turn right at intersection D and so we do and we’re working our way down and now we have we’re looking at intersection F and we’ve either got to go left or right and so FG G is greater than F and so we’re going to go to the right not the left and so we do and so that basically is the path that we took and so to insert g into the tree we find the greatest value less than which is f and you’re kind of inserting it if you think about it between F and H right so it’s it the next Higher One in the tree is H and the next lower one in the tree is f and that was the trip we did I like to think of this sort of sort of trickling down the tree and making these decisions as almost like a Pachinko machine um where you you you hit the balls they go dinging it’s not random of course it’s uh it’s very precise but it is kind of like you stop at the top and you make a bunch of you know binary left right decisions and eventually you find yourself somewhere at the bottom and so if we kind of look at tree matap put and we are going to start at the root and then we’re going to do a comparison and we’re um and if we find it the comparison is going to be zero we update the value and if we don’t find it and it’s less than we’re going to go left and if it’s greater than we’re going to go right and so this is basically the idea this y Loop will trickle down the tree going left and going right and it will either find the value if it there’s a match like if we’re looking for f we’d have found it and we’ have stopped and we would have returned if we’re looking for G we won’t find it but we will find where we’re supposed to insert it okay so the last thing that we talk to which G will find its way down to the right of f we will find where to put it so as long as the tree is correctly maintained you will either find a match or you will find the right place to insert it and the tree will it’s not guaranteed it’s not guaranteed to be balanced there’s further algorithms that can make the tree Balan but the the key thing is is that the order will be right okay so so by inserting following these rules following this algorithm the order will be right and you will always find the right place to put it or you will find a matching place and think about how dictionaries work right you say x sub hello equals something well there’s either going to be a hello key in there or not if there’s not we’re going to put it in if there is we’re going to update it and that’s what this code does we’re going to create a new tree map we’re going to put H equal 22 and then we’re going to do H equal 42 which replaces H right then we’re going to do D equal 8 then we do Bal 1 2 3 and then we’re going to do FAL 6 it turns out I’m kind of doing this in order so it doesn’t get too long on the page and then I’m going to do a dump and remember how important a debug is when I first wrote this code you can daral bet you that I had map dump it was map put map dump matap put map dump matap put mat dump so I could like see what it does and so the ma the dump if you look at the dump um then we put in K and M and J and then we dump it again and so what I’ve done is I if you look at the map output you see that the map output has these H equals 42 and then it’s kind of trying to give you some sense of the treeness of it okay meaning that the Bal 123 um FAL 6 and D equal 8 we’re the number of vertical bars tell you how deep in the tree you are and so you can see that the immediate child nodes of H in the second dump are D and K and the child nodes of K are J and M so you can draw this all up and so the idea of my dump code is I’m trying to sort of draw you a tree so here is the dump code now this is very very different and literally this is the first time well I talked about recursions and functions talked about stack frames and stuff like that but if you go all the way back to python for everybody I delay talking about recursion until there’s a real value for it and it turns out this is a beautiful use of recursion and if you didn’t write this recursively you’d probably have to write your own stack and that would be like a bummer is we we’re going to recursively go down the tree and we’re going to keep track of the depth and the idea of the depth is it tells me how many vertical bars to print so we come in and we’re pointed at a particular place in the tree maybe the root maybe the top one and depth is going to be zero and so if Cur is null we’re done a key thing to recursion is you’ve got to have a way to get out so if we if we get to the end of some tree sub tree and we get to a null we go left or right that it’s a null don’t print anything out just you’re done you’ve gone one Beyond The Leaf of the tree and Cur is null so just return then what we do is we have a for Loop depending on depth that prints vertical bar space that spaces it over and we’re going to go down the left tree and then we’re going to come back and we’re going to down the right tree and this is what’s called a depth first search for those computer science nerds right and and so we’re going to go down the left and you’ll notice that when we go down the left if the left is not equal to null we are going to dump the tree on the left with depth equals depth plus one and so if we start with a depth of zero that’s going to become one and then if we recursively go down further then it’s going to be two and then if
and and then that when that recursion comes back if curve right is not equal to no we’re going to dump the tree on the right so what you see is dump the tree on the left recursively which means go all the way down the left then come back up then dump the right node then come back up go up again and dump the right node and so you see this like how the order this is a depth first search of H we’re going we’re going down past um D then we’re going even further past B and then we’re coming up from B and we’re going back down from D to F coming up from F then we come up from D then we go across H and then we go down to K but then we go to the left of K which is J we go back up and then we go to the right of K which is M and then we go back up we go back up and we’re done so the calling sequence to this is tree map dump tree self root with a depth of zero I will say this when I wrote this code the first time I had print FS all over the place now I pretty much know how to do a depth first search of a tree but still you in a debugging sometimes sometimes you make your tree incorrectly and your debugging is like huh that doesn’t look like what I thought it was GNA be and uh and so I don’t be ashamed if you have to put print statements in all over the place first get your dump working just make sure your dump works because then you can debug everything else with the dump gets pretty simple and we’ve got the default we got the key and we’ve got the tree so we’re going to start a y Loop where we’re going to go down left right left right left right right so we’re going to start at the root we’re going to compare the key to the key we’re searching for the current key if they’re the same then return the value we could do this recursively but that you don’t do recursion if you don’t need to if the current key if the key we’re looking for is less than the then the key we found we’re going to go down the left and if the current key otherwise we’re going to go down the right and so you can see this thing is just going to Pinko its way down Tink tin Tink Tink Tink to the right spot and if it gets to null then we return the default right remember this is like a diary if the key is not there on a get we return the default you can see why GTO van rossom in Christmas 1987 created a function called get which looked for a key and took a default value because this code is what what you you write what I’m going to return null and then I have an if statement heck no just passing a default if you get to the bottom of the tree and you haven’t found it return the default if I want it to be null I can make the default null right away we go so this is beautiful this is beautiful so from that beauty both the dump are beautiful and the get is beautiful iterator is a pain you just can’t easily build an iterator for a pure tree if you have nothing more than that tree so a list map can support an ordered iterator we saw before a hashmap can support an unordered iterator but a tree map cannot support an iterator without building some kind of a stack and the the problem is is that the concept of current is just so complex when we’re doing recursion the concept of current is just so implicit it’s actually in the call stack the notion of current because there’s really when you’re doing the M the the dump you have a call stack of currents and then when you go back up the call stack back you’re getting a different current so you’re switching back and so you either have to make your own stack of currents you could build an iterator for a tree but you’d have to build a stack so a lot of folks sort of don’t want to do that we could build a stack but we’re not going to so what we’re going to do is we’re going to do a technique for our iterator that is a common technique when you have a data structure that almost does what you want and then you have another data structure that does what you want you combine them so if you look at this tree there’s a lot of nice things for searching for replacing for inserting and it does all that very fast because it’s it’s actually log in because the height of the tree is log base two of the width of the tree right the number of items in the tree so it’s it log base 2ish so it’s super fast all my trees are small but if these trees get big they’re super fast goes down the pinkos sit way down to the bottom really fast but I can’t easily build an iterator so what I’m going to do is I’m going to add to this a linked list but I’m going to have the link list simultaneously working with the tree so each of these items is going to have a next and a prieve and a left and a right and we’re going to almost write the code mentally independently for the tree code and the link list code okay so we’re ultimately going to combine these things together there’s not a separate link list and a separate tree it looks like this in a link tree man so think of each one of these things having a next and a prieve and a left and a right and we maintain them in such a way when we’re doing inserts that everything works perfectly so we’re going to simultaneously maintain with the same entries a tree and a liist but we’re only going to use the list to build the iterator and we’re going to make this a sorted list because these things AR in order the tree is helping us quickly find the place to put it but also where to put it in order so let’s take advantage of that so this is a sorted ordered dictionary in Python lingo okay so just remember that these entries these list tree map entries are simultaneously participating in a tree and at the same time in another layer as it were participating in a link list the tree map which is the tree map structure has a head and a root because at the same time tree map is both a tree and a link list and the map entry is going to have a next and a left and a right and again you just almost keep these things sep separate right in your mind when we’re doing tree things we’re going to use left and right and root and when we’re doing list things we’re going to use head and next and these are things now by now that should be sort of familiar to you so this is the structure that we’re going to build and maintain and up next we’re going to build the put code or this combined two layer data structure that has a tree and a sorted link list all at the same [Music] time so this is an entire lecture on the put method of our tree matat and the essence of this is we’re going to be simultaneously updating two data structures at the same time I guess that’s the definition of simultaneously so just before we start this is not easy I think it’s pretty much impossible to do exactly what I’m asking you to do just use a bunch of Google searches or asking your AI bot maybe maybe you can you need to really understand what you’re doing and this is where a picture is so valuable once you understand it the code should look very clean and very simple to you my put code as I was writing it was like broken and like like I tried to fix it and then it was broken again and I threw it away and I wrote it again and I drew a new picture and I wrote it and it was broken and I threw it away again and then like poof it was perfect so as you’re writing data structure code the notion of like it’s broken just accept that it’s broken it’s going to be broken you’re going to throw it away that’s the point because you know that this algorithm is eventually going to work the algorithm is not the problem it’s your implementation that’s the problem okay so if we take a quick look at the performance of put and I’ve mentioned this the binary search is log in while a sorted list search is order in meaning that if you have a search list of 500,000 or a million it takes on average 500,000 lookups to find it whereas a million entry tree search it take the log two of a million and you get about 20 so the key thing is we’re going to use the tree anytime we’re searching and we’re going to only use the list when we’re iterating but we’re going to while we’re doing put we’ve got to maintain both the tree and the list okay so we are going to have to be real careful to keep in our mind and this is where I drew all those pictures we got to be able to insert into an empty list which is easy because root is null and you just put the thing in then you got to find a right Gap a gap to the to the right of something and then find a left Gap and insert at the beginning after you go down a bunch of lefts and go down a bunch of Rights and then replacing is the easy part as we’ve seen in put you just that they you say if it’s equal change the value okay so let’s just take a look at our data structures and then we talked about these before we have simultaneously in the entry we have a left and a right and we have a next because we are simultaneously maintaining a sorted link list and a sorted tree the tree map has a head and it has a root that’s pretty much it so in our in our Constructor we set the head to null we set the root to null we’re empty we don’t have anything in the tree we don’t have anything in the link list so the empty list is easy right and so we you have to scan to see if it’s in the list right and you know if you know first we can just say hey if self head is null and it be the same as saying if self root is null well we just point head and root to the new item okay because we’re inserting H equals 22 I’m going to insert these in order so the list so I I don’t run out of space on my PowerPoint slides and so when we’re done with this rud is going to point to H equal 22 the left is going to point to null the right is going to point to null the next is going to point to null and head is going to point to the item so we have a valid linked list and we have a valid tree at the same time okay so again this is not the whole put code this is just the first part where we there’s some dot dot dots in there where you’re putting all the data in putting the key in and setting next to n and left and all Etc so that’s that’s in there but the first one is pretty easy from The Head and the root okay so we we keep doing that for a while we let’s just take our we put some things in there and we’ve got our our link list going correctly you can just verify that you run through they’re all in order you can take your your lefts and your rights and all the things that are less than H are to the left of H and all the things that are to the right of H are greater than H away we go so we’re going to write some code and what we’re really going to look for and this is the tricky part is to find the item or the Gap where the item belongs now the problem is is we’re going to have to link these things back up when we are just doing a tree it was easier because you would either find the item or find the place to link it okay so trees are easier to easy to maintain the link list is hard to maintain because you’ve got to keep track of the item that is the largest item less and the smallest item greater and that’s what I call the Gap so this left and this right are to as we’re walking down the list we’re going to keep track of the the greatest the smallest greater item and the the largest less item okay and that’s what this left so we got CER we got left and we got right and you can think of left and right as like breadcrumbs like we’re going to throw breadcrumbs when we turn when we’re going to turn to the left we’re going to remember the right when we turn to the right we’re going to remember the left and you’ll see it in action so here we go here we go so we got this tree g equals 29 we’re going to insert it so then what we do is we compare it to H equal 42 and then we say oh that’s a turn to the left so now we know at least at this point the greatest value the smallest greatest value is H and so we point right at H as we are moving down the tree and you see that you do the stir comp you see what it says if comp is less than zero we’re going to turn left and then right is going to point at Cur where we were and now the next time when we’re going to turn right which is what we’re going to do next it’s going going to remember where left so we’re now comparing G to D and G is greater than D so now we’re going to turn right but now we’re going to update left so D at this point in our search D is the largest number less than or the largest key less than G and H is the smallest key greater than G so you see how left and right are like breadcrumbs as we’re sort of pinking our way down uh this tree so then we compare G to f and g is greater than F and so we’re going to take a right turn and whenever we take a right turn we update left so now we have actually found the place that g belongs and if you look left and right are perfect for the link list because now we know that that left next is going to point to G and G next is going to point to H so so left next won’t point at H anymore it’s going to point at G and G new next is going to point at H okay so when we do this because we’ve got left and we’ve got right we just link them in and then we inserted into the tree and away we go and so now you look what we have done is we have now left and right just temporary variables that we had during this tree map put code um but if you look at this and look it carefully we have a correctly formed link list that’s sorted in order and we have a correctly formed tree and we use the tree to get to F fast and we use left and right so that once we got to the right place which was to the right of f we could just hook it into that link list with no additional cost okay see how pretty it is so now let’s take a look at some other of these things so let’s take a look at inserting J well J is going to go right when it sees H because it’s greater than it’s going to go left when it sees K because it’s less than I mean I I’m inserting I not J it’s going to go left when it sees K and it’s going to go left when it sees J and when it’s done you got left is H and right the right value and the the I shouldn’t even name these left I should call them the smallest wait a second the largest value less than and the smallest value greater than that would prob be a more pneumonic name is largest value less than and smallest value greater than instead of left and right I’m thinking of it as the thing it’s like a bracket you got a gap and what’s your immediate left and what’s your immediate right and so now we know exactly where this belongs and we know how to update both the link list and the tree so boink update the link list using left and right and then update the tree um using cerr right and so away we go and we’ve got ourselves in that Gap and so we can insert to the left we can insert to the right now remember remember remember that if we if if our key was J we’d have found it and then all we’d have done is updated the value so remember I I and my brain does this a lot when I’m looking at this code I’m like but will I find it and will I find the right one what if it’s already there well already there’s the easy part okay so there we go so let’s take a look at inserting a equal 17 and how this works remember the use cases got to do the beginning the end left Gap right Gap empty list and then pretty much we’ll have it so a equal 17 that’s going to end up all the way down so we are going to compare it and we’re going to we’re to turn left to the left to the left I think there’s a song and a dance about that um and so we remain remember right which is the smallest number greater than and it’s not going to be right is not going to stay H equals 42 because we’re going to compare A and D and then we’re going to go left again and now right is going to follow us and then we’re going to compare A and B and we’re going to go left again and right is going to follow us now the interesting thing is left is now null we have found the place we’re going to insert to the left of B but we’re also going to insert through the head because we know that left is null which means that we just found the lowest thing in the current something lower than anything in the link list so then we just hook the hook a in before B right after head and then we hook it in to the the left of the B going with a larger than anything else that’s in there we’re going to end up with this at the end of the link list we’re going to compare X to H and going to go right and remember left the largest value less than for now we’re going to look at K we’re going to go left again and left is going to be updated to be K the largest value less than then we’re going to compare X to M and X is still greater than M so we’re going to go I right again and left is going to be m equal 67 and you’ll note that the thing we detect here is Right equals zero which means we have no value greater than x in this list so we just say x next the X current current thing next is null and the Cur next is you know points to the X entry and then we hook it in on the right side of the m equal 67 and then we are done so if we’re going to do a replacement remember I told you this was the easy one so and again in my brain when I was writing his code I’m like but what if it’s already there calm down that’s the easy one okay so we’re comparing F to H well it’s to the left we’re going to keep track of right but we’re not going to use them because we’re going to find it and then we have a match and then we just see it and go like oh fine f is 16 we’re done life is simple if they’re equal we found it you know we don’t have to keep looking we found it we just change it and again think of how fast now how fast this works when it’s the keys already there it’s like nothing to allocate no links to make you just change the value and you’re done so it’s important to test all of these cases and I just went through every single one of the cases and showed you what they’re supposed to look like and I I will tell you that you will make mistakes and I will tell you that asking Google for help as long as you read what they say will inform you but but I doubt that Google’s going to just give you the whole code of something that is as intricate as list I would say a simultaneous sorted link list and a tree at the same time maybe it can do that because that’s what you’re really doing so up next we are going to go back to the beginning and go back to python for everybody to wrap things [Music] up well it’s been quite a journey we have built in C a whole objectoriented pattern reviewed all of objectoriented programming implemented a number of different python objects in c as a way to understand how C++ Works how Java Works how python Works how they all work under the covers so we come to the end of this sort of walk through all these amazing data structures and I hope you’ve had fun but one of the things I like to do at the end is I like to go back to the beginning so some of you have been with me from the very beginning python for everybody may be the first programming class that you ever took and I want to now finish by reviewing the very first program that I ever showed you in Python for everybody it is from chapter one I love this example and this is counting the most common word in a file so it’s in Python we read a file name we create a dictionary we read all the lines we split it I think we we don’t do conversion to lowercase but um then we’re going through all the word and words and we’re we’re we’re saying we’re going to set the counts to counts. getet word comma zero remember if when you first saw that zero is the default then we’re going to add one and that’s the way when we see the first word we we sort of bootstrap whatever the word is that we’re looking at then we have a Max Loop so we’re going to iterate with items we’re going to look for word comma count items and we’re going to do a simple Max Loop and then when it’s all done we’re going to print out the largest word and the count of the number of times that large word was shown so fast forward here we go now you by now have built a tree map hopefully so now what we’re going to do is we are going to use your tree map code and we’re going to implement this count so we’re going to have a tree map call The Constructor for it that’s our dictionary we’re going to have the tree map entry that we’re going to need to use to go through the iterator we’re going to have a tree map iterator we’re going to create because we don’t have strings we’re going to create a 100 item 100 item array name Char array and word and yes it’s dangerous we’re just not going to be too mean to our code and blow it up but we could and then variables like I and J and count max value and Char Max key that’s all of our setup stuff so we’re going to open the file name using scan F now we’re in C it’s not python anymore but you can see the similarity so then we’re going to do an F open of the file using read and again you see the similarity we’re going to do a scan F through fcan f with a file pointer and we’re we’re going to do a percent s which gives us a word and and word there is a pass by reference because it’s remember words in Array if we don’t get an end of file we’re going to then we’re going to write a for Loop to go through word and call to lower which is in ctype.h and then we are going to carefully put a new line at the end of word and then we’re going to get the current count with map get ask for map which is like self word is the key and zero is the default and then we’re going to do a map put into the word position with count + one and then we’re going to f close it or close the thing and we’re going to dump the map then what we’re going to do is write a Max Loop Max Key equals null max value equals negative 1 it’s a count so I guess we can assume that ne1 works here because there’s only positive integers in our dictionary SL treap we’re ask for an iterator we’re going to create an infinite loop we’re going to ask for the next item from the iterator if it’s no we’re done and if Max key is null or the curve value is greater than or equal to max value the one we’re looking at is greater than our current Max we retrieve we return We retain Max Key and max value and when we’re done we give back the iterator and we print out the max key and the max value and then we delete the ma and so that’s the miles to go before I sleep in a long time but the end is really the beginning these are the most basic data structures these are the classic data structures these are the data structures from chapter six of kernigan and Richie these are the data structures for 40 plus years that people have been learning about once you get good and I hope you have taken the time to get really good at these data structures because what these are is they’re like the omelet of cooking they’re easy and it seems like everyone knows how to do them but until you know how to do the easy stuff you can’t understand the large fancy stuff in a recipe you need foundational Notions and you can create something amazing if you have done all the work in this course and you’ve done it well your journey can continue with many great cookbooks the one I’m showing you now is what we called CLR um because of the the authors when I did it back in grad school there was only three authors not four authors CLR and this is a thick book a very thick book and um what you’re going to find is this is a very well written book and if you know everything in this course you should be able to open this book up to war Shell’s algorithm and write an implementation of C hell’s algorithm because you know how to allocate things you know how to create structures with pointers in them and you know how to deallocate them and if you learned every lesson in this course you can start you could almost open anywhere Alpha Beta pruning all kinds of things you just open it up and go four or five pages look at how they describe the algorithm and then Implement so I’m not going to teach you every one of the algorithms in this book what I’ve taught you is what an algorithm is and what the foundational pieces of all algorithms are okay so I wish you luck and I encourage you to keep going on your journey your journey is not ending It’s Beginning [Music] hello and welcome to the lecture in C programming for everybody that I call the epilogue and that’s because this lecture happened after the course was completely finished I have a saying in my life that basically says that when you think you are finished with a journey often that’s when you finally know where the journey actually begins and that applies in C programming for everybody because C programming for everybody for me was 4 and half year project to create the book create the autog graders create the lectures get it up on corera get it out on the internet Etc and so I just was going through the class and at some point I ran into chapter six of kigan and Richie and I’m like uh what will some good examples to use what what are some good examples that I can use that will be relevant to the students who perhaps have taken python for everybody and I’m like well why don’t we just Implement some python classes we’ll see how complex they get and if they get if it works out well it talks about the concept of interfaces and implementations you know and so so I think it worked out really really well and so as we were going through chapter six of kigan and Richie I built us a python string class and you can go back and you can watch those other ones as an extend double car character Ray with some chunking where it would allocate some space and then fill that space up and as that space filled up it would extend it and I made a list class and I used the link list from cigan Richie chapter 6 if you recall I made an extra little bonus section 6.5.1 where I talked about link list explicitly because in the original kigan enriching 1978 book and I believe it’s the same in the 84 and but I’m like I’m going to show you link list first and so I added this little piece to the the Canon the kernigan Richie Canon I added that I implemented the python dictionary using the technique of kernigan Richie 6.6 pretty much straight on when I built the python string class you’ll notice that there’s a structure that has a length and an Alec and the alic is how many characters we allocated and the length is how many of those we’ve used and we’re putting automatically a zero BTE at the end of it as you add things together eventually you get the length to be nine with a zero byte and the Alec is 10 which means we can’t add the letter d and so we real use realic to extend it and make it be 20 and then we have space to put both the letter D and the end of string we built a python list class it was it was so natural to just make it be a link list and Link list has two structs one is the link list itself that has a head pointer and a tail pointer and a number of items that like lets us give back Len when we need to give Len back but then every node we’re going to just have a list of of character strings or character arrays and so we have a pointer to some to a character array and then we have a pointer to the next and so when we sort of do our Constructor we allocate the object and then we set the head and the tail to null to indicate that the the list is currently empty and set the count to zero and we’re done and then as we add things to the list right we have these pointers and we point to the head to the beginning of the list the tail to the the last item that we added and we store using Malo the strings so that we get a pointer to a string that the list owns rather than the the parameter which doesn’t belong to us and then we hook the next up and there’s a little tricky stuff right if the string is empty which means head is null then we just point head at the newly allocated node if the Tail’s not null we take the last thing and point it to the one we just made and set tail to new and then we allocate the string and then copy the text from the parameter into text and then we store that as a pointer and then we update our count like if we add another one you have to kind of graph the new one in beyond the tail so the tail in instead of being null now points to the one we just created the fun and then we update tail to point to that and then the next on that one is zero cuz that’s our way of ending the list and if we’re going to iterate through this list we start at the head look at the item then we go to next and we look at that item then go to next and look at that item and go to next and it’s null and we’re done again we were able to build a quite competent python list object from that and as you might expect uh when we switch to building the dictionary class we just go into section 6.6 and go in and make a hash table with buckets and it’s uh literally the the hash the bucket based hashmap is probably the most common programming interview question perhaps it’s less common now because every know everyone knows that it’s a programming interview question right and so you know I I just figured of course the dictionary is going to be a set of buckets that are a set of pointers to lists you know recall that hashes are some function that takes the key and creates a large pseudo random number which means it’s deterministic but it’s widely distributed with the idea of to limit collisions so John Smith and Joe Smith hopefully will hash differently even though they’re very close right and so the way we did this again following kernigan and Richie is we use the key computed a hash which is a large integer generally but then we modulo it based on the number of buckets and so the buckets are in a sense for link lists and if we wanted to write this code in a way we could have kind of used the list object and said here and and and and be a little bit less repetitive but we just implemented the whole thing so if you look we start with a struct KR dict which has a number of buckets it has four heads and four tails and account and so it’s just heads and tails of the way you do link lists and if you look at the node we’re going to do key and value and I’m going to make it be a string key and an integer value again to simplify right um and and the and the Char star key is a pointer to a key that we’re going to save and if we look at the new operation we allocate the actual dictionary object we decide how many buckets we’re going to have the way I Define struct car dict it’s just a Four Element array then we set them all to null so that we know that they’re empty because it’s important to know if the heads and tails are each of the link lists are are empty now one thing is this is doesn’t have any expansion mechanism and so I just wanted to keep it really simple to show you the data structure so I kind of like punted on rehashing an expansion and then we set the count to zero and then we we return it as we’re inserting things in right we use the hash to figure it out and then we simply have four link lists so if you were to compare the KR list code to the KR dict code you would see that a lot of it looks the same except we’re starting with a head that has been chosen by a hash computation along with modulo based on the number of buckets as I finished all that up and I finished the class up I wondered I began to really wonder I looked I started looking at it less from a c and k&r kigan Richie perspective and more from a python perspective and I’m like did I just inadvertently do exactly what GTO van rossom did did GTO van rossom read this book like most of us did in in the 70s and 80s and did he just say you know what I’m going to make a list object and it’s going to be a link list and I’m going to make a hash object and it’s going to be a set of buckets link lists and buckets like everybody would do so I decided I would ask gido if I could come out to him see him and talk to him about the influence that kernigan and Richie chapter six had on his design of python and in particular was my guess cuz I didn’t look at the python code to do this I was really teaching kigan en Richie chapter 6 and so up next we have the first of two interviews with Kido asking about how he built his structures and whether or not my structures that I had just guessed and assumed were even close and so we started the interview with me handing him a copy of the kernigan and Richie c book which was signed and I left it with him and saying you know skim through chapter 6 and tell me how chapter 6 affected how you built the original version of python [Music] where in the python 001 did you start building the objects and where where did the objects come first and then a syntax came or did you build a syntax and then the objects I think in my head I had both okay because I I was building a stripped down version of ABC and I had sort of I was very familiar with how ABC implemented its data structures and I had pretty welldeveloped ideas about how how I would do it instead of the ABC way both for the syntax and for the data structures so for the syntax actually my main gripe about ABC was that uh it used uppercase letters for the keywords of the language they had a reason for that but uh I didn’t think it was a good reason and it just looked horrible to a unic hacker like myself so that’s what I wanted to change for the syntax but I knew that I wanted to do the indentation and I I had already participated in the parser for ABC so I knew how to do that stuff I had some some of my own ideas but I I knew what I wanted I I literally actually started with a parer and the the I started with a lexer and a parzer those were actually the first bits of the language that I wrote but before I started I knew I had very specific ideas on how the primitive data types would be implemented I would use the same reference count mechanism that I knew well from ABC Uh I would implement integers in a similar way because I want I wanted that would be easy would be an easy choice not to put in the object field yeah no I sort of I wanted everything to be an object that that was also a thing I approved of about ABC and I think I I have to take it back about the arbitrary Precision integers those came quickly but I don’t don’t think that they came immediately there was there was an integer type which was 32 bits there was a separate long type which survived until the end of python 2 which was arbitrary position and there was a flow type uh then for the the sort of more complex data structures uh and and and sort of the the the in the numeric types were not all that different or interesting from not that different from ABC uh but for the the rest I I sort of had seen what ABC did which was that everything was implemented as a tree even strings and I did not like that because I wanted to interface with system calls and C libraries and I said I I want strings to be arbitrary length but I want them to be a linear buffer and so too bad if a long string sort of uh requires allocating a large buffer at once uh most strings aren’t that long I’ll make sure that it works for any size but uh I’ll optimize for the short strings that that are the bread and butter of so many programs I imagined would be written in Python that that is a brilliant choice but not automatic or intuitive that that would be the right answer having having sort of written a lot of C code and and knowing that I wanted python to be extensible with C that was also one of the the very early choices I I wanted to to sort of Link back to code in a natural way so the sort of the the import system was part of that so when when python was a month old or maybe two months old if you were appending to a string in a loop was it basically extending reallocating and copying no strings were always immutable so so yes it was it was allocate it was calculating the size of the result allocating a new string object and then copying the two Originals into that there there there is a string resize internal operation that is sort of intended to be only used when you’re building up a string before you’ve shown it to anyone else right and I I needed that because I was envisioning an IO system where you say oh I’m going to read a line and I don’t know how long that line is going to be or maybe I’m going to slurp an entire file into a single string and I don’t know how long that file is so I’m allocating a large enough buffer I’m reading into that buffer and then if it turns out that I allocated 1,000 bytes but what I read was only 15 bytes I reallocated to give the sort of remaining 85 or whatever 900 byes talking about your thinking Before You released the very first version of Python Meaning you didn’t like at some point you came back from vacation and you handed it to somebody at work this is your thinking when there’s only one person before even the 0.01 oh yeah yeah I I sort of I wanted strings to be done that way including like the the little detail that if you have a string of say 10 bytes you allocate 11 bytes and you put a no bite at the end just so that if you happen to want to pass that string to C library function that expected zero terminated strings no by terminated strings you wouldn’t have to copy it there might be a nobite in the middle so you might the things might still go wrong but if you youve sort of knew or trusted that that wasn’t the case you wouldn’t have to make a copy with one extra bite just to make sure that that no bite was there the no bite is part of the data structure only of course visible on the seaside so for lists I had a similar idea again lists in in ABC uh were a twee structure that was sort of super efficient even if you grew a very large list from small ones and I thought the three structure was way too complicated so I said okay a list just a list is a mutable data structure that was sort of a concept that didn’t really exist in in ABC in ABC everything was immutable I I thought well pragmatically speaking I prefer my larger data structures meaning lists and dictionaries to be mutable and so the list was the implementation was always just a poin or two a buffer that that could be reallocated we call it list in Python it really is an array that that is just is an array of pointers and each pointer points to an object we know how long that array is that’s in the object header and so if there’s no room we reallocate it and if we throw something away from the middle then we shift everything over and we also reallocate the only the only Improvement that happened to that data structure in the last well let’s say 34 years is that the original implementation did not have over allocation I was relying on realloc doing some kind of chunking so if you realloc something from a th000 bytes to 1,4 bytes I imagine well internally realloc probably aligns everything in in chunks of 16 bytes or more and so it’s not going to move that that memory in that sort of eventually that was shown to be either false or just inefficient uh and Al would do it as well as you would have done it but eventually it didn’t it didn’t yeah and and so uh eventually there there sort of internally there are two sizes that are held in the list object header one tells you what the length of the array is for of the list is to the python user and the one tells you how much space there is in the array which and the second is always larger than the first and then I’m shocked that it wasn’t the link list oh really I’m shocked oh I’m sorry name list uh but okay yeah I know it it I get what you’re doing so then talk through as you built the earliest dictionary structure what what’s different between that uh so again in in ABC dictionaries were trees and in the case of dictionaries uh they were kept in sorted order by the key the key was always some orderable object well I think in ABC everything was comparable yeah at least two things of the same type trees so ABC p and and again I thought that was was too complex and and I I had skimmed at least K volume 3 which explains the co concept of hash tables and I was familiar with hash tables in Pearl I where I think they’re cold hashes and so I just sort of I leave through the table of contents of can volume 3 and I picked a hashing algorithm and then and and sort of a hash table organiz ation that that felt right and so I I sort of I chose open hashing instead of uh sort of having separate linked lists for buckets uh and the original hash algorithm for strings at least was something I don’t know if I picked the the the hash function out of K also but I probably did between Python 37 and python 3.8 dictionaries kept their order ah ah like what happened was it the Revenge of ABC you know meaning that the trees they so the the it’s a different kind of order in in ABC the keys were sorted so uh if you if you have numeric keys if you have key the 112 and 500 in your dictionary in ABC at least the keys are ordered 11 12 500 or 1 two 3 or whatever and if you insert 11 it gets inserted between 1 and 12 on the other hand in the the newer python dictionaries that preserve order uh it is insertion order right so it is not me because that sort of python dictionaries don’t require that the key type is sortable is comparable it only needs to be hashable and so we can well and it it and of course it needs to be com you need to have an equality comparison uh is this string equal to that string but you don’t need you you never need to look at is this string less than that string so what did you do to make it keep insertion order uh so that was in a time when I had long relinquished or delegated development of most of the basic data types uh I think we had a developer in Japan who sort of for years had been improving the efficiency of the dictionary type and sort of one one of the problems of the original design with open hashing that I picked from K is that it’s pretty space inefficient because if you have uh I let’s let’s see if I can reconstruct for each key value pair you have to have pointer to the key let’s be oldfashioned and say that’s four bytes you have a pointer to the value that’s another four bytes then you have the hash which is another four bytes so so now the the hash table is an array of structs that are each 12 bytes long and for the hashtable algorithm to the lookup and insertion and deletion algorithm to work at all uh you can’t have the table be more than 2/3 full so that means that if you have an array of a thousand entries you can store at most six or 700 key value Pairs and so you have three or 400 uh times 24 bytes wasted space and so our Japanese uh cev figured out a way to have Separate Tables where the the sort of the hash table only contained one thing I and uh the actual key value Pairs and hashes were kept in a a table that had no holes in it so they were basically like kind of growing filling remembering everything is remembering where things are La out and so first he stumbled upon sort of I think he he refined the algorithm a few times having these separate AR days and then he stumbled upon the property that oh hey it it happens to preserve insertion order in the second table for sure right exactly in in in the second table because the the the sort of the table in which you jump around based on the hash value now just has in an index in into the other table and so there is an additional space save in because if you if your hash table has less than 256 elements uh that array only needs needs to have one bite for the index and so there there there there’s like all kinds of cleverness there it comes as a surprise to me that you don’t do link lists really I could have told you that 10 years ago that it doesn’t do link list you you I mean I guess that has probably to do with your your desire to interoperate the Sea kind of just percolates throughout that uh blocks blocks of things that can be extended and then filled in seem to be better than generic n lists what I didn’t know at the time that that’s also a a good architecture for Modern Hardware because you have you have better cach locality exactly I I would have thought which is not a concept that that I think I I even knew existed in in ’89 so I I I think I just avoided link lists because because I didn’t like them for some other reason that’s cool that’s exactly it’s not exactly what I hope you say I hope list over and over and over again because I just have assumed all my life that link lists were the you know link list and hashmaps and Link lists on top of hashmaps and Link list link list link list cuz computer science thinks about link list all the time there are plenty of pointers in Python yeah but but sort of the classic linked list is not used [Music] much so I hope you watch that interview carefully one of the things that I do when I edit the interviews that I have with luminaries is that um it’s not uncommon that the questions that I ask them are not perfect questions and then you kind of what I do at that point is I’m like whoops my assumptions were Incorrect and and so one of the things I did in the editing of the interview that you just watched and you’ll see it in the interview the next one is that I didn’t cut out all of my confusion and that the reason for that is is that I wanted you to see the moments where I had an assumption that turned out to be wrong and then I’m kind of mentally scrambling to ask a a good question and I’m and I’m asking for clarifications and so during that video you can see me learning from gido the summary of this is that gido really didn’t use the link list much at all he didn’t use the link list for the list object and didn’t use the linked list for the string object and didn’t use the list L linked list for the dictionary object surprise surp surprise I was completely wrong the python 1.0 list in dictionary objects were extendable arrays of pointers and not linked list at all while gido was an expert in k&r chapter 6 like most of us were his much more recent work was um in ABC and C++ and so he really wasn’t looking at k&r for his data structure implementation and more importantly he was looking at ABC for his data structure implementation or more specifically he was looking at ABC and saying I don’t like the way ABC did its data structure implementation but he didn’t then go back to chapter six of kernigan and Richie and say well I’ll just do it this way which is again I’m a computer scientist and my instinct is like chapter six of keran Richie is just the ground truth why wouldn’t you do that so I think he started with lists as simple extendable ARR which makes a lot of sense because you’re either linearly looking them up which is not the fastest way or you’re looking them up by position like sub five and why not use array so that just you know once you talk to him and he walks you through it you’re like oh yeah I get it I get it but then the other thing is is he didn’t even use Link list and dictionaries and you can see me as I’m asking that question like incredulously saying like please tell me that you’re that you use linklist and dictionary and buckets like like all the interview questions for the last 35 years and the answer is no so he looked at a an earlier document and this was the truth of algorithms for all of us in the 70s um and that is Donald new volumes 1 two and three and here’s here right here is Donald newth volume 3 the one that I scan to to get what’s in there and and here in where are we yeah Collision resolution by open hashing so what he was doing was what good computer scientists did of the day and that is read through this kind of a book and found inspiration for how to build a hashmap because he knew he wanted to do hashing so we we we did hashing in Kar chapter 6 and he wanted to do hashing but he did it a very different way and it has to do with the Collision resolution and and the linear probing and so again there were no real link lists in the core data structures um it turned out that and we talk about this a little bit in the video that um there are performance advantages to not using link lists and and the interesting thing is if you look at when G was actually building um python we were all using computers that didn’t depend heavily on cached memory architectures meaning that the CPUs that we were using and the memory that we’re using had a speed match much better and that’s because all of it was in refrigerator size computers and things were just slow enough that the CPU was not that much faster than the memory but when this CPU became a single chip CPU in sort of in the late 1980s and early 1990s when the floating Point fast floating Point even ended up on a single very large very hot chip um the memory could never keep up because what happened inside the chip which is you know maybe 3/4 of an inch to an inch or more likely more like a half inch um that was so fast inside the CPUs that the memory just couldn’t keep up and so they put caches inside the CPUs that could keep up with the CPUs but linkless caused this bouncing bounce a bounce bounce bounce a bounce bouncing through memory that would that blew the cash and so if if you were to you know try to run a pure link list based operation with you know a 10,000 long list it would perform terribly on a 1992 93 94 computer but gido wrote this thing in 19 like 89 and 90 and the so the so he wasn’t like thinking I got to make an cash efficient data structure he’s just like I like arrays but they turn out to be really good for cash architectures and so to some degree if you were to go back and look at it and say well let’s go back and add link list you’d say no because link list would have a really bad performance impact if we did them in a sense the way I did them when I was teaching you chapter six of kernigan and Richie and so that’s why it was you see the Delight I mean I’m wrong when I’m talking to guo I’m wrong the whole time but I’m learning and I’m like oh that’s so cool so let’s let’s do a little bit of a review and this sample code is available to you so let’s take a look at my re-implementation of a python 1.0 list not the kernigan Richie way but the gido way and what you find as you look at this code and and and I I’ll get some code walkthroughs and you can look at those later but if you really spend some time and compare the link list implementation to the extendable array implementation you’ll realize it’s simp so for one thing we only have one structure it’s the list we have again how many allocated spaces are in the list much like the string that we did I did the string pretty close to how gido did the string but the list I got wrong so you have an allocation in length which is very much like the string that I did and then a an array of pointers okay so that’s what the Char star star says that’s a an array the first star is an array the second star is an AR array of what it’s a pointers to items okay and that is an array of pointers to characters that’s what that’s saying and so if you look at what we do we allocate the the thing we we set the Alec to zero and I mean alect two and the length is zero and then we allocate an a two item array of pointers we know that length is zero so we know that none of them are used and so that’s the data structure in a sense it’s already simpler than a linked list and if you append first you got to see if it’s you’ve got space to append right and if you’ve got space to append well that’s okay you just allocate the new string you copy the parameter into that string and it and wherever the end is and length tells you where the end is you put it in that position and add one to the length and so at the end of the first one you’ve got a half full link list now uh with a zeroth item pointing at the character array that you just saved and then if you put the second one in you do the same thing and we don’t have to do anything right now because the length is two and the alic is two we’ve got a completely full array because our list has two items in it but then the next time you come in self length is greater than or equal to self Alec so we’re just going to extend it so I just added two entries for Simplicity and then I do a realic and what realic does is for the things that were in it before we reic they get copied if we get a new pointer back sometimes you get the same pointer back with a little more space allowed at the end sometimes you get a new pointer you can’t tell with reality computer scientists like myself who were trained on link lists really tried to avoid realic and maybe that was a good idea and maybe that was because realic wasn’t such a great implementation and gido and I talk a little bit about like ah real realic let gido down as python you know progressed and became more and more significant so he tended to start doing his own memory management and not depending on realic which is a combination of the C runtime and potentially the operating system but the key to realic is if you got two items in there you might get a new pointer back and that’s why I’ve got to reassign it a new pointer back but it’ll copy the ones that are there but you’re responsible for setting up the ones that are new now for us because length is all we need we don’t even have to set like two and three to zero we don’t have to do that so we just now have four spaces and we save the Malo we maloc it again and we copy the save thing in and we put it in at the end now we have space and then we add one to the length and I I have some code walkr that goes into this more in more detail but let’s just take a quick look at the shapes of these two approaches right and again I just assumed link list but I’ll tell you that I apologize to you I’m like well some of these for Loops in link lists are not the greatest thing blah blah blah blah blah blah right and if you just look you can kind of see how the python in the lower right that just has an array of pointers is simpler than the link list on the left and again we computer scientists have always like taking pride in the fact that we understand link lists but that doesn’t mean that just because it’s something we know how to use that it’s the right thing in all situations and G gido chose to go elsewhere and then if we look at the uh the code in the upper left we’re dynamically extending the pointers there was no reallocation in my KR list of pen because I didn’t need to because it would always Alec a new node so there’s two malaks in here and the the kernigan Richi one you Malik the node and then you Malik the string whereas in the in the G one you just maloc the string and every once in a while you realloc the items the part of Link list that always gets me and I just have to draw a picture every time I do it is that part in the middle of the KR list uncore append and that’s if self head equals null self head equals new if self tail not equal null self tail next equals new and then self tail equals new I get it every time right but those don’t roll off the tongue nearly as easily as saying self item self length equals saved self length plus plus for all of the years since 197 72 we just use Link list almost in some ways as a badge of honor and gido felt no real urge to do that and inadvertently his approach to extendable arrays is great for caching and it’s great for fast lookup because you can never look up a link list by sub 27 whereas if you do a gidos way sub 27 is a very cheap operation so up next we’re going to dive into what gido did as he implemented the python 1.0 [Music] dictionary hello and welcome to a Code walkthrough for C programming for everybody the code we’re walking through is some of the epilog code um where we’re comparing kind of what I did in my chapter six kernigan or Richie stuff to what gido tells us uh was the python one and then later the python 3.7 approach to dictionaries lists and strings so what I’m going to go through right in this one is the string so let’s take a look at that code the this is basically the code that is the string code now the pattern that I’m using here is a chunked array of characters and so like like if you look at it the string has some data but what we’re adding for this particular one was something that g was very obsessed with uh in the early python version again from ABC and the idea is is that we use this thing called reference counting and it means that if you sort of assign something you don’t always have to copy all the data you can kind of copy a pointer instead but then you have to be careful that reference count because you got to because the Dell operation has to know when the reference count goes to zero so this pretty much looks like the code that I wrote uh sort of based on the k for the k&r book to implement it with some reference counting and the easiest thing to do is uh look at Main code here and so we create a new string we dump it we add an H character we dump it we add L world as a string and we dump it and and then we’re going to set it to a new value um but then here’s the new part right here um we’re going to create this assignment and so this we’re creating a we have a variable called X which is a pointer to a P1 s TR and we have a variable called Y which is also a pointer to a p1st so what this is is this is P1 store assign and we’re passing in a pointer and so what’s going to happen here is this is like going to increment the reference count you’re going to see this it’s going to increment the reference count because now we’re going to have two variables X and Y that are literally pointing to the same string so let’s let’s even run this code okay and so I’ve got I’ve got it run here um and so what we see in that last bit when we make a all all the top bit here is all on the string X but the interesting part here is where we say string x equals a completely new string and we’re pointing out the location in memory that that is and then after the assignment statement we see string y equals a completely new string and it’s at the same location but what we’ve done is we have incre mented the reference count then if you look at the main code we d x which was the original P1 Dell X which is the original one and all we do is we decrement the reference count but don’t we don’t actually deallocate the data and then we still have the string y we shouldn’t have the string X but then what happens when we delete Y at the very end here P1 store Dell open print y Clos print then it actually free fre the data okay and so the idea is we can copy a reference without copying all the data have X pointing to it y pointing to it with a reference count of two and then we can free either X or Y that’ll instead of throwing away the data that decrements the reference count so let’s just sort of take a bit of a look now most of this is the same as what we covered um like if we look at uh let’s look at sort of the The Constructor p1st new we allocate a a buffer we allocate the object and then we allocate 10 bytes and we tell it that it’s 10 long and we we put a new line an end of string in there and we set the reference count to one so as soon as we create it we assume that this new is going to be assigned into a variable and then we make the reference count be one and so let if you look at the Len and the dump and the the ETC you and you look at the append we see the append is pretty much a clone of what I did where you know if we don’t have enough space we allocate another block of 10 this GTO calls this chunking in the video and then we reallocate it and then we’ve got 10 more and so we can stick our character in to the end of it and add one to it and then we we null terminate the string so that code is identic IAL to what I did uh in the kernig en Richie book um and and so let’s look at the assign code so this is the interesting thing where P1 store aign we have one pointer and we’re going to return this pointer so we have two variables pointing to the same block of dynamically allocated memory so when we’re doing this assignment statement in effect yal X inside the object we don’t need to worry too much about y or X but we do need to know that we are now referenced two places so every time we reference at a second or third reference we just add one to the reference count so self Arrow refs plus plus and then we return it so then if we look at the code in the main program where we’re saying struct p1st y equals P1 St strore assign X we could have said y equal x but we wanted to record the fact that we’ve added a reference so that we know that that has reference count of two so we don’t inadvertently free the wrong thing and then the only other place that this gets interesting is in the Dell method so if we go into the Dell method what’s cool about this and this is where reference counts and so we we in our main code we just if we’re we de we delete y with underscore Del method we delete X we can do all that stuff and it’s inside the object where these reference counts are being resolved and so what’s cool about this is we’re saying okay we’re going to Dell X which was the original thing that we assigned it into and if the reference are greater than one we don’t actually free any data we just decrement the reference count and we’re done and so that’s where we see in the output we see decrementing reference and you see all these addresses are the same 0 6 0x 60 blah blah blah 91 c0 okay and so they’re they’re being decrement and so the first free decrements it and that goes from 2 to one in this case because we the underscore assign incremented it and then the underscore Dell decremented it but then when we get the ref count to one that means we’re in effect freeing the last reference so it prints out freeing reference and you can see it says freeing we’re actually freeing the data and so that’s where we do the free of self data and then we free the the self to get rid of it which is the code we did before and so the real e essence of this code is the uh uh the obsession this this code is the obsession with reference counting and that has to do with the fact that you want to be able to point multiple places to the same string without wasting extra memory just to make a bunch of copies for no real purpose so when you’re when you’re kind of making a copy that points to the original then you have to increment the reference count and decrement it and so in the rest of these uh sample code I will not add reference counting to it because we’re just going to look at the underlying data structures but it’s really important to understand that reference counting was essential to the ABC implementation and gido’s C++ implementation and python 1.0 implementation it was all about reference counting to save very scarce memory so that you could point to the same string many times and the reference counts could get very high especially strings that were constants so reference counting is important and this is just you can take a look at this code and compare it to the KR code that I I built um reference counting is an important part of of python [Music] welcome to another Code walkthrough for C programming for everybody in this code walkthr we are going to compare how uh gido implemented list in the earliest versions of python versus how I implemented list while teaching chapter six of kernigan and Richie and uh and so this was if you watch the video of my interview with GTO van rasum this was like my greatest like Revelation like what and so the the big Revelation is is that um Python’s Python’s list object in you know python 0.01 was an array of pointers and
if we look at the kernigan and Richie list item this was a linked list I did a l link list and so the actual KR list struct has a pointer To The Head and the tail of its link list and a count and again this is Classic Link list and to some degree while I was teaching this in kernigan Richie chapter 6 I was really teaching you link lists and using the python list abstraction to teach it and so we have two data structures we have this node which just has a pointer to a uh text saved and a pointer to the next one so this is like Classic Link list I’m not going to I’m not going to go through that again so you just go back and watch the chapter six stuff and I talk about link list all the time but that’s not how python does it did it or does it and it’s not clear to me exactly why but he I think he was just trying to build the simplest possible data structure and we’ll look at some code and you’ll see that there is a certain Simplicity like already in the just the struck definition we see the struct P1 list there’s only one of them if it’s a link list you have sort of a struct for the node and a struct for the list itself the The Constructor P1 list new well we’re just going to Malik the the object and then we’re going to say okay let’s allocate let’s allocate to a a charact an array of pointers to characters and so so if we look at the struct P1 list and we see Char star star items that is syntax for a array of pointers okay and so you think of each pointer is either 32 bits in the old days or 64 bits in the modern days so that’s an array and so so what I’m doing in this P items equals Malik open print P Al time size of char star that means I’m allocating two elements that are Pointers which means again 2 * 64 bits in the modern world and noting that I have two in there and length which is the python view of the number of items is zero so we we’ got space for two and we have zero and that’s an array that we know Alec tells us how long the array is and length tells us how much of the array we’ve used and just to go back I’ll try not to compare and contrast too much but just think about the complexity of Link lists the way I I did them in kernigan and Rich my kernigan Richie chapter 6 you have this thing called Head you have this thing called tail which is null and count is zero and again for those of us who know link list this is obvious it’s what you do but an array is simpler than a link list and so you know there we go okay okay okay okay so that’s what we’re what we’ve got when we’re done with our Constructor we’ve got an array of two pointers two characters allocated two and length one so let’s go take a look at let’s take a look at the main code right now and so the the key to this main code is that in a sense here’s the kernigan Richie main code because this is like an interface and an abstraction the main code should be pretty much the same and the main code pretty much is the same meaning that we create a link list we append some stuff to it we print the list we check the length we look something up and then we delete it and we do both things because below the abstraction below the interface both of these implementations both the KR list and the P1 list are supposed to provide to us the CER the same abstraction we can append we can print we can check the length we can check the index and we can delete it and it does not matter what the implementation is and that so that’s more the Builders of the Python runtime get to decide how to do this because we’ve got a contract with them again an interface so let’s just take a look at the code we’re going to add hello world to our list and print it then we’re going to add catchphrase and print it then we’re going to add Brian and print it and then we’re going to say how big is it and then we’re going to ask where is Brian in there and where is Bob in there and then we’re going to delete it and if you look at the run you see you know the list starts out as hello world and the list is Hello World catchphrase and we’ll see what is extending because we started with two slots in our array and for the first two you didn’t have to get bigger but then we’re like oh wow we’re running out of space so we got to like extend this array we’ll show that code in a bit but then we end up with three things in the list again that’s not our job as the caller three things in the list and Brian is in position two which 012 hello world is zero catchphrase is one and Brian is two and Bob is not there so we get back at Nega one one pretty stuff okay so let’s take a look at the appen code because this is where the fun happens go so here’s the append code so let’s take a look at the I let’s go back how I taught you aend you know a month or so ago and so so again you got this uh lecture has pictures of all this right so if you’re app pending um if it’s empty your self head is new if the self tail is not equal null then self tail next equals new and then self tail new equals new so that’s just like you got to draw the picture and add the little arrows and Away you go and then you allocate save the string itself but now we look at the P1 list and we ex we have to extend it if necessary right so if self length I.E is greater than self allo so we allocated two in the first in the in the Constructor and then if the length is two we don’t have enough space because our our next one would be sub two and that you can’t you can have Subzero and sub one in a two long array and so all we’re going to do then is we’re going to have chunking and gido mentioned chunking in the video we’re going to chunk it to add 10 and so we’re going to basically extend from two to 10 so we’re going to add 10 we’re going to increase the Alec size and then we’re going to call realic and realic is going to take the array of items and say however big that was free it move it whatever extend it depending on what realic is how realic is working and we’re going to say okay we want to have TW uh 12 of these things now 12 and and that becomes our new items now realic will also so there’s two things in it and we extended 12 realic will copy the two things so we don’t have to do any copying because realic copies the first two things because it knows that items is too long and so it copies the first two things and then gives us 10 more so we there’s no copy code here and so I think you know GTO really liked the realic and a lot of C programmers don’t like realic and he he did he’s like look realic says it’s going to do this and I want to do this so re realic do your job and so I I I think back to my own time as a software developer I just felt because again we were taught link list link list link list I just didn’t think about realic as a useful thing and gido clearly felt like real is the answer and it lets him have this simple array array mentality so you just reallocate and say look here’s an array of this two I want it to be 12 help me and we’re done and so that’s really simple code I think very easy to understand and then we make a a a save string and then we just add at the end of the array self length which in this case is sub two is that string and then we add one to the length so this code is really simple and if you were doing debug print you don’t really need any addresses because if you recall when I’m printing in all my link list stuff so that you can debug it and redraw your your lines and figure everything out I’m I’m printing addresses out all the time but no this is just a position so this is the zero the one and now the two in this case and so that’s where you see when it says extending from 2 to 12 that’s as a side effect of adding the third item to a list that was pre-allocated with two slots okay and that’s it but then let’s take a look at the print code right let’s look at the print code for both of them this is KR list print let’s take a look at the print code in GTO van rossum’s version okay so the key to this is the for Loop in P1 uncore P1 listor print the for Loop is 4 I equal 0 semicolon I less than self length take that blank out I less than self length i++ that is like really basic chapter 4 chapter five stuff in kernigan and Richie so it’s just an array so you write a simple incremented for loop it’s fast cash efficient it’s it’s beautifully simple right so in this print this is obvious now when I showed you this same same thing in kernigan and Richie chapter 6 I was I I this four in KR listor print it says for CER equals self Arro head ker not equal null ker equals ker next and I apologize for this line and I’m like you will eventually write this because it’s an idiom you will write this quite naturally and it’ll make a lot of sense to you right but in Python 1 we didn’t do that it was an array and the only place that we have to worry about its Dynamic nature the only place we have to worry about its Dynamic nature is in the append right where we reallocate it so everything we’re doing here is a simple for Loop so like even the Dell command here the Dell basically says let’s free all those little items let’s free those character strings with a for Loop for I equal 0 I less than self length i++ again a beginning c programmer can understand this code and if we look at the C code in KR listor Dell we just see a while loop and remember you had to or you had to do these in a certain order and so the whole free and I talked about all this stuff the fact that you got to do it in certain order ah well this is pretty simple right so it frees each of the items it’s 4 equal Z in in P1 list Dell you free each of the characters strings that we point to then we free the array that’s got those pointers which are now valid because we got rid of them and then you free the object itself and so to some degree one can appreciate the Simplicity of of what gido did in this by going with arrays and again the the key thing that like misled me or that gido just took a different approach it really came down to realic and so he believed in I was trained to not think about realic as plan a and so I thought link list were plan a because then you don’t have to do so many realex and and G’s like I want an array and realic says it’s going to do this for me and away we go so I encourage you uh to take a look at uh P1 list and KR list and put them in two windows next to each other and sort of compare and contrast and what I really want you to do as you’re comparing and contrasting is I want you to think about the complexity of writing debugging and then later the complexity of understanding and how much knowledge a programmer has to understand to be able to make sense of these two uh bits of code and again for those of us computer scientists for whom link lists are very natural we just write this stuff I can write it pretty fast but that doesn’t mean that it’s the easiest to learn so way we go and so I hope you found this comparison interesting cheers [Music] so now I want to talk to you about the python 1.0 dictionary as built by gido back in 1989 1991 and this sample code is available under SLC code and it’s the epilog code and it’s p1d I.C so the key thing is is that instead of instead of reading the SE programming book and KR in chapter 6 G van aome was reading page 518 of a much earlier document which is more about pure data structures and algorithms and so this was this was kind of like our Bible on how to write good fast code and this was our Bible on how to write sophisticated algorithms so gido found this and he decided he didn’t want to make link lists and that’s partly because of his experience in ABC and so this is open hashing using an array so this is an array based hash hash concept and in the bucket Styles it’s there’s an array of hash hash link lists and so this is an array that actually everything is stored in the array rather than a pointer to things that are outside the array the key in open addressing is how you probe and find open slots when your initial hash leads to a collision and hashes we try to make hashes not Collide but they can Collide and so this is basically it us as a circular iteration and it actually if you look at there at L3 it’s subtracting one and if it’s less than zero set I to i+ M go back to step L2 it’s probably just easier to show you a picture of what’s going on so let’s imagine that we’ve got an array of eight key value Pairs and this is literally an array in our case these will become pointers key key be pointer value be po pointer but canth is not thinking about that as far as kth is concerned everything is just a variable so it’s an array of key value Pairs and the the key thing to the hash it’s the same hash computation and the same modulo operated ration that looks at the number of buckets but when it picks a slot in the the array that slot is just where we hope to store it but if that’s already occupied we got to find another place and we presuppose that there’s always space and we’ll talk about how that ends up getting solved later with rehashing but the key is is we got to figure out where we want to put it assuming that there’s space and linear probing algorithm is you start going backwards so you go from three to two and is that available great use it if two is not available go to one go to zero and if you get to zero you got to go all the way to the end this is kind of a circular list eventually it’s going to visit all eight entries but it’s going to start at whatever entry the hash indicated it’s supposed to start and the whole purpose of the hash is to get to the entry that has the key and value in question more rapidly or to know that it’s not there and the way you know that it’s not there is you run this Loop and when you find a key in a value of zero which means it’s empty then you know that it’s not there and you also know where you’re supposed to put it so if we look at the data structures that I wrote to implement this python one dictionary we have a d Noe which is just a pointer to a key and a pointer to a value because we’re going to do strings key value pairs to simplify this the dictionary itself has the the size of the array the alic which we’ve been using all along count or length I switch back and forth in some of this code and then an array of D noes now remember that that’s a struct so we look at the Constructor we allocate the dictionary we set its length which is the number of things in it to zero and we set the Alec which is the size of the space we can store things to two and then we allocate our two item array of struct D noes and then we have to mark them we can’t just assume there’s zeros when we get it back from Malik uh some malaks give us zeros some malaks don’t but in this case we need to no matter what ensure that we have them marked as null because our null is an indication of emptiness so that later when we’re looking around we can find which areas are empty and so if we take a look at the put the hash tells us where to look and we put this all in P1 dict find which does the hash computation and does the modulo of the number of ETS and gives us back a pointer to the D node in question now this pointer is either where that key belongs and already exists or it’s where that key belongs and it’s empty now if we found an empty slot we don’t have to allocate the D node because it’s already the array we just have to set up the key with a Malo and a copy set up the value with a Malo and a copy and then record the fact that we now have one key value pair in our array we’re going to use this this not only to return like Len but also to know when we filled it up because when Len gets to be the size of Alec it’s full and we’ll talk more about that in a second so that’s what it looks like after we’ve inserted one key value pair now let’s say we’re getting a put request for a key that’s already in there so we’re going to say Z equals W instead of Catchphrase so we run predictor find and it comes back and it says here’s your thing but the difference is you look in the key the one it’s pointing to the one it gave us back the one it found already has a key now you might think that’s bad news no it’s great news it means Z already has a slot and then all we have to do is update the value because dictionaries function like assignment statements if you have Z that has catchphrase and then we get Z equals W you just you’re supposed to store W and then throw catchphrase away and so that’s you see it do that right it it frees old value which was catchphrase and then Malo the new one and then stir copies into it and now at the end of this one we still have a length of one and Z maps to W in our hashmap so now let’s add let’s do another put let’s say y equal B we’re going to do PCT underscore find and it’s going to Hash the value y it’s going to give us back position one now that could be because it hashed to position zero and linear probing found its way to position one or maybe it hash to position one it just doesn’t matter predict fine says look this is the best possible place to store way Y in this particular array so now at the end of that we will have z and y and we have an Alec of Two and a length of two but now let’s say we want to insert C so the problem is is that we’re full which means that predictor find is not going to find one it’s whatever it hashes to it’s going to look through all the rest of them but there’s no space there’s no space in the array so what we have to do is if it’s not there and we’re out of space we have to expand items that is the code what we call rehashing so let’s take a look at the rehashing code we’ll look at this in some detail at the high level we store the size and the array of items in Old Alec and old items respectively then we double the size that’s just how we do it and then we allocate a brand new array of ddes in this case four D noes get allocated and that’s in items and then we do some code that pretty much looks like it came from the Constructor we’re going to take those four nodes four D nodes and we’re going to set their key and Valu to null because at this point we’re kind of like halfway through reorganizing this thing our old items are are available to us but new items are empty that means that we can use find and do inserting into the new one and so that’s what we’re going to do before we throw old Alec away we’re just going to write a simple for Loop to go through them now we got to check to see if old item subi is null because when we’re done with this we’re not just going to wait till it’s 100% full we’re going to actually reallocate when it’s 70% full if old item sub is null. key is null that means it’s empty we don’t have to reinsert it that’s that’s all we’re KN is we don’t have to reinsert it but if we find one then we go and ask the P1 dictor find where to put it and in this case we’re only going to always get a new slot because keys are unique which means we can go through all the old item keys and never hit the same one twice and there will always be space because we just alled a thing that’s twice as big as the thing it’s coming from so there was two and we’ve allocated it to for it we will always find a place to put it because the keys are unique think about it for just a minute and then we just say key equal and value equals copy them we don’t have to reallocate them or anything they’re just pointers to the save strings that are key in value and then the only thing we throw away is old items and so you know it’s it’s it’s it’s kind of pretty now the last thing where we say old equals P1 dick fine self key um we used old before to figure out that oh wait a sec we need to make some more space um so we have to then find where the incoming key because we’re in the middle of an insert right now so we have to know in the new items where that belongs and so that’s why we say that so if we take a look at the moment where we’re inserting the c key we’ve got we’re full up we’ve got two all ocated right and we’re looking we’re saying where should we put C and the answer is you can’t so now we drop in to the reallocation code so the first thing the reallocation code does is make a copy of old items and old Alec so there’s the two items z and y are there and then what we do is we double the size and make an empty array of four D noes and set their key and value to null and so we kind of have the old array and the new array sitting around right now so then what we do is we start looping through the old array and we see oh Z equals W so we just run a simple hash calculation and say where does Z belong in the new items and then we put it in there now we don’t have to deallocate or reallocate the actual Z or the actual w we just have to change the pointers now you’ll notice at this moment we’ve got a pointer in the top one and the bottom one that’s pointing to the same allocated memory that’s a reference count problem but we’re going to throw old items away in just a bit so we Loop through that right so we find the Z and we put the Z in the right spot remember we’re still in the middle of trying to insert C we’ve kind of temporarily paused and clean we cleaning up our hash map to give us space to insert so then we go through the loop again and now we find that the Y belongs in position three yals B goes into position three and now we’re at the point where what we have done we’re still again trying to insert C but we have to first make space now we’re kind of done with old items we’ve got pointers in the new items that point to the key value Pairs and we can actually just throw that away not only when we throw that away it not only throws away the array itself but it really kind of resolves our problem that we had two pointers pointing to the same thing which leads us to like memory leaks potential but now we’ve cleaned our mess up we’ve freed the old items we’re still in the middle of inserting C and this is one of the like downsides to hashing is this cleanup phase can take a little while I just moved everything around so it looks like what we had before and now that we’ve got this thing rehashed and we’ve got our zal W and yals B in an array that is four long rather than two long um we are ready to continue with the insertion of C so we say okay where does c belong We Run The Hash again with the predictor find of the c key and it says that belongs in two and again it might be in two because it’s empty it might be in two because something was not empty and we did Collision resolution but it doesn’t matter when it comes back from find remember it’s bigger so there’s always going to be space so we don’t have to worry too much about there not being space but now we got an empty slot and we can put put that value in and put the key in and and update it so that there are three items uh the length becomes three so that’s how they did it how gido did it in Python 1.0 but up next we’re going to talk with G we we already talked with gido about how things changed between Python 3.6 and python 3.7 the same implementation was like python 0.1 through python 3.6 roughly this same shape I just covered but things changed in Python [Music] 3.7 so welcome to another code walkthr for C programming for everybody this is another in our epilog code where we’re comparing and contrasting the way I taught uh dictionaries lists and strings in the kerning and and Richie chapter 6 with how gido van rossom actually implemented di dick dictionaries list and strings and we’re going to look at dictionaries here so I’ve got two tabs open in my text editor I’ve got one that’s P1 dick. C which is the python 1 implementation which is my approximation of gido’s approach and my simplification of gido’s approach and then I have the KR dict which is the version that I wrote kind of cleaned up and adapted for this um the version that I wrote uh as we covered it in uh kig breny chapter 6 and if we look at the very allocation and I mean the structures at the top um we have a a d node a dictionary node and and and we have in the dictionary node in my implementation is got a next pointer and so it’s got a key and a value we’re going to have character we’re going to have uh string keys and integer values just to keep our malx down but the difference between the dictionary node in my code is that I am going to every one is going to be part of a link list because if you recall in my code in kernigan and Richie as it’s described it is an array of Link lists and so in this case I just have four heads and four tails that point to the head of a link list and so that means that every D Noe has got to be the either the beginning middle or end of a link list and so it’s got to have the D noes have to have a star next in them so let’s go compare and contrast that with how gido did it so gido still has a d node because now we’re in dictionaries and so you need a key and a value um and and so I so in my KR dict I made the value be integers just to simplify it but I’m going to make the keys be the value Be Strings in my python code to be a little closer to you know what what gido did but then the change happens when we start allocating the actual dictionary object itself so if we look at what I allocated I have a number of buckets and I have a count for my struct KR dict but then I have an array of four heads an array of Four Tails which is basically a way to make four link lists that I will select among the link lists based on the hash function but that’s not what gido did in P1 dict we got an allocation in a length but then we also just have an array seriously an array of pointers to dnes that we’ll call items now the fun thing is if you look at this let me go ahead and show you it’s a little bit different if I look the P1 list and I compare and contrast a P1 list has an allocation a length and a pointer to it an array of pointers to strings in my P1 dictionary it’s an array of pointers to key value pairs but the Alec length and then an array of pointers to something is a very similar approach and you’ll see when we get to the Python 3 stuff that the there’s almost a duality in in gido’s mind between the dictionary and the list the dictionary is like just a slightly improved list having to do with indexing and and again it was a surprise to me and um but the similarity again when we get to python the three python python 37 version of the dictionary is going to be like oh I see what you’re going on but so just for now remember the approximate Duality between dictionary and lists in Python 1.0 okay so again we have our link list nodes that have a pointer to a key pointer to a Val that’ll be a dynamically allocated uh pointer uh pointer to a dynamically allocated in save string and then we have a dictionary which is then a one-dimensional array of pointer those pointers to those D nodes um and if we um if we look so so the key thing here is we need to know which entries in um this array of D noes are empty and available and which ones are used so the Constructor is a little more complex if we look at uh P1 dictor new of course we allocate the kind of object itself we set the length because there’s nothing in it and we’re going to allocate two slots just like we did in the P1 list that that forces us to reallocate um so that we don’t have to write too big of a code to cause reallocation and we can debug our reallocation and then we basically create an array of D noes right so we’re like two times the size of struck D node and the size of struck D node is um 2 64-bit pointers and then what we’re going to do is we’re going to mark them as empty we need to know that these items are empty and so we’re going to set the key which is a pointer in the value for each of them to null so you’ve created an a two long array of D noes with keys and values of null and again we need to we need to remember which ones are empty and are not and so uh so then let’s look at the main code so that’s the Constructor that’s the data that’s the that’s the data structures and the Constructor so so what we’re going to do is we’re um oh man I didn’t I thought I deleted that line that um yeah let’s delete this line because we’re printing it we’ve added some stuff in the print that makes it a little simpler okay let’s hope it still runs that would be cool let’s run it keep might change the code yay it works okay okay it’s simpler I like simple so we create a dictionary calling P1 dict new we print it it’s going to be empty then we put under the key of Z the string catchphrase and print it then we put the key we we put W in that should be a replacement and then we put the string sakay in Sakai equals B basically Sally equals c basically and then a equals d and then we say how how many things do we have in there and then we do a get like a do getet in a python dictionary we’re looking for the the key Z and we looking for the key X well the key X isn’t going to be in there and then we delete it so let’s go ahead and run this code which we just did and um and so what this print does I’ve added some stuff to it so you see the first print is just curly break open enclos curly brace empty and it’s also printing out the length and Alec and so basically what it’s saying is there is a length of zero and and we what we have two spaces Alec so then what we do is we put Z in and that Z ends up in Z equals catchphrase and that ends up in position zero in the array and then we have a length of two a length of one because we’ve got one thing in there an Alec of two then if you recall we replace Z equals W now because Z hashes to the same spot we’ll talk about how that happens in a second that hashes to position zero in the array and then it just replaces it and so it just replaced the value in that case and so we still have only one item in there and an allocation of two okay and so then what we’re doing is we’re inserting a new like Sakai equals B I should proba put some more print statements in there uh Let’s do let’s do that let’s do the underscore put and let’s put a print statement in here print F insert percent s equals percent s back sln comma key comma value oops it’ll be just easy for us to debug this okay okay so we insert Z equals catchphrase that goes in hashed slot zero we have one item and a length of two we insert Z equals uh no I want to call that put I want to call that put because it’s not insert so then we put Z equals W and then it uses the hashing and the lookup and all that stuff to find that that’s in position zero and so we simply replac the value so we didn’t we don’t we didn’t extend it at all and now it’s trying to put Sakai equals B in there and with the hashing hashing of Sakai Finds Its way to position one in our two item array and when we’re done we’ve got our two item array um happens to be insert order but that doesn’t necessarily mean because this it’s just my hash function is terrible um and then we have two items in and and two items two items in there and two items allocated now we’re trying to insert Sally equals c and now the hashing algorithm which I’ll show you in a bit looks through and says wait a sec there’s no space here usually it that hashing algorithm says if it’s above 60% full then we declare it no space so we’re going to do what’s called rehashing so we reallocate and then we read add the thing so we’re making the space so it doubles it in size so when it’s all said and done um Sakai ends up in position one and Z ends up in position two and Sally ends up in position three and we have three items in a four long array now here’s an interesting thing you will see here when we go through the rehashing Z in the two two long array Z was in position zero but in the four long array Z is in position two because this is rehashing now what what happens is that’s because whatever the hash value for Z was modulo 2 is zero but modulo 4 is two and that’s be and so the positions don’t change right it wasn’t it wasn’t going to end up in position one but modulo 2 and modulo 4 are are multiples of each other but you’ll see you see in this case here Sakai Z Sally the position of Z moved and so again if you’re writing an iterator that’s going through this and you just inserted one and it reallocated in that that’s why python 1 dictionaries and literally any hash based dictionary that’s truly using hash we’ll see how it worked in Python 3 in a second but when we reallocate at things stuff gets shuffled around so the order is different so we made space for Sally and then we put a equals D in now the thing we’re triggering is if it’s greater than 60% full one when you have one and you got two that’s 50% full and that’s why the Sakai equals B did not trigger a reallocation but if we have three items in a four slots that’s above 60% and so we’re going to to reallocate so even though we could have snuck it in that last spot that’s not good for hashing so we’re going to say you know what it’s time to make this bigger again so we’re going to make so a equals D we’re going to make space for a and then we’re going to double the size of the array to be eight and let’s see we got Sakai equals B in position one we got Z equals W in position two we got Sally equals c in position three and a equals D in position four and we’re half full at this point so we’re done now we have a length of four and we say hey let’s look up Z and yes we get W and let’s look up X and the answer is there is no X and so our code is working doing you know our little unit test our little unit test is kind of doing dictionary things so let’s take a look at uh put okay let’s take a look at print because print’s easier let’s take a look at print because print teaches us a little bit about the data structure okay so oh come back come back come back so in P1 dictor print the whole little first equals one that’s just there so that we put the comma out but the nice thing is it’s a for Loop for I equal z i less than self Alec now if we look at the P1 list let’s go look at P1 list the the P1 list the array the it’s I equals z i less than self length and that’s because in the list we just append in the beginning of the array Sub Zero sub one sub two sub three that’s how this work but because we’re using hashing our array is like sparse and that it starts out empty and we start using slots but don’t use every slot in order so we got to go through all the slots to iterate through a dictionary array and if it’s null remember in the remember if self item sub i. key equal equal null continue which means skip empty slots skip empty slots so this this array could have 100 things in it and if we only put one where where where the thing is inserted which we’re going to see in a second with insert is dependent on the hash function because we’re not just inserting them linearly we’re inserting them based on hash function using open hashing and so we have to skip the empty items but at after that it’s okay we just print them and so we’re iterating through this array of pointers skipping empty empty entries and printing out the entries that exist every time we’re doing an underscore print and so we’re seeing them in the order that they got spread out using the hashing function okay and so you can see that it it prints the key and it prints the value and then it prints the I the position um and so that leads to you know very very pretty stuff and then we print the length and the Alec and so this is great for debugging great for debugging for us okay so that kind of reviews that the items is a sparse array with nulls being our way of marking emptiness okay so and again if you go back to the the underscore new we allocated it and we set everything to null okay so let’s go look at the underscore put because that’s where all the good stuff happens it’s it’s a bit of work can I get it all on one screen no no I can’t get it all on one screen okay so we’ll just work through it um so the the first thing we have to do is we have to figure out which of the slots in this array the key belongs in which of the slots in the array does the key belong in so we’re going to use a a utility thing we write we we wrote called P1 dictor find to say find me the entry in the array that is the right entry for this particular key okay so now I got to look at that P1 dict find okay so this is pretty straightforward and so that this is open hashing and so the way open hashing works is it starts by doing a hash computation to figure out a position in this array of items and get bucket you’ve seen this in other code that I wrote get bucket is just a crappy little hash function that does a shift and an exclusive ore repeatedly going through the entire string with the idea of creating a pseudo random number that is deterministic based on the string that I can then take the modulo of the number of buckets so this ends up with a relatively large integer that in Long strings might even overflow and again hashing Computing hash functions is a uh is is is is a research area unto itself this is a terrible hassing function but I’ve used it over and over and over again because it’s short and gives me some random some pseudo Randomness but it’s probably highly Collision resistance so the whole idea is if I have two buckets this gives me a deterministic number between zero and and two but not including two okay so let’s go back to uh the find um um operation so we we get the bucket and that bucket might be let’s say it’s bigger let’s say we’ve got uh 16 slots and they’re all empty the way it works is bucket will say okay you’re you’re you’re hopefully you’re slot five the problem is is then there’s what’s called Collision resolution and if slot five is already filled slot you got to find another slot and but you got to find another slot in a way that later after it’s in there you can find it again find the key again and so we do linear hashing uh we we do linear Collision resolution which means if we find oursel hashing to position five and position five is full we say oh well let’s just linearly go forward let’s look at six let’s look at seven then 8 n whatever and then when we get to the end we go 0 1 2 3 4 5 and if we get to the point where we have checked all the slots and they’re all full then we kind of have to blow up and that’s where it says print F could not fly slot for key that would be like throwing an exception we’ll just print it out here because but that’d be like uh something went wrong because you’re never supposed to 100% allocate a hash about 60 or 70% is when you’re supposed to quit and double it or extend it in some other way so let’s look at the code that hunts for a starting at position five hunts for a free position and so we say offset equals zero offset less than self Alec offset plus plus so that’s going to go if we have like eight entries that’s going to go from 0 to seven but we really want to start that iterator in five and then wrap around when we get to eight okay and so I just I call it off set but then I calculate the position in the in the um array as offset plus the number of buckets I mean offset plus the bucket which is five and then modulo self alic so if we got eight offset’s going to go from 0o through 7 and if off and the bucket is five that’s going to go from 5 through 7 and then zero through four okay so I is the circular look so we’re we’re doing a circular lookup in an array starting at five we’re going to look through every if necessary every single position in that Ray array is going to be checked so we’re starting at like five where the hash function told us to go and if self item sub five. key is null it’s a great spot that means that the hash function pointed us to a available entry and we’re done so we return the address ersan self Arrow items sub OD otherwise we might have found something that’s full and we don’t know right now if we’re going to replace this value or not but if the key matches what we’re looking for we actually found the right one and so we return self the address of self items I and if we didn’t find an empty one and and we didn’t find one that was full with a matching key then what we’ve got to do is go back up into the for Loop and go down one so if we were at five and we it was full but the key didn’t match then we would go to six and if six was full and the key didn’t match we’d go to seven if seven was empty then we’re done so we say oh Seven’s the where we’re going to go and so you can see if you think about this for a little while and you can go read the the lecture uh slide on open hashing you can see that as long as there’s space in this array and it’s it’s not completely full eventually we’re going to find a place okay we’re either going to find a place that matches the key or we’re going to find an empty place and that’s what Fine’s job is to do and again as long as resize is working and we never let it get to be above 70% we can always find a slot for the key okay so this again when we say print F could not find slot for key that’s really traceback time because that means that the thing above us which we’re going to look at now is going to be um going to blow up okay so let’s look at underscore put again so come underscore put so a lot of work get done in underscore find where we hash the key and then we do the linear we do the linear look up if it um we we do the L we we do the linear lookup for cl Collision resolution and we either have an empty entry or we have the actual entry and so the first if statement we have afterwards is if old is not null and the key is not null that means we just found it which means all we got to do is replace the value we don’t have to add any entries the index is great the array is great so we just free the old value and we alloc the new value and then we just string copy it in and away we go so that’s that’s when we did the uh that’s when we did the Z equals W that was the code that ran to basically say oh well we found Z so we just have to CH we have to free the original string and the original string is catchphrase and the second string is W so we’re replacing catchphrase with w and this little bit of code right after the underscore find is the thing that does here we found it okay but so that’s that’s the second one let’s go back to Z equals catchphrase because Z equals catchphrase is not found because we’re starting with an empty array so that means that old key we’re going to get an old because the the hash will find a slot and that slot will be empty and it’ll give us back to us but old key is going to be null which means this one is available which is cool okay now this to-do is no Todo not a to-do anymore right now it’s going to be an ignore so this is the bit okay I’ll come back to this okay this is the tricky bit now I never did this in kernigan and Richie I don’t think I have to check but this is called rehashing and this is when our length is greater than or equal to 70% of our allocation which means this array is more than 70% full that’s when we’re going to do this reallocation okay but I’m going to ignore that whole if statement for now I’ll come back so we’re processing Z equals catchphrase here and Z ends up we can even look ends up in subzero of the array and so if if it’s time to insert this part is really easy so it’s time to insert we’re going to allocate the key the value Malo the value and Malik the key and string copy them in Old already exists old is a pointer into an entry into an array that’s got a key and a value okay so there’s an array of key value Pairs and so we don’t have to allocate the old itself because the old is already in the array but we do have to allocate the strings that we’ve been passed as parameters and then we add one to the length and so that’s basically how it ran when we’re doing Z equals catchphrase at the end we had Z in position zero we had a length of one and an Alec of two okay so now we’re going to look at we’re we’ve got a and you’ll notice my 7 let’s go back to that now because we’re going to look at at that this is kind of tricky okay so this whole self length greater than or equal to al7 I kind of it it allowed me because it was only two items it allowed me to fill it up completely because one item is only 0.5 and so when I put Sakai equals B in I didn’t trigger the reallocation so it just put it in position one I don’t know if oh Sakai did go into position one so um but now we’re doing C and it’s like I could not find a slot for key Sally and so um that means could not find slot for key Sally so that means that it searched let’s go back to find I guess this is not really a traceback this is just a fact so it it went and looked it hashed this the what’s the key on that again Sally that key is Sally it hashed the Sally found a a a starting point with bucket that that hash just found a bucket and where did Sally want to go Sally ends up well in three but it would probably have been a One S would have been bucket one before it got expanded and then it looked through the whole thing which in this case was only two and it couldn’t find either an empty one or one that matched Sally and so we say ah can’t find it return null okay and so now we get back to put so we’re doing Sally now and we find old is actually null so this code doesn’t run so we didn’t find an entry old key is not even allowed we’re not even allowed to say old Arrow key because old is no and now fine didn’t find it which could be bad but we’re going to fix it come back come back we’re going to fix it so we’re coming through here and we’re saying if self length is to full greater than 70% full then we’re going to make space so you can see here in the output it says we are making space for Sally we’re still in the middle of the put of Sally equals c right and so we’re going to grab a copy of the old allocation number and the old items those are just integers and then what we’re going to do is we’re going to make a brand new empty items and so we are going to double the size of our array and then we’re going to set the new items that’s why I had to store old items here we’re going to set the new items to be four D noes it’s an array of four D noes now we we got to be really careful this is kind of like a Constructor for that items we’re going to set the key and the value of the newly allocated four items in that array to null because they start empty you’ll see in a sec that we got to read them so we’re kind of creating an empty array that’s twice as big and now what we got to do this is why we call this rehashing is we got to go through the old array and find all those items and then we got to add them in the right spot and this is where you’ll notice that um Z was in position zero and Z ends up in this the reallocated rehashed array in position two so you really have to rehash it because all the rules in the new one have to be followed the initial hash the linear resolution of conflicts of collisions Etc so you really think of this items as a brand new one and we got the old items sitting there not much longer but we’re going to go through them all and we’re going to just add them again okay now yeah so so we’re going through all of the old items if the key is null that’s one of the empty slots in Old items continue then we’re going to call find again and the key thing there is that’s why we made self items be the new thing and so we could call find so that’s the first time it’s being called in this Loop Loop the the new items is completely empty but old item I sub key is the key and then um and so let’s see what we got here yeah so new item if new item is null that means it didn’t find Space now we just doubled the space so that shouldn’t happen and given that the keys in Old items are already unique because this is a dictionary we should never find in the new empty the key twice so that basically that basically says oh it’s already in there and the answer is wait wait wait we started with an empty one so new item key not equals null is a bad thing but it should never happen because we’re going we have a unique each key is unique there are no duplicates and so as we’re inserting them again into a new hashmap array that we should never get it so that’s why it says very bad news that means that we either couldn’t find Space because I don’t know why or it’s already in there which I don’t know why either that means that this is like traceback time this is like uh the runtime library is not well formed and we made a bug in our runtime Library so then that means that new item should be non-null and it should be empty which means we can just like copy now this is just a pointer copy it’s not actually the stuff because we’re take the key is the pointer to the key the string array and the value is the pointer to the string array so we say new item key equals old item soy. key and the same thing for value and so now what we’ve done is we’ve copied all of the old items and we’ve positioned them correctly in the new items so at this point we’re done and the free here is simpler because we’re not freeing the strings because we just copied those we are freeing the array okay so we’re freeing the old array free old underscore items frees the old array now what we need to do is we need to search for the position because we’re going back to put Sally equals c and so Sally is the key that we’re putting in so we just made space for Sally now again if Sally was already in there this code would have run and we’d be done and so we have to relook in the new the newly expanded array we got to find the right spot and again if Sally was already in there this code would have been run and we’d never be down here so we have to redo this and say okay where is Sally in this case we really we should Sally be long because we just made more space and so old equals null would mean we don’t have we still don’t have space for Sally even though we doubled the darn thing or yeah we doubled it and old key not equal no that’s means that we s Sally’s already in there well wait a second if Sally was in there we’d not even come down here so again the sallying old key not equal again you put out these kind of Trace backy very very bad news that is like somebody our code our code the LI we’re the library writer our code is messing up so old is is really supposed to find no matter what we’re adding Sally to the dictionary old’s got to find a slot for us or we just or our code is broken so this is me debugging and leaving this in you know just to make sure like oh man that is impossible should never happen but I’m going to say very bad news so it finds a slot and then we just copy the key and the value and increment the length and so this whole realic thing is kind of new I don’t think I did this when I did the kernigan and Richie because the way kernigan and Richie does it you can just ex keep extending those link lists like if you look so if we look at the umore put in the kernigan en Richie code you’ll see I do a get bucket right and I find a bucket and and if I if it matches there’s always a bucket in this one because it’s the buckets are Pointers to link list so there’s always a bucket there’s no resolution by linear Collision resolution so old is if we find it we just copy the value in this I had integer values and then otherwise you just append to the end of the tail of the bucket using you know self head sub bucket equal all new then it’s just at that point this is just SM in in P in KR dict we don’t have to reallocate now you would want to reallocate at some point because then these chains uh get too long and that’s and so it’s not like you don’t have to reallocate with these chains I didn’t write it so the reallocation would be sort of in the middle of put and it’d be very complex code and it would be actually probably about the same complexity maybe a little bit more complex than what the python one uh implementation was and so uh with that I think I pretty much have covered the essential differences between the kernigan and Richie dictionary code that I wrote and the basic approach you know the basic approach using an array of den Noe items and if we look at find a linear Collision resolution ution and the linear Collision resolution let’s do this I’ll put a comment in here linear andore find H can’t um I got to figure out how to spell Collision well the version you see will have uh how many s’s no how many L’s okay I’ll fix that for you and so this is linear Collision resolution and that that’s tricky stuff and so you want to take a look at that and understand that uh very carefully so I hope that you found uh this lecture uh useful I think the next thing we’re going to talk about is how dictionaries changed from python 1 through 3.6 all the way up through python 37 cuz the dictionaries did change and got a lot better so we’ll talk about that soon [Music] cheers hello and welcome to another programming walkthrough for C programming for everybody this is uh one of the last walkthroughs for the epilog code and in this walkthrough we are going to look at how dictionary the internal data structures in Python for dictionary changed between the first version and the 3.7 version and so the we we talked previously P1 dict doc about in effect python 0.01 through python 3.6 and then python 3.7 and later has a new dictionary that maintains uh insert order um but it also saves a lot in terms of efficiency so here is our approximation and simplification of the Python 3.7 dictionary um and so let’s talk a little bit about the problem that the python 3.7 dictionary solved by looking at the python uh 0.01 dictionary now if you listen to the Ido van rasum video that I’ve got these key value pairs in the real version of the dictionary it stores the poter to a key pointer to the value and the hash value so it doesn’t have to recompute the hash now I I kept it simple and all my stuff was going to be small so I didn’t didn’t do this optimization to recompute the hash I could have but I just kind of want to keep the code as small as possible so I just recompute the hash in the few places I need it but this means that in a 64-bit system this is uh three 8 or 24 bytes and the problem is let me delete this line so I don’t break my code uh the load Factor now we never let the load Factor get above 0.7 which means that by definition in the larger the structure gets the larger the wastage is 30% of the entries have to be empty in the key value pair array and again that’s 30% of 24 bytes wasted 34 20 uh 30% of the size of the array times 24 bytes that’s always wasted you cannot not waste it and so what happened is is that in the python 37 version in effect items started was treated more like a simple linear array of pointers to key value pairs so now you got your key value pair and in in Python is key value hash and a few other things so this is a larger data structure D Noe is a larger data structure um and then we have a separate simple integer array that is the index index because items is an array and index is the offset into that array but that’s just one integer and so we’re going to do all the hash indexing and re reev resolution and conflict resolution and collision resolution in this index array which itself is a much smaller item and I’m going to just make it and I don’t know if if uh python does this I’m just going to let index be twice as long as items which means from an indexing perspective we never get a load Factor above 50% and we’re only going to extend the array when we run out of space in items and we’re going to store the key value pairs linearly 0 1 2 3 4 5 in items and then we’re going to just reallocate so in many ways all of a sudden the kind of realing let me open a new tab here P1 list. C the realin code if we go back to the P1 list extend if necessary you’re going to see that in in P1 list append and P3 list append we’re going to see that it looks a lot like the realic pattern in the python list because it is an array okay the the actual key value pairs are stored linearly in an array and that’s also how you end up with maintaining insert order wasn’t they tried to maintain insert order but at some point if you’re just using a linear list 0 1 through 3 4 insert order is going to be maintained and if you delete one you shift them all up and it just treats so I would guess that ultimately inside of uh python itself after 3.7 there might be some overlap in the code between dictionary and list because they pulled out the hashing lookup in this separate data structure which is an array of integers okay so so then if we look at the the get bucket is the same it allows a hash function I make did it as small as I could just so it didn’t take up a lot of screen space if we look at the Constructor P3 dictor new we see we’re allocating the actual dictionary object and then we’re allocating two key value pairs two struck D noes and then we’re allocating four two times the Alex size of integers and so our index is four and our d Noe list our D node array is um DDE array is two and we don’t have to initialize the key value pair array the items array because we know with length which ones are valid and which ones aren’t valid but we do have to take this new index and put negative one in there we did this a little differently in Python 1 dictionary we use nulls but right now I’m just it’s an array of integers and the negative one is going to be my marker that’s going to be my marker to say this is an available index slot okay so that’s what the data structures look like let’s go ahead and run the code now you’ll note that this code is in effect exactly the same as the P1 dict code that we went through before and so we’ll run it and it will look stunningly familiar meaning that you know we’re putting we have an empty empty dictionary we’re putting uh Z equals catchphrase and putting Z equals W soai equals B Sally equals c a equals D and we’re printing it out so now we’re printing it out this is like an iterator so Z catchphrase and then zero is is the position in the index not the position in the items it’s the position in the index so this is in index position zero and when we get and so we see Z maps to W Sakai maps to B and they’re in index positions zero and one it’s kind of hard to hash and we didn’t and be because we we don’t have to rehash until it’s completely full because and we have two items the Alec is two so we can put zal W and soai equals B remember that index is four when Alec is two so index has four integers so we still have a load factor of 50% but now what happens we’re going to put Sally equals c in and now we have to extend the items and we automatically extend the index so we have a 50% load average before the extend and then we have a 50% load average after the extend well actually less than 50% load average but the point is is because I just by definition had my hash index be double the length I never get to a load average of 0.5 above 0.5 and again you can make this more complex and let the load average get to 7 but I’m I’m keeping it really simple the other thing that you’ll notice is in the rehash again thinking back to the python 1 so you’ll notice that the hash position of Z just like in the previous one after it went from two to four went from position Zer to position two and I talked about how it’s not going to completely move randomly but it it hopped in this case because whatever the hash value um modulo two was zero and modulo 4 was two and that’s because two you know zero is modulo 2 so these things kind of go by powers of two like and so but b equals 1 stayed in the same place etc etc etc and so but here’s the thing notice the order of the things printing out these zeros and ones Etc that’s the hash position but it’s not the position in items so Z equals catchphrase is item Sub Zero Z equals W is in item Sub Zero Sakai is B that’s in item sub one hash position so Z equals W in in this output is in hash position two but items position zero and so that you’ll notice that insert order is maintained in this unlike the P1 again this wasn’t to make insert order work it was a side effect of changing the data structures to make items be just a an indexed array starting at zero and again pulling the hash computation not oh sorry yeah items is an array that’s linear and index is an array that is looked up by hash okay so let’s take a look so let’s take a look at put and of course the first thing we see is P3 find and uh just underscore find let’s so recall from the previous one that the goal of find is to find a bucket position that’s free and available okay and so um remember that get bucket is just the hash computation for that particular key we’re looking for and we have the same kind of circular this will give us a number between you know zero and eight like 0 through seven if there’s eight entries or zero through three if there’s four or zero through zero or one if there’s two and then we have to go with the circular look okay but you’ll notice now when I say four offset equals z offset less than self Alec times 2 I am now looping through the index array not the items not the items array and I do the same little trick to do the modulos so that it goes like 56701 2 3 4 so so I goes 56701 2 3 4 which is exactly what you need to do to do uh Collision resolution using linear probing which is the way we do it and it’s very simple if we find an empty spot in the index now the data is not an index the data is still an items right so if we find an empty spot in index meaning it’s a negative one that’s a free one and that’s what we’re going to return notice that in this one I’m returning an integer rather than a pointer I probably should go back and change all those others to return integers instead a pointers because it I think makes the code easier looks a little more complex in some places but easier to understand in other places if it’s negative 1 we’re done if we care we look at the key and we find in items now now this one’s a little trickier we’re comparing the key to self items which is the key value pairs right but it’s self index sub I self index sub I is the position within items of a particular key value pair so we have to look up using self- index to find the right spot because self items is like a linear list it’s not really a d it’s not really a hash map the only thing that’s hashing here is the index and then we go grab the key out of the thing and if we match it we’re like oh this is the position oh by the way I found it so in our calling code we’ll check to see if it’s empty or not but right now if if it’s empty we turn I and if it’s if it matches we return I otherwise we keep incrementing now the key thing is because the the load factor is only 0.5 this is always going to succeed that’s another nice thing about this it always is going to succeed because when we increase the size of items we also increase the size of index so that index is always two times the size of items so we never get a load Factor above 0.5 which means this feels to me like a lot more reliable code and if we get if we don’t find an empty slot which in the other one we that was a trigger for reallocation but in this one we reallocate uh differently so returning negative one that’s just like not a good sign okay so let’s take a look again at at at find I mean at the put so this code here when we do the find position equals P3 dict find of the inserted key we basically say if the position is not equal to negative-1 that means this is a valid entry which means we’re replacing the value and again that’s the that’s the scenario where we have Z equals catchphrase and then we say Z equal W we’re just going to replace the value we’re not going to change the key the key is already in the right position the key is already hashed properly the index is correct the items is correct and all we need to do is grab the value and get rid of it and then alloc the new value and stir copy it in
and we’re done so we’re done so if we find it that’s great okay so we don’t find it we have to insert it but we know where to insert it right here but now what we do is we simply say if sell self length is greater than or equal to self Alec that’s when we’re going to expand it so here we’re saying if self length is greater than or equal to self Alec 0.7 now the Alec here is the number of I things in the items which we’re using linearly which means we can fill it up 100% before we have to extend it so we’re looking to see if the length is greater than or equal to self aloc here we were looking as is the length greater than or equal to self Al times the load Factor 0.7 that’s when we triggered in Python 1 dictionaries but if we look this again this aen says if self and now we’re in P1 list this is again that Duality between Python one lists and python 37 dictionaries because in a sense the items is just a list right so if self length which means now it’s full we’ve it’s 100% full it’s 100% utilized there are no spaces in items if self length is great than self alic we’re going to extend it so that means that this code here self length self aloc is really quite simple right so we just realloc the items and realloc twice and realloc whatever we’re going to do twice as big in this case and so that is like exactly copied from the list we just re okay so but now we got a little bit more work to do in Python 3 because the items was easy we just reallo it we did exactly what lists would do in this situation but now we got to fix the index okay and so uh so self items at this point is right okay so self items is right because realic did all the work for us you know we doubled the size of it but then it copied all that stuff okay and the other thing we don’t have to do here which we did have to do in Python 1 is we didn’t have to set all these new new items that have been allocated because in items because it’s like a list alic and length all is all that matters and we haven’t changed length yet we have changed Alec so the fact there might be garbage in all that new data it might be zeros might be garbage is okay now what we’re going to do is rebuild the index items hasn’t moved and so we don’t need it we just free Index right now remember index is that integer array that’s that’s twice aloc right so now we just allocate another integer array that’s twice the size of whatever we’ve got allocated in the in items an integer array so self Arrow Alec time 2 * size of int boom and then we just have a little for Loop for IAL less than or equal to self Alec 2 I ++ set it to 1 CU what we’re doing is we’re creating a new completely empty index the key value pairs are just sitting there happy as a clam in items but now we got to make a new index okay so we’re going to refill this index but it’s really simple so now we’re going not to Alec for I equals 0 I less than self length now we’re going to go through the items and that’s length and then we’re going to call the find operation based on the key of each of the items and that’s going to give us a position and it’s going to do conflict resolution uh Collision resolution using linear probing and so at that point all the index at that position is the position is where in this array should it go and that means that you know if it’s in the third position in the hash map and we’re looking at the Z zeroth position in in items I is zero and position is three and so this code if you compare this code again it’s better memory-wise if you compare this code to the code inside if you compare this real code between the python 1 code and the Python 3 code oh and oh and I don’t even do it in KR because it was going to be so ugly I didn’t want to show it to you right so it’s ugly in Python 1 it is pretty in Python 2 I’m seriously this you look at this for look at this code in undor put for a while and you’ll be like why didn’t they think of that back in 1989 why did it take them until whatever 2018 or something to to see this it’s a beautiful data structure right it is a it is a beautiful data structure okay so here we are in this code where we have refilled the index and again self index is changing right and because that’s how the conflict resolution works and positions in the index might be different before and after so after that we’re done extending we’re going to have to do the actual insert because the reason we extended is we’re were going to insert a new thing in this case if we look at we’re we’re trying to put Sally equals c in then we extend from 2 through 4 and now we’re like done extending and so we got to put Sally in right so Sally’s going to go in and this is the insert code that we’ve already looked at right but we do have to go find its the position of Sally because we found it before in the pre-expanded index SL items and now we’re finding it in the post expanded index items but then we just allocate the key and the value copy them in um and then add the key value pair at the end of length which is not Alec but length is like the next position in that linear array of items so we’re do items we set the new key the new value and then we set the index to be pointing at this entry in self items because index is an integer so it’s like if we’re putting it in so if we’re expanding from two to four and we’re going to now use three uh position two actually um self index whatever the has the position is computed by hashing in linear Collision cleanup and then we set it to length and we add one to the length so if you watch kind of all this stuff it it just of of these four lines of code only one of those lines has to do with hashing and that is the self index position equals self length we’re we’re recording it’s kind of like recording a a a a cookie crumb in the Hansel grle so so we’re just remembering in the index where that is so we we can jump to the right position in index quickly using hashing rather than doing a linear scan of the key value pairs but literally if you took this index away you have just a list and so again let’s look at python list yeah this is simpler because I’m not um yeah but all it does is it it extends the extends this was a list of strings so it’s actually a little simpler but all it does is it copies the string and then puts it at the end and then adds one to the length and it’s done and so the Python 3 dictionary uh does that it’s kind of cool so as we put Sally C it extends it it recomputes the index and that’s why the hash position of Z moved but not the position in items the position in index moved because this sub 2 Z Maps W in position two that’s the index position not the items position the items position is just like a link list Z is in zero Sakai is in sub one and Sally is in sub two and so that’s insert order and uh everything works pretty well and so for me as I think about like the Python 3 dictionary and compare that to uh classic kernigan and Richie diction AR where I didn’t where the classic kernigan and Richie dictionary was so complex on rehashing uh that I didn’t even write code for it I’m like now let’s pretend that’s not a problem okay and and now I can tell you in the Python 3 code I can tell you I can go all the way through the rehashing and tell you that it’s some of the more beautiful code that I’ve seen so I hope this you found this valuable uh cheers and hope to see you online [Music] so now let’s talk about what happened between Python 3.6 and python 3.7 where dictionaries began to maintain insert order not key order but insert order so it really what the the basic idea here is is that the hashing is a quick way to find a starting position in an array but it doesn’t necessarily mean that everything has to be stored in hash list so so now what happens and you you saw this the code we wrote with trees the tree map exercises you can have sort of more than one data structure that you’re maintaining at the same time and so that’s what’s happening in Python 3.7 now python 3.6 we made a big fuss about how there was no order and when you when I go when you go through the code walkthroughs you’ll see see that sometimes the order changes at the moment of rehashing so the order is pseudo random as it were but the order can then change at any moment because of rehashing and um but the pseudo Randomness is because of hashing and the it’s not even consistent from insert to insert because rehashing and datab and not database hashmap reorganization so like I said python 3.7 separated the notion of the hash index from the key value store and so this leads to the fact that iterators that go through python 3.7 dictionaries function much more like python lists which are iterated in Key order now you don’t have a Subzero or sub one because that dictionaries don’t want to give you that semantic um but it basically is a python list plus a hash index for quick lookup and quick for inserts and gets and iterating through the dictionary is just like the python 1.0 list and key insert key look up by key and insert by key is still very quick now I have a whole long walkthr that goes through all this and I’ll just kind of give you the high level picture and that will help you when you go through the walkthr so if you look at struct P dict it’s got an allocation and it’s got a length and it’s got a struct D Noe that is an array of items okay but now we have an integer array that’s index and in the code that I wrote I just made index be twice as big as the the number of items in index was twice as big as the number of items and items and that basically meant that I always had space and so I ended up with a load factor of 0.5 and so if you look at items it’s a list meaning that we insert Z equals catchphrase zal w yal b and Cal 42 and they maintain insert order and a new insert is just done at the end so what we’re seeing here is a list that’s 3/4 full but we don’t care about that in the same way as we did in the python 1 because the load factor of the items is irrelevant it’s the load factor of the index that matters and because I’m making the index twice as large as items it never reaches a load Factor above 50 meaning we we reallocate when we need to make the list bigger but then we also make index bigger too and so we never exceed a load factor of 50% which makes things really smooth and really easy now the key thing is the index is an array of integers and what’s stored in each integer as you can see with these arrows is simply the index that the key value pair lives in the item so again this is kind of two simultaneous data structures the index is a hash items is a list and index points to the offset within the list now I didn’t do it but gido could easily have they could easily have shared some of the code between and some of the optimizations between list and the the items in addict so I’m not going to go into it I do have a Code walkthrough that takes a good bit of time that goes through all this code just remember this picture but it’s really kind of extracting the hash index into its own table so in summary we learned from gido surprisingly that he loved realic and expandable arrays of strs with pointers to his objects link list is not hardly used in Python’s core data structures and it turns out to be a really really good choice in retrospect the code is surprisingly simple once you start taking a look at it and you’re kind of glad I was kind of glad to leave link list behind even though I’m pretty good at link list and moving memory management into python from realic was something that happened like 10 years later that Kido mentioned um because the realic wasn’t as predictable as he wanted it to be and eventually there’s this concept of garbage collection which is underneath realic and and it was too difficult to hope that realic was going to do the things that python wanted done so the places in the code that you’ve looked at here that use realic now use a python allocator and realic is it what happens is realic is gives us bigger chunks of memory and then python manages those and garbage collects them and cleans them up Etc um and so that’s you know that’s the modern era of python really depended a lot less on the cleverness of realic cuz it just turned out to not always be as clever as we [Music] thought but there’s more G and I didn’t stop talking after we talked about the data structure shape the whole surprise link list thing I’m like oh and so if you recall I had this picture which was kind of like not just how things worked I was placing in this picture I’m placing C in the context of all the languages that influence C and all the languages that influenced that c influenced right and so this is the you’ve seen this picture before but what I wanted to talk to GTO about is I wanted to talk to him about what were the influences on python see C++ ABC and as you will see in the video modula I wasn’t expecting that but I was expect I don’t know what I was well I do know what I was expecting I I was expecting that he didn’t like C++ and he loves C and I forgotten I didn’t know as much how AB how strongly uh ABC had influenced him so there was in ABC there was much to like and for him much to dislike so C++ something gido used he wrote code in it he wrote A series sounds like a series of experimentations to like to some degree I guess maybe his question was should I is C++ so awesome that I can get done what I want to get done in Python in C++ and so he he did some C++ experiments that he found somewhat disappointing and so that’s why he used C instead of C++ cuz he had to he could get done what he wanted to get done and um and so G chose c as a language to build python but gido learned a lot about how to layer object-oriented Concepts on top of an otherwise procedural uh programming language and so C++ had a big influence and I bet at some point he thought C++ was the answer and then said no I got to use uh C and and of course ABC if you look at the Wikipedia entries like ABC influenced uh python and the answer is yes but it influenced it more than you might think and that is that there were things that gido liked and things that Kido didn’t like about ABC places he wanted to improve so it had a lot of ABC had a lot of cool types ABC handled allocation and deallocation using reference counting gido liked all that stuff but it used be trees internally and be trees are not binary trees be trees are a thing that’s most commonly done on databases the other thing is that it had no mechanism for user defin classes all the concept of object orientation was in the language itself and in the language implementation itself and there was no chance for users to Define their own objects in ABC and so I mean ABC did what it did well and and gido knew ABC well and worked on ABC and and knew what he wanted to take from ABC and knew what he wanted to build Beyond ABC I mean I think that in some ways the the language ABC is kind of pretty I mean I can read that and you can see things like split and in and other Concepts the for Loop the sort of implicit iteration in the for Loop for line in document you can see that that just came straight to python except he made it all lower case of course ABC was kind of cobal like where would wanted you wanted how to return words do how to return words document is parameter that that first line is a little bit tricky right he also want wanted uh real object orientation and he wanted to stay much closer to the C libraries cuz ABC didn’t really care about being able to call like C string libraries or C socket libraries or anything like that and he wanted lowercase keywords another thing that surprised me was the fact that modula 3 was a significant influence so modula 3 was a rather European centered language it kind of came from Pascal which came from Zurich aaha and Zurich and so this was the kind of thing where folks like myself in the United States really didn’t think too much of modula but Gita was clearly investigating how to do things and there were some really good ideas in modula 3 and he went and talked to the folks at modula 3 and the concept of self as the first parameter is a way to layer an object-oriented mechanism on top of a procedural language really the concept of self that was inspired by uh gido’s interaction with Mod 3 I’m going to give gido the last word here so I’m going to put the second half of my interview and just let gido talk about what inspired him as he was designing object orientation in Python [Music] can you walk us up to The Inspirations and the history of how perhaps ABC got so good at oo H so uh a ABC was actually not objectoriented okay ABC had a fixed set of data types the while the data types were composable like you could have say a list of integers or a list of strings and those would share the the operations on lists but sort of there was no concept of class there was no concept of users defining classes there was no concept of subclassing either in the implementation or for the buil-in types it was like ABC had a bunch of really convenient to use Primitives yeah did a lot work for you they weren’t really oh that’s correct and and and they even they insisted that there was only a single numeric type so in part so that they could could sort of not deal with the complicated hierarchy of integers and floats and rationals and sort of so so then but when you started pip you had like object orientation very front of mind not just a convenient set of IES but aeni set of object based Primitives where where did you did you read that in did you read that somewhere else uh I was familiar with C++ okay yeah and I think that might have been the only objectoriented language that I knew at the time at least I can’t think of any well I I I a big book about simula which is the sort of the granddaddy of all object oriented languages I don’t think I ever managed to get my hands on a simula compiler and I have to admit I also only skimmed the book because it was was actually sort of had you written C++ before you yes like what kind of how much have you written C+ uh enough to invent automatic or what I forget what they’re called the pointers that are like automatically ref counted so yeah I I forget C there a stand counting on top of C++ so that you would not lose your sanity while working in C++ uh no because I was very familiar with ref count because ABC’s implementation is written in C and all everything uses reference counting and it works out better in ABC because there are no Cycles in possible in the data types because there are no mutable data types you you you can’t have an object that contains itself or references itself directly or indirectly in ABC I don’t think that I sort of realized all the details of why that is important and I didn’t care because pragmatically uh those things aren’t always as important as they seem to be theoretically but anyway I was very familiar with reference counting in C sort of for how it was used for ABC I think that that’s where i’ learned about it and I didn’t sort of hear much about it elsewhere then at some point when I was teaching myself C++ this must have been in the mid 80s one of the things I tried was I mean my experience with ABC and reference counts in the implementation was that there was very error prone we regularly had to sort of deal with bugs in the implementation where we either leaked memory or uh sort of crashed because we had had freed things early and it was always like oh there’s a missing incraft or decra and of course the the Mi the missing decra is much harder to debug because you leak a bite here and you leak a bite there and nobody notices because people didn’t write large applications in ABC uh so so anyway I I I someone probably put me on the idea of uh in C++ you can overwrite primitive operations to the extent that you can build automatic reference counting and I built that for some toy application and played with it and realized that it didn’t work right the problem was that it was was like and I I probably didn’t know enough C++ at the time or possibly C++ hadn’t developed certain subtle mechanisms like move operations uh it was very crude like over overloading assignment that was basically what I did and so I found that where if I had handwritten reference count operations I would sort of know okay this object is owned here so we pass it to some function that function doesn’t have to increment the reference count just because it’s using that that object because it’s not going anywhere as long as the color of that function has a reference to it on the other hand the automatic reference counting as I had implemented it using C++ uh would say oh we’re passing this thing as an argument to a function so increment the reference count oh that function Returns decrement the reference count so there was much much much more reference counting activity and sort of that part I didn’t like and so python still does it does it manually and is written in C not in C++ but somehow I picked up the idea of VTS or at least arrays of pointers to functions as a handy way to implement objects and actually initially for the first probably six months python was not objectoriented the Implement and so very few people saw that like a handful of my co-workers saw that and the sort of the implementation had this notion of you can Implement an object type by putting a bunch of function pointers and a bit of other information in a standard structure that describes the type I called it a type not an object so so in a way that you were you you were emulating C++ as way of kind of like creating a perception of object ored programming without truly being an object yeah oh and wait a second I there is another step that I just missed uh I so in around 88 I spent a summer as an intern at Dex cir and I talked to the designers and inventors of a language named modula 3 and they were like putting the last proof raing reading efforts for the modula 3 report but they had built a modula 2 and a half compiler they called it modula 2+ uh and in their documentation either the the draft of the modula 3 manual or the the internal modula 2+ manual I learned this concept of how modula 2+ and three do kind of not quite object orientation and I think they meant it as as sort of a reaction to how it was done in C++ they said modula 3 is not actually an objectoriented language but the sort of the key part of of objectoriented use where you you define a class through a bunch of function and the notation uh where you say object do method and then the arguments instead of function and then the object and then the rest of the arguments they they they said if you use that notation object dot or thing do do method pen and then arguments thing had to be something that that had a type I I think it was a Structure type that had a bunch of pointers function pointers in it and so the method names were simply uh fields or members of that structure in in modular 3 and so to create the equivalent of a class you defined a structure you defined a structure that had a bunch of function pointers they were all typed so you could say this is a function that takes one argument of this type and it returns blah blah and then a bunch of those with names and the trick was if the compiler sort of noticed that you were using that and then you were calling it it would say oh we’re going to insert the thing whose method you just used as the the very first parameter to the function this is where Python’s explicit self comes from exactly and so that is all all modular 3’s design that I copied and so originally in Python I didn’t have a user level notation to even do that I only the the type system was only extensible by writing a c extension oh and so the the author of class keyword what we think it was the class keyword was not there that was month and a half that in the first probably five or six months it wasn’t there and uh we I think we had an intern who who knew C++ better or or who somehow had the right liked it better who knows he he was younger than me uh and he said hey if you if you want to give users the ability to Define their own class proc here’s a heck how you could do it you add this little bit of syntax uh and then you map it to this structure at the implementation time and it all works and that’s five months in and and and yeah and so everything else was working we we we had like a working interpreter with the reppel and integers and floats and strings and tupal and lists and dictionaries and fun s and types that were were sort of internal things I think even even then you could ask for the type of an object did you at the time in these first six months of python did you feel like you were doing core research on what object orientation was going to mean in the future no were you just no I was I was just hacking together an implementation of a language that I didn’t know where it was going I I obviously spent enough time on it that I I was hoping it would go somewhere uh but you didn’t think of yourself as like a that you were going to someday like write a paper about like how object orientation should be done you weren’t thinking like a researcher would think definitely not that you’re just soling I I was not a researcher I was a programmer I I do not have a PhD uh I was employed by CWI as a programmer do do you do you now even think maybe that you made a profound contribution you’re the first person to tell me that and I’m not sure that I I totally believe it I would I would say that the modula 3 inventors sort of made that contribution because they were they were much more sort of researchy types Theory types they they thought long and deep about all the the sort of theoretical and eventual repercussions of designs like that and I I was happy to implement something even even if there were edge cases where it would just not do the right thing at all like until we we finally after about a decade or so added a sickly garbage collector to the language python would leak memory irretrievably in many situations where you had created a cycle and then lost the last pointer into the cycle from outside it and it took a very long time before our users convinced us that there were some edge cases where that was actually a real problem and there was no good existing solution [Music]
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The source is a transcript detailing the step-by-step construction of a Flutter application’s user interface (UI). It explains the usage of widgets such as Scaffold, Row, Column, and Container to structure the layout. The transcript demonstrates how to add functionality, style text, create reusable UI components, and handle user interactions. It further addresses navigation between screens, dynamic data passing, and incorporating visual effects like shadows. The ultimate aim is to achieve a visually appealing and fully functional app interface.
Flutter Ticket App Study Guide
Quiz
Instructions: Answer the following questions in 2-3 sentences each.
Why is main.dart considered the most important file in a Flutter project?
Describe the purpose of an emulator or virtual device in Flutter development.
Explain why using snake case naming with underscores is recommended for Flutter project names.
Explain the naming convention for the organization name in Flutter projects, and why it differs from typical domain names.
What is the role of the children property in Flutter widgets like Column and Row?
Explain the difference between horizontal and vertical alignment in Flutter using the main axis alignment property, with examples of when to use each.
What is a Flutter widget that allows items to overlap?
Explain what LayoutBuilder is and how to use it in a Flutter project.
Explain the concept of ‘Copy With’ methods and provide a brief example of how they can be used in Dart.
Explain the concept of immutability and how it affects the way objects are created and used.
Quiz Answer Key
The main.dart file is the entry point of the Flutter application. It contains the main() function that starts the app and defines the initial widget tree to be rendered on the screen.
An emulator or virtual device simulates a real mobile device environment on your computer. This allows developers to test their Flutter applications on different devices and operating systems without needing physical devices.
Snake case naming with underscores is recommended for Flutter project names because it improves readability and adheres to the commonly accepted naming conventions. It makes the code more professional and easier for other developers to understand.
The organization name in Flutter projects follows a reverse domain name convention (e.g., com.devicetag). This ensures uniqueness, especially in larger applications, and helps prevent naming conflicts when publishing to app stores.
The children property is used to specify the widgets that will be displayed inside the Column or Row widget. It accepts a list of widgets, allowing you to arrange multiple widgets in a vertical (Column) or horizontal (Row) layout.
Main axis alignment controls how widgets are positioned along the main axis. In a Row widget, it controls horizontal alignment (e.g., spaceEvenly), while in a Column widget, it controls vertical alignment (e.g., start).
The stack widget allows you to overlay two items on top of each other.
LayoutBuilder is a Flutter widget that provides information about the available space and constraints in the parent widget. It allows you to dynamically adjust the layout of its children based on the available space, useful for creating responsive designs.
“Copy With” methods in Dart allow you to create a new instance of an object with some of its properties modified while keeping the others the same. The original object remains unchanged. For example, you can clone a class, but change the color.
Immutability is a concept where an object’s state cannot be modified after it is created. In Dart and Flutter, immutability is achieved by using the final keyword for class fields and making the class const. It is safe and more sustainable for object-oriented design.
Essay Questions
Discuss the importance of state management in Flutter applications. Compare and contrast different state management solutions, such as Provider, BLoC, and Riverpod, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages.
Explain the role of widgets in Flutter’s architecture and how they are used to build user interfaces. Describe the difference between stateless and stateful widgets, providing examples of when to use each.
Discuss the principles of responsive design in Flutter and how to create applications that adapt to different screen sizes and orientations. Explain the use of widgets like LayoutBuilder, Flexible, and Expanded in achieving responsive layouts.
Explain the process of creating reusable widgets in Flutter. Discuss the benefits of using reusable components and provide examples of how to design and implement them effectively.
Explain the main differences between functional and object-oriented programming and provide examples of when to use each.
Glossary of Key Terms
Dart: The programming language used to build Flutter applications.
Flutter: A UI toolkit for building natively compiled applications for mobile, web, and desktop from a single codebase.
Widget: The basic building block of Flutter UIs, representing an element of the user interface.
StatelessWidget: A widget that does not have any mutable state; its properties are final and cannot change after the widget is created.
StatefulWidget: A widget that has mutable state that can change during the lifetime of the widget, triggering UI updates.
main.dart: The file that contains the entry point (main() function) of a Flutter application.
Emulator/Virtual Device: A software simulation of a mobile device used for testing Flutter applications.
Snake Case: A naming convention where words are separated by underscores (e.g., ticket_app).
Organization Name: A unique identifier for a Flutter project, typically following a reverse domain name structure.
Children: A property of many Flutter widgets that specifies a list of child widgets to be displayed within the parent widget.
Main Axis Alignment: A property used to control the alignment of widgets along the main axis of a Row or Column layout.
Stack: A widget that allows you to overlay children on top of each other.
LayoutBuilder: A widget that provides information about the available space and constraints in the parent widget.
Copy With Method: A method in Dart that allows you to create a new instance of an object with some of its properties modified while keeping the others the same.
Final: A keyword in Dart that indicates that a variable can only be assigned a value once.
Const: A keyword in Dart that indicates that a variable’s value is known at compile time and cannot be changed during runtime.
Immutable Object: An object whose state cannot be modified after it is created.
TickerList: A list of tickets.
Ternary Operator: A concise way to write conditional expressions in Dart using the condition ? valueIfTrue : valueIfFalse syntax.
Positioned Widget: A Flutter Widget used to change an object’s position.
SizedBox Widget: A Flutter Widget used to manage the size of a widget.
Flutter Ticket App Development: A UI-Focused Tutorial
Okay, here’s a detailed briefing document summarizing the key themes and ideas from the provided source, with quotes. This document focuses on the user interface elements and the coding concepts being implemented.
Briefing Document: Flutter Ticket App Development
I. Overview
The source material is a tutorial or demonstration focused on building a Flutter mobile application, specifically a “ticket app.” It walks through the process of setting up the development environment, creating basic UI elements, implementing reusable widgets, applying styles, and incorporating dynamic data. A key focus is on achieving a visually appealing user interface through the use of various Flutter widgets and styling techniques. The tutorial uses a step-by-step approach, guiding the user through the creation of specific components.
II. Key Themes and Concepts
Project Setup and Environment:
Creating a new Flutter project in VS Code.
“type in flutter now once you type in flutter choose the first one and then over here once again choose the first one application and then it would give you a popup window and from the popup window select flutter projects the one that we created and click this button over here and now give it a name give it a name ticket app and this is our actual project name ticket app”
Setting up an Android emulator (virtual device) via Android Studio.
“but now our project will not run yet because we need to go ahead and create an emulator or virtual device to do that you need to open your Android Studio from Android studio will go ahead and create emulator or virtual device”
Understanding the importance of main.dart file.
“and this is our main. Dart and main. dart is the most important for running flutter project”
Ensuring the Flutter SDK path is correctly configured.
“in general the SDK path should be selected automatically this also means the folder where you have installed flatter so that path so you need to make sure that that path has been install sorry that path has been correctly given over here”
UI Layout and Widgets:
Using Column and Row widgets to structure the layout. The tutorial emphasizes understanding how children are laid out within these widgets.
“so so far we have exactly followed this layout column and inside this we have put row widgets”
“why we say children of course there is a generic name children right but each of the children could be using a different widget name”
Employing Container widgets for styling (borders, colors, padding).
“If you do put a container you need to remove most probably this one not it’s not related to container itself uh which we’ll talk later actually so let’s go ahead and change based on this”
Using SizedBox for specifying width and height constraints.
“why we are choosing sized box instead of container because here you see that sized box has only this three of this uh it takes arguments over here key with height and child most importantly three because key in general we don’t really care most of the time but if you do have a container over here and here you’ll see that it has a tons of arguments that it needs to take now of course this is not optimized because it’s much bigger than the file is much bigger than sced box so the place where you just need WID or height and child so you want to limit yourself within sized box because it makes more sense and makes your app faster so that’s the first thing you want to do”
Utilizing Expanded widgets for proportional spacing.
“the beautiful beauty of this expanded widget with the expanded widget actually you can uh proportionally put a lot of the items and then it’s the idea is if you I mean right after each child you have to have a expanded widget and then it just going to work”
Implementing overlapping UI elements using Stack widgets.
“we have a special widget when two items they overlap the special widget is called stack widget”
Dynamically generating widgets using LayoutBuilder, Flex, and List.generate. This section provides a detailed explanation of how to dynamically create UI elements based on available space.
“layout Builder would give us this space available space and list to generate would help us to First to know how many items we want and then it would generate and then actually the size of this widgets generated would be given by sized box or any other widget like container that’s also okay”
“layout Builder inside it will have flx inside flax will have list to generate and inside list to generate will have sized box and eventual output would be a dynamically generated widget like this based on your layout Builder”
Using SingleChildScrollView to create scrollable views.
“Now when you wrap ticket view inside single child scroll view it’s just going to scroll this ticket view it’s not going to scroll others because you just one scrollable item”
Implementing Transform Widget to rotate an icon to get an icon direction like from departure to destination
“we can use transform and and within it there is a special class that or method actually rotate this one you can call this and it’s going to work”
Employing Positioned widget for precisely placing UI elements.
“then then over here inside this we also want to apply a little bit of box Shadow outside of this one okay and how to do that actually we are going to apply Shadow so it’s called box Shadow and box Shadow actually takes a list if you hover over on this you say it’s a list so we have to have this list thing over here so it takes list of Shadows the Shadows themselves are given through box Shadow this class and here color and here we could do colors. gray and then shade”
Box decoration is used to apply shadow to the container.
“well in that case we don’t have to do this all manually we could say here position and the position is left say 75 if you do that it might go up and then say 65 okay like this”
CircleAvatar and BoxShape is used to draw border around image.
“the first thing to mention is to draw a picture in a shape of circle then CircleAvatar is the best one to go forward with and then the next is how about I want to make sure there is a border around CircleAvatar then you don’t need CircleAvatar you can draw a circle inside a container and that would be called you want to draw it inside a box with a circle or ellipse then you have to put a box shape okay”
Styling and Theming:
Creating a centralized AppStyles class to manage text styles and colors.
Using TextStyle to customize text appearance (font size, color, weight).
“You’ll see that okay we don’t have text Styles so we need to actually uh create a new variable that’s going to call text style so Let’s go ahead and create this so this would be our new variable what refer to as text style now this would be also working as our base text style the default one”
Applying colors consistently using ThemeData.
Implementing dynamic color changes throughout the application.
Reusable Widgets:
Creating custom widgets for repeated UI elements (e.g., ticket views, tab buttons, text-icon combinations).
“so this ticket itself we are going to build it as a global widget”
Passing data to widgets using constructors.
Utilizing conditional logic within widgets to customize appearance.
Data Handling:
Using a JSON file (app_json.dart) to store data for ticket information.
“inside this I’m going to put this information now this would be given in the resources section you can go ahead and grab that”
Parsing and accessing data from the JSON structure (list of maps).
“from this visual analysis we see that we have a list and inside list we have map now that’s what exactly we wrote over here we have a list and inside list we have a map the map itself we also said the type okay so the map here value is string and then the sorry the key is string and the the value is dynamic so if this is a map over here if this is a map then what do we say”
Code Optimization and Best Practices:
Using const modifiers where appropriate for improved performance.
“We are going to try to put const wherever possible because putting const means okay I’m I I’m telling flatter that this is just a static widget it’s not going to be created again”
Choosing the right widgets for the task (e.g., SizedBox vs. Container).
Organizing code into separate files and folders for better maintainability.
Making the widget to be stateless or mutable.
“So try to do this whenever possible”
Ternary Operators
Using ternary operators for conditional checks and the concise code expression.
“in general uh here this question mark and Dot is called tary operator okay this question mark and this I think it’s not DOT actually it’s called colon so that’s called tary operator so we are going to use this tary operator now how it works”
Data passing from object of a class by constructor
Create the object by constructor to get or pass object’s value.
“This method eventually returns a class Constructor so whenever you return a class Constructor you are always returning uh new object”
Copy with Method
Copy with method lets you create a new object based on the old object’s value.
“copy with method based on whatever the object you give them it takes value from that object”
Static Keyword
Static keyword is used for sharing data across the program’s run time.
“static const Color white = Colors.white;”
Final, Const and required keyword
There will be only one object to be assigned with the const keyword.
“Whenever you return a class Constructor you are always returning uh new object”
III. Notable Code Snippets and Techniques
Dynamic Widget Generation: The section on using LayoutBuilder, Flex, and List.generate is particularly noteworthy. It demonstrates a powerful technique for creating responsive layouts where the number and size of UI elements are determined at runtime. This is essential for handling different screen sizes and data sets.
The copywith Method In Dart this keyword plays an important role. If you want to use copy with method.”you just want to pass in that case if you have too many variables you have to pass all the variables at one time right and this is not efficient and what if you just want to change x value but you don’t want to change y value you still want to take this y value and you want to take a new x value from here and how to do that okay now this is where actually the full power of copy with method comes”
IV. Potential Issues and Considerations
Complexity: The tutorial introduces a lot of concepts in a short space. Beginners might find it overwhelming.
Code Organization: While the tutorial covers separating code into files, the structure could be improved. For example, the AppStyles class could be further broken down into more specific theme files.
State Management: The tutorial focuses primarily on UI and doesn’t address more advanced state management solutions.
Navigation Implementation: Navigation is missing and needs to be implemented.
Screen detail implementation: Need to implement to see all details and it’s missing.
V. Overall Assessment
The source provides a valuable introduction to Flutter development through the creation of a ticket app. It covers essential UI concepts, styling techniques, and data handling. The tutorial emphasizes building reusable widgets and achieving a visually appealing user interface. While it touches on some best practices, further exploration of code organization, state management, and testability would be beneficial for building more robust and maintainable Flutter applications.
Flutter Ticket App: Development FAQs
FAQs on Building a Flutter Ticket App
1. How do I create a new Flutter project in VS Code and Android Studio?
To start, open VS Code and create a new Flutter project. Choose the first option after typing “flutter”. In the popup window, select “Flutter Project” and give your project a name (e.g., “ticket_app”). VS Code will generate the basic Flutter project structure. You will then need to open Android Studio to create an emulator to run the application on.
2. How do I create and run an emulator or virtual device in Android Studio?
Ensure Android Studio is open. Drag and drop your Flutter project into the Android Studio Window. Select “project” at the top left of the window. Click on “Device Manager”. Click “+ Create Device”. Select the virtual device configuration you want (e.g. Pixel 8 Pro) and click “Next”. Download any necessary components. Once the download is complete, select the downloaded image and click “Next”. Finish the virtual device setup. Start the emulator by clicking the play button next to the virtual device name in the Device Manager. Return to VS Code and run the Flutter project using “Run > Start Without Debugging”. Make sure that your emulator is selected in the bottom menu of VS Code.
3. What is the significance of main.dart and the project folder structure in Flutter?
The main.dart file is the entry point of your Flutter application. It contains the code that will be executed when your app starts. The project folder structure organizes your code and assets, making it easier to manage your project as it grows in complexity. Files starting with a dot are configuration files and can generally be ignored for basic projects. The Android and iOS folders contain platform-specific code if you need to customize native functionality.
4. What is snake case naming, and why is it recommended for Flutter project names?
Snake case naming refers to using lowercase letters and underscores to separate words in a name (e.g., ticket_app). This is a recommended convention in Flutter because it improves readability. While other naming styles might be technically possible, snake case is generally preferred for its clarity.
5. What are widgets in Flutter, and how are Column, Row, Container, and Text widgets used?
In Flutter, widgets are the fundamental building blocks of the user interface.
Column: Arranges widgets vertically.
Row: Arranges widgets horizontally.
Container: A versatile widget that can hold other widgets and apply styling such as background color, padding, margins, width, height, and borders.
Text: Displays text.
Widgets are nested within each other to create complex layouts. For example, a Column might contain multiple Row widgets, each with its own set of Text and Container widgets.
6. What is the copy with method, and why is it useful in Dart/Flutter development?
The copy with method is a powerful way to create a modified copy of an object without directly changing the original object. It allows you to specify which properties you want to change, while keeping the rest of the properties the same as the original. This is useful when you have objects with many properties and only need to change a few of them. copy with can make code more readable and maintainable because you don’t have to manually copy all the properties of an object. To utilize the method, class variables must be set using named parameters and marked with required.
7. What are StatelessWidgets and StatefulWidgets, and when should I use each?
StatelessWidget: Widgets that do not have mutable state. Their appearance and behavior are determined by the information they receive when they are created. They are immutable and cannot be changed after they are built.
StatefulWidget: Widgets that have mutable state. Their appearance and behavior can change over time in response to user interaction or other events. They have a State object that stores the widget’s state.
Use StatelessWidget when the widget’s appearance and behavior are static. Use StatefulWidget when the widget needs to change dynamically.
8. What is the difference between “final” and “const” variables in Dart, and how does immutability play a role in Flutter development?
final: A final variable can only be assigned a value once. The value is determined at runtime.
const: A const variable must be assigned a value at compile time. The value cannot be changed during runtime.
Immutability, achieved through final and const, is a core principle in Flutter development. Immutable objects are safer, less prone to bugs, and contribute to better performance. When possible, prefer using final and const to create immutable widgets and data structures. The fields of a const constructor must also be final. Mutable objects are changeable. In general, immutable code is preferred.
Flutter Widget Reusability: App Tabs, Text Icons, and Layouts
Widget Reusability in Flutter:
Definition: A widget is a part of the screen or UI that you can see. In Flutter, pretty much everything is a widget.
Core Classes: Every class to be a widget has to extend the StatelessWidget class or StatefulWidget class. If extending these, the build method must be overridden.
App Tabs: App Tabs can be constructed as a reusable widget to display tickets and hotels. To do this, a stateless class is created with the name AppTabs. Two conditions that are subject to change should be declared as strings: tabString and tabBorder. The default value can be assigned, so it is not a required parameter. Then, copy the code and paste it, edit and reformat, and the reusable widget should be built. The tab text can be sent so that it can be directly used.
App Text Icon: This Widget may be built as a reusable text widget, so a stateless class is created. Inside this class, a container is used for the borders, so, the box decoration is used, and the border radius is set to 10. The color is set to white. A row is added as a child, with children being an icon and text. This widget is then styled.
App Column Text Layout: An app column text layout can be made a reusable widget by creating a widget and naming it app_column_text_layout.dart. The code for this widget is then copied, the dependencies are imported, and the text is added. To make the text dynamic, final String topText and final String bottomText are used.
Ticket Position Circle: This can be made a reusable widget by creating a new file called ticket_position_circle.dart. Inside this file, the code is pasted. This makes the widget reusable.
Flutter Ticket Screen UI Design and Dynamic Data Loading
In Flutter, the creation of a ticket screen involves several key steps, from installation to UI design and making the screen dynamic.
Installation and Setup
To begin, the installation of VS Code, Flutter SDK, and Android Studio is required.
The Flutter SDK can be downloaded from the Flutter archive.
During VS Code installation, creating a desktop icon is an option.
After installing VS Code, the Flutter and Dart extensions should be installed.
A new folder for Flutter projects should be created.
The setup is verified by running flutter doctor in the new terminal of VS Code.
Basic UI and Navigation
A basic template for a class can be created using St in Android Studio.
Libraries need to be imported for the code to work, and hovering over the code will display which libraries are needed.
A black screen may appear if there is no scaffold, but it will still work.
A colorful UI can be created using a scaffold.
Navigation or routing is covered to allow moving between different parts of the app.
The starting point includes step-by-step installation of VS Code, Flutter SDK, and Android Studio, including setting environment variables.
Layout Design
Vertical layouts, where elements are stacked on top of each other, are represented by the Column widget.
Horizontal layouts, where elements are placed side by side, are represented by the Row widget.
These Row and Column widgets can be nested within each other to create complex layouts.
The outer layer of a layout determines how elements are aligned.
When designing a UI, consider how to arrange elements and which widgets to use.
Creating the Ticket UI
The ticket is represented by a Dart file, and the class within represents a section of the screen.
The width of the screen can be accessed using MediaQuery to dynamically adjust the layout.
Using MediaQuery allows the ticket to take up a percentage of the screen, making it dynamic across different screen sizes.
A SizedBox is used to define the dimensions of the ticket.
Margins can be applied to the container to adjust its position.
The ticket layout is structured with a container, a column, and two rows.
The container wraps the entire ticket, the column organizes the rows vertically, and the rows arrange items horizontally.
Dynamic Data Loading
The use of Dart lists and maps allows for building more complex and dynamic UIs.
A new directory called “utils” can be created to hold a file named “app_json.dart”.
This file contains ticket information in JSON format.
The JSON data is structured as a list of maps, where each map represents a ticket.
The keys in the map represent ticket properties, and the values are the corresponding data.
The data can then be loaded from the JSON file.
The SingleChildScrollView widget is used to enable horizontal scrolling of ticket views.
Navigation and Routing
Clicking “View All” navigates to a new screen displaying all tickets.
A new Dart file called “all_tickets.dart” is created for this screen.
The Navigator object is used to manage screen transitions.
The push method adds a new screen to the stack.
The Scaffold widget allows for easy navigation back to the previous page.
The Navigator.push method pushes a new UI onto the screen.
Mobile apps use full-screen elements called screens or pages to display content.
In Flutter, these elements are called routes and are managed by a navigator object.
The Navigator widget manages a set of child widgets in a stack.
Routes can be defined using MaterialPageRoute.
Named routes can be used for cleaner navigation.
Mapping can help with routes.
The Navigator.pushNamed method is used for navigation with named routes.
Reusable Text and Dynamic Function Passing
A reusable text widget can be created for displaying titles or headings.
Functions can be passed as parameters to widgets, making them more dynamic.
A variable of function type can be declared in the widget.
A callback function can be used to handle events.
Hotel Display and UI Components
A new widget can be created for displaying hotels.
This widget can be placed inside the “widgets” directory within the screen’s folder.
The hotel widget returns a container with specific dimensions and styling.
Images can be added to the container using the decoration property.
The MediaQuery is used to get the screen size and dynamically adjust the hotel widget’s width.
A column widget is used to stack the image and text vertically.
Dynamic Hotel Information
Hotel information is loaded from a list of maps, similar to the ticket data.
The hotel name, destination, and price are dynamically displayed using variables.
String interpolation is used to combine text and variables.
The take method is used to limit the number of hotels displayed.
Search Screen
A new Dart file called “search_screen.dart” is created for the search screen.
The search screen is made scrollable using the ListView widget.
Padding is added to the ListView to create spacing around the elements.
A SizedBox is used to add spacing between the top of the screen and the search bar.
App Ticket Tabs
A new widget called “app_ticket_tabs.dart” is created for the tabs.
The tabs are implemented using a Row widget.
Containers are used to create the border styling for the tabs.
The MediaQuery is used to get the screen size and dynamically adjust the tab widths.
Box decoration is used to style the tabs with border radius and color.
Dynamic Styling and Reusability
The color can be defined in the “app_styles.dart” file.
The tab styling is made dynamic by using variables and passing them as parameters.
App Icon Text Widget
A new widget called “app_icon_text.dart” is created for displaying icons and text.
The icon and text are aligned using a Row widget.
Padding is added to the widget for better spacing.
The icon and text are made dynamic by passing them as parameters.
The MainAxisAlignment.spaceBetween property is used to distribute space evenly between the icon and text.
Find Tickets Widget
A new widget called “find_tickets.dart” is created for the “Find Tickets” button.
The button is styled using a container with a border radius and color.
Padding is added to the button for better spacing.
Upcoming Flights Section
The “Upcoming Flights” section is implemented using a Row widget.
The SizedBox is used to add spacing above the section.
The section contains two containers, each with a column inside.
The image and text are placed inside the columns.
Box shadows are applied to the containers for a better visual effect.
All Tickets Screen
A new Dart file called “all_tickets.dart” is created for the all tickets screen.
The screen is made scrollable using the ListView widget.
Padding is added to the ListView for better spacing.
The ticket tabs are added to the screen.
Parameters are passed to the ticket tabs for dynamic styling.
A TicketView widget is added to display a ticket.
The AppLayoutBuilderWidget is used to create a dashed line.
The ticket details are displayed using text widgets.
The GestureDetector widget is used to make the tickets clickable.
The Navigator.pushNamed method is used to navigate to the ticket screen when a ticket is clicked.
The ChangeDependencies method is used to pass arguments between screens.
Hotel Details Screen
A new Dart file called “hotel_detail.dart” is created for the hotel details screen.
The screen is implemented using a CustomScrollView widget.
Flutter Navigation Implementation Guide
Navigation implementation in Flutter, as explained in the sources, involves several approaches utilizing widgets and methods to transition between different parts of an application.
Key aspects of navigation implementation:
Basic Navigation and Routing:
Navigation, also known as routing, enables movement between different parts of an app.
This is achieved through the Navigator object in Flutter.
Full-screen elements like screens or pages are called routes and are managed by the navigator object.
The push method of the Navigator object adds a new screen to the stack, visually transitioning to it.
The Scaffold widget facilitates easy navigation back to the previous page.
Navigator.push pushes a new UI onto the screen.
Utilizing MaterialPageRoute:
Routes can be defined using MaterialPageRoute.
To push a new route on the stack, create an instance of MaterialPageRoute with a builder function to define the screen’s content.
Named Routes for Cleaner Navigation:
Named routes provide a cleaner approach to navigation.
Mapping can further aid in organizing routes.
Navigator.pushNamed is used for navigation with named routes.
A route’s name is looked up in a map, and its associated widget builder constructs a MaterialPageRoute.
Dynamic Function Passing:
Functions can be passed as parameters to widgets, which makes them more dynamic.
A variable of function type can be declared in the widget and used as a callback function to handle navigation events.
Passing Arguments Between Screens:
The ChangeDependencies method is used to pass arguments between screens.
The arguments can be accessed using settings.arguments.
Gesture Detection for Navigation:
*GestureDetector` widget detects the tap event for navigation.
Custom Scrolling:
Custom scrolling effects can be achieved using the CustomScrollView widget.
SliverAppBar and SliverList can be used within the CustomScrollView for custom animations and layouts.
Flutter Dynamic Data Implementation with JSON
Dynamic data implementation in Flutter, as described in the sources, revolves around using Dart lists and maps to create adaptable and data-driven user interfaces. This involves loading data from sources like JSON files and utilizing it to populate UI elements dynamically.
Key aspects of dynamic data implementation:
Dart Lists and Maps:
Dart lists and maps facilitate the creation of complex and dynamic user interfaces.
These data structures are used to hold and manipulate data that populates the UI.
JSON Data Loading:
Data can be loaded from JSON files, commonly structured as a list of maps.
Each map within the list represents a data entry, such as ticket or hotel information.
The keys in the map correspond to data properties, while the values hold the corresponding data.
Dynamic UI Population:
UI elements, such as text fields and images, are populated with data extracted from the loaded JSON.
String interpolation is employed to combine text with dynamic variables, enabling the display of data like names, prices, and descriptions.
Adapting UI with MediaQuery:
MediaQuery is used to access screen size, enabling dynamic adjustment of layout components based on the device’s dimensions.
Data Iteration with ListView and GridView:
ListView and GridView widgets are employed to iterate through lists of data and generate corresponding UI elements dynamically.
These widgets efficiently render large datasets and support scrolling functionality.
Reusable Widgets with Dynamic Parameters:
Reusable widgets are created to encapsulate UI components and accept dynamic parameters.
By passing data as parameters to widgets, the UI can be customized and updated dynamically.
State Management for Data Updates:
Stateful widgets and state management techniques, such as setState, are used to handle changes in data and trigger UI updates.
When data is modified, setState is called to rebuild the UI with the updated values.
Conditional Logic with the Ternary Operator:
The ternary operator is used to implement conditional logic within UI layouts.
It allows for concisely determining which UI elements or properties to display based on data conditions.
By using these techniques, Flutter applications can efficiently load, manipulate, and present data, resulting in dynamic and interactive user experiences.
Flutter Text Styling Guide
Styling text in Flutter involves using various properties and widgets to customize the appearance of text elements within an application. Here are key methods and concepts for styling text in Flutter, according to the sources:
TextStyle Widget
The TextStyle widget is central to styling text. It is applied to the style property of the Text widget to define various visual characteristics.
It accepts a class or widget.
The TextStyle widget can be assigned to the style property.
Key Properties in TextStyle :
color: Specifies the color of the text.
fontSize: Defines the size of the text.
fontWeight: Sets the weight (boldness) of the text.
fontStyle: Choose between normal and italic styles.
Applying Styles to Text Widgets:
A Text widget can be colorized, changed, or have a style assigned to it.
If no style is applied, the default style is used.
Multiple styles can be applied to the same Text widget to achieve the desired appearance.
Reusing Styles:
To avoid manual and repetitive styling, styles can be saved in a separate file for direct reuse throughout the application.
This approach helps maintain consistency and simplifies updates to the text styles.
Copying and Modifying Existing Styles with “Copy with” Method:
The copy with method allows you to copy an existing style and modify only the properties you want to change.
This is useful for creating variations of a base style without redefining all the properties.
Base Text Style
A base text style with exact color, font color, and font weight can be created.
It is possible to change one of the ways to work with the base text style by copying it and giving it a different name.
Text Alignment:
The textAlign property is used to align text within its container.
It can be set to TextAlign.start, TextAlign.center, TextAlign.end, etc., to control the horizontal alignment of the text.
Text Shadows:
The shadows property in TextStyle allows adding shadow effects to the text.
It takes a list of Shadow objects, each defining the blur radius, color, and offset of the shadow.
Specific Styling Example:
To style the ‘NYC’ text a specific headline3 style is applied and the color is set to white using the copy with method.
Global Styling and Themes
Define styles as constants in a separate file for reuse.
Use these constants in TextStyle properties.
By using these methods and properties, Flutter developers can create visually appealing and consistent text styles throughout their applications.
Flutter Course for Absolute Beginners
The Original Text
hello everyone assalam alaikum this is a flutter absolute beginners course and this is a course for flutter 2024 and in this course will cover flutter and dart using flutter and dart will cover complex UI the complex topics would include class Concepts Constructor inheritance stateful class stateless class widgets reusable widgets and then more on the Dart side will cover more about list and map different iterations map and Json and how to process map data and many more at the end of the course You’ be able to build something beautiful you’d be able to build a homepage UI like this which is complex and then over here you will have your search screen and then after that here you will have ticket screen which is very Advanced and complex UI and then eventually you will have your own profile page and in the course we’ll also see how to do navigation or routing that means that if you click on different part of the screen it will take to other places or other part of the screen or other part of the app so that would be very exciting apart from that we have also covered three main State management system getex block and River pod but by the time now if you don’t know about them it’s okay so take it easy I’ll cover everything step by step we have also covered routing and navigation which I have talked before at the very beginning of this tutorial we have started with installation that means we’ll cover installation how to install so we have done a step by-step installation of vs code flut SDK and Android studio and not only that we have covered how to set all the complex environment variables and how to get them up and running anyway throughout the course you will see we have covered a lot of quizzes and assignments to solidify your flatter learning and then along with this along with this of images to solidify your further learning because if your beginner to flutter sometimes it could be scary the ideas the concepts but as you can see we have used so many different types of images to give you better understanding of the visualization of flutter application and how everything works together So eventually end of this course you’ll Master flatter learning okay so this is our app when you start it up you’ll see like this and you can scroll you’d be scroll left to right from here and the same you’d be able to do for hotel screen or hotel sections and at the same time if you click any of this over here it will take you to the detail ticket screen page now the same for here for example if you’re moving from Daka to Shanghai so here you’ll see from dhha to Shang and all the related information not only that You’ be able to view all the tickets okay so these are a lot of tickets and once again if you click anywhere you’d go to the related screen on the detail page and the same for hotels so here you will have hotels and then you can also click on this you could view more images like this and then over here you’d be able to scroll up and down and you’ll see there is a beautiful animation you can do less you can go back all right now you’d be also able to view over here so here you’ll have more hotels or related information and once again you can click any of them and the same effect goes and a beautiful animation eventually so we have covered everything in depth and of course you will have your search screen over here and then your ticket detail screen and your profile okay so the very first thing we’ll do we’ll go ahead and install vs code so let’s go ahead and type in vs code and click on the very first one and then over here go ahead and click on this download it somewhere I have already downloaded it so I’m not going to download it again and then the next thing we want to do is flutter SDK SDK and then I’m going to come over here this second line where it says that flatter archive SDK archive and then from here I’m going to download the latest version and once again I have already downloaded it so I’m not going to do that again so go ahead and download it and after that over here we are going to download Android Studio let’s go ahead and do that Android studio hit enter and wait for it to be loaded and then click on the first link that you have and let’s pop up and click download and then all you have to do accept the agreement go down click yes I have read it and click download and then wait for it to be downloaded and after that you’ll see you have three of them in downloaded folder and this time we’re going to first start with vs code we’ll install it and then we’ll move ahead with others so now let’s click on this vs code dual time or twice and then it’s going to start installation let’s accept it click next next and next with this we’re going to continue but I think I have forgotten to mention or click on the start as a desktop icon or create a desktop icon let’s go ahead and select it now click next next and next so now it’s actually installing and it may take a bit of time depending on your system and we are done so now it’s going to pop out with the vs code UI so let’s wait for it so here we go this is our vs code well in next section we’re going to install flut SDK open up your V code and go to new terminal and then over here we’re going to run flutter doctor once again we’re going to make sure that our setup is correct and once we see the setup is correct we’ll go ahead and install two extensions one is a flter and another is Dart we need those extensions to create flutter project in vs code now you see that everything is fine now click over here on this button and we’ll inst stall this two extensions so first come over here and type in flatter make sure that you type it correctly and then go ahead and install this one the very first one here you will see an install button click on that and install I have already done it and then type in Dart and once again select the first one and over here you will have an install button go ahead and click on that I have already done it so once these two in extensions are done installation we’ll go ahead and create a folder named flutter project so come over here and create a new folder called flutter projects and within this folder we’ll store or save our flut projects now this will hold many apps in future anyway so once this is done our job is to go ahead and open it to open it come over here view command pallette and type in flutter now once you type in flutter choose the first one and then over here once again choose the first one application and then it would give you a popup window and from the popup window select flutter projects the one that we created and click this button over here and now give it a name give it a name ticket app and this is our actual project name ticket app now over here it will go ahead and create this flutter project for us and as you can see that it’s running over here and then on the left side we see that project has been created and this is our main. Dart and main. dart is the most important for running flutter project but now our project will not run yet because we need to go ahead and create an emulator or virtual device to do that you need to open your Android Studio from Android studio will go ahead and create emulator or virtual device to create an emulator or virtual device first make sure that your Android Studio is open and then open your project which is ticket app let’s go ahead and open it from our flutter projects folder ticket app this one drag and drop on Android Studio drag and drop it on Android studio and once you have done it will open and make sure that on the left top side you select project project and you will see your ticket app and within it you will see the live folder and select main. Dart and from here we’ll create a virtual device to create a virtual device click on device manager and here at the top you will see that create virtual device the plus icon and select over here any of them you want in my case I’m going to select pixel 8 Pro and this would be our virtual device click next and over here if you see any message like that you can ignore this and then click this download button you make sure you you’re downloading it and now the downloading may take a bit of time and you have to wait once the downloading is done we’ll be able to start our emulator so wait until the downloading is done now it’s done and once again over here make sure you select the downloaded one this one and and click next and you may change the name if you want but anyway so let’s go ahead and finish and here you will see your virtual device or emulator I have created a few in your case you will see only one whatever you have created go ahead and click on this button and then it will start your emulator and once the emulator is started you may go ahead your vs code and over here Run start without debugging it will start and make sure the bottom you select over here that button and based on that you’ll see that your emulator is start and your flatter project is starting and after that over here you see that our emulator is here and click on the button and it’s going to continue to increase the number as you see so that’s how you run your first app go ahead and get started make sure that your Android Studio is open like that and then over here we’re going to go ahead and create a new flutter project so I’m going to click on this and then over here in general the SDK path should be selected automatically this also means the folder where you have installed flatter so that path so you need to make sure that that path has been install sorry that path has been correctly given over here once again so this would be somewhere here so I’m going to come over here and then we’ll see that this is flut dab and flutter like this so we are referring to this folder over here okay so I’m going to click next and over here I’m going to give it a name okay here I’m going to say ticket app all right so make sure that you give the same of course you can name it anything all right so at the same time you make sure that you have underscore that’s the recommended way to do it but I believe you can also do like this but this is not recommended and it looks ugly so you should have underscore and whatever the name you want to have uh in front and end okay all right and this where your project would be located all right okay so make sure that one anyway so this kind of naming is called snake case naming because it’s like a snake all right okay and after that over here we don’t need to do this because uh and flatter is multicross platform app but here we’re just going to focus on working on Android and iOS mobile apps not really for Linux Mac and web or Windows and uh one more important stuff here in general because this is a very starter course or app this should be okay but if you want to use it in real world app real world production app or in the real world this name has to be unique in general it would be using your domain name so this is our domain name or my domain name device tag and then com so when it comes to organization name it starts from the end so when you type on the browser you might do the best.com but for creating flutter project organization name Comm or or or CN or whatever the end suffix is that goes or comes first all right so that’s it so now after that we’re going to go ahead and click finish so it’s going to create our app all right okay all right so the app is uh the project has been created actually and I’m going to make sure that I create I select the project folder so make sure that you select this one all right and after that that I’m going to make sure that I have an iOS simulator selected all right if it’s not selected first you go ahead and create one from here and then select it and then it’s going to show up over here but at the same time if you want to run on Android just pick one of your simulators Android emulator from here and it would show up here somewhere then you select this and you are good to go so let’s go ahead and restart our app now this may take a bit of time so here we go so this is our default app and actually this is our app from our default project we just created it and nothing has changed so far project has been created I’m going to continue over here and give you basic introduction of this project folders now at the top these two files uh the files that starts with DOT we can ignore them and then we have this Android folder we can open it up and here we see app folder and then also other folders now in general when our app becomes complicated and if we are going to connect with many third party services for Android phone or for Android apps we need to make a lot of changes within this files mostly this file and this file and at the same time we also make changes in our Android XML file which is actually called Android manifest XML this file okay now for now we don’t need to touch them so we’ll keep them aside once again the changes you make in this folder they reflect on Android apps now similarly we one we’ll have one for iOS apps so most of the time the iOS apps if we we want to make changes on iOS version now over here we have to make changes or add new files and in future we’ll also see that there would be pods folder p o DS pods we don’t have it now so these are some Advanced steps we don’t need to touch this for now now in between these two folders we see build folder actually build folder is generated when you run your app compile it for example I can go ahead and delete it okay so let’s go ahead and delete now the build folder is gone and now if you go ahead and run your app here we’ll see that soon a bill folder would be created let’s see if our app is running or not okay okay right now it’s restarted and the build folder has been created so in general we don’t do anything so this is autogenerated most of the time when you move your code around you want to skip this build folder because it’s too heavy and it’s too big and after that we do see that our lip folder now lip folder sits at the heart part of flutter project Li folder is the folder that would contain every source code all the code that or the source files that ends with DOT doart all of them would be inside this live folder and as our project grows we’ll see that there are many more folders inside this live folders and we will make changes and entry point of our flutter project is this main. Dart file now this is the entry file and entry point and among them this is the most important or core function main is a function and this is actually entry function we’ll see this things later tutorials and then test folder now test folder is is for flutter test driven development which means that if you build an app if you build functionalities it’s better you go ahead and test those things but since we are not going to test any of these things in our application so we can also go ahead and remove this and it’s not going to create any problems okay you can keep it you can delete it now I have other tutorials how to do test so once you’re done with this tutorial you may go ahead and take that one now there are a few other files and among them the most important is this pope. yml file now this file has your project configuration settings like your project name basic description and Publishers name and your project version and most importantly flutter SDK version and this is the latest SDK that we are going to use okay all right and then there are dependencies that our flutter project depends on so here are the dependencies files now very soon we’re going to install a lot of plugins so that our app we can build fast and those plugins most of them would be under this dependencies section and we’ll see them later and these are Dev dependencies which means that during development time we need some plugins plugins that would help us to develop faster we’ll keep under this section c s and over here we also see flatter and now inside under this Mark we can add our resources and assets so this file we’re going to come back later again and add more stuff to it all right and then there is another one which is pop speec do lock now this file in general we don’t touch but if there are some dependencies mismatching if sometimes we delete this and it’s generated later but most of the time you don’t want to touch this all right so that’s our basic flutter project introduction and later we’ll talk about this whole main do Dot and some of the concepts and the code is here we’re going to go ahead and take a look and try to understand okay well in this part first we are going to save our project in get repo CU every time we make changes we want to save the repo so that in future we can use it easily okay so I have already created uh get repo from here as you can see so if you have a git account you can go ahead and do that but this is not my mandatory but recommended if you have a repo where you save your code it’s great and you can always go back and see the changes and the differences anyway so I have created it now I’m going to upload my code to the Rost so I’m going to follow this command all right so I’m going to open up my terminal and uh after that I’ll just make sure that I’m in the root directory of this project okay so first I would do get in it all right and then I would do get add the whole project everything has been added and then over here I’ll have this command where it says that get Comet uh first comet so let’s go ahead and do that okay and our next one is this one okay let’s go ahead and uh add to our uh remote origin so with this would be connected to this rle link okay and then the last one is this one okay right so the benefit of doing this one is that now every time we make changes somewhere in our code we’ll see that there are this blue lines at least in Android Studio okay so I highly recommend follow Android Studio because it’s very flutter friendly so with this you’d be able to see the code that you have changes okay for example if I go ahead and remove this I know that over here I have removed something now if I go ahead and hit enter the blue lines the green line means I have added something this Orange Line means I have removed something and I like it it’s very user friendly and it helps you to keep track of the changes easily seeing is that we are going to clean up this Sol code because here we do see that there are a lot of comments and how to do that well there is a trick to do it definitely you can go ahead and remove them manually but there is a trick so I’m going to use controlr or command R if you are on Windows use controlr if you’re on Mac you can use command R so let’s go ahead and do command R and we should make sure that the file is selected and now we have this and after that over here at the top we could do this one so you see each of the commands just starts with double slash so slash okay and then Dot and Then star and after that new line n okay so when you do that after that you just click replace all but we need to make sure that we select this one and then replace all and here it is it’s so beautiful okay so now it’s cleaned now of course over here it messed up with the format and how to work with this one well actually it’s easy so you might have it like reformat the code with dot d formator so all you need to do select the file right click and click on the this okay now it looks more beautiful okay so yeah that’s how this reformatting works so if you want to remove code so anyway if you want to remove something you have to have this uh removing thing in our case we are removing double slash and then dot star means all the comments or all the double slash and the slash N means everything after this comment everything after this double slash it means if you have some empty space Also remove that one okay and here we are saying that whatever is there has been selected remove everything okay with this emptiness all right so that’s how it works and make sure that you select this one as well okay and that’s how it works okay so now we are going to go ahead and start coding and understanding so next hour or like so would be pretty much understanding about how flutter works and definitely actually how Dart works okay because flutter is written based on Dart language and the entry point of Dart language is main function this one just like any other uh programming language out there like Java or PHP you have an entry point so this is our entry point and everything starts from here okay and now this app is alive for example if you go ahead and click on them it would work actually but of course if you go ahead and remove or restart it actually it’ be gone okay all right now one thing let’s go ahead and do that remove this and anyway rest your app and you will see that you click on this it’s gone okay in a sense because it’s not reactive it doesn’t work anymore because inside the main function run app is our entry point actually main is entry point and another entry point is this one now this one is for flutter framework to work in our case if we go ahead and print here we say hello Dart all right and then if you do it actually you need to restart it so here we do see that hello Dart okay so main function is the entry point for our Dart language not and at the same time this is an entry point for a flutter framework okay well of course uh even though it’s not there the UI is still visible even if you restart and even if it’s not there the UI is still there the reason is because we are inside flatter ecosystem right now so there’s always a default value okay so everything is default right now this one even if you don’t give anything it’ll still show you okay so that’s how it works now our main function Works without this so next we’ll understand what is called class and extending classes now if you’re very new to programming or flatter this may look scary so next 10 minutes I’ll give you an idea what is class and what is uh extending now before that I do actually I’m going to uh comment that out so I’m on Mac I’m going to hit command option and slash so it’s going to do or comment like this so if you are on Windows you have to do control alter slash when I say slash this slash so you have to hit control alter slash anyway so now let’s go ahead and uh learn a bit of idea and from here actually our actual programming starts and one thing though in this tutorial you’d be actually building flut as well as a dart skill a lot of B beginners they skip the dart part and end up learning a little so would heavily focus on Dart and flutter and every time a new flutter concept comes up like this we will cover the dart concept first and then we’ll learn the flatter one more important concept before we start editing our code is understanding this uh Constructor thing and what is it well a lot of you might already know it but I’m going to cover it briefly but if you have more questions you can always leave questions now we do see that here we have two classes they this one extend the other one okay now there is something called abstract class okay like this now when you define an abstract class you can have same properties but in general you shouldn’t have the body of a method okay so when you have abstract class this abstract classes just work like you know blueprint for child classes one more one thing though like abstract class itself still works as a parent class or Bas class so similarly it will have a child class so this is a child class so car class extends the vehicle class okay all right and then this class itself has its own properties now all these properties once again would be would be able to extend or override actually in our child class okay all right and one of the properties of this uh abstract class is that if you try to instantiate it you’ll get error for example ver V call let’s see so as you see here we have an error abstruct class cannot be instantiated try creating an instance of a concrete subtype so it’s telling you over here go ahead and make this class a parent class of a child class and use that child class to create an instance like we did early so you cannot work like this then someone may ask why do you have this abstract class once again I said that in abstract class abstract class the work as blueprint okay which means that there are some given criterias properties and uh child class can use them and child class can also add more on the top of it so abstract class works as the base it’s the base and on the top of it you add more and more stuff okay so that’s why we call it abstract class because it’s a blueprint okay but it doesn’t really do anything like when you create a building the building will have Foundation underground right without that building without that Foundation your building will not stand right that Foundation defines how tall that building should be and how strong that building should be right so that’s what the abstract classes do at the same time just like Foundation this also works as a parent class like when you create a building on the top of foundation we create more and more layers so we have abstract class on the top of this we may add more functions in our child class for example here you can have a class sorry you can have a method okay you can say car type okay that’s it and here you say uh land Runner whatever it is okay so it’s just a type type of the car okay but this one is not defined over here okay it just defined within this one so we have WNAM and at the same time we have car type okay so this is not going to work so what you have to do here you have to save our car and car and then we’ll not have any problems so here we could say car dot car type as you can see we can say car. wols type or Wes num okay it’s still going to work as you see over here it’s printed so one of the basic idea of uh programming in a lot of other places to work like this like Java PHP C that you will have an abstract class and it’s it’s something that you should be doing like this this is a common convention and programming rules okay so most of the time if you app back app becomes bigger complex so you will have blueprint in your app so rest of the app has to follow the blueprint and work on that all right anyway now back to this idea how the Constructor works so this is something called Constructor okay so now you have a class name and you define a method without the body and the same as the class name that’s called Constructor so this is our Constructor okay so over here this vehicle itself is the Constructor okay why because over here you do see that this is the class name and the method name is also vehicle so when the class name and Method name becomes the same the method name is called The Constructor of that class so we do have a Constructor but why do we need this thing in fact everything works without this Constructor right now see in this vehicle I said that whose’s number is 10 right what if you don’t want to Define this value over here okay of course now it’s going to say well this value must be initialized now over here you’ll see that okay null non eval instance field WS must be initialized okay so when we assign a value like this any value is called initialization but now over here uh this one it says okay this variable value has to be initialized so one of the ways we can do it over here okay we like this and this is still work but now this would cause problem in our child class now it would say okay in child class you need a Constructor like this this exactly the same thing that one we see we have over here okay now of course with this this is a problem that it created a new problem what is the problem the problem is that well this child class itself uh has a Constructor as well as you can see there’s also a Constructor just like this one but this Constructor actually takes values okay takes values parameters when it gets initialized or when we we actually instantiate it when we create an object using this child class it needs something so now you do see that when we actually create an object we call the Constructor you can understand it like this okay now this Constructor has this parameter that we need to pass to it otherwise it’s going to throw an error so here we can say four all right now let’s go ahead and run it so we see that number is four so if you have a a Constructor in your abstruct class and that Constructor takes uh parameters and then at the same time your child class has to have that Constructor the same way the parameter should be there otherwise it’s going to create an error now the benefit of having a Constructor is this that you can pass value the way you want okay why say for example you want to create another class so let me go ahead and copy this okay all right say over here you might say that plane okay okay plane type all right now what about this planes over here okay how many cars how many walls should it have so here I’ll say ver plane and plane so now a lot of planes they might have only three wheels small planes okay so here would say plane. WS Nom now go ahead and print that okay now of course we need to change it to planes Wheels number okay planes Wheels number so this is what we see over here so once you have an abstract class this could be blueprint for all of your other classes and at the same time you can customize each of your child class based on this blueprint so we are still using WS number of WS but for each child classes they are different now how it is possible it’s possible because our child class has a Constructor and our child class has a Constructor why the reason is because over here our abstract class as a Constructor and that Constructor takes something all right so that’s how things work over here so with this we see that the similar idea is implemented over here so well this is a child class child class is extending this stateless widget class the stateless widget Constructor takes something like this and that’s how and that’s why we have to pass super. key something like that just exactly same over here we have passed all right now with this I think we have good understanding of basic classes and inheritance as well as abstraction and concrete classes these are called con concrete classes concrete means solid okay and this is called abstract classes and extending on abstract classes is called inheritance so car class inherited vehicle class plane class inherited vehicle class and at the same time we have better understanding of how Constructor works so in next section we’re going to dive into this section and start editing so now by this time we already have a very good understanding of what is class abstract class what is inheritance so we don’t need this now so we can go ahead and remove them so let’s do that okay and as well everything from here let’s clean it and now let’s run our original app and let’s do something exciting and let’s look look at something exciting okay all right so everything is back with this life you might not have the same but anyway so earlier we learned that this run app run app actually if you see so it takes something in its argument so what is it now it takes widget okay it says that this is a widget so whatever you have to pass to it has to be a widget now what is widget in flut actually every class is a widget when you write flutter code like this is a flutter code and then in general every class is a widget okay but of course uh to meet the condition every class to be a widget you have to either extend this stateless class or stateful widget class this stateless widget or stateful widget when you extend them then every class becomes a widget okay widget means part of the screen or UI that you can see like this is a widget okay so if you have more of this there would be more widgets if you see a text over here like this is this text is a widget this is a widget of course this section is very different this doesn’t called widget this is called abar okay so remember in flut pretty much everything is widget every class is a widget and a class to be widget that class has to extend the stateless widget class or stateful widget class by saying that one of course if you extend this stateless widget or stateful widget you have to override this build method okay in both cases you have to override this build method so that’s what we might see over here so here we do have this build method method okay so this homepage is uh extending stateful class and over here we override another method which is called create State and this method eventually actually takes a class so as you can see this is a class and then this class eventually has this build method which we override so the idea is as soon as your class extend stateless widget class or stateful widget class you have to have a build method okay so this two thing I mean this thing is compulsory all right the build method itself so that’s uh the thing that we need to understand there are more things that we have here and we’ll cover them later otherwise it’ be too theoretical now then what is the difference between stateless class and a stateful class all right okay so so from the meaning from the word itself stateless widget class you have to know that you have to understand it doesn’t have any state what is a state state means that where things changes a lot of things happens you get to see State means condition status situation so which also means that it doesn’t have any living condition which means that it’s not alive you can feel like it’s dead okay on the other hand stateful which where a lot of activities happens okay so whenever your class is uh extending a stateful widget class your widget also becomes stateful remember now this class is also a widget right whenever you extend stateful widget class your class itself becomes stateful so I can say this class is stateful and this class over here my app is stateless okay okay all right so that’s what you have to understand so that also means that right now if I say have a variable somewhere here or say somehow I declare a variable ver X here Z and I want to change the variable on the UI and show it um it won’t be responsive which means that if I change the variable in run time and I want to show it here the changed value we will not see here okay that’s one thing now with this we’ll see more examples in future uh we’ll have more live examples where it’ll make more sense okay so with stateless widget class the idea is if you have a variable or UI you want to change and redraw the UI with the stateless class itself within the declared variable you cannot do that okay you might need other mechanism but whenever your class is a stateful class in this case this one and you somehow change the variable their value and you get to see the value the changed value immediately now here actually flutter official uh site has given us an example so this is our counter variable value zero and then somehow now we change this value so when we click on this button this methods get called and as this gets called this line gets executed and then this value it changes and we see it immediately over here okay so let’s go ahead and click on this so as you see the value changes and we say it now the value changes is actually we can also show them on our terminal let’s go ahead and do that um over here let’s come over here inside this print inside this set State method this set State over here so we say the changed value is okay here counter we are printing it to our V uh terminal over here okay all right so now let’s go ahead and change it remember when I click on this this button we’ll talk about this button everything later but let’s get excited about it so here you’ll see so the value changes we say it here but of course if I put it down actually You’ see the changed value live let me go ahead and do that okay all right let’s try it one more time now it’s currently 0 0 and if I click on this this value would increase and then over here will print it so as you see it changed immediately like this okay so the point I’m trying to make over here if you have a stateful class then you can if you make this kind of changes in general you’d be able to see it on the UI on the screen but if you do the same inside a stateless class you’ll not be able to see that even though you’re able to see the value printed over here but you’ll not see it that it works on the UI which means that we will not be able to see it over here on our screen so that’s the biggest difference okay so earlier I said that stateful class like this one my homepage is a stateful class then it makes our screen scen live active with stateless class it looks like our screen is dead nothing is happening okay like that so that’s how it works okay and another big difference is that when you have a stateless class inside the stateless class you cannot use set State function okay set State function could only be used a class that is stateful like in in our case my homepage is a stateful widget class so that’s why actually we are able to see the changes I mean and as well as we can use this one okay set state so set State we won’t be able to use inside a class that has stateless widget only within this okay so this is the biggest difference between a stateful class and stateless class okay now we’ll have more examples on stateful class like this okay so right now we already see that we have this button so where is this button now I know there are a lot of other things we’ll be talking about them later okay so let’s see that how stateful class works over here there are tons of other things that we need to learn so we be learning step by step don’t worry okay so now over here you see that uh we have something called this one Floating Action button so we can just cut this one I’m going to select this and then here I’m going to put something like something you call as a row don’t worry if you don’t know what it is just type in with me because I’m going to explain them soon all right and then I’m going to write here children and then after that I’m going to put this one one more time and I’m going to put it another time okay one more time so to Total two times so we have this one and then this one and this things okay all right now let’s go ahead and click on this hopefully it would be able to help us solve it I mean save it actually when you click on this one so it says hot reload you don’t have to always restart when you have UI change you can just click on this and it would update the UI of course these two things are together don’t worry once again in later tutorials I’m going to explain everything right now come over here and then right over here you could write something like this called main access alignment main access alignment write again main access alignment remember it’s capital letter then do Dot and then here we say space between and then do it like this so we see that they went too far from each other okay like that now it we could do more styling but it’s not important right now okay and uh over here instead of add I think we could do remove uh it would still work okay and instead of writing increment here we could say decrement decrement and over here we can also say decrement all right now of course this doesn’t exist this is going to throw us error now to solve this error we can just go at the top and then we’re going to come over here and just exactly down there the way we wrote we can write here decree INR and the arror should be gone in both places so earlier this one was referred by this and then this one is referred by that okay all right and then over here I’m going to do minus minus okay so when we click on this button is going to increase the value when we going to click on this button it’s going going to decrease the value before we do that let’s do hot reload and you see the icon changed okay so we’re going to click on this this method would get called we’re going to click on this this method would get called and both of these methods are actually over here inside something called Floating Action button widget this is also a widget okay all right and it’s inside a row and which is assigned to this Floating Action button Floating Action button refers to this kind of buttons that you see comes uh ready made from flatter framework anyway so let’s go ahead and do this so our value increases click on this the value increases awesome okay so so that means that it’s actually already working okay what I mean by that so now we have two buttons right each of the button is doing different thing and we do see the changes on the UI like over here whatever the way you change and want to change everything should be working all right all right so that’s actually a stateful class so our class this one my homepage is a stateful class CL now this class has been called from here okay all right now when a class I mean of course you can call a stateful class from a stateless class and that’s okay all right so it just they’re connecting with a glue okay they’re sticking with each other but the changes happens over here and this changes we see over here the same changes if you try to make over here you will not see on the screen okay so this one is getting cold and which represents over here actually this class so that’s how about that’s how our stateless class they work and that’s how they update the UI that’s very important so in next section actually we’ll learn a little more about our screen structure and how flutter uh put the layout so we’ll take a look at the basic screen structure of our uh flutter WRA Okay cool so one thing you could do we can go ahead and actually remove this things we don’t need this and of course we’ll get error over here I mean over here so we can also remove this let’s put something called text uh let’s put something called CH uh sorry we don’t need child over here actually I think we can just simply say hello flatter let’s go ahead and restart our app and we see things like this and then to be able to view it carefully so let’s put something called Center okay Center widget now once again I’m on Mac so I’m putting my car server here and I’m clicking on option okay option and hit enter so on Windows it should be alter enter and it should be working and then I select this all right and then let’s go ahead and put const modifier and over here we do see that hello flutter of course this is very different than what we have seen before we had a colorful background but everything has gone okay all right now one thing that now we are learning and you should be remembering that to make a colorful background you always have to have a widget that’s called scaffold remember text this is a widget Center this is a widget so widget inside widget that’s how things work in flatter so widget’s a nest they put one inside another like just now we had only text wet and we saw it was on the top so we wrapped the text widget using this Center widget now we see it in the middle but now we want to have a colorful background but to do that one more time we need to wrap this around another widget called scaffold so let’s go ahead and do that scaffold okay now scaffold is very special over here actually here we have this body and inside the body we can put this now here we see at least it’s not black it’s white it takes other widget okay scaffold is more like you know the skeleton it holds everything together that you see on this UI okay like it makes your UI colorful otherwise you will end up as um black background so that’s what you don’t want to see now scaffold actually as I said that it holds everything to together and it takes an abber as you can see it takes a body now body is a widget and E is not a widget or maybe it is a widget but special type of widget okay all right it also takes Floating Action buttons it takes a lot of different things okay all these things are the properties that we can twe to make make it more beautiful and interesting okay all right so now we understand that to make our app colorful we need uh this scaffold okay with scaffold you would end up having black screen the scaffold takes body body actually is a widget so if you all if you forget if you ever forget what does a special property do you can always put your carser on it and at the top you will see what kind of thing it is so most of the time it would be a widget most of the time okay all right now it does have other things as well now here it will have abar here we can also do abar and uh here it’s saying that if you put abar you can’t use const Constructor so let’s remove this okay now it wants you to use const at the top all right let’s go ahead and do that okay so now we are over here even though we are supposed to have an AB but we don’t say it over you don’t see anything over here even if you restart it and it’s fine now abar actually has a few properties so we can assign these properties to it there are a lot of them and one of the important one is most probably there a title and then we might also have a background color Okay so we’re going to do that one say let’s go ahead and give it a background color colors. red all right okay now let’s do hot reload and here we go so this is called abar okay all right and then over here you also give it a title name actually so title okay and if you forget what it is you can always take a look look it’s a widget now of course we cannot just put a string like this this is called string when you have um double quotation and put something something inside it this is called string so string is not going to work it’s saying that you need a widget one of the most common type of widget is text widget so here we can say text widget we can use a text wiet and here we say flotter title okay all right and once again it’s recommended put a const modifier and hotr load and here you see the flutter title but of course you can give it uh color and that’s fine we don’t worry about this on now we’ll be looking at this later okay so step by step we are progressing and understanding how whole things work so that this is it so you will have scaffold in at scaffold you will have most probably abar and most of the time you also have to have a body you may not have abber and that’s okay some screens you might just have complete height in that case you might not need a bur but body is something that you always need so now we understand scaffold and then what is this uh material app what does it do now in fact you may think of like this so why don’t we just uh put this one this one over here all right and let’s go ahead and do it and here we get error now if you read the error carefully you can try to make sense of it it says that no directionality weet found Rich Text weet require directionality widget ancestor so it’s saying that okay well this kind of text widget and it needs an ancestor but you don’t have an ancestor okay that’s what it’s saying and then it says that typically directionality widget is introduced by material app or widget app at the top of your application widget tree okay well all this means that you should have a met matal app in your application and it’s saying that you don’t have this so that’s why you are getting this error okay so now we can have material app let’s go ahead and do material app material app okay and then if you hover over on it you will see some properties one of the properties is home okay and home itself takes a wiget so here we could do home like this remember text is a widget Center is a widget now we can put it over here now we see that hello flutter like earlier what we have seen so the idea is every flutter app has to have one material app so material app gives it’s like the life to your application scaold holds everything but before even if you hold everything but we don’t see anything on the screen if we don’t have material app so we need to have scaffold okay sorry we need to have material app first and then scaffold okay so here we could do scaffold and then here we say body let’s put it there and then we’ll see that our screen is beautiful okay and that’s how it works so the idea is your whole app at least have one material app in general actually only one material app and then your screen should have scaffold if you want to make your screen colorful okay and then if you want to make your uh abar you should also use abar over here okay otherwise you’ll see that nothing appears on the screen and of course at the same time you can give it a background color here colors. red all right okay so metal app refers everything that you see the you can also see that it holds everything okay and since that moment on you will have your scaffold so scaffold is something that you already see on the screen okay so material app is something that lies out of the screen holding the whole screen and scaffold is more like the screen that you see everything and inside the scaffold you will have abur which stays at the top you’ll have body which stays in the middle okay now let’s take a look from another picture so that we understand how things work so here we see you might have your main app which is the entry point then your run up and runup takes a widget material app is a widget and then and just now we learned that this material app actually holds in the outer level stays in the outer level exactly completely outside okay and then over here scaffold this orange line is the scaffold the one that you see the screen with so scaffold extends until the edge of your screen edge of this page or mobile phone device okay and everything until this Edge is visible that’s called scaffold and then as usual you will have abber of the top that’s what we see and then your different kind of widgets which could stay inside your body over here so hopefully it gave you better idea how uh your main function your materal app scaffold and body there all tied together so let’s go ahead and continue to work on on this now this time actually we are going to build our Bottom bar just like we have AB bar we also need to work on our Bottom bar now to be able to do that let’s come over here inside this lip folder and then over here we are going to create a new directory and here we can say base or you can also call it core it doesn’t really matter now inside this we’re going to put everything that most important as well as the one that we’re going to use throughout our app some things like the one that we would be sharing everywhere okay the whole app would be sharing some of the code and that code we’re going to put inside this now inside this we’re going to create a new DOT file and we’re going to call it bottom navbar do Dart so in flut every file you create it has to end with Dart and if you have more than one word in your in your name then you should use uncore all right we’re going to hit enter okay and I’m going to add it because I’m connected to get so that’s why it’s asking you to uh make sure that whether you want to connect it with G or not but anyway let’s continue now let’s go ahead and do an important stop over here so I’m going to create a stateful class so I’m going to end Android Studio so I’m going to hit St so St would be for stateful or stateless so I’m going to S the first one okay all right now this is a basic template for our class and all we need to do we need to go ahead and give it a name bottom nav bar and that’s it but of course we do see that lot of Wiggly red lines it means that uh like these are errors or it’s missing some of the items that’s why it has now like this Widget the container and the class actually they depend on other libraries libraries means other code but we call it Library so we need to import the other code path which means that like this one depends on certain code and we need to tell it where it is the code so that we can use it here now in general both Android studio and iOS if you hover over on them you’ll get like this okay so you just go ahead and simply click and your error should be gone all right now this one actually we can assign it over here so currently we have the scaffold right so we can just replace the scaffold so we can come over here and then we can do bottom nav bottom NAB bar this one and let’s go ahead and import it okay so there are a few options that which one you want to use so we are going to import it as Library okay and let’s come over here and we do have things like that now let’s go ahead and uh restart it now we do see a black screen the reason is based on our previous knowledge you’ll see that we don’t have any scaffold even though we have material app so if you don’t have scaffold it’s always black okay but it’s still going to work for example if you have child text and here you say hello and go ahead and do this you’ll see that okay it’s still there but we want a more of a colorful UI so we’re going to do scaffold over here okay and then here we’ll say Eber Eber and here we’ll have Eber okay so let’s hot reload okay cool we are back and then here we can have say say title now one more time you’ll see that title takes widget so it could be any kind of widget so here we’re going to do text to Jet it would say my tickets okay hot reload and this is what we see over here at the top cool now we can also give it a body sorry body and and we going to first put a center widget and then inside this we’ll have child and then here we can say ticket info now if you save it you will see that ticket info you can also save it by using command s and on Windows most of it’s control s all right so but the given name is bottom nebar so where is our bottom NE here we’re going to do bottom navigation bar and if you hover over on this you’ll see that it takes bottom navigation bar okay it takes a widget okay so we’re going to put a widget over here now it could be actually any kind of widget it doesn’t really matter so for example you could do container and here you could do child and text is a bottom now let’s hot reload and here we do see that we do see we see something okay so that means that it’s working so in this widget section actually you can put any kind of widget but this is not going to work right this is not what we want because it won’t look like our original app our original app has four icons over here now we can use container this one to do that but that would be a lot of Hassle and we need to create our own widget but we don’t want to do that as flutter has already given us some widgets that’s already in flutter framework we can go ahead and use them so one of the widgets that we use for bottom navigation bar is called bottom navigation bar so the widget name itself is this one okay all right now here it’s going to throw arror you can always put your cursor on it and it will tell you that what’s is missing here it’s saying that and it’s add required argument and it says this okay add an AR argument and it should be items so that’s what it’s saying so you can add it manually or click on it it should automatically give you this hints okay and the code all right okay cool now we do see some Wiggly lines let’s fix them okay now here we do see this kind of of uh braces and what is it supposed to mean in Dart this means a list okay so if you have list you can put items one by one we can do it here actually so that we understand what’s going on so you can declare a list okay so here is a VAR my list so to declare a list you can just have this things this braces and you can say flatter Lal PHP like that so list contains items like this items could be any kind of variable custom type or the type that’s already given in flatter like int string or any kind of object okay here you can even print okay like this my list. two string if you go ahead and run it and you’ll see that they’re printed over here but of course we have some issues and we’ll take care of that later don’t worry okay so it gives you the idea of a list that how list works so remember list are inside braces like this and you can put items using this comma if you add more items you need to have more commas like this and we already see that that’s been printed over here now you can also access them using this operator here say we want to access this uh first item so let’s hotload and we should be seeing the first item not here so yeah we printed first item is a flatter so zero refers to the first one and if you put here one is going to refer to the second one so we will see laral as you see okay anyway I’m going to remove this it gives you the basic idea what is list okay now yes we have an issue because it’s empty it must not be empty okay now you can quickly put anything in it if you see the arror it says that okay bottom navigation bar this source file the items which refers to this one it should be at least two or more than two so it’s doing a conditional check internally and it found the item the list this items list is not two or less okay so that’s why it’s returning false and it’s returning error or Crush like if you come over here we can print the length of a list so you can just simply do your list name do length and then let’s run it and here we’ll say three it means we have three items now here it has zero items okay and that’s why we see the crash over here now if you hover over on this you’ll see that it takes list items okay so we can put list inside this now interestingly it also tells you the list items type okay so here it’s telling you the type has to be bottom navigation bar item if you see over here this type is a string but here it’s telling you that this item has to be bottom navigation bar item okay it’s already telling you you cannot put string over here okay anyway so then we can go ahead and put it like this now we see another error and if you hover over on it The Element type cannot be assigned to the list type like this now it doesn’t give us enough uh idea that okay what it is and then you hover over on this it tells you that okay it needs an icon Okay add required so every time you see add you need to add something okay so go ahead and do that so let’s put icon now if you hover over on this it says that okay this is also a widget and typically the icon widget is an icon or image icon widget so you cannot really put uh like text widget or anything like that it’s telling you it you should have either this icon or image icon so it gave us some hint okay now let’s go ahead and put icon because that’s what it says now because this is a class right so we can always use this curly braces so just like this one this is also a class and that’s why we put curly braces like as you can see over here first braces actually and then then well of course it cannot be empty yeah it says that it it is expecting something new it’s expecting one positional argument we’ll talk about what is positional but here we say that it says it expecting argument so let’s go ahead and add all right now I’m going to add icons. home okay the arrow is gone and then it’s asking us to add const modifier to remember over here it was saying that we should have at least two items so let’s go ahead and copy this and put it here and for now just say over here settings I hope the icon exist yes it does now let’s restart our app and we will see most probably another error okay now once again it’s saying something about the error this items that every okay this item and it says whatever inside this items list bottom navigation bar item this one it’s referring to this one okay should have item. label which means that item. label cannot be null so this one should have item. label if you hover over on this you’ll see that label okay so we need to have this label thing and it’s a string so let’s go ahead and put it over here we can say label and here we can say home and then here we can do label and settings okay there’s a Temple let’s go ahead and fix that now let’s restart cool now this is the first time actually we have really something going on and this is the thing that we created on our own okay so now we have two of this we can actually have more of this and let me change it correctly so instead instead of settings actually we want to do have here search so let’s go ahead and do search search button and then here we can also write search and if you do see that over here we have four of these items so we need four of these in our list so let’s go ahead and do that so here we can just simply go ahead and copy two times let’s go ahead and do that okay now if we do hot reload and uh we see like this okay now of course they are gone but if you have two of them and you do hot reload we see that now this is actually flatter they do it when you have more items just hide it because too many items or NAB bars could collide with each other so in that case we require some basic settings anyway so here let me change it to so we’re going to take the first one airplane ticket and then here we’ll say tickets and at the same time right now here here we’ll have person because we might not have profile icon so we’re going to use person and there should be a person icon inside this as you can see it’s there now here we’re going to do profile we’re going to write profile okay all right now let’s save it now it’s gone actually but if you click on them you would see that that they’re still there so in next lecture we are going to style them okay so the current problem is we don’t see them unless we go ahead and click on them hard so to get rid of this problem we need to style them and actually the style properties are already given here and we might have background color selected item color un selected item color font size and tons of those things these are all for styling so the first thing we could do over here is selected item color selected item color and we’re going to use colors class and it has a property called blue gray so let’s go ahead and work on this okay now let’s hit reload or hot reload actually and over here you see that we already see our home icon so the first one actually okay by default it’s going to show you the first one because the first one is a selected one okay by default the first one is selected one but the rest of these things are still not visible okay now that means our unvisible or unselected items how to make them visible so that’s what we want to do so over here we could do show unselected label or unselected item color first actually unselected item color this one and for this one we’re going to use const color and then over here we’re going to do o x FF 526 4 all right so these are our color code and this is actually int value hexa code let’s go ahead and out load and here we go so this is the first time we see all of our items together remember this is only selected these are unselected okay now here the problem is this uh selected one still showing its name or label remember this is the label name okay so we can also set up this one over here here we could say that show selected label fals this one false okay and save it you’ll see that it’s gone and it’s beautiful okay and uh yeah that’s pretty much it so with this actually we can see that it’s already working so now let’s go ahead and compare two of this icons so our icons are very different than the icon that we see over here so you want to be able to use this kind of icon and there’s also a benefit of that because we have some extra features that we can use but to be able to do that first we need to go ahead and install this icons uh to install icons let’s come to the terminal and do a clear and over here we could do flutter Hub add fluent UI icons and then flutter pob add uh sorry flutter PP get so it’s going to add this and then over here at the same time it’s going to install it install in a sense that I mean getting all the files that we need and get ready for our project let’s hit enter okay cool now it should be added now let’s come over here and check our Pops spec actually this one pops. yml file and here we do see that we have uh green section which means this code has been added and we also see that fluent UI icons okay so this has been added so now let’s uh come to our class class over here so since that’s been added now we can come over here and remove we don’t want to use uh this thing over here the icons that’s shipped out of flut automatically here we want to use fluent fluent system icons this one and then you can do dot operator okay so here I fluent fluent so we looking for our icons and home okay and we’re going to use the second one okay so it should be fine and after that over here we are going to use uh another property now if you come over here and click on bottom navigation bar there is an active icon property so we can toggle between the icons okay so let’s go ahead and do that over here we’re going to do active icon and then here I would do icon and fluent system icons fluent system icons do IC fluent home fi this one okay cool now I’m going to actually go ahead and copy this and put it uh three more times Okay cool so second one was I think search and what else so I think we also need to change over here like that okay so make sure that icons are corresponding home home search search uh okay so here we do see that we we have an issue here it should be search uh sorry ticket and then person person all right now I guess we’re going to have to restart our app because we made a big changes and looks like uh uh let’s compare with this yes they already took the effect okay so now if we are on the homepage we do see that just like this icon or this icon is homepage icon but now when we go to other Pages like this uh so this one should change to like this okay so this is our this is the difference between active icon and nonactive icon okay so the idea is when you are selected so it’s filled which is actually when you’re selected it’s showing this one when when you are not selected or like you went to a different different one like this one over here so we clicked on this so this one you will see that that uh it’s uh home regular so the idea is selected icons are filled so that’s why filled filled filled non-selected items are not filled okay like uh over here you see this is filled okay but we cannot switch between the icons right so that’s a problem so in next lecture we’ll see how to go ahead and switch between them all right to be able to switch between the icons uh we need to do a little more advanced step and we need to do it step by step okay so we want to be dynamic so as we click on each of them we want to change the icon that means that uh we have to there could be many other ways one of the ways we could do keeping the track of index for example say for example we can assign zero to it one to it two to it and three to it so they will have index and as they have index we can actually change the index easily because indexes are numbers right so then it becomes easy of course uh to be able to do that we need to declare some stuff at the top so here we are going to actually declare a list over here so here we would say ver or we could do actually final over here and then here we’ll say my screens or here we say app screens and then here we have a list just like last time I told you like this okay and then as I told you the list could include anything any object as well as custom object and Primitives so here we’ll have custom object like text okay now text is a widget which means it’s also an object so here first I could say home so and then I think we need to put const well soon we would learn the difference between final const things like that because they’re going to show up again and again and it’s very important to learn the difference okay so here we’re going to change over here and we can say search and then I think that was uh tiets and then profile okay now let’s go ahead and I’m on Mac so I’m going to actually do command option L to reformat the code it looks a little more organized even over here okay now if you’re on vs code you can right click and definitely you might see something like reformat the code with dart it should work the same okay all right anyway it’s been that so this is our list okay the list for changing between this icons which also means that changing between the screens okay so as we click on them we want to go to new screens actually okay so that’s what we want to do now where to change actually as we click on this not only the this should change the icon should change screen should change screen I mean this section over here now this this is called body right this is Bottom bar and this is app bar okay so we want to be able to change between this sections so keep this one as it is keep this one as it is pretty much and keep changing from here so that means that over here we need to change and how do we change so let’s replace this and let’s come over here app screens app screens okay this one and we can put zero over here okay so we are using this index zero to have a property from this list or item actually there’s a list list could be uh uh visited using index or they call it iterate okay visited is not the correct word I mean not professional but they call it iterate okay so we are iterating using index okay list is iterated using Index this is our index and now you have to understand another reason why we put text or anything like that because body you will see that only takes widget if you just put here string like when you put anything between this curly braces uh sorry this uh double coats that’s called string and you will get error so you have to have what is it uh widgets inside this string so what’s going to happen this is a list and this this list contains a lot of objects and these objects are all widgets okay and uh then we are getting objects or widgets out of this string sorry out of this list using index okay so let’s go ahead and restart okay now we do see that it’s over here that’s fine but what I’m going to do to be able to work better actually I’m going to to uh wrap this around using Center widget so I’m on Mac I’m going to select this and option enter Center widget and if you’re on vs code you can just select it and then right click you will see wrap around different kind of widgets so you can select Center widget okay and let me see we need to do a bit of change Okay cool so pretty much like this so I’m going to do the same for rest of them Center widget and it looks like this so I’m going to reformat the code so that it looks good so every time you want to wrap things around on vs code in general you have to select the widget and then right clicking should show you that uh wrap around certain things okay all right now we are actually successfully able to show a widget now first time we are able to successfully show a widget from a list okay now since this is index based we can change it so here let’s say one restart it we should be able to go there as you see that over here this is search but looks like it’s still not selected and because there are steps to do that but now here you see that search has been shown and what if we go to the last index okay okay that’s profile which is referring to this widget from our list so right now just now we learned that we can actually go ahead and uh change this indexes and show them but what we did we did them using indexes and manually but of course you don’t want to do like this we have to be somehow Dynamic so when we click on them we need to be able to change the indexes right I mean that’s our understanding right now we are changing manually and we see that it changes so we need to find a way as we click they change automatically so in next lecture that’s what we’ll see so now we have a very good understanding that changing index can help us to changing the icons and these things so let’s go ahead and do that well first we need to Define uh function over here or method so we’ll call it void and we’ll have this underscore and underscore means private private means the function that we are going to use only accessible within this class this class is bottom nabar so here we’re going to call it on item tapped and then here we’ll pass an index index would be int and we’ll call it index you can call it anything it doesn’t matter now the thing we are going to pass to it the indexes of this list remember zero refers to home one refers to search two refers to tickets profile three refers to uh this um profile right so we need to be able to pass the index okay so as we pass the index uh we need to somehow reflect the changes as here as well and how we are going to do that now to be able to do that we can declare a variable at the top okay so here we can say that change our index uh for bottom NE bar or I would say bottom NE okay so declare a variable okay so here we say ver and it’ll be a private variable actually we can do in is specific about it and then selected index so now here we do selected index equal index okay okay so we’re going to grab this index and give this index to this variable which is this one at the top okay all right now how to actually send this index to this function right we need to send this index to this function over here how to do that we don’t have any direct mechanism do we well actually yes we have now if you come over here and you’ll see that there is a function which is called ontap okay there a call back function which means that when you call it does something back for you you call it and in return it does something for you that’s why it’s called call back so this is a function and as you see that this function also takes in integer and its argument okay so we have to create something that’s related to this callback function which means they would work similar actually we already did this one so this would be our represented callback function and it also takes INT in its parameter this is called parameter and things like that this is called argument things like that this is called argument okay all right now our parameter is in so what we could do come over here and we can use the ontap property and simply call this callback function let’s go ahead and do that okay cool so now what’s going to happen over here this on tap is connected with this ont item function or on item tapped okay you can name it anything it doesn’t really matter so these two are connected so what’s going to happen each time you click on them click on them then this function is going to get called because remember right now as we did like this this two function or this and this they’re connected and how they are connected flutter already takes care of this thing so you don’t need to worry about it okay it takes care of everything so every time you do things like this as you can see over here so flut automatically takes care of everything like even over here right and over here all of this things flut does it for you all you have to do follow the steps okay all right so yes that’s how it works I mean now we have connected them which means that if I click on that means each time you click on them this would get cold and as this get called the index from this each of them they have index okay this index would be passed on to this function and then we assign this index value to this variable now this is the variable that we can directly use and control on our own let’s go ahead and print okay so here I would do print and then here I would say tapped index is Select index all right okay so let’s go ahead and restart the app and hopefully we’ll see the changes okay so let’s click on this okay zero all right and uh I think we have something wrong over here okay we don’t need this let’s do it one more time and and click on this we see 0 1 2 3 0 2 3 all right okay of course so it’s already being printed which means that each time we click on this now we are able to grab the index from bottom navigation bar item remember indexes are automatically created based on the items over here okay because we have four items so we’ll have total four indexes these are automatically created and all we are doing over here grabbing the indexes and passing to this call function and assigning it to this variable so with this we have the freedom which means we are able to grab right grab the index cool now let’s come over here and also assign the variable so now this way we become more Dynamic okay let’s go ahead and click on this okay and uh okay right my computer was a bit slow so it’s already reflected over here right okay but the problem is we don’t see the changes okay so let’s go ahead and click now let’s hot load now we do see right so we are progressing step by step if you don’t know what I’m saying let’s see this so let’s click on this or it’s already actually selected because zero refers to the first one which is this one okay all right and then if I click on this we know that that’s been clicked but we don’t see it over here all right the screen should be changing but it is not but if we hot reload we do see that it’s changed we are still progressing step by step right click on this index 2 is tapped but out reload and we see the changes click on this index 2 to0 here we see and now we see like that so we are almost putting everything together but still there is this problem first that we have to hot to see the changes right which means like pretty much restarting quick restoring and then we still don’t see the icon changes okay well in next section this is what we’ll take here we’ll see how to change the icon finally dynamically okay so to be able to change the icon as you click as you click as soon as as you click to change the icon we need to use something called set State and that’s also called State Management So currently our app state has been changing but we only see them if we restore okay so the state changes we need to reflect immediately to be able to do that we need to use uh function which is called set State Okay so so here this is called set State as you can see over here this one all we need to do put this inside over here let me remove this we don’t need this anymore okay so now let’s restart everything from the beginning all right now let’s click on this and we do see this search automatically okay that’s fine let’s click on this we do see the tickets automatically let’s click on this we see the profile automatically now because of this uh changes over here using set State partially we can update the UI right now every time you have a stateful class this one a stateful widget class you can use a set state to update the UI so set State helps you to update the UI but our icon still not changing the reason is there is another property in bottom navigation bar that we need to have so that’s called current index item I think yeah current index okay all right so over here we are going to actually assign the selected index remember this index is being changed as soon as this on item tapped get called we call this on T on item tapped this index has been already changed but we didn’t assign the index what we did early actually we grab the index what we did early using this we grabbed the index and put it over here and after putting it you also need to tell the current index okay so every time you grab the index that becomes a current index now you need to tell bottom navigation bar explicitly what is the current index okay because current index could be anyone so that’s why you need to tell it explicitly and then the magic will happen so now let’s go ahead and click on this beautiful we see that it already changed click on this beautiful it already changed click on this it already changed so we have done a big progress so far so the idea is you need to use both on item and selected index to actually work on the bottom navigation bar dynamically well in this section we are going to create our home screen module now home screen module would be complex and actually there’s a lot of artwork as well as design going on now what we are going to build eventually this is going to give you a highlight so over here definitely this is the screen that we are going to build and eventually our home screen class will look like this now inside each of them there are complex code but to give you the idea so home screen would be built on the top of using tons of different widgets over here we just see container single child scroll view container single child scroll view but we’ll see that actually there are more nested widget inside this so the first one would be over here using this uh container over here second one this one would be single child scroll view as you can see and this section we will put inside another container and then this one on once again uh single child scroll view we’ll remember that single child scroll view actually would help us to move left and right like this one again we would be moving this one left and right so this part would be very exciting and long so get started okay so now our job is to create a home screen like this and learn all the related knowledge regarding it okay now to be able to create home scen screen the first thing we need to do over here uh come to our project make sure that entire project is open and then this Le folder okay right now inside this Li folder I’m going to create another folder and we’re going to call it screens so all of our screens would be here in this folder okay all right now the first thing we want to do create a DOT class for this or file actually home screen. Dart like this hit enter and I’m going to add it to my git okay and I’m going to say ignore all right and then over here I’m going to do s then I’ll have the option for choosing stateless or stateful class in vs code you need to do state full like this okay all right now I’m going to do state L actually this one and over here I’m going to name it home screen all right errors and let’s go ahead and import our library the arrow should be gone and now make sure that our screen home screen the one that we created is bound within this uh app screen lists okay so over here I’m going to remove this and then I’m going to call home screen now let’s go ahead and import uh this is as a library over here and uh let’s go ahead and restart our app okay so nothing is there because uh this is an empty container so that’s why nothing is there but if you go and check others we’ll see that uh they’re still there okay cool I’m going to close this well in our next section or next lecture we are going to start drawing our home screen okay now to be able to draw our home screen um we have to go ahead with a certain layout you’ll see that over here our home screen has uh like uh a layout over here like this one good morning book tickets this one and text and image text an image like that and this is also scrollable actually kind of now in flatter to achieve this kind of scrollable effect as well as as well as putting things on the top of each other you can use different kind of widgets which means different kind of classes that’s already in flut WRA now what are those classes well you can actually use uh column widget most probably column you can use list View you can use list view list view. Builder and you can also do a lot of others uh in fact uh there are different ways of doing that also to expand widget things like that okay all right now for now we’re going to take a look at the easiest one the easiest one would be using list view now what’s list view a list view is same as actually list but previously we have seen in list you can put 1 2 3 4 or any kind of custom object okay all right within list view actually you can do pretty much same but it expects more like widgets rather than a custom type okay well as we work on this we’ll learn more which I’ll show you later now here first go ahead and do scaold and then over here we’re going to have body just like we learned before that it will have body not like this body and inside the body we’re going to have list view so if you write list View and then write children and if you hover over on that one you’ll see that it takes widgets okay over here once again you see list widget so list view is also a list but it takes widgets as you can see over here you can really put string like this okay it’s going to throw an error as you see over here okay or something that it doesn’t work with Okay so it has to be a widget flutter widget like a flutter class now if you see over here here this is also a list which is like list view but in this case this is just a string or custom object so in the list you can actually put string custom object or widgets like for example we have seen over here so here we have you see this is also a list and here we have widgets these are all widgets and over here these are all text screens but list view only takes over here as you can see widget okay so that’s the difference between list and list View and there are a lot of other differences but most important difference so that’s what we understand because over here we want to put uh a lot of widgets okay so that’s why we are going to work with this and this would be scrollable remember if you put things like this you even though you can put all kind of things but you cannot really make it scrollable so let’s move over here now inside this uh we can put container okay and container is one of the most common type of Widget the container as it tells you that it’s like a container it contain things for example over here this UI you can think of it as a container so it contain contains a lot of other things okay like this UI over here it’s a container container contains things well then what about this actually this could also be a container but we just don’t see any extra colors over here and it is also true for container container can contain other containers like this okay containers could be nested into each other for example if this is a container then this could be another container and this could be a container and this could be a container as well so that’s how it works so right after text container is one of the most common wiget in flatter so remember now why we use a container why not a text over here the reason is as containers you get to color them you see if it just a text wiget well it is just a text you can only color the text but if you put container and use container and if you use text inside container or container inside a container then you can color them you can decorate them which we will see very soon okay so this is the reason that why we use container a lot of time rather than text text is plain and boring but containers are colorful and you can style them like for example this kind of complex style has been achieved through containers okay all right so this gives you an idea what is a container widget all right so I’m going to move this as I don’t need a container inside container one container is going to do the track all right okay but here I could do this one say hello home screen so now let’s go ahead and check our uh design over here okay so that’s what we see over here it says hello screen okay now one of the other things that we can learn immediately over here is this one we can have another container and we could do child and then over here and say hello how are you all right okay now let’s do hot reload okay so you see we are putting stuff onto each other and this is possible because of using list View and remember as I said early we can also do this using other widgets like column okay remember in flatter a lot of time this widgets like list view is also a widget container is also a widget text is also a widget and earlier I said that column is also a widget there’s another one row is also a widget now this things this most of the widgets could be like like this they could be nested inside each other and they always work it depends on your UI and style okay so now let’s go ahead and take a look and understand that how we are going to uh style our UI now over here we put list view because we want to make it scrollable we want we want scrollable effect so that’s we put it the list view now let’s dive into the actual design so here let’s understand it like this so we are going to put everything inside a container first okay because with container I can color the background that’s one thing okay and inside container I’m going to have uh column the column is more like list view or list view is more like column that you can put stuff inside each other especially you can put things onto each other like for example over here we can divide this screen into many different sections okay all right so in next lecture we’ll see and try to understand another important concept which is called row and column okay so here we’re going to understand what is called column widget row widget and how they’re related to Vertical layout and horizontal layout as you can see well in flatter anything or a direction if it stretches from top to bottom this is called vertical layout now this vertical layout represented by column wet and then anything that stretches from left to right we call them horizontal direction or horizontal layout and that is represented by row widget now both row widget and column widget could be nested into each other which we will see later so like for example over here we see good morning book tickets in the search bar they are on the top of each other so this kind of layout are putting things together together is called vertical layout which would be represented by column wiget now over here we see for example upcoming flights and view all these are two text they are horizontal so we could use row widget to represent them now let’s move on to more complex structure where we’ll take this section out and understand step by step how how row and column widget plays a vital role in designing your layout so here I took this section of this screen and then divided into various sections and then I have shown the related widgets remember row and column and container they are all widgets okay now over here this boxed area is represented by this one okay the outer layer and the outer layer would be our column widget now why as I said earlyer when we put things on the top of each other we call or use column widget for that purpose now here internally you see inside this column widget this one over here we have this big box and this little box these two are on the top of each other now to put this two together on the top of each other we used column widget because when you use column widget you can put things on the top of each other the way we did over here as you can see so that’s why the big one over here it’ be represented by column widget and then we have divided this one and this one into two different sections which are represented by this box and this box hopefully it makes sense that why we are using column widget and why the layout is like this all right now moving into further over here if we take this section of the screen we also see that we have um so now this section of the screen actually could also be inside row widget so that’s why we have this row widget over here now do see that actually we have two row widgets inside this column widget that’s what we have said early that if you have widgets you can Nest them into each other and that’s what we have done over here first The Columns this one we have divided into two and each of them are represented by row now of course this totally depends on your UI layout how you think it’s not the exact form that you have to follow anyway so the big one we have divided into this two sections and each of the sections are represented by this row widget okay now why we did row widget for this one the reason is because this section of the screen actually we can also divide into two sections like this one over here and it be this one over here so that’s what we did so this is our row widget and then inside this we have this section which is represented by this area and this section which should be over here this area so we are putting two things horizontally next to each other so that’s why the outer layer or the outer widget has to be a row widget hopefully it makes sense right now the same for this one now this is a row widget which is represented over here now why this is a row Widget the reason is because over here actually you see we have this um icon and search and we actually also have a empty space empty space could be also a widget so this two over here are next to each other so that’s why the outer layer has to be a row widget so that’s what we did the outer layer is r wiet and then we’ll have over here the search icon and search and over here we’ll have this uh empty area as you can see so that’s how the whole layout works okay now inside this row wiget we also see this one over here and we Tagg it or named it as a column Widget the reason is once again we want to put this two on the top of each other so that’s why the outer layer for this two has to be a column widget so over here it would be good morning and over here this would be book tickets like this okay and so that’s how the whole things work so when you design a UI first you need to look at the UI and you need to think how you are going to put them and which kind of widgets should you be using for representation once again this is not hard and faster rules to work like this there are other ways to do that as well so you can just practice different ways of doing your layout okay so from now on we’ll be using this kind of picture a lot to understand how things work and then we’ll eventually start coding now understanding this so actually we are going to go ahead and implement this step by step so let’s go ahead and check our code over here now first thing we have seen that we need to have a column widget exactly the one that we have seen in the layout we are going to implement that so here we’ll have column widget once again column widget represents horizontal layout H sorry vertical layout now inside this earlier we have seen that we need um well we can put this two row this one and this one inside the column one right let’s go ahead and do that now one thing though column is a widget so if you want to put more widgets inside it you need a list okay so widgets list inside widgets list inside widgets are represented by children just like over here we have list view list view take a lot of items those items are put into a list and then you have to represent the list using children and this kind of braces the same over here column column takt items you have to put the items in a list so that’s why you have to first write children and then this braces children means the one that would follow this one okay that’s why we call it children and that also means that we’ll have more than one child okay so those those items each of the items are treated as a child like for example over here so this is a column inside this we’re going to put this two now the each of these two are also called children child one child two so we have two Childs so that’s why we say children of course there is a generic name children right but each of the children could be using a different widget name so in our case we are using row widget but of of course in this case both of the uh child they have uh they are represented by row widget okay once again children is a generic name okay so exactly what kind of children you have to Define it over here now just now we have seen that we could do like over here text widget okay or like uh row widget over here we have seen that okay we can put two row widgets so let’s go ahead and look at that so here we going to do row and then now once again row also takes children now over here we are going to put children over here let’s go ahead and do that and then we’re going to copy this and put this let’s go ahead and copy and put it here we need to put comma all right now we have this uh yellow Wiggly lines so we need to put const modifier hopefully it would work and it’s gone okay so so far we have exactly followed this layout column and inside this we have put row widgets okay now what else we could do we also see that within this um first row within this first row over here we can put uh column and container this one so remember first row is our first child inside this column and we can put over here let’s go ahead and do that over here column and then of course we need to every time you write column you need to have children and then we have seen that we have a container so let’s go ahead and put a container okay all right now if you do put a container you need to remove most probably this one not it’s not related to container itself uh which we’ll talk later actually so let’s go ahead and change based on this okay so now inside this row widget over here let’s take a look that what we are going to put inside this row widget we’ll have two widgets but of course these two widgets could be anything for now and we are going to put uh text widget okay so let’s go ahead and put text widget over here okay here we could say text one it doesn’t really matter and text text two all right so this is what we have seen in our layout and we have exactly follow this so one more time let’s go ahead and confirm this so this was our original design over here so this is the column which is this one and inside this we have uh two row just this one and this one so so that’s what we did over here this and this row and inside the first row we have another column so that’s what we had and inside column we’ll have children okay so we can put two children over here but I didn’t do that but you can put it it doesn’t really matter and then next to it we had a container as you can see over here so this is our container this is the container and then the other row over here is this one and we have this two wigets okay now to be able to work better on this actually let me go ahead and put this two text wiget okay inside the column over here okay so now we are all aligning with our design okay now this time let’s go ahead and restart our app and see how things look like okay so this is the result we have of course this doesn’t look like no nowhere near this one but don’t worry we going to step by step work on this so the first well this two over here this two pretty much looks like this too so we are going to change them first we are going to go ahead and change it the first one is good morning so let’s go ahead and do that good morning good morning and then second one we have book tickets so let’s go ahead and do that so over here we’re going to put book tickets book tickets all right and let’s go ahead and hot reload Okay cool so now they almost started to looking alike and there are a lot of other things that we’re going to take care and now how about this one now this one should be an image right now we are not going to put image yet but we could be clever and do something over here so here we could put width and height say withd uh 100 and then say height 70 okay now if this is a container container has a lot of properties if you hover over on this you’ll see that one of them is width and height okay now they are not compulsory so if it’s not compulsory in flatter it’s represented by question mark so question mark means you may put it you may not put it okay so if I remove this I don’t have any error right if I put this I might see something different let’s go ahead and see well we don’t see anything yet there is a reason what’s the reason okay now we need to put a color over here let’s go ahead and put a color so here we’re going to do color colors. red now let’s go ahead and hoto this is what we see so now once again slowly we are starting to look like this guy guy over here step by step changes so what is the next change you want to make the next change you want to make like you want to put them separated just like this okay not so close to each other now you have to remember that okay this and this inside this rowet and these are the two children we need to separate them to separate them we need to apply some styles to this rjet so let’s go ahead and do that now of course main access alignment is horizontal alignment for row widget okay if it’s for column widget it would be still main AIS alignment but that would be a vertical one so which means that inside row widget if you write main AIS alignment that would be horizontal alignment okay remember that now over here we can use dot operator and let’s use space between so which means that create some space between this and this hot reload and here we go wonderful so it started to look alike very good now how about this one okay now for now we can just say all right search icon okay and uh say empty space for now we’ll see what we use later but it doesn’t really matter okay all right so let’s do hot reload okay now we also want to do the same over here we want to separate to them let’s go ahead and do that so here main access alignment main access alignment dot space between and hotr load beautiful so the more we do the more we are looking like this but once again we need to continue to style this thing okay so let’s go ahead and style them now first we need to style this text and this one the outer layer okay so let’s go ahead and do that now of course we don’t have the this in our original have this in our original design original design we had this column this is the column right now that’s what we see over here so this is the column just taking the whole space left and right but actually we need to extend the design over here a little bit so we need to wrap this one around a container so let’s go ahead and do that so I’m going to select this and then on Mac uh option enter on vs code it should be if you click right click you should be able to see this so now I’m going to wrap it around container widget as you can see let’s hot reload of course nothing will happen now there is a reason so there is something called padding okay so let’s go ahead and create this padding and here we do const Edge inserts here we would do symmetric and horizontal is uh 20 now I know it’s a lot of information to grasp but we’ll fix that now as you see that things looking a little better the first thing when you apply padding padding happens inside container remember container takes a SP like a box like for example we can give it a color over here let’s go ahead and do that colors do say blue okay all right so this is what we see so definitely our container is extending from left to the right completely to this screen but because we have applied padding so padding creates space inside within the container and these are the extra space that’s been created now you may ask why the space is created left and right the reason is because here we say symetric symmetric means the same which means same amount and in which direction horizontal direction we said that horizontally create 20 space in inside this container from the container border so this is container border this is container border and horizontally create 20 pixel space so that’s it has done over here now in our design we don’t have a background color so we don’t need this so we can save it now just that was to visualize that one that we need some extra space okay all right so now while this part is great but of course this text themselves they don’t look great okay they’re not looking good and over here we also see that there is some discrepancy like good morning starts from here but book tickets they start from a little bit to the right we can fix that so this is an alignment issue now remember this part of the this this two sections over here they are a column right so this is by column wiget over here now within this space over here so we have vertical Direction which is like this and vertical Direction inside a column called main axis so this would be the main axis now over here this one for a column horizont Al direction is cross AIS okay so here we’re going to write cross AIS alignment and a cross access alignment so which means that horizontally remember for a column cross AIS means horizontal for a row cross AIS means vertical so they are the opposite idea so over here we’re going to say start and let’s let’s put a Comm over here and do like this now you see it got fixed so it’s already looking better all right and this two text over here we need to go ahead and uh create some space they are too close to each other now here we could do sized box say sized box over here we want to create Horizon vertical space between these two lines so over here we’re going to do height now over here we can say okay we want to create a little bit of space of five pixels so let’s go ahead and do that and now there is a little more space Okay cool so that part is working right now how about the coloring if you do see that their colors text size they’re all different okay now I’m going to come over here and so this is a text actually this text could be colorized or change or we can assign style to it okay so let’s go ahead and do that now if you hover over on this this text itself you will see that there are properties one of the properties is style so you’re going to take that one style and if you hover over on this style now you see it takes text style class or text style widget so I’m going to write here text style now every widget is a class since we are invoking a class we need to have this bracket over here right so let’s go ahead and hotr load nothing changes because we are not assigning any style to it okay so by default no style is applied as you see this is are all these are all optional this question marks everything over here they are optional so that’s why even you put this one and if you don’t put this one they are the same all right so no change in style okay so I’m missing the come over here okay anyway so there is no change in style so the idea is you may have your text wiget but you still need to assign style to it so let’s go ahead and do that now over here there are few properties that we can use so in our case we are going to use one of the property called font size so here we’re going to do 12 okay and then uh um well 12 would be too small so let’s go ahead and apply the 17 and font weight okay so here we do font weight this one okay font weight. w500 okay this is the one that we are going to assign all right now let’s go ahead and Hot Load and it’s already looking beautiful wonderful so now we can go ahead and copy this section and we can put it over here as well okay now let’s go ahead and save it and we see that it gets bigger but in our original design it’s much bigger and the font weight is also different so let’s go ahead and apply to it so here we are going to apply font size as 26 okay and then font weight okay let’s keep it as it is all right and then the color should be different so let’s go ahead and apply a color so here we do color and we’re going to call the color class and pass it a color code so that is o x and let me take a look so here o x and FF 3B 3B 3B and let’s hot reload now it’s looking much similar like this one in fact these two are exactly the same beautiful so with this we have just learned how to have this color and how to text and style actually how to style our text over here so I’m going to reformat it so with this it’s going to look beautiful so now we just saw that we can style our text the thing is that as our app grows bigger we will have a lot of styles like this and every time we have to write them manually but this is not what we want we want to reuse them in fact all of the Styles actually we can save them in a separate file so that we can just directly use them whenever we need them just can call them okay all right now to be able to do that inside this base over here I’m going to create another directory and I’m going to call it res which means rest over here actually rest of them and then inside this I’m going to create a directory and here I’m going to call it the directory Styles and inside this I’m going to go ahead and create a file and here you can say file name app Styles Dart okay so now inside this we are going to save everything and how to save them the convention is go ahead and create a class and over here we can call it app Styles now of course you can go ahead and create Global variables and access them but which is not a good practice so you can go ahead and create a class and using the class name you can access everything from this class from outside so inside this here the first thing uh well one thing you could do you can create a variable and the variable name would be color and we call it primary color and let’s go ahead and do that and inside this here we’ll have const color and then this would be used as our primary color for our app so which will have FF 68 7 DF so this would be our primary color now over here inside this we need to import this color Library looks like it’s not recognizing let’s click on more actually going go ahead and import it from this material library or package actually now let’s come over here and then let’s create a static variable and the static variable would be color type and we’ll call it primary color and then primary color primary this one okay and uh now about static const and final we’ll have a dedicated section and there we’ll be talking about them now let’s go ahead and create more of them now you see that over here we have created this text color so in fact we can copy this we can come over here and create a variables static color and here would say text color and const put the color name okay now you’ll see that first we can try to change from here actually so here we could do app Styles okay dot text color okay and let’s go ahead and see now it says that invalid const actually it’s referring to this const over here let’s remove that and arrow should be gone now it’s telling you okay you can put const in other places because inside this widget if there are Dynamic things you cannot put con before this because it becomes apparent because just now the whole parent was static so that’s why you were able to put const here but now this this part is static but this is dynamic that’s why you have to remove that and you need to put const partially over here okay cool so that’s what we learned now over here let’s go ahead and create more static variable so another static variable here we could create of text style because we are going to use this text Style over here and here so in fact we can go ahead and create variable for them so here the first one we can say headline style and one so headline style one which means big letter now for this one actually in fact we can copy everything from here so let’s go ahead and put here cool now we created this we can copy this and uh we can just simply go ahead and remove this okay so here we can say F Styles dot headline one beautiful so you see this file become much more simple right now cool but of course in this case we don’t need this this one because it’s in the same file over here it can access directly we don’t need dot operator okay so now we can just simply go ahead and copy this and then for now we’re going to put headline three and text size is 17 and we don’t have any text color for this for this one we are going to use default color so it’s not Dynamic so over here we can put const because it’s static when a widget is static this is in front of that widget you can put const but like this widget this is also a widget this is not static why not this widget depends on this one so this one is coming from outside source so that’s why it’s not static we call it dynamic because it could be changed anytime theoretically so that’s why it’s Dynamic you can’t put const over here now let’s come over here and also remove this here we can say app styles. headline three okay so now more and more our app is looking great and professional let’s go ahead and work on this okay cool so which means that this part is already working and exactly like this so now we just separated part of our code and uh then we’ be able to actually work efficiently on this okay so now we’ll go ahead and uh work on this one this a container and we already have a basic structure for it so remember that container has WID and height and of course you can design it now right now we’re going to design it so that it looks like this well let me put up our app from here okay so we’ be getting ready for putting an image over here okay and uh how to do that at the same time notice that we will have border for it okay okay the image itself all right now we can put an image border but at the same time we can put an image inside a container okay image itself is also used with image widget which means that image widget we can put inside a container and how to do that but of course to put it inside a container we have some conditions or code to use you cannot just write here image okay you see that if you work on container you will not see something called image over here so we can put that but we need to use a mechanism for that okay so first go ahead and work over here so we want a rectangle so here we’re going to do 50/50 so 50/50 would give us a rectangle and uh let’s save it and we see it’s already become smaller the next thing you want to do use borders okay now how to use borders over here well to use borders of course once again you also cannot find Border over here but what you find is called decoration so it’s a plain English decoration means decorating making it beautiful styling it right so that’s what we are going to use decoration okay looks like we are not getting that so let’s put it here and um then I can just uh type it in all right and if you do see hover over on this it takes a it’s a type of decoration class widget okay decoration class widget now what property to use for it let’s see what class to invoke well here it did say decoration but actually you cannot we in general we don’t go ahead and use decoration class for it the one that we use is called box decoration this one okay and while it wants con modifier we can ignore that okay let’s go ahead and check the other properties so one of the properties over here we do see that called border radius so we can go ahead and assign border radius border radius okay all right and then within the Border radius we can use border R sure why my flatter lter is not giving me hints okay circular we’ll check that later and here we can use 10 okay now let’s go ahead and hot reload and we see a crash and let’s go ahead and read the crash again so it says it cannot provide both a color and decoration so you cannot have color and decoration at the same time this color and this decoration you cannot have at the same time that’s what it’s saying so we can only use one of them that’s the first thing it’s saying that but we have both of them right so of course earlier we have used this one for uh debugging of course here it says that to provide both use decoration box decoration so it’s telling you that okay so if you do want to use this color okay now you can just pass in the argument of this box decoration widget class over here you can pass it from here but not really from here okay so it’s telling us we can pass color inside from this class okay so let’s go ahead and put it here and now you’ll see that if you hotra load it’s gone the error is gone so that’s how you go ahead and read errors and fix them okay so most of the time reading the error carefully helps you anyway so now it’s looking more and more beautiful I mean as you can see over here we are looking more alike and what’s next well now this time actually we want to show the actual image right now for images first we need to do a bit of setup and how to work with the setup first you need to come over here and then inside this over here we need to put inside the root folder over here we need to put our assets assets means our images or related stuff to it okay so now if you go to the resources section of this lecture you’ll file a folder where it says that assets so you need to unzip that file and inside this of course you will see assets folder and then you need to drag and drop and put inside over here and then it will show up over here so make sure that you drag and drop inside your root folder okay and then you’ll see images like this and these are the images that we are going to use throughout our app okay so all the images are there they’re already given in your uh assets folder okay cool now we have to do a next setup over here so we need to come to our Pops spc. yml file over here and then we need to go ahead and unlock this place now there should be a section where it says assets actually this one now we need to make sure that we are aligning with the structure over here so let’s go ahead and uncomment this all right now of course this destroys the alignment but over here let’s do it on your space bar or the one that create space empty space in your keyboard let’s hit one two so this one you need to press twice okay the space bar of your keyboard okay and now do the same from here okay 1 2 3 4 so you have to do that all right so you have to have four spaces over here all right and then it says that images dot blow okay now we don’t want this so we want to remove this and now we’re going to come over here and we see that our assets are inside assets and images folder so here we’re going to write assets and images like this okay so assets and images so we are telling flatter okay so our images and assets are found inside this assets and images folder okay so make sure that you have this one set up correctly and the space has to be important one more time here two spaces and here four spaces okay all right let’s go ahead and close this okay so now we are ready of course we don’t want to use the color because we don’t need that so let’s go ahead and remove that and after that over here if you do see decoration inside this there is a property image property so we’re going to use this one image okay and then over here we are going going to use box DEC decoration image okay decoration image now inser this let’s go ahead and set up the other properties let’s hover over on this and here it says that you must have image argument so let’s go ahead and add this we did this so and remove this now and hover over on this here it says that you need an image provider so what are image provider image providers are different classes in flatter one of them is Network image Network image okay so this is an image provider uh if you hover over on this you will see mostly that Network image Network image and well it didn’t specifically say this is an image provider but we know this is an image provider because it provides an image for you now Network image loads images is from Network we can also do asset image over here now asset image loads images from your local storage okay so this is also an image provider so particularly there are two basic image providers one is the asset image other one is the network image so we are going to use this asset image over here all right so now let’s go ahead and uh find our image Imes so our images are in assets folder images and the first image that we want to use is called logo.png remember now this could be a little bit of confusing because you are saying the path name over here mentioning it over here and at the same time you also have to mention it over here okay otherwise uh you’ll get error now this tells flatter to know about your resources where they are and this tells flatter code to find your images okay so both of them has to be mentioned look like they are not connected but they are because flatter still needs to locate your images for optimization and this one also for showing it over here so both have both of them have to be correct if one of them is wrong it’s not going to work okay so let’s hot reload and we see that image is already showed up over here and it’s beautiful okay now in your case if it did not showed up you need to do make sure you go ahead and uh read the error message if it doesn’t show up there would be an error message read that try to fix that the other one you could also do go ahead and stop the app using this one stop the app and then run it again hopefully it would show up and if you still don’t see the image you can send me messages I’ll try to help you so now with this we basically see that our layout is getting more and more like the one that we have seen our previous app over here okay so let’s go ahead and put this uh const modifier over here well this is so far so good but now this is not very good practice to put uh your image path directly putting over here it may create a big problem in future what problem because one day you might want to change the folder’s name okay now if you have say 100 images in your app 100 different images and initially if they were same in the same path but now somehow you want to change because your app is growing you want to restructure your app and resources and images you might want to put them in a different path so you have to find those 100 path and then change one by one so definitely this is not good so we want to optimize this so let’s learn this how to do that so previously we have seen our lip folder here we have base resources folder now Styles folder now inside now inside resources folder we are going to to create a new file and we’re going to call it media. Dart okay so let’s go ahead and add it over here media. Dart and over here we are going to create a new class and here we’ll call it app media okay now inside this we can go ahead and create a static variable static actually we could do static const and then here we’ll call it base image and over here actually we can go ahead and uh put our images folders name or path name which is like assets images okay like this and uh let’s put it here and we should be good to go now okay so this is the correct image path right okay so this is the beig image base image path now let’s put underscore over here so two things we are putting static const now static means that this variable over here it’s not part of the class instance but it’s part of the class itself okay which means that we can directly use the class class name to access it we don’t need to use an instance or create an instance to do this okay all right and const means that okay once you assign the value you cannot change it okay so that’s what so we are assigning it and we don’t want to change it when the app runs during the run time we don’t want to change it so that’s why we put const and static and underscore means that this is a private variable okay so private variable means that you can only access this within this class you cannot access this out of this class okay so that’s why here we put uh underscore whenever you put underscore in Dart that becomes a private variable private variable are only used within this class now regarding this and now here we’re going to create another variable and we could call it study const and the logo and then over here we are going to do this one base image and then we can mention our image name what’s our image name Logo logo.png well in this case I think we can remove this slash because one slash is already here now what beauty you see in this it’s beautiful why and it’s optimized so next time you want to change your image path actually you just change here and everywhere else they would be changed automatically okay so that’s why you should separate them in a dedicated class okay always separate your colors and media files in a separate class because it’s good for optimization and future maintainance another example like over here we Chang the primary color now because we all put over here so we just need to put in we just need to change in one place and everywhere else it’ll change automatically okay so you don’t have to check one by one and make changes all right so every time we put images we are going to follow this pattern so next time we can just go ahead and add a new image over here and we would use the base image path and then the image name itself okay whenever we need that we do step by step now let’s come over here and we’re going to come we’re going to be here and inside this okay so this is the time we access our app media class so so here we would say app media so app media let’s go ahead and check if we can import that Library so app media dot here we’ll have logo okay so that’s it so that’s how because now logo is a static variable you can just go ahead and access set using the class name this is our class name so that’s the beauty with static variables because you don’t need to create something like you know like this say for example app media logo app media like that you don’t need to do like this okay so it’s very convenient all right so let’s let’s go ahead and restart our app and looks like everything is good we see that we have this uh row over here and this row is showing this uh two text over here now of course this is supposed to be our Search widget or search layout over here now we can continue to work from here and we will see that how the work now let me go ahead and remove this okay and let’s do hot reload okay so it’s still going to work so we don’t have to always use two widgets over here so we can just simply put something like this now this thing is not really good because uh here we can’t apply any decoration uh let me show you our original app in our original app we’ll have the decoration decoration I mean style as you can see so there’s a lot of things that that’s going on over here now once again when you have a main widget or like this icon would be our main widget and this text itself now around it we have uh this style now this kind of style around menu yet mostly given by a container so that’s what we want to do we want to give it a container okay all right so that’s what we need of course we understand that part but I think there is another thing is missing at the same time actually even though we can write search over here but we don’t have the search icon so we need to go ahead and show the icon now for that one we can have an icon over here so to use an icon simply we can use our icon class okay so this is our icon class and once again since this is a class we always need to pass something otherwise uh it might end up as an error or showing nothing but in this case this is an error because we need something okay now at least we need this icon over here okay so let’s go ahead and pass uh this icon to it so how are we going to pass but this time we are going to use fluent system icon okay system icons this one now let’s go ahead and import it we already have it installed and from there actually we could do IC fluent search regular so this is the icon that we want to use okay and then over here we are going to use color so icon takes color so we’re going to do that and here color and instead there’s o x ffbf c205 so that would be our color code so let’s go ahead and hotr load and beautiful so it already showed up over here here but one thing I do see that at the top over here we can assign sized box actually and then here we could do height h e i g HT height 25 okay and most probably we can also use const with this okay now it’s coming down okay so so far so good now this row is showing this one right okay cool but now the problem is uh we need to assign style to it so we cannot assign extra style like color and everything to a row so we’re going to wrap it around a widget so that would be our container widget and if we have container widget we have learned before that we can always assign decoration okay so I’m going to copy this so that it becomes quick so let’s go ahead and put it here okay so now let’s hot reload but of course we have some of this one which we don’t need like this image right so let’s go ahead and remove that we don’t need this one and one thing we could do over here assign color to it so let’s go ahead and do that so here we do const and then color o x FF 4f 6f uh actually it should be 6fd so this is the color that we want to assign let’s go ahead how to reload okay that’s gone right and then actually we also want to assign a bit of uh padding uh hor actually vertically so how to do that over here we’re going to have padding and then we would say const Edge Edge insets do symmetric horizontal 12 vertical 12 okay cool now let’s hot reload now it’s looking more beautiful but now we do see that we don’t really exact ly look like this so we have some other issues that we need to take care so one of the first issues should be actually the background itself the whole background okay so we still need to work on this so that it looks exactly like this now let’s come over here and change this color code actually it has a typo so now it looks like more white okay and then we can also remove this one we don’t need this because this one pushes this two item to far end but in fact we want them to stay close to each other so that’s why we are doing this and we also don’t need the word search icon we just need search right so now it looks more similar okay and then if you come over here the Bottom bar this AB bar we also don’t need this let’s do hot reload okay and then if we come down over here container over here actually we can add a new child that child would be for creating some space as sized box okay so now here we could do h e i GD height 40 okay and then in front of it we can add const okay okay now let’s do hot reload cool as you see right now they’re looking very alike the more and more we are doing the more they look very alike all right and uh one of the other thing you could do you could also set a background color over here like this one if you remove this background color it won’t be like this so it gets a different look feel and look but we don’t want to have we want to have it but at the same time we can actually Define this color over here so let’s go ahead and do static color BJ color and then now let’s come over here we completely copy this thing and then we are here and let’s put a con modifier and over here here we can simply call app Styles app Styles Dot and over here BJ color I guess it should work houd okay now they look very similar exactly similar okay all right and one of the other things you could do over here actually okay so first thing I think think we can add a con modifier here but there’s another property that we want to use now that property would be this one so debug show Checker mode Banner which refers to this one if you hot reload it’ be gone beautiful so this is the first time our UI look exactly what we looked into before now I think there is another part missing over here like this book tickets okay okay now the book tickets this section is coming from here our style uh headline style and let’s put it to 700 and uh let’s see whether they look similar or not okay right hopefully we still have a little bit of differences so for that reason over here actually we can directly put bold b o l d bold and let’s outload and now we should be seeing that they’re similar okay cool no they’re exactly similar each and every pixel they’re similar okay so now we can move on to other sections okay so here we go and in this part we are going to going to continue with this uh text over here now here we’ll have a special learning like uh how to make a reusable widget because you’ll see that this text and similar text they show up and they may show up a lot later in future like this so whenever you see code like this I mean a layout actually like this which appears quite often then and you can use them as reusable widgets okay now the name may sound scary or fancy but it is not at all it’s just creating a widget and reuse it and that’s how it works now there are no hard and faster rules but there are some conventions and then uh how to do that because this reusable widgets actually would be used throughout in our app in many different places so we want to make them actually part of core widgets which means part of Base widgets so over here we are going to create another new [Music] folder and let’s go ahead and do that so here the folder name is widgets okay all right and inside this we are going to create a file all right so over here we can say Weg just name app double text. Dart okay now I named it like this the reason is because we’ll have text one text here and another text here so that’s the only personal way of doing thing you can name it anything but it’s better it makes sense but the naming of this widgets folder like over here because in this folder we are just going to put widgets and why we put in base class or base file once again the reason is because whatever is here defined is used throughout our app not only specific to certain screen okay or certain area so that’s why we do that okay so over here I’m going to create a stateless class and I’m going to name it over here as is app double okay app double text okay all right and it may want us to import some of the packages let’s go ahead and do that and now the arrow should be gone okay now I’m going to close others out we don’t need this now we’ll need this one we also don’t need this we’ll need this okay cool okay so we created a class and this class is stateless class because it’s extending stateless okay all right and now this class actually we want to reusable okay which means that we want to call it from different places so that uh it looks like this and this now well uh take a look at our app over here this one so we want to put the text here now to be able to do that first we want to go to our homepage over here home screen actually so that’s what we have currently and previously we have this list view right now instead over here we can have another const over here and we going to call it sized box and height 40 okay let’s go ahead and do that and then uh of course if you save it nothing’s going to show up over here yet and then here we’re going to say app double text like this but we need to UT the path so let’s go ahead and do that okay all right uh and let’s hot reload once again nothing appears over here but one thing we could do just give it height and color so that we know what’s going on okay height say 40 uh with say 40 and color say colors. red okay and we got to import stuff for that okay just skip coino we don’t need this uh let’s restart and we see that it’s showed up over here beautiful so it means that we can use a class that’s defined in another file or another place okay now of course we want to pass this text okay all right so how to pass this now if we want to pass we want to pass it over here okay as an argument and how to do that so we going to pass two Tex one is Big text and there is small text Big text would refer to this one small text would refer to this one okay all right so we can come to our class over here and then over here we can declare the variables that we are going to get as argument so here we’re going to declare a variable type string and here we can say big text and then then here and one so string small text okay now since this is a class and you defined uh Define variables and there is already a Constructor it wants this value to be initialized at least it should get a value before it gets this uh Constructor now for this reason over here we could do required requir this do big text required this do small text like that now you see the error is gone which means that right now we can get this two variables value as in the parameter so this is called parameters right now of course over here we’ll get issue okay it’s saying that okay you have defined two parameters but you are not getting them you have to get them as argument so that’s one and I think we have another one small text okay now here we can say upcoming flights [Music] upcoming flights and here we can just simply say view all okay just like that’s upcoming flights and view all okay looks like we need to capitalize okay so it should be capital F and then it should be capital V all right and then it wants us to put a con modifier so let’s go ahead and do that okay hot reload but of course nothing is going to show up over here now we have the value we received the value the value has been initialized when you say required you must pass the value okay we said require we must pass the value that’s why earlier we have seen error okay but now we pass the values and the error is gone Okay Okay cool so now we can show this value right so for example over here um we can actually let’s go ahead and remove this we don’t need this okay and what kind of layout we are talking about we are talking about a row layout like earlier we learned that this is going to be a row right horizontally so that’s why it’s a row now if it is row then we can actually should apply a lot of properties to it so one of the properties is children and uh which means that it will take a lot of child over here one of them is text let’s go ahead and assign big text to it okay and um let’s go ahead and assign styles to it we know we can assign assign style so Styles dot we think we have head headline Styles style I think we have had line style three I think that should be app Styles or class name okay hard load and we already see it here and which is looking like this okay all right but now in this case uh we need to change this one which will change very soon don’t worry and the other one and over here we want to use inkw well now inkw well is a special type of widget which has a property called ontap on tap means if you click on this it’s going to get response okay so here we’ say well before we say that so let me assign a child to it child and for child itself over here we can use the big the text itself and then here we’re going to say small text okay and and then that’s hot reload and beautiful now they’re too close to each other we’re going to use any the property at the top which we learned because this is a row so for a row horizontal access is the main AIS so here we’re going to say main access alignment this one and then here we’re going to do main access align I think I have a typo now my flatter uh Auto completion is not working it has to do with kind of version so I’m trying to fix that once that’s done then it would work all right so that’s why you see I’m typing in everything of course this is a slow process but you get the idea okay so here we do see that okay we have styles to it already Okay which almost looks like this but now we need to assign the exact style to them okay now to do that here we’re going to do our app Styles class and uh okay let’s go ahead and copy any of this it doesn’t really matter and then we can call it headline two so we have headline one headline two so have for headline two we can assign text size as 21 and text color so let’s go ahead and assign color to it do have color early so this one let’s copy this and put it here so what’s going on text color let’s see did I copy it correctly yes I did and invalid const okay right this one to remove this okay so text color has been assigned and then over here we also want to do bold okay now let’s come over here so instead of three we’re going to assign two so it’s looking more like this right beautiful exactly the same now the view all this one we have to assign a different color to it let’s go ahead and remove this one and here we have text style this one okay if you do come over here you’ll see that okay we don’t have text Styles so we need to actually uh create a new variable that’s going to call text style so let’s go ahead and create this so this would be our new variable where what refer to as text style now this would be also working as our base text style the default one okay now let’s go ahead and use this and hot reload and we see that okay uh it’s almost looking similar but there’s still a bit of problem remember this one is going to work as our base style okay this one this is going to be as our base style because it has exact color exact font color and font weight but what if we want to change one way to work with this is that you go ahead and copy this and you give it a different name like this okay but there is another approach that we can use we don’t need to recreate many variables like this this is possible but let’s learn something new this called copy with okay let’s go ahead and do copy with so copy with is a method actually that’s pretty much applied to flut objects or widgets which means that uh whatever the properties it has keep some of them and and remove others if you want that’s how it works copy so copy some of the properties what does it mean it means okay you can keep some of them if you want and change others okay it’s it’s more like okay this is working as a parent class and you want to change the parent to be a child okay and then keep some of the parents properties and adding something new or removing something new removing something from the parent and create a new copy okay this is one way to understand all right so this is called copy with method now here we could apply Color and here we can say app Styles app Styles dot [Music] primary color this one now we already have this color now let’s go ahead and save it now we do see that the exactly look similar thing is this style over here so it doesn’t look like this because we do see that we have bit of spacing right but we don’t see the spacing now it’s too much to the edges we can fix that now if you come here early you’ll see that this one um we have applied out of this container in fact we can also copy this we can if you want we can actually put it right inside this column over here and it would work exactly the same okay and let’s hotr load okay so you see that now they’re aligning very much that’s what I was talking now another thing I said earlier that this is reusable so you can say upcoming meetings okay and hotra load you see beautiful so you don’t need to go ahead and create everything from the scratch again we don’t need to do that so that’s why this is reusable but we don’t need this now so this would suffice now one important concept is this copy with method in next lecture we’re going to cover copy with method okay so in this section we’re going to learn about uh a concept which is called copy with method because this is a method is very useful common and it used a lot in Dart so let’s come over here and we will see how to do that now I think we need to find our main main main Dart class this one and definitely we can remove this we don’t need this okay now we’re going to create a new class and do some examples here now remember this is nothing to do with directly our app we are trying to understand the concept okay now here we’re going to create a class and we’re going to call it test class you can name it anything and then we are going to declare two variables int y int X and int y so these are two variables and as you can see that there’s wigly lines so either you have to use a light over here when you say light that means that you’re going to give it some value before you use it this is one way to go and use it but we don’t want to do that we want to use a Constructor remember Constructor is the class name like over here this one we have but it’s also like a method it could have a body or it might not have a body it depends on many things but the same as a class name that’s called Constructor and if you have value like variables actually not value if you have variables you need to pass the variables inside the Constructor so this is what we are going to do over here and then here we’ll say required this.x required this.y okay so it means that when you create an object of this class you’re going to pass value and when you say required that means you must pass okay so that’s why we tag them using required there are other properties that we’ll learn later for now let’s focus on copy with method now what I’m going to do over here so here I’m going to create a variable we’re going to call it VAR and here we can call it test and then here we’re going to call it test class and then over here we’re going to pass x 2 Y3 that’s how it’s going to work now this required thing we are going to talk about later okay for now let’s SK it as it is now we have a class and it is two variables and we have a Constructor and if we want to create a new instance of this class we have to call the Constructor and as we call the Constructor we need to pass the value of this variables and that’s what we have done over here and then here we can say print dot print test dot X now if you hover over on this well I guess we need to restart let’s go ahead and do that and here we see two if you change to Y then you will say that here it’s a three so now so for it’s normal class in Dart the only difference is this time actually we have used required okay now what if you don’t use required and that’s okay but if you don’t use required you need to skip this variables uh sorry the braces over here that’s still going to work but in that case you can’t really have named okay so we need to remove the name like that XY and if you run it then it’s still going to work the same okay all right but so the difference is if you want to mention the name then over here you need to use required and that’s what we have done over here okay and let’s remove this let’s see what happens it will give you wiggly line and it says that named parameter X is required okay so this kind of uh parameter that you pass that’s called named the parameter why because you’ll have name like X Y you can name anything okay so you’re going to do X4 y10 so we gave the variable’s name over here all right and exactly the same name as there here otherwise it’s not going to work okay okay all right so Y is 10 now that’s all about understanding our Constructor and named variable know this place required this keyword plays an important role in a class and the Constructor most importantly if you want to use copy with method now in general you can name it anything but we’re going to call a method it name is a copy with and then over here we’re going to have int X you can name them anything but we can also keep the name as they are over here and this is the convention like this okay now I want this method to return an object so here I’m going to say test class okay well now this method is going to return something and that would be of test Class Type and over here we need to say test class otherwise we’ll get error now over here once again you can you need to give it a name say 20 all right and then it’s going to work okay all right so we just said the method name is copy with and then when you call the method you may pass variables you may not pass variables okay and whatever it is it doesn’t matter so let’s go ahead and here call it copy with now remember over here so hover over on this two positional arguments are expected with copy with method but zero found okay so it wants you to pass over here as you see that uh arguments so you need to pass two of them but let’s do x uh 30 y [Music] y40 we created this and what if we want to save it in a variable ver new test why we are doing that because we know that copy with method is going to return us another object of test class type because we are returning from this method as you can see there’s a method it has a return type and it returns something from here so now here we can do print New test. Y so what’s the value you think you would be would it be four would it be 30 or it be five well in fact it’ be five let’s go ahead and check sorry y value it should be 20 not not really x value I’m talking about y value so it shouldn’t be 10 it shouldn’t be 40 in fact it bit 20 let’s go ahead and check and that’s what we see so this is the first Y and this is the second y so what I’m trying to tell tell you over here even though we have POS we are passing value from here but this value is not being taken okay it’s still using this old uh the value that’s been here so of course it makes sense right whatever the value you pass from here directly that’s going to take this place right it would be overridden even if you pass value from here uh we are grabbing it right and then we are not assigning to it so the value actually is taken directly from here so it’s 20 so this value doesn’t take effect but what if I want this value to take take effect the 40 y value is 40 over here right now definitely I can do like this but now there’s this problem as you see there’s this error okay so this is this Y is optional right because when you have a question mark it could be null but this y over here is not null right so that’s one issue and then if you do put this one it’s gone right so we are saying that okay it’s not going to be null now let’s go ahead and try this okay now we see that 40 is taking place for y value why so here we are calling copy with so we are passing 30 and 40 and we are using whatever the value we are passing of course we are passing both of this 30 and 40 so Y is 40 now if we print X we will see X is 30 and seems like this is nothing special right this is okay now the problem is what if you have 20 variables what if you have 100 variables so each time you just want to pass in that case if you have too many variables you have to pass all the variables at one time right and this is not efficient and what if you just want to change x value but you don’t want to change y value you still want to take this y value and you want to take a new x value from here and how to do that okay now this is where actually the full power of copy with method comes so what do we need to do first we need to have this thing over here just like this one over here we have this curly braces we can also put curly braces like this and to the end then what’s the benefit of this the benefit of this is that right now first here you need to put like x30 right but what if you don’t put Y and it’s still going to work why whenever you wrap your variables like this kind of curly braces and then you also have optional you may not pass all of them you can just choose which one you want to pass all right and then what about the rest of the values over here and it’s easy to do how to do that here is the thing so here you check like this this do X and then here is the same thing this doy so what is it doing over here well once again first we WRA it on curly basis and the benefit of this is that I can just pass one value any value if I want pass y that’s okay if I want pass that’s okay if I want just pass XY both and that’s okay if you have 100 variables and but you just want to pass two of them and that’s okay that’s the first benefit and we can see it over here we have two but we are just passing one and why how it is possible because over here we have this as you can see the curly braces and we also have the question mark question mark always makes it optional okay so that’s the first thing and then over here here what we are doing we are saying over here okay remember this copy with method is getting called from here right so that means it tells you okay you’re passing value so it’s first check whether there is a value it would first check for the X because it’s the first one it will see if x is coming from here so what’s going to do it over here it’s checking the x value that this x whether is coming from here and giving it here right whether it has value or not if it has value use this value which means that if it has new value use that value but if it doesn’t have any value use the old value so this dox is actually getting the old value and where is the old value it would be four but of course if this doesn’t exist but in our case we are passing 30 so it will just be executed this one and then assign the value to this it doesn’t need to come over here but what about why now you’ll see that here we are not passing y okay so copy with method gets cool and Y is here and now here we check the Y value so y value is not given it’s not given over here so this means this part doesn’t execute now what happens it comes over here okay and it finds okay this do y refers to this this one this refers to the original value but originally there is already a value when we created the first time an object we created there is already a value okay so then it would take the original old value original Last value so our original Last value is what is that this 10 so y value would be 10 over here now anyway so after this changes let’s go ahead and copy this I mean sorry execute this well as usual we see first y value is 10 all right and then of course we can change it to X actually so that we know compare directly so X was four we see four and over here well we pass 3 for x and and we print the value that we passed and we say it’s 30 but remember over here we didn’t pass any y value let’s print the Y value for this object and here we see 10 where is this 10 coming from even though I didn’t pass anything it’s coming from here because as I told you if there is no value then it’s going to check the value if it doesn’t exist it takes from the original old value okay and that’s how it works works and that’s the beauty of copy with method that’s like a lot of knowledge so what’s the beauty over here copy with method lets you create a new object remember actually in fact over here we are creating a new object even though it looks like a method but the method eventually returns a class Constructor so whenever you return a class Constructor you are always returning uh new object so this returns us a new object and the new object object is saved over here and then we can reuse the value from the old object actually this y value is a 10 which was passing from here okay so the old value is still saved okay so that’s how it works now let’s go ahead and create another variable okay so here we’re going to say ver say new Test new test two and then here what you going to do so here we’re going to say copy with method and now x 100 okay now this time actually let’s say we don’t pass X we pass y all right now let’s print new test two and Y value so let’s go ahead and print this and definitely we see 10 for y okay earlier it was 10 over here because you didn’t pass anything it took this one but now this time you passed 100 so this time we just taking 100 over here now what about X let’s go ahead and print that now this x value is four where is this coming from it’s coming from here okay because originally this one over here was four but what if you put this one over here now let’s try so here you see 30 so copy with method based on whatever the object you give them it takes value from that object so this is the object or this is the object right here we are calling copy with method based on this object and here we are calling copy with method based on this object so it’s going to take values like in oure it’s going to take X values based on this object whatever was there whatever was there it was 30 why it took 30 because we are not passing anything anything over here as you see we just pass y so that’s the beauty of copy with method it means that you can always pass less value and then you can create new object based on the old object’s value and this is exactly what we have done over here so here you see that we have this text Style Now text style has font size text color font weight so what we have done over here we just change the color but then that also means that our older value font size 16 was still in our object and font weight also was in our object now this copy with method we use a lot in our Dart so once you understand how it works it should be very clear but anyway so if you still didn’t get it I would suggest go ahead and replay the video and it’s going to work for you okay okay so now we want to build this one and how to build this but before we go ahead and build this we have to understand this is going to be our Global widget why because this available here and this also available here as you can see and at the same time this is also available here so this ticket itself we are going to build it as a global widget now to be able to do that need to come over here inside this base and widgets folder and here we are going to create a new file okay so we’re going to call it ticket view ticket ticket view do Dart this one and I’m going to add it to my G all right and over here for now we are going to start it as a stateless class the last one if you’re on um vs code is the same thing so here we’re going to say ticket view just like this and it needs some imports let’s go ahead and do that okay cool so now with this we do see that okay our stuffs are ready now this would be our ticket view okay so the first thing you want to do over here okay let’s uh come inside this view over here here we have this column so let’s collapse this this row and then we have this container over here so we’re going to collapsing all of them and then here for now we can just simply go ahead and call T kit view this class okay all right and make sure that it’s imported at the top as a package all right and then we’re going to do save h load and we do see it that it’s available over here directly now this is our placeholder this placeholder is being coming from here now of course definitely this is not what we want so we are going to replace this we don’t need this placeholder we’re going to replace this with a sized box now why we are choosing sized box instead of container because here you see that sized box has only this three of this uh it takes arguments over here key with height and child most importantly three because key in general we don’t really care most of the time but if you do have a container over here and here you’ll see that it has a tons of arguments that it needs to take now of course this is not optimized because it’s much bigger than the file is much bigger than sced box so the place where you just need WID or height and child so you want to limit yourself within sized box because it makes more sense and makes your app faster so that’s the first thing you want to do all right and now at the same time uh let’s look at our app over here uh okay so here this is our ticket right now this ticket would be represented by this file and this file or this class actually this class class is going to represent this section and if you do see that over here it doesn’t take the complete screen with it just takes uh part of it and another part it shows up like that okay so one thing we want to do over here we want to access the width of this screen so here we’ll have final size we’re going to call it size and then we are going to have something called media Cy now media quy I think we’re going to get this one and then off context and after that size okay now this is going to give us the size of this uh screen with okay or the whole screen actually in fact if you go ahead and try to print over here we will say size dot here you can say height okay so if we want we can go ahead and print it and down bottom you see that okay this is 932 932 so the size object itself has other properties that we can use and so this is the width 430 so that’s why we can have it and now beautiful thing is after that we can control this with over here okay so here we can size do uh size do with and then over here we’re going to just take 85% of it okay now with this um uh let’s see what’s going on so here we do have const let’s remove that so the whole uh the sized box this is going to be in terms of width we just going to take 85% of it okay and the rest we will take care of that later okay so this is the reason that why we have it uh I mean now it’s going to be dynamic right because um whenever you have uh different screen size it’s still going to take 85% so you don’t want to hardcode it by saying 400 or 380 because in every screen it would be different okay so that’s why here you don’t want to hardcode it by saying 48 uh 380 than we are taking a percentage of it and this is how it becomes more Dynamic okay all right and at the same time here’s another thing that we want to take this called height now this height is going to be interesting well now for height what we could do now height is the problem in many different places both on Android and iOS so over here for now we can just go ahead and say for example um 178 or 79 and this is going to suit us but why we do like this uh we can of course do 80 but in my original design with the design layout we have used 179 that’s why we are doing that okay now this one regardless whatever the screen it is we’re going to keep it pretty much the same height okay so that’s why this one is pretty much fixed all right now over here we’re going to have this child and and uh uh child itself we can say container and then we can say color and here color is say for example colors. red and looks like we need to import something okay and we don’t need this okay and then here we can have a child and then we’ll do text and say hello let’s go ahead and save it and we do see that this is what we actually we looking for and this is what we got let us take a look so this guy was here okay so that’s uh kind of the thing that we are looking for okay now of course we’re going to work on this more okay looks like it’s taking more but don’t worry uh we’ll work on that more and so let me put it behind it okay right so you get the idea okay and then over here I think we can apply a margin so what kind of margin margin would be applied outer side from this container so here we’re going to do Edge inser do only and then we just want to apply on the right side so let’s go ahead and do and here we’re going to do 16 pixel and see now it becomes smaller and in this case this and this are looking similar in terms of width and height so this is the basic layout in next section actually we’ll start to make it looking more like this okay so here we’re going to do one thing before we dive into this complexi first take a look that what we are going to do and how we are going to work on the layout and we’ll also see the layout in structure grid so that it makes more sense to us so over here this is what it looks like so the ticket itself would be wrapped inside a container and then over here inside this we’ll have a column actually column would contain the whole ticket okay well I haven’t drawn the column yet because it’s uh too many lines here it won’t be visible but you get the idea this column would be actually the whole ticket and then inside the ticket we will have uh two rows this one and this one and this two would be inside the column column n column needs children so it could be any children in our case we’re going to put this two different colors item there so that it uh can stay on the top of each other so that’s the first view of our ticket now here this is a better view of our ticket layout over here as you can see one second as I said that this part would be a container that’s our container like this one okay and after that the ti itself would be a column so over here this one the second box or rectangle represents the column itself and inside this as I said earlier we will have two rows so these are the two rows as you can see Row one and row two and inside each of rows we will have different items okay so we would put them together uh uh next to each other okay so that’s the basic understanding of how we are going to work on this layout here I have this Center widget right uh container widget actually and then I’m going to wrap it around using uh widget so here I’m going to do Center so if you’re on vs code on Windows you need to do control and Dot button control and Dot would help you if you WRA if you want to wrap this so all you need to do control and uh dot okay like this okay if you’re on Mac for vs code you need to do command and Dot anyway so I’m back to Android Studio over here so I’m going to save this and then okay me run it okay so now here we go so the first thing we want to focus is styling this one so to be able to style this over here I’m going to have uh decoration okay so so we’re going to do decoration and then box decoration okay and we’re going to use it from our material package and then over here inside this the first first thing we want to do is color so here we do colors. white now as soon as you do this and you’ll get error because we also have colors here so let’s go ahead and save it and here we go all right so this is the white color we want to give it and then over here we’re going to declare our or assign our radius okay so because we have radius in our original design so here we’re going to do border radius this one and then here we would do border radius dot only over here and uh we want to only assign one border not everywhere so that’s why we do only and over here we want to do top left okay top left now here we’re going to call Radius do circular and then our radius should be 21 now let’s go ahead and save it and here we go and here we do see that over here it already changed okay now we are just doing one right actually we can do a lot more so here we can say top right and once again here we can do radius. circular and 21 let’s save it so now it looks more alike what we wanted and uh like this both of this so now it’s getting more and beautiful now this color over here white makes it very visible but this is not the color we want so we want a different color now to be able to do that let’s see if we have our color file over here looks like the color file is not open so I’m going to C over here in our resources folder Styles and app Styles over here and here actually we can define color so let’s go ahead and do that so here at the top let’s define a color static color Okay ticket color now look at this over here we’ll have this kind of blue and orange okay so now over here we can say ticket blue and then const color and here the color we want to Define is o x FF 5 526 799 so that’s the color that we want to Define and as you see over here we already see the color now let’s come over here in our ticket view so over here we’re going to call app Styles I think this one okay but we want to get it as a package and then EP styles. tiet blue now let let save it and beautiful so we already see the blue color cool of course there is other color as well but we’ll take care of that later so keep it is as it is so now after this we are going to work on our app so this one we want to make it look like this right so the first thing we want to do right now having a child inside this uh uh container and we already have one as we can see that okay but this one we want to replace by column as we said early so we want to have column widget just like we have explained over here so inside container we’ll have a column okay now inside the column what do we need we need two children okay row and a row so both of them are children over here we are going to have a row okay and row will have children as we know once again this is what we learned from here so if this is zow there would be many children so that’s what we’re going to do now instead the children over here first we are going to have a text over here now the text itself should say we are going to show ncy okay this one ncy so let’s go ahead and do that n or NYC actually and then over here um we want to style it okay so that’s why we’ll have Style and within it we’ll have like this so we’ll have app Styles so we have this one and then here we can address headline three now after doing it here we can use copy with method because we know that there is something called a copy with method and then here the color here would say colors. white so we want to assign white color to it okay and uh for now that seems okay so let’s go ahead and do that okay so that’s the first part and now let’s save it and let’s see how it looks like now okay this is fine but it doesn’t look really that good so over here we’re going to do a padding and add inserts all so here we’re going to do 16 as our padding let’s save it so now it came down so now there is is padding everywhere okay so it came down within this container itself from everywhere so it’s pushing inward from all the sides okay all right so this part is fine okay so the next thing we want to show is this two right and as well as this one and now luckily what happens over here that this text itself actually you can go ahead and copy and we can put here okay so let’s go ahead and do that and let’s save it and if we save it now we’re going to see the result where is it okay here of course they’re too close to each other and we don’t need to worry about this thing one thing we could do over here something’s called expanded okay and then we going use container widget okay and now let’s save it and you see they go to the far end of each other this is expanded widget but say for example you don’t want to use expanded widget then how to achieve the same result here you can do main AIS alignment for Row the main AIS alignment is horizontal alignment main access alignment do space between so this is still going to work okay so it would work anyway but our um alignment is bit complex so this is not going to work for a long time so we want to control everything on our own so and this gives us better control okay so that’s why we are doing this thing okay so now this dots then we are now we need to show this dots okay so now you’re going to do this now to be able to do this they would be Global right because these two are showing over here and uh over here as you can see on all the tickets and as well as over here so we want to make it part of our Global widget now to be able to do that let’s come over here insert widgets so here we are going to go ahead and create a new file and we’re going to call call it U big dot dot Dart okay so let’s go ahead and do that and then over here we are going to create a stateless class so here let’s go ahead and do St stess and Big Dot like this and let’s go ahead and import this guy over here now definitely we don’t need this let’s remove this here this would be a container and let’s go ahead and return stuff okay so let’s remove this and now let’s come inside our um app over here so here simply we can just go ahead and call Big Dot this one okay so you’re going to import it as a package let’s go ahead and do that Big Dot actually this one and uh we’re going to do the same over here actually uh okay it should be here between this two Big Dot okay fine and it looks like there’s a bit of issue and it looks like we need okay little a little bit of refractor otherwise it’s being cranky and for now put const modifier and say do the same over here now let’s go to our Big Dot over here and as we make changes we will see them okay all right so here we want to do decoration box decoration because we just want to draw something round okay so that’s why we need that now with box decoration you could do pretty much any kind of shape you want uh it gives you a lot of flexibilities Border radius do circular and 20 now this is not obvious from the beginning so here we are going to give it a color and now we could directly give it a color or actually we can give it border and within the the Border itself we can do more stuff so here inside this here let’s give it a width and we’re going to give it a width of 2.5 and then over here let’s go ahead and assign color to it so here we say color and colors. white and I think we have a typo White okay let’s go ahead and import it material package and it’s done now we’re going to save this thing and we do see that okay so there are two small dots but they are actually really small now let’s come inside this container and over here let’s assign padding to it so here with the add ins sets do all three now let’s save it now now we do see that they got much bigger just like uh the one that we were seeing over here okay all right so they’re exactly the same size okay so let’s continue now we do see that they’re on the very far two sides now it’s easy to solve and how to do that right now we see that we have only one container widget right uh expanded widget actually so not container so we can put two more one here and one here and if you do hot reload okay now we see that they’re at correct place okay so that’s the beautiful beauty of this expanded widget with the expanded widget actually you can uh proportionally put a lot of the items and then it’s the idea is if you I mean right after each child you have to have a expanded widget and then it just going to work okay so like here you see one 2 three 4 so we have four uh children so we have to have three expended Widget the idea is if you have five children then you have to have four expanded widget so number of expanded widget in a row if you want to put proportionally should be be one less than the actual child so that’s what we have to remember now the progress is good so what to do next now earlier we said that we also want to put stuff in it okay now this part is going to be a bit complex now before we put stuff in it so right over here inside the expanded widget we can actually put kind of say a child like T text and we can say hello let’s save it and we do see that hello actually showed up over there now how do we go ahead and put other stuff in it to be able to do that first we need to look at our original design over here and a few things you had to see over here the first thing is that well there are this number of dots over here as you can see okay so that’s one thing so first we have to have dots and then actually we also have this uh arop plane icon now this arop plane icon is actually on the dots so it’s overlapping this uh theplan icon is over overlapping the DS dots now here it gets a little bit tricky and complex in two sense first we see the dots but actually the dots are not fixed the dots are counted based on the space given okay so it’s more like if you have more space you’ll have more dots if you have less space you’ll have less dots something like that and then we also have to have this overlapping section over here okay this aop plane itself so this is what that we are going to work next now as we talked about earlyer that these two are going to overlap now how to work with this the first thing we need to remove this container itself okay we can’t have container for overlapping so we have a special widget when two items they overlap the special widget is called stack widget okay and stack widget actually takes children instead of child so here I to have children okay now the theory is that because they’re going to overlap so that’s why you will have children so stack wiget would put the children on overlapping manner okay so because it is children and because they have to overlap each other so that’s why we are stacking things things onto each other okay so stack widget means where you will have stuffs onto each other on the top of each other okay and then that’s why you need a a lot of children to do that okay now let’s go ahead and continue so first let’s go ahead and make sure we have a widget and we can give it sized box and within it we’ll have child and the child itself will have say for example text and here for now we want to give it dot dot dot because we want to for now follow this dot dot dot or actually Dash they’re not really Dot and then over here we are going to have a text for them now let’s go ahead and save and we already see this right and then after this sized box over here we can have say another widget Center widget and then we’ll have child and then we could do text and then we can say plane okay and let’s save it and here we see so here we do we do see that this dot dot dot or the dashes and the word itself the text itself has overlapped but here it’s empty right so what we could do then here we can increase more actually now the layout out breaks okay now that’s where actually I was saying that this part is pretty uh complex because now we need to find a way to dynamically calculate the space between these two widgets okay dynamically calculate the space between these two widgets and then based on that we can actually go ahead and find that how many dots we want because it would be easy that would be basic math okay so here we are going to broaden our understanding how to get this Dynamic space or width and then generate widgets like as you can see over here this dots are actually widgets okay so any kind of thing on on the pixel or as pixel you see that would be a widget in flatter anyway so layout Builder would give us this space available space and list to generate would help us to First to know how many items we want and then it would generate and then actually the size of this widgets generated would be given by sized box or any other widget like container that’s also okay so the basic math over here is so we’ll have this available space which is the most important one and we’ll get it through layout Builder and then we’ll have a random number you have to divide this available space using this random number to actually generate a certain amount ount of number over here and that number would be given to list. generate and then it would generate certain number of widgets for us now take another look so that we understand it better okay so here there’s another picture that would help us to know for example we have two widgets over here widget one and widget two and we want to get the available space or width between these two widgets so what do we need to do between these two widgets actually we need to insert layout Builder so as I said earlier layout Builder would get us width okay and then here of course we see a new widget which is called flx why we need that before we need that and why we need that let me tell you about list generate widget as I said that earlyer list. generate would help us to generate widgets so how it’s going to do that it would take this width and earlier picture I told you that we also need a random number so this is the random number and this is the width So based on that the input would be given to list. generate widget and then it would actually generate widgets for us but at the same time it would take this sized box because you actually want certain widget okay not a random widget so either you want container or sized box or anything like that okay so now where’s this Flex coming over here say for example it generated 10 widgets okay now this 10 widgets actually would be sitting together not spaced like here as you can see there are spaces between these two widgets so to create this kind of space between the widgets that’s why we need this okay so that’s why we need this Flex widget So eventually we’d be able to generate widgets and that widgets would look like this so this one I put it here so that you understand better now why do we put in steps like this because you know flutter all the widgets are nested so layout Builder inside it will have flx inside flax will have list to generate and inside list to generate will have sized box and eventual output would be a dynamically generated widget like this based on your layout Builder okay so now since we have the basic understanding of how this works so now we’re going to go ahead and actually start implementing on this and this is where we want to Focus well so inside this uh sized box widget this one we don’t want to have it while even before that let’s go ahead and create actually a new widget in it okay right so here I’m going to create a new file and here we’re going to call it app layout Builder wiget dot dot so let’s go ahead and add it and then over here we’re going to create a status class and we’re going to call it app playout builder wiget okay now let’s go ahead and import the necessary things okay cool and then over here we can just simply go ahead and call here app layout build widget okay so this is what we’re going to import and we’re going to keep as it is now few things that we have to know that earlier we learned that so earlier we learned that we also need to pass a random number so that’s what we are going to do now if we going to pass a random number we need to grab it over here okay so here we can say final int random d divider I think that your divider this one is what we want to do and we also want to pass okay I think regarding this I’m going to talk back later now here this is something that we would say this is required required uh this dot random divider so this is what that we want whenever we call this class pass we want that you have to pass this one so that’s why we said this is required all right and from this moment on now over here here we can also say random divider and we’re going to pass Six you can actually pretty much uh pass any number and we’ll also talk about the later okay now let’s come over here and remove all of it and here we’re going to pass layout Builder widget this is what we said early that the first thing we want to pass is layout Builder widget and inside this we can pass build context context and then box con straints [Music] con straint like this and then inside this uh we going to return over here okay let’s go ahead and return and the arrow should be gone okay so now inside this it does want you to return something so return flax like this okay and of course instead of flax you need to set up some arguments like directions this and that okay so let’s go ahead and set up the directions first and access. horizontal okay right so we want to put things horizontally so that’s why we put that here okay so now this is fine few things to know that now earlier we learned that we need to pass layout Builder let me find my file okay must R this one right so here we learn that we need to pass layout Builder and that’s what exactly we are doing and after that we also said Flex withget right and that’s also exactly we are doing so Le Builder flex but of course these are the some arguments that we need to pass now I didn’t mention that but you need to do that and most importantly box constraint and in fact this is the one that actually gives you a lot of information and uh it is so interesting that over here actually we can go ahead and print so let’s go ahead and do like this constraints. constraint uh this one we can use this so this is right away will give us some interesting information so let’s go ahead and open up our terminal uh well we don’t need to open up terminal so we can actually we also say it over here here okay now uh let me go ahead and run it okay so here you do see that we do see 74 and what is the 74 74 is the space between these two widgets okay so that’s what has been printed over here and that’s how actually the layout uh Builder widgets work okay so so they are always between two widgets and the space so we already know that we already have this one and that’s what we wanted okay so I said earlier that layout Builder gives you like um the space between two widgets and that’s what it’s giving us of course here we have flax and uh of course we need to use the flax we are not there yet okay so there are other properties that we use from flax okay so now over here there’s the property called children and inside this we want to put a a list of widgets now over here this means list of widgets okay this kind of thing but here we have a widget or class list of generate actually this widget list to generate we can use this one now the important part is over here length so how many to generate well interestingly enough the first thing we could do over here we can take this one okay so let’s go ahead and take this and after that we can pass a random divider okay now this random divider may actually return us float or decimal number so over here we want to wrap it to floor so which means uh integer number okay like for example if you do here up it to uh floor you’ll see that this just 74 let’s go ahead and run it and okay here we have uh error so now let’s go ahead and run it you see just 74 because when we use uh dot floor on a certain number what happens is that it gives you complete integer the closest integer now of course what’s going to happen over here you can also do like this random number and based on that let’s see what we get okay you can do Hot Load and 12 because we had 74 and looks like we are dividing by um what is it we are dividing by a number which is random number and uh what is this random number though but this random number is coming from here six so we are dividing it by six and then we see it here 12 okay but if you do remove it this floor. floor and we’ll see that okay well it’s not close to 12.5 so it takes the closest biggest integer which is which is 12 okay and so that’s how it works so now we know that over here it’s telling you that okay it’s going to generate 12 of the um widgets because remember if you hover over on this the first one is length that tells you how many widgets to generate so here actually we are generating 12 of them now the main two important factor is this for this constraint with and random number but of course if your random number is bigger then it’ll generate a fewer widgets remember the smaller it is more widgets uh the bigger it is fewer widgets okay so here we know that now it’s going to return us uh 12 of them because we are doing floor right and then later on earlier we Al sorry we earlier we also said that we need sized box so so far far we have layout Builder flax and list widgets and now sized box now the equal spacing thing I’m going to come back soon uh let me go ahead and do this sized box first because the order is bit weird though the way we’re doing it anyway so now here we are inside the size box and then here we could do width say for example three oh let’s save it okay well nothing is visible here here yet but how about we’re going to put a color over here okay so let’s go ahead and uh put color but in fact the problem is inside this Siz box you can’t really put a color but here we can first put a child and there is a another widget which is called decorated box we can put that one and then we can do decoration and then here box decoration okay box decoration and inser this here we can put color and we can do colors. white and looks like we also need to import the package all right so this one right so now let’s go ahead and save it okay so looks like it’s still not visible now the reason is here we do have width but we don’t have height so let’s give it a height and height say one and then now let’s save it and here we go there it’s already uh up there but it’s too small okay so that’s the first thing now here is this thing the one that I was telling you that this one the flex comes in what does this Flex do well this Flex actually helps you to spread them equally but you need to tell it to do that explicitly though so here we can do main access alignment so once again main access alignment do space between this one let’s go ahead and do that and uh let’s go ahead and run it and as you can see here it already spread them separately okay and now they’re extending from the left to the right and this is beautiful and that’s exactly what we wanted and this is working and then over here uh let’s see what’s happening you can also put a const modifier okay so it’s going to work so so far this was the most complex part and we just dat that so as we said early that we need all these things so what are the things that we need we need a layout Builder layout Builder we needed a flax we needed a flax let’s generate let’s generate and then sized box and then we had eventually size box but regarding sized box in fact you can also replace this with a container then you’d be also able to actually decorate it so it doesn’t really matter and here this part plays an important role now before I wrap up this one here we need to make some changes let’s go ahead and put con modifier so that our code looks beautiful now here this is not at the top so there is this problem now to be able to do that over here here we can put say height because size box takes height right and then here let’s put 24 let’s save now it came down now as it came down over here we also have this this one now we are going to actually comment it out so now it it looks beautiful so with this we are pretty much done with this section the one that we are doing with uh layout Builder now we have this and another thing you have noticed is I have increased the screen font size over here so it looks much better and more readable all right so now what do you want to do next this is the thing we want to do showing this icon over here and how we going to do that let’s come over here inside this ticket View and previously we had this one and let’s uh let us save it okay and we see over here whatever it is most probably plain okay but now here the first thing we want to show is an icon actually we don’t want to show this thing we want to show an icon so here icon and icons dot loal local Air plane rounded this one let’s save it and we already set there beautiful and at the same time we can do color to it and [Music] then over here um we can do colors. white okay beautiful now at the same time you’ll see that this is not the direction we want we want a direction like this so from this is from departure to Des destion so how to do that now this part is tricky while actually there’s an easy way even though it looks tricky so I’m going to wrap it around using another widget so I’m going to say a widget and then we’re going to give the widget a name and what is the widget name so in flut there is a widget called transform and and uh within it there is a special class that or method actually rotate this one you can call this and it’s going to work but at the same time it’s going to say it needs an argument angle so add that one so here we’re going to do 1.5 and it should work and let’s see we do have uh issues so over here let’s remove the const over here and then put const over here and then if you save it now as you see that it already changes Direction and beautiful and at the same time over here looks like we can also put a const modifier and that would be our new widget which is transform rotate so what whatever you do over here uh icon or image whatever is that if you want to rotate it all you need to do over here you need to rotate by calling transform. rotate and as you see over here and there is a basic formula that how the rotation works so it’s given over here math. pi and divided by 12 okay so now this is going to rotate in clockwise you can also rotate in anticlockwise so let’s go ahead and save it anticlockwise is like this direction and this is clockwise Direction okay so with this we are done with this section how to show this but even before we finish this over here actually we want to do L DN London so here we see 1.5 and we see that this is an angle but no way this is an angle right because earlier it was vertical now it’s horizontal that means that it’s not 1.5 angle so if you look at the documentation over here here it will say that okay uh this example rotates an orange box containing around it by 15° so it’s not a 15° is 1.5 radian okay the unit is different even though the documentation said that it is degrees but there is a relationship between degrees and radians okay so let’s go ahead and take a look so here I have this simple uh presentation where you’ll see the simple math and how they are connected so we know that if this is a circle the circle is total 360° one rotation is 360° so Pi is 180 and then if Pi is 180 of course we can say that 180 = 3.1416 and that’s in terms of radian so that’s why I wrote the unit here and this is in degrees right so 180° equal to this then 90° should be 1.57 radians so the question is why we have 90° and why not 45 or 60 the reason is because you want to go from vertical to horizontal so you want to have a 90° change so that’s why you do 90 = 1.57 radians so this is the basic math over here that if you want to understand that’s good because programmer should understand a bit of math and how things work all right so yeah this is the basic relationship between uh degrees and radians and that’s how actually it works over here then the other thing is okay well actually why it’s 1.5 because if it’s 1.5 it’s a little bit til Ed so just now we learned that we can do actually 1.57 so let’s go ahead and do 1.57 all right so now if you save it you’ll see that okay it is exactly vertical so let’s take another look that how it works so if it’s 0 Dee let’s save it so it’s vertical like this and if it’s one sorry not 0 degree once again it’s 0o radian and then 1.57 then it makes it 100% uh what is it uh horizontal then of course we can also do negative rotation let’s go ahead and do that okay so it’s negative right now this way so in general if we have plus sign over here positive that means it’s rotating clockwise like this okay so you can imagine this is a clock and then it’s rotating the hands of the uh clock is rotating like this and that’s the positive direction if you put minus over here then it would be negative directions okay so that’s how it works anyway so after this hopefully it makes sense the how rotation work well hopefully in future we’ll see that if we can rotate it and animate it which means that just changing this one dynamically and updating the UI we are not ready for that yet okay so the next part is pretty easy in next part actually we want to show this one one this line over there but interestingly we already laid out the foundation for the first part so let’s go ahead and create a comment over here here we say show departure departure and destination with icons with icons first line okay all right and then we are going to copy this I’m going to put it here and then over here I’m going to make another commment show departure and destination names uh with time with time okay now let’s go ahead and save it and then we’ll see that it’s already there so we’ll fix it don’t worry now before we go ahead and fix this few other things that we need to change over here so this part is New York so let’s go ahead and do that and New York and now looks like everything is hardcoded don’t worry we’ll fix them very soon and then over here soon we’ll be loading them dynamically so so you can just follow along with me it’s not going to temper anything with us now the only problem is this one over here now this part is uh uh look at this right here expanded wiget so here we have uh big dots so we don’t need any of these things okay now in fact we can just co go ahead and copy one of this and put it here and in this case the only thing we want to change is this one 8 H 30 which means that 8 hour 30 minute okay so that’s what we are doing now now let’s go ahead and save it and this is what we see beautiful so right now actually we are looking more like this and we are getting closer to it but I think there is a space between these two rows so we’re going to do that and then here we do sized box and here we’re going to do height and three and that’s all we want to do so you’re going to push it down a little bit and most probably we need a con modifier now let’s go ahead and save it and that’s what we see and this is Beau beautiful okay all right so then apart from this there’s also a top part that where we need to put a little bit of spacing otherwise it doesn’t look good where here so we need a little bit of spacing this is in ticket view while over here we have this one so we are going to copy this we’re going to come over here and the end and put it here and let’s save it now it came down too much we don’t need all of this so we’re going to just do 20 and we would be happy so just like this we did 20 okay all right so now we are looking more alike wonderful okay so right now we have an issue what is the issue the issue is that it’s taking the whole Space over here right it should be a different color we don’t want it to take the whole Space over here cuz over here we’ll have this orange color so that’s what we want to do now for this reason we need to refractor the code and how to do that now over here we are going to actually uh wrap this around this section around a container another widget let’s go ahead and do that so here we’ll have container okay looks say we don’t have container so I’m going to go ahead with Widget and then and then and replace this with container okay all right and let’s go ahead and save it and uh if you restart it nothing’s going to change it’s same as before and this one we can actually move out of it over here all right and let’s save it and okay let’s restart no changes and one more change over here okay so we want to wrap this around another widget and that should be a column okay now let’s go ahead and save it and that’s how it works and you see that this way we see half of it and that’s exactly what you wanted all right now the design doesn’t change much but if you go ahead okay and let’s save it we see the other one but of course we don’t want to have it like this but the gives you the idea for example if you wrap this around okay so we can have say colors. blue all right let me go ahead and do that just say for example colors. blue or actually colors. orange colors. orange okay let’s go ahead and save it and we see it like this but this is not exact color that we’re looking for but we are going going to change it but now over here it’s top left so you can change it to bottom left okay then that would be a quick change and over here bottom right okay and let’s go ahead and save it beautiful so with this we actually looking very close to this wonderful okay so now this one looks like uh this one over here here and we do see that we have an extra space over here this this dots and this two circles over here actually it may look scary but in fact we can draw them easily now we already have this two containers right so between these two containers actually we can get another container and uh we can give it say for example give it kind of height say give it height 20 okay now let’s save it and you see that it came down and uh it’s like it’s going to work but yes we do have a problem over here so what we could do say change it to eight all right now uh the Overflow issue is gone so looks like we are able to separate this to container using a different color Mark right uh that’s what we have seen over here let’s save that this is gone and now if we put it back we say there so in fact this is the same exact logic has been used over here so what we could do now we can go to our file let’s see F Styles this one and then you can create a new static color let’s go ahead and do that ticket orange so you’re going to create orange color orange and then const I think I have the color here let’s put that so this would be our new color now let’s come over here inside this container and over here we use this kind of color but actually we want to use app Styles app Style do we have this okay I’m going to copy this and put it here type cannot be okay actually we were supposed to get that orange to get orange okay most we need to remove this save it and we see that the color is exactly the same now let’s put a con modifier over here it’s gone now in fact over here if you do assign color then you can do app Styles dot not primary but we can do ticket orange and you’ll see that okay we have this one right now it looks like same as this right which means that it’s working so let’s go ahead and keep working on them and after that over here actually all we need to do we need to create uh some items over here and how we are going to do that now if you see and look at this layout so we have this and then we will have layout Builder and then this one so let’s go ahead and build that so now here we understand that so this is going to be a row layout right so here we could do child and row and in the row of course we need children otherwise we’ll get issues sized box this one sized box and uh keep it as it is for now and then give it a height so here actually move the height to inside the sized box we don’t need this and then okay what else here we could also do width WID is 10 now let’s save it and what’s going on on over here because actually here we are going to create a circle right so we have the sized box and then here we could do child and inside the child we can use decorated box so once we have this widget decorated box and we can color them all right let’s see what’s going on so it says you need decoration okay so first we go ahead with decoration and the issue should be solved and over here we are going to to assign decoration so let’s go ahead and do that box decoration and inside box decoration we do so let’s go ahead and check the color first okay so here we want to do a color so what I’m going to do here first for now I’m going to use colors. white okay now let’s save it and here we already see that so now our sized box is working but our point or Target is to make it a turn it into a circle now box decoration over here actually has a properties where it says border radius so here instead this we are going to use border radius so let’s go ahead and do that now here we can do border radius and that we can do only over here because we just want to apply Border in two places so top right over here at the right and here we could do radius do circular and then let’s assign 10 and you see it already changed and at the same time over here top we can say bottom right bottom right this one and radius do circular and then here we can also do 10 again now let’s put a const modifier and put it here and we see that this is almost look like it’s working as you can see over here right so looks like that okay the it took effect and I know there are some tiny differences so we’re going to fix them later no problem now this is our sized box for now and uh I do believe that we can turn it into a reusable widget okay so I’m going to copy this thing over here let’s go ahead and copy and find it here and insert this widgets over here we can create a new file and uh before we had Big Dot so here I can have big circle dot Dart let’s go ahead and add that and then here we can create a stess class and we can say big circle clle now let’s go ahead and import the library and we can just simply go ahead and remove that and put whatever we had already and go ahead and import for this one remove this package we don’t need this one all right now we’re going to come over here uh let’s go ahead and put a const modifier so so what I’m going to do I’m going to actually delete this and then here I can just say big circle and save it you’ll say there and and if you have two of them okay you can save it and we’ll see that they’re together but now you may try to use expanded widget expanded and then here you can use a empty container let’s go ahead and check that and we’ll see that it should work I’ll remove the const let’s save it and here we are but now this circle has a problem because the decoration itself the Border you see that the border is not showing here correctly so what do we need to do we need to set up them differently the Border over here we need to work on a different kind of setup so what setup we could do we can come over here actually we can attach some condition over here okay so we can just simply talk about left and right okay and if this is new to you don’t worry I’m going to make it easy final here we can say is you can name it anything so I can say is right okay I’m going to say it’s is it on the right side or left side this is the meaning so it’s like a flag now here we’re going to add this one but we are going to have it as required we must have it okay and and looks like uh what is it uninitialized okay we can ignore that one now over here actually we can check so we going to send a value to it okay so we’ll say is right is right if this is true okay maybe I can do like this this is It’s called tary operator if this is true then we use this okay otherwi wise then here we can copy it again we going to put it here and uh let’s see what’s what’s going on inv valid const so we need to remot the con itself and then we can also change it here is write true then it would be shown over here okay is left true it would be shown over here here but how to do that if it is right true then actually you don’t want to have border uh outside you want to have border inside okay so this is where we are coming so is right true then over here instead of top right we’ll have top left okay top left and instead of bottom right we’ll have bottom left okay hope you understand the thing that I’m trying to say okay now we have an issue what is the issue we need to pass it from here as well okay so here we’re going to say is right so is right so the first one is this the right one or left one so this is the left one so we’re going to send false now over here it’s the same thing is right the second one should be the one on the right over here right now let’s go ahead and save it okay and we already see that it changed all right so now over here actually we have used Turner operator to work on this now more on Turner operator and this thing in next lecture okay so now we are going to learn about turn oper this one that we talked about early before that let’s go ahead and do a little fix over here like over it says that and uninitialized field should have an explicit type annotation so here this field is not initialized what what do you mean by that that means that it doesn’t have any Direct Value over here like say anything like that so this kind of situation it says go ahead and do a type so we assign a type to it and that’s called bull okay and now you see the arrow is gone so that’s the correct way to go ahead and work on this thing all right and then and we also talked about that we’re going to see tary operator now to work on tary operator let’s come come to our main uh main function over here and then let’s re clean this things so we don’t need this all right so in general uh here this question mark and Dot is called tary operator okay this question mark and this I think it’s not DOT actually it’s called colon so that’s called tary operator so we are going to use this tary operator now how it works okay now it is used for conditional statement for example you can say int x equal 10 okay all right now I declare a variable and then I can do over here if x = 10 print he is a kid all right and then over here else we could say that print he is not a kid just an example okay now let’s go ahead and run this so here we’ll see that um is going on so let’s go ahead and print it okay so he’s a kid right that’s what it shown over here now what if I don’t pass 10 or what if I pass 12 okay well he’s not a kid this one gets executed right now of course this is a basic uh else if or if else statement but now there’s a easy way to work on this we can do like this x = 10 then here we say print a is a k and then we could do like this print he is not a kid now for now I’m going to comment this out and we’ll see that exactly the same result is not a kid but if I do this here we’ll say he’s a kid so this if else you change it to this question mark and this colon so here is your question mark and here is your colon so you can use you have to use them separately actually so this is called tary operator okay well even though it looks like uh it’s very simple and yes it is simple but it could be very powerful and that’s what we have seen over here now inside this over here we have set up a condition so this is the condition actually if is right is true then we show this border radius otherwise we show this one this is just exactly same as this okay so hopefully it makes sense that how Turner operator works now using tary operator not only you can print or do some conditional check you can also return widgets okay which we’ll see a lot more very soon that we have a lot of conditional uh variables then we can use this Turner operator which means this question mark and this column together to make sense out of it okay cool so hopefully with this your idea about Turner operator should be clear now let’s go ahead and move on so this time we going to come over here one more time so that’s what we had and I guess we can add a const modifier and same over here all right and at the same time let’s format the code all right now with this it looks good okay so now of course we need to change this one over here this doesn’t exactly have to be the same um as you can see but so the next thing is that we are going to show this dot over here right remember we already have an app l Builder if you see come over here app layout Builder so this one we can pass this one for now right and how do we go ahead and pass this thing okay cool uh let’s come over here we can close this ticket View and then we have this container right and then we have the other one for the bottom part so here here we go we have this row right and and then inside this we have this one so this is creating the space between these two right so we just simply go ahead and remove this and then here we can call app out Builder widget and then here I think we have a variable which is called random divider okay now I’m going to put as 10 over here all right and let’s go ahead and have it okay have this const I think over here and now let’s run it and here we already see that we have this uh dots they showed up right okay now let’s C here this app layout Builder now anyway so what it does so this gets the space between these two dots right and I mean this two circles and then divided by this one remember this constraints do constraints width this one gets the space between this and this then whatever we pass gets divided and that’s the number of wiet right so here this value the larger it is the smaller this value so fewer the generated list hopefully you understand so this value the more or the larger this is the eventual result would be smaller right so it means that list to generate over here value would be small over here with the 10 we see like this so how about double it go ahead and do 20 okay now we do see that okay here we have well few of this dots but now there’s this problem that what is the problem you see this width is actually hardcoded right we don’t want to do it so how do you want to do that okay so here here we could do final int okay here we could say with just go ahead and do that and then over here we can say this dot width now we don’t want to make it required as you can see already it says here you make it require but we don’t want to do that we can actually give it a default value value default value is three okay once you make it required you have to pass it but then if you don’t want to put required then of course you remove that at the same time you give it a default value and what does it means it means when we call this class if we don’t pass value for this it’s going to use three and this is exactly what it is doing over here now we are just passing random divider this value value which is this one but we are not passing anything so it’s taking as a three over here but here actually we want to have it a different style so one thing the other one actually you have to also assign to it with okay and let’s see what’s going on okay so we need to remove uh value so this one right and let’s see what else we have in cannot be okay so here it say this double then what do we do we assign it as double and then we are good to go and then here we go so whatever the value you pass that would take effect and if you don’t pass any value this value over here three would take effect over here okay and that’s how it works okay cool and let’s restart and of course we’ll see no changes because that’s expected let me go ahead and reformat my code so that you guys know actually what I’m talking about okay okay so just like this now over here we want to pass withd so here let’s pass withd and this time for this one we want to pass Six okay and then let’s save it and we do see that they got much bigger right so that’s how it works and then how about say eight okay so that’s how it works now one thing you could do here we can do 15 or say 16 and then let’s keep it six okay which is much better well so this part so far so good and this exactly looking like this one over here and we are happy about this one okay okay so now let’s go ahead and continue to work on this so what’s the next step Next Step would be doing something like well uh this but looks like our app is not running so now we want to change this text over here okay so that they look similar okay by the way now you may look like that um here it’s small here it’s big that has to do with the screen and resolutions okay uh if you run for example I’m running at iPhone 14 this app we run here it would look small and if I run this app over here the screen would look bigger so you can always ignore that okay all right so now let’s go ahead and move so we need to be here inside our ticket View and so far will have three containers on our ticket view so let’s go ahead and locate them um okay so that’s the first container second container third container so let’s uh put some comments otherwise it’d be confusing okay blue part of the ticket and then circles then over here we’ll have orange part of the ticket beautiful so this is the place that we want to change all right make sure that once again you find the correct one and then how you want to change now I’m going to put it here so that I know what I’m changing so the first one is the day so it should be uh first of May all right and then over here uh second one now second one here we do see that we have this big dots expanded widget L and that but in fact we don’t need any of this so I’m going to keep them as it is uh I’m going to change them later so let’s go ahead and change one by one okay so that’s the uh text that we have changed all right and then this one should be date so let’s go ahead and change to date they right and then this this one should be here like 0800 am okay and what else after that so now this one over here should be uh let me see am I doing it correctly so this is the first row May okay so I missed that so this one should be here okay so there’s a bit of um mismanagement sorry about that so this one should be uh okay this is date this is correct and then this is correct as well and then this one is uh number okay okay hopefully I’m correct now let’s go ahead and save it and let’s take a look and compare yes we are correct apart from this one okay well there are some problems we’ll fix them don’t worry and we also have issues with the text some of them are big some of them are small we we’ll fix them no worries okay all right so now how to fix this one now for this one actually uh here okay what are we going to do we can remove this too we don’t need them and then I can copy this text any of this and then I can put it here and uh here we do see that 08 am right so we need to I I think we have a bit of mistake so let me go ahead and fix that so here actually it should be O8 sorry about that uh am and then over here this one should be departure time de departure time let’s go ahead and save this and now we see that okay now the text are all correct right so we have two problems one is first the layout problem and then we also have the size problem let’s go ahead and fix them okay so currently we are having some issues with the style and layout so let’s go ahead and fix that the first problem is this this text would be actually smaller than this right now they’re all headline three as you can see so that’s what is causing the issue so we need to change that now to able to do that first let’s come over here app Styles file and we create a new text okay so let’s go ahead and do that and we’re going to keep it here and we going to call it headline four and then over here we’re going to have 14 okay so now let’s come over here make sure that you change correctly so here instead of uh not this one over here instead of three we’re going to have four here is the same four and here is same now let’s go ahead and restart and we do see that they have actually uh become smaller but there is this alignment issue right now what’s the alignment issue you see here it’s a little over to the right but it’s not centered now making it centered is possible for example say over here you have a a now here BB and say where here you have CC now they are centered perfectly well but the problem with the earlier situation is that they don’t have enough they don’t have fixed width like this text the spaces takes is different than this and this they’re kind of all different okay so that’s why it’s difficult to center now we can use a trick to do it we can give them a fixed width especially the last two middle one is okay because it’s still it will stay in the middle so if the first one and the last one we can actually give fixed with this would autoc centered okay we don’t understand say for example here we say a a a and here we do BBB let’s go ahead and save it and here see that they’re all currently aligned and centered right so the important thing is the first one and the last one we need to give fixed width and how can we do that now over here we can wrap it around the widget and we’re going to wrap it around sized box widget and then here we can give it width say 100 and the last one is the same over here sized box weet and we give it 100 actually we need to do width and then we do 100 let’s go ahead and save it okay right all right but now this’s this other issue okay it’s it’s really not looking like that it’s centered like this one right this one is at the beginning of this uh widget right this a size box widget this is at the beginning and this is also at the beginning so what we want to do with this this one want to put it to the right side now inside this text widget over here we can use text alignment and here we can use a text alignment this one and then here we could do end we put we’re going to put it to the end now it’s perfectly aligned and this is what I Wasing talking about so when you see you have text in one row and the text themselves They Don’t Really uh get align and if you want to align them so you need to go ahead and give them fixed width and the middle one doesn’t really matter because as long as they have fixed width they can align themselves perfectly hopefully it makes sense all right so now let’s continue to work on this and in this lecture we’ll see how to restructure refractor our code a lot of the refractor would also help us to work on this now the first refactoring or restructure we want to do with this text because we do see that this text is actually being used in so we see that the text is being used in a lot of places so let’s go ahead and create uh different widget classes for this so we’re going to be here and inser the Base Class inside this widgets we are going to go ahead and create a new uh class over here let’s go ahead and do that and here we’re going to call it text style third now actually this could be anything so I’m just going to go ahead and name it like this so here I’m going to go ahead and do stateless and text style third like that okay now there is no hard and fast rule as long as it makes sense so you can go ahead and do that now how you’re going to restyle this thing so let’s go ahead and see now I’m going to copy this one first and then I’m want to put it here and then I’m going to replace this and that’s all and over here we going to go ahead and import it as a library package and the same over here let’s go ahead and import and with this opportun is not needed let’s go ahead and clean that now let’s come over here and we want to remove this and then here we’re going to say Tex style third so over here I’m going to have it as a package well we’re going to choose this one all right and then let’s put a Comm over here now well we want this to be dynamic so this is something that we want to pass now if we want to pass it we need to declare the variable so that we can go ahead and grab it in the Constructor so here we can say text and then this is something that that we also want to say requir which means you must pass this so here this do text and with this uh the arrow should be gone and then over here we’re going to go ahead and uh like uh just pass it down text so whatever the text value you pass over here uh you’d be able to go ahead and uh show it okay now now over here we’ll have an error so we can pass anything so here we’ll say ncy and YC actually so let’s go ahead and put a con modifier and restart it and nothing changes now with this it becomes simple as you can see so what we did here we created a class and in this class we can pass the text dynamically because we must pass the text and then uh that’s why we said required and now this is within this curly braces something with it curly braces this is called named parameters okay now if you do how over on this you will see that or if you remove that you’ll see the hints so let’s go ahead and see it so okay the named parameter text is required because it has a name so that’s why you have to give the name whatever the name is given here so if here is given text you cannot write here say string or you cannot write here as name say for example my computer so whatever the name is this this has to match this one or whatever the name is this it has to match over here all right now I’m going to collapse this so that it looks great now the same over here so I’m going to copy this and put put it here okay and now instead of this we are going to have L DN rester nothing changes but the code becomes more readable and clean okay and the same goes over here so I’m going to take this but now there’s this problem over here you see that uh the text headline is a little bit different right so I’m going to go ahead and uh one thing definitely I’m going to do I’m going to copy the whole thing over here okay in fact actually I’m copying the whole file and then I’m going to go ahead and create a new class here a text style fourth now the way I’m naming it based on the headline text okay so instead of third we’re going to change it to Fourth fourth okay let let me come over here and put it and that’s it now let’s go ahead and close this and over here ticket view so let me copy this thing and let me put it here now instead of third we say fourth okay that’s the only thing we need to change okay so this Things become quickly reusable okay this one I think we have one more comma and then instead of this here you want to say New York New York okay now of course we need to come over here and instead of three we need to say four otherwise we’ll still get an error and that’s it let me go ahead and close this uh let’s restart and nothing changes at all and over here uh put a con modifier so yeah that’s how things become very simple now luckily we can also take this one from here and then we are going to change it right and okay so here what are you going to say uh what was that early though I think it was uh 08 0 am and let’s put con modifier in front of it and it should be fine okay right now over here as you see we have this one but it got a new style over here which they don’t have first two right so if you just focus on this one but what we could do we can actually assign a style to it okay so here we could say uh final text align okay this one okay and then here we could name it anything align and then over here we could say required or even we don’t need to do required now this time it’s align and then let’s give it a default value so here text align do start so if you don’t pass any value this is going to take default value and when you put a default value you don’t need to say required keyword over here because well it’s already given a value default value so if you don’t pass anything it’s going to take this one now all we need to do pass this value over here align so here we’re going to say align and then let’s see what’s going on okay I think we need to do text align okay now it would be good so the property so the idea is we may pass the Align property if we don’t pass we’re going to use start okay and whatever you pass that would also take effect okay so let’s go ahead and restart and definitely we’ll see no changes at all no changes at all okay so uh that’s it by the way I think um let me go ahead and copy this just let me make sure whether I made a mistake in terms of text over here I don’t know what text was there oh there was 8 hour 30 minutes so that’s the one that we want to pass 8 8 hour 30 mean so 8 hour 30 mean all right let’s go ahead and restart okay so back to it or 30 m all right but nothing else changes and regarding this one once again uh we can copy this and then we put it here okay let us remove one of them and then over here it should be London right let’s go ahead and put London let’s hit it okay now we see the problem because right now it’s taking the default value over here start but then we can pass a value so you can have the uh parameter name which is align and then here we can pass text align this one dot end okay so let’s go ahead and restart and we’ll see it would fall back to our original design and then over here we’re going to put a con modifier now with this the code looks much simpler right as you can see so whatever we are passing uh it just does look more simpler than anyone else now one could go ahead and also put uh new or create new widget using this someone could do that but I just keep as it is okay all right so with this this part has been done so in our next lecture we’re going to go ahead and work on this one all right so now this time we need to go ahead and work on this and of course this looks like a mess now earlier we have given fixed size to work on them now the problem is these three text are very different so giving fixed size could overlap each other so that solution might not work here so we’ll take another approach actually which is also a way to learn about layout okay that how we can in different situations we can design different kind of layout now over here this layout we are going to change and we are going to do it in a very special way and and how we are going to do that so let’s first come over here and over here okay right now what I’m going to do I’m going to go ahead and comment this out okay that’s the first thing I’m going to do and let’s keep it is as it is and then at the same time I’m also going to actually comment all this out and of course that’s very weird where we are doing all these things right okay so now this two text actually I can wrap around another widget well okay just think of column first so I’m insert column and then I can create another one and then over here I can go ahead and save it and before saving we can go ahead and change the name to date let’s go ahead and save this and that’s what we see and exactly what we had early with our other app well looks like I closed that simulator but anyway so you get the idea and then inside this we can actually create size box and give it a height five and this is exactly what’s going to work work and all it needs a con modifier let’s let’s put this let’s save this and this is exactly what we wanted just like earlier and then of course here I think we had date okay and at the same time this one 1 of May could be replaced by text uh I think text style third this one and then the text was first I think that was may just like this and let’s put it like this and it’s going to work so it’s working right and it looks simpler with this so I’m going to put it here and then over here we are going to say date date okay right so yeah now it became much simpler right and let’s get a con modifier now that also means for rest of them we actually want to repeat this thing and so that means that we can just copy put three of them and done but it rises a more questions about I mean it it it does create a bit of problem let me go ahead and put and you know what I’m talking about so the first thing of course they’re very close to each other okay now if I have a layout like this over here of course I could go ahead and change it to main access alignment main access alignment dot space between all right okay but the earlier problem was as you see that if it’s the beginning that’s okay they’re all aligned but when it’s at the end over here they it’s look it’s not aligning it’s still aligning from the top right so for this one over here actually we can use uh alignment uh that should be horizont uh vertical actually uh sorry horizontal alignment in that case that would be cross access alignment and cross access alignment do end and you see now it align just like this right okay cool and how about this one so this one this two should be centered over here we could do cross access alignment and uh cross access alignment Dot Center we can do this and uh let’s restart okay so they are already centered but it doesn’t look like but if you do have a big text over here big text and you’ll know that it’s a center and that’s what I was talking to perfect alignment so this is a better approach and going to work with like Advanced concept where you want to align different kind of stuff okay with different kind of text and this works this always works okay now here one thing we have found that this process is repetitive so what we could do we can go ahead and create a widget over here and here we can just simply go ahead and call it uh app column uh text layout do do okay and then over here we can do app column text layout the name could be as long as it Mak sense to you all right okay so now copy this and we’re going to put it here and then let’s go ahead and import the dependencies and most probably we can put a then here we can say app column L text layout okay but of course the the problem is we we still need to pass the text right so right now it’s hardcoded but we want to make it Dynamic then here we do final string top text final string uh bottom text like this and we want to make them required so here would say required let. top text required this do bottom text it’s going to work and then over here this would be replaced by top text top top text XT it should work let’s see what’s going on so here we have this const thing remove that and it’s going to work and here we say bottom text and it’s going to work as well okay now of course here we’ll get an issue because now it’s saying okay you have named parameter or I mean it the Constructor needs parameter over here but you don’t have so you need to assign that here I need to say top text first May and then over here bottom text is it should be what was it date okay now this is going to work and which means that over here I’m going to just replace them but now this may cause the earlier issue alignment but we’ll fix it but you see how we work step by step let’s save it okay now if the text is Big it’s still going to cause alignment issue if you see okay now if we have alignment issue it may cause alignment issue so here we can also do final cross access alignment and align me this one and we pass it here with this we can actually pass uh required you can make it optional if you want alignment okay and then push the alignment here so here we’re going to do cross AIS alignment to alignment so whatever alignment you pass it will take that one so the first one over here we are passing alignment and here we’re going to pass cross AIS alignment. start so let’s go ahead and copy this put it here second one we know that we are going to do Center and the third one we are going to do to the end all right let’s save it and now they’re all perfectly aligned so then in that case what’s our job our job would be to go ahead and copy them just uh pass uh I I think uh what was it so this is I guess one of the text over here I’m going to pass it down and I think that was uh what is the text let me go ahead and check that from here departure time so I think that was the other text and it should be here departure time let’s go ahead and save it beautiful and and over here there was 23 so it should be 23 what is the last text number so that is actually most probably the sit number so let’s go ahead and put it and beautiful okay now you see how they Auto align everything automatically and this is the result that actually we are looking for and that just works perfectly okay okay anyway so now after this that means that uh we can just simply go ahead and remove this things we don’t need this our code is clean and readable so over here this this all the things we don’t need okay so with this actually we are pretty much done drawing our widget and uh working on this clean beautiful layout okay now if you do want actually go ahead and further separate this and this to a different kind of classes and just call that class with the given arguments if you do that make sure that you are passing this things anyway so uh after that we are going to go ahead and focus on Dart concept so far it has been front end a little bit of Dart concept so next section actually we are going to learn more about our Dart concept and how to load this thing from Json file which would be more like API response so this is where we are going to focus and then of course that Focus would be step by step first we’ll learn what is Dart list and map we’ll give a lot of good examples and then we’ll dive into loading them from our local storage I’m going to do this thing in this browser over here so just go to D pad. Tab and there’s this browser and and it’s a DOT language pad where you can practice your dot you don’t have to install any compiler to work on this all right so first over here we are going to create a class and we’re going to call it test the class name and over here I’ll have variables so here I’ll say int x z and int y say minus one it doesn’t really matter and then here I’ll have uh Constructor and then I’ll say this.x this. y so which means that well um when we call the Constructor this one we have to pass this X and Y value even though there’s already one but when you create an object of this we have to pass now how how do you do that so here we’ll say test T equ call test well Z and 10 it doesn’t really matter now I want to print the T T.Y value so that’s what we want to do and now if you see and come over here hopefully it would work well looks like it’s a bit slow over here so uh I’m not sure why it is slow though it is supposed to yes it printed the value which is 10 even though the earlier initial value was minus one and then but we were able to change the value okay and after that like for example you could also do like this T 100 okay T.Y so we are we are creating an object first and later on we decided to change the value and uh actually changing the value takes effect as you can see over here right so this is the basic and general way of creating a Constructor first you create a class and use the Constructor to create an object and if you want to change the value you could do that now there’s another way of doing like this working like this I wouldn’t say doing like this okay all right okay so over here first we had this test now I can create a class called result it doesn’t matter you can call it anything here I would do a little bit different one so here I say final x = z or just final final int X X final int y all right and then over here I would do result this dox this doy all right just like this now here you see there is a difference so over here we are saying we are using this final modifier and of course at the same time we are not assigning any value over here so all right so this is what we have over here now what’s going to happen is like this so let’s go ahead and create a result R I’m going to say and result and then pass zero or like say 10 okay let’s do something different 20 like this and then print r.x doesn’t matter okay now let’s go ahead and print it well definitely at first to will see t y500 and RX which is this one now what I’m trying to prove over here well you see okay the first thing over here we created an object well at the beginning for test itself with this value right X and Y and when we created this value actually when we created this object we changed the value well the first one we didn’t change but if you want you can second one we change to 100 and then later on we again changed it right if you want actually you can also print it here print T.Y so with this we’ll first see tal 1 uh y y = 10 and then over here we’ll see that y equal 100 because the first time as we are creating the object whatever the object we created and we can print that object field value which is this one and later on we change the value and then we print it again and we this is what we see this is 100 right but now let’s go ahead and see what happens in terms of this result now so far looks like everything is same so over here we created a result instance and we get this x value what is x value x value is 15 and that’s what we see over here now you do see that um here if you try to do like this r.x equal say 300 or any value and you will get a compile time error which means over here we have an error why because this FS uh you see over here X and Y we have assigned them as a final now what does that mean that means that well you can use this value to create an object that’s fine but this fills X and Y you can only assign once per object so here we created this object called R and as we are creating actually we assigned a value and uh we can print that but once you assign value you reassign value you can’t do that so what happens with final modifier if you have have a final this keyword in front of a variable in Dart or in many other languages actually it means that you can only have the value once you cannot change it again you can only assign the value whenever you create the object which is very different from this so over here we don’t have any final or anything like that and as you see for this reason you can can change the value anytime anywhere you want and that’s what we have seen we have changed the value over here but this one we can’t because we actually have SN value and we say it’s final which said which means that we are not going to change the value once we create an object so you cannot do that but of course you could create another object so here result say RT result now here say 33 or 400 doesn’t matter of course you can create new object again and print RT do X so this time we’ll see that it’s printing 30 so yes because there is this Constructor because of this you can always create more objects but as you create you assign the value and after once you assign the value actually you won’t be able to change it again so that’s what here final means and if you have final Fields actually you can also put const in in in front of this Constructor but so which says that actually even if you don’t put I think it works the same saying that okay I’ll create this object but once I create I won’t be able to add it or modify or nobody’s is allowed to edit or modify so this way creating object is called immutable object so over here whatever we are creating from result it’s becoming immutable immutable means not changeable the fancy name the name is very fancy it says immutable but it just means not changeable but this way we create an object this is called mutable which means which is changeable now over here let’s see you try to put a const over here and here you will have a problem here it says that can’t Define a con contractor for a class with non-final Fields right this fields are not final if it’s not final that means that they are changeable so if you can change them that means you can’t have const here so in Dart and flatter if you put a const before a Constructor you have to make sure that these fields are all final otherwise it’s just not going to work which means that you have to have final keyword in front of them that’s what it says that now in general most of the time this is more welcomed and more convention because this is safe it’s really safe because once you create an object you can’t change anything or any value that becomes less buggy less error prone which is really good so try to do this whenever possible all right so yeah that’s how the immutability final const uh modifier Works in Dart all right so since we have this basic understanding how this final const modifier works so we’ll go back to our flut wrap and we’ll see okay so after learning Dart list and map a little more now we can go ahead and build something better and stronger this time we are going to go ahead and uh create a new well I say that over here inside this base over here I’m going to create a new directory and I’m going to call it you tails and inside this I’m going to create a new file and then here I’m going to call it app Json dot Dart just like this okay and okay so that’s the first thing and inside this I’m going to put this information now this would be given in the resources section you can go ahead and grab that all right so what’s happening here uh first Analyze This things we see that this is we have a bracket like this so we know that this is a list okay now inside the list we see that we have curly braces as I told you if once you have curly braces that corresponds to a map so from this visual analysis we see that we have a list and inside list we have map now that’s what exactly we wrote over here we have a list and inside list we have a map the map itself we also said the type okay so the map here value is string and then the sorry the key is string and the the value is dynamic so if this is a map over here if this is a map then what do we say well actually even before I go there let me show you a little more that what I’m talking about okay so this is a list and inside list we have many Maps so we say that this is uh list of maps hope you understand so there are many Maps here so if there are many Maps we want to put it in a list okay so that’s how you go ahead and process them so we say that a list of maps Okay the curly braces are all maps right okay cool now if we see each map now this is one of the maps and if we see each map we’ll see that here we have keys so [Music] two uh fight time date departure time number so these are all the keys and then for each Keys we have values now for Value itself we see that there is another map but here we wrote a dynamic so it could be anything now here there is also another map okay but here we don’t have map for each key we have values values a string okay now the same goes over here for other maps and then how they’re structured inside they’re all same so now this is available in our app right now so the whole thing list of maps we call at ticket okay ticket list it is a list right once again it is a list so we call it ticket list so remember this is a list of maps just general English learning okay hopefully it makes sense and since we are ready with this now we can come over here in our uh home screen and if we if we see in home screen we have ticket view okay for now we have only one ticket okay well then if we want to more ticket horizontally how to do that well we can wrap this around a widget so let’s go ahead and do that we’re going to wrap this around the widget and we’re going to call it single child scroll view single child scroll view this one now what is a single child scroll View if you have too many children like over here this one we have uh lot of children right let me show you what I’m talking about so this is a column and inside the column we have a lot of children one of the children is zow sized box container and app double taxt things like that and then we see that we also have ticket View now when you wrap ticket view inside single child scroll view it’s just going to scroll this ticket view it’s not going to scroll others okay because you just one scrollable item okay so that’s why you say that okay go ahead and just scroll this child okay and leave the rest as they are so that’s the first first thing and then over here uh we can do scroll Direction okay we want to scroll horizontally so here we do access. horizontal okay all right of course so far we have only one child so you I mean you won’t be able to really scroll it because nothing to scroll here you see actually there is literally nothing to scroll I think my app is running okay so since there is only one child uh we cannot scroll it what I’m going to do I’m going to have another child over here and that would be row wiget and inside this I can have things like this okay so now here actually I want to scroll this row so that’s what I’m trying to say so now go ahead and put say for example another one so have two of them and here we see that we can scroll already isn’t it beautiful okay now if you have just one you cannot scroll them okay so you need something where you can put more children so what I’m trying to say whatever you put inside this single child scroll view as long as the children inside or the child inside there’s a longer more than the width of the screen then it’s going to scroll okay now of course right now there is nothing on the left and right no point of scrolling why we put row because we want to put a lot of them next to each other and now one might say why you just don’t directly go ahead and put the row over here all right someone can say that but then you see that we have overflow issue because row widget is not supposed to scroll to make a row widget scrollable you need to wrap it around single child scroll view okay so that’s how it works remember again to make a row widget scrollable you need to wrap it inside single child scroll view actually the same goes for column if you want a column to be scrollable you need to go ahead and uh uh wrap it around single shell scroll view now we can actually go ahead and oh we have this one already but of course we don’t want to rate it like this we want to rate it from our list okay we don’t want to have two tickets of with the same information these two tickets they have same information so what do we want to do now to go ahead and load this information and okay so for this one we actually need to remove the list over here here so here we are going to introduce the list variable the one that we declared which is ticket list this one and this is a list so we can take some part from it so we can we just going to take two of it and then we access the map of it so remember we have a map right and we give it a name as a single ticket and inside this we’re going to return ticket view okay so let’s go ahead and do that here we say [Music] return ticket view this one and that’s it and of course it will show an error because row needs a list remember children is a list but what happened over here remember this one just became a map earlier we have seen in our other example that whenever use this map function it becomes a map so that’s why it causing issue and what to do then well in that case you need to go ahead and convert it to tool list okay remember earlier we had this and let’s see what else we have we invoked okay so we have a const expression let’s go ahead and remove that okay right so that’s what’s happening over here and I do believe that it shouldn’t be here okay right like this and then we need to remove that and actually we also don’t need return because this arrow means return okay so that’s how it works but if you don’t understand the arrow sign and everything else so here you could also do like this so here return and it’s still going to work okay um a lot of people prefer this because this is more readable and with this uh lot of the programming concept might not be very clear okay so what I’m going to do over here I said that okay I’m going to take the whole list and I’m just going to take 12 it convert it to map and from each of the map we take each of the from the list we take each of the map so remember we are taking each of the map so this is a map right what do we do we take the map so the map name is single ticket and then we’re going to do actually we’ll pass it over here now let’s go ahead and save it but of course we don’t see any changes but so far we have two items but now things can be more Dynamic here we can have three so we’ll see that we’ll have three items uh okay as you see we have three items but if you remove that most probably we’ll have all of the items uh let’s go ahead and reload and here I think we’ll have five or six items as you can see and the screen become beautifully scrollable and in fact it does look beautiful okay with everything uh sitting together so that’s what we wanted to do of course now the problem is once again this information all are same but if you see the Json the Json information inside they’re different okay uh so like here New York DK Daka New York like that you got my point so that’s why we take each of the map once again each of the map is the map here each of them and we are passing so in fact we need to pass it over here okay here we can say t K single ticket now this is going to throw an error so let’s go ahead our tiet view class over here and then here we could do final map uh string Dynamic and we’re going to call it uh what is it ticket we can just call it ticket all right and then of course then we’ll have issues over here so here we’ll see this the required required this do ticket okay I think we have a type over here dyamic okay now if you come over here of course the error is gone now what we did over here we are P passing each of the map to this ticket view that means we are passing each of them each of them and we are doing that in a loop okay so row is also like a loop actually you have to understand okay now okay so we can grab that information and not only that this time um we can access the ticket itself and where to access them so this is the first place that we want to access so we want to access this one okay ncy now remember in our place we have to access code from and then code and then we’ be able to access this okay so how to do that let’s go ahead and try it ticket view so here I’m going to remove this and then here I’ll say ticket and here you’ll say from then here you will say code and uh let’s remove the coner here and let’s start beautiful now you’ll see that immediately this one changed everywhere remember this is ncy this is DK and this is another DK and ncy I mean now they’re a little bit different right because I’m loading the data dynamically from here but of course some data is are repetitive and that’s okay you but you get the idea right so that’s the first thing that we changed over here and that’s the beauty of loading from Json file okay now this one over here this one okay uh let’s see what what code we have so it’s called two code two code so we need to have that one once again I went to the wrong place so here ticket to code I need to remove this okay and what else okay so New York right so I do remember that should be uh ticket [Music] from let me see the Json file over here it’s called a name from name name so here we’re going to say name all right and I do believe we need to remove const one more time error should be gone okay and the this one so I’m going to copy this and put it [Music] here and then from a should be two name let me remove this okay right but of course we don’t have any changes but we’ll see that Dynamic changes are here on this ticket we know that there isn’t much change but here things are changed as you can see DK Dhaka aset Shanghai right now by saying that one which also means that actually we can change flying time date departure time number and that means that actually we need to come back to this one so we have this uh okay so this this part is just for Ticket icon let me put a comment over here ticket flying icon all right and then from name okay so this one right so let’s see what is it flying time so we call it flying time I’m going to copy this and come over here and remove this and ticket flying time let’s remove const it’s gone beautiful and so that was this one but okay the flying time I put the same over here but I can change it let me go and change the second one okay I think the second one has already been changed so let’s restart the T our uh app yes now here we see that 4 hours is 20 minut so it’s working cool so we are loading them dynamically and what else so over here the same thing uh and what is okay it’s a date and departure time so I’m going to copy this I’m going to come over here so so the first one should be there’s a date let me go ahead and check yes date and uh we do have an issue to remove the cons from here okay right and then this should be departure time ticket departure time it should work and and the last one number so I’m going to come over here indexes ticket remember how we accessed early in our example so if you have a list a map you can always use the keys to access the values and it looks like we have a bit of issue ticket number okay right so this is an INT and here it says the int cannot be subtype of string so we are passing int but this one accept strings over here this top text if you go and check top text is a string but we are passing int so this is an INT so how to solve this to solve this issue over here we can convert it to string and then the arrow should be gone and beautiful and right now all these things are all dynamic as you can see and beautiful so with this actually our ticket part and dynamic loading from Json is done but of course this is still dummy Json data in future we’ll see how to load this even from server okay so these are step by step and the way we work okay so but we are making progress all right now we’ll go ahead and uh work on our view all sections okay because earlier we just showed two items from the ticket but now we want to show all of them and we want to do them in sense of by clicking here okay now if you do remember where is this coming from this is uh coming from here app double text and uh we see that here we have this on tap function here we could go ahead and print something like this tapped all right and if we do see our terminal okay let’s go ahead and uh see the terminal and click on this and we see that here it shows untapped so that’s okay as well now what are we going to do we are going to actually create a new screen over here okay all right so inste the screens over here we are going to create something called all tickets dot Dart so let’s go ahead and add that and uh I’m going to hide it looks like it’s not hiding okay dead and then here we’re going to do state class class we’re going to call it old tickets and let’s import the necessary dependencies so this is what actually we want to call okay now let’s uh come to this class over here this one and we have this app double text so the thing we want to do we want to actually call from here right we want to call from here and how we are going to do that I mean when we click this button then this should go ahead and call this one right and how we going to do that now there a this would be a stepbystep process so first here we can use something called navigator navigator navigator dot well just go ahead and push that thing all right now I wrote this one because actually I wanted to pop up me a snippet of code over here and that code actually we are going to use let’s see what part we have now here you do see that Navigator push context material page route Builder build context and you pass your uh page of screen so here I’m going to copy this but it’s not always easy to remember and I’m going to push it here all right and you’ll see that we’re almost good uh let me go ahead and uh here we can call all tickets this one and the arrow should be gone and let’s go ahead and run our app okay let’s click on this and we have this uh screen over here uh so this is actually officially we did our first routing now the problem with this we cannot go back unless we restart our app so now let’s come over here the first thing we want to do remove this and use a scaold scaold fold because we are we need to go ahead and uh go back to the earlier page when we click on this okay so that’s why the skaffold comes in because we can get the app bar property from it all right and uh let’s save it okay and then we can easily go back so if you want to go back and forth e scaold e can definitely help you otherwise it’s difficult but of course there are other ways to do that all right now let’s focus on this thing so what we did over here now this Navigator is an object actually this object has to do with navigation navigation means going from one place to another right and then here we are using this uh push method now this push method what it does it pushes a new screen on the stack so as you can see this is the new one actually it had this one the idea is when you click on this it’s going to push something new this is the new this is the new UI so that’s what it did over here so it pushed the new UI on our uh screen over here this is where navigation do or Navigator do push comes and play so here we are going to broaden our understanding of this Navigator and push and how they work together now let’s hover over on this and see what it says that it’s a widget that manages a set of child widgets with a stack discipline so it’s saying that okay there’s a widget and it manages a set of child widgets okay so and that those widgets are like in a stack that’s what it says that and at the same same time it says that many maps have Navigator near the top of their widget hierarchy in order to display The Logical history using an overlay with the most recently visited Pages visually on top of the older Pages now how do understand this thing so here it’s saying that while many apps they have a navigator near the top of their widget route hierarchy so many app will have a navigator object or a navigator widget near the widget route now how to understand this one okay we’ll take a step and see how it works okay now here it says that using this pattern let’s Navigator visually transition from one page to another by moving the widgets around the overlay so it’s trying to say that well so you might have things like this where this is the root and at the root you will have routes like this and somehow they would be connected they would be in a back and here we’ll have the Navigator object and Navigator object would move them around on a overlay so there would be an overlay so you can think of like overlay is like the screen over here okay so Navigator object would move them around now that’s the basic understanding so let’s go ahead and learn more about it now let’s hover over on this and here there are different kind of API so our focus is right now here it says that mobile app typically reveal their contents bya full screen elements called screens or pages so we might have screens and pages and those are the ones that shows the content on the screen in flutter these elements are called routes and they are managed by a navigator object now this is where it’s happening over here you see so this is our Navigator object and here we have routes okay now this routes are screens actually in flut they call them routes but in many other places they might call it just like say screens or pages so that’s what it’s saying it says that when your user interface fits this Paradigm of Stack where the user should be able to navigate back to an earlier element in the stack the use of routes and Navigator is appropriate so here what you’re going to have like if you click on somewhere and go to a new page and then come back like this go back and come back in this situation using Navigator and stack makes more sense so that’s what it’s saying and of course here it says that on certain platforms such as Android the system UI will provide a back button and that will take the user to the earlier routes in your application stack so what is trying to say that so if this is your application if this is your Navigator and if you’re here then from here you want to go to route two so route two will have a back button over here if you click the back button it going to come back to Route One or Route One or in root situation but then in some systems like iOS they don’t have back button okay now in that case if you don’t have back button we can use abar to do that and let’s go ahead and see that it exactly says the same thing so on other platforms that don’t have this Bolding navigation mechanism M that use of an abber which we have seen before so we can use that one now here let’s continue to learn more although you create a navigator directly it’s most common to use Navigator created by the router so we can create a navigator which is this one we can create this and how do we get this here it says that actually it’s created automatically by router which itself is created on config fed by Widgets app or material app so the understanding here is well we can have a navigator object Navigator object would be created by router object or widget and then this router itself would be created and configured by material app now this is exactly what I’m trying to show over here so this is our we are in the root of our application and over there we will have material app and material will have route or route object or widget and then that will have Navigator object or widget and then this Navigator would help us to manage our stack so that’s what it’s saying now let’s continue to read the document so here it says that a material if is the simplest way to set things up the material apps home screen become the route at the bottom of the Navigator stack now let’s go ahead and see so here it says that home it becomes the route or default route so that’s why actually you see I wrote here home because home is actually automatically assigned to each material app and that’s stays at the bottom of the Navigator stack that’s what it says so this is our navigator navigator is a stack where things are on the top of each other and home stays at the root at the bottom so the root could be the bottom thing okay of course remember this roote and this roote they’re different this roote I’m referring over here the entry point point of our application and this route over here is our uh routes or screens the one that stays at the bottom now this one is automatically attached to this home property now of course here they have given an example and here it says that to push a new route on the stack you can create an instance of material page route with a builder function that creates whatever you want to appear on the screen so the idea is well we’ll have Navigator object now the Navigator object will hold a lot of routes like a stack but then when you want to show a certain route screen on the AP on the screen on the user screen or app screen then actually that’s need to be built that’s need to be that needs to be done that’s need to be worked out before we show on the screen so how does it happen here it’s saying that it happens through material pag rout all right now let’s go ahead and read it one more time so that it makes sense so here that’s what it says that okay to push a new route on the stack you can create an instance of material page route with a builder function that creates whatever you want to appear on the screen so we want to appear say for example something like this and then this needs to appear on the screen and to appear in the screen we need to pass the screen or whatever it is to this Builder function okay and then it will build the screen build whatever is there whatever element is there and it would show us on the screen so actually that’s how it works now hopefully after everything over here learning this it going to make sense to us and of course you can find this in the resources section all right so now after having a good understanding on this we can go ahead and actually code this all tickets this one over here and we already know that we have this e and within it over here we going to give it a title so let’s go ahead and give it a title and then we’re going to call it all tickets so here we say text toet all tickets and let’s go Ahad and put const all right and and after that over here we are going to have body so let’s go ahead and do body and um here we want list View and within list view we want children and then here we’ll have single child scroll view then would be our child that would be our column let’s go ahead and do that now if you see earlier one home screen over here you’ll find interesting matches okay so let me go ahead and collapse this so that you know what I’m talking about so that’s the container and there should be the first row container all right so just like this one we also have list View and single shell scroll view inside that we have row that’s because we want to horizontal scrolling but actually over here we want vertical scrolling so that’s why we are going to use column widget and that’s what we have seen over here so we have column and then inside the column we’ll have children go ahead and try children and then and we can directly access ticket list. map and then we can just simply passes by saying single ticket single ticket and just like last time here we can just simply pass ticket view this one and then single ticket and after that here we’re going to convert it to to list and we are good to go now let’s go ahead and save it and click on this and here we go so here we already see that our tickets are all available which we see and then of course the spacing the spacing doesn’t look like that it’s working well now how to work with this uh let me reformat the code so each of the T it over here is this one and we want to wrap this around something so let’s go ahead and wrap around a container Widget the reason we are doing container widget because we would be able to apply certain constraint with it for example like uh say margin so we can assign margin into it and add insets do only and then bottom say 20 now let’s save it and here we go so that part’s working and then now we do see that there’s this spacing issue right left and right is not working now if you do come over here and over here we do see that we are supposed to take 85% and then the contain itself on the right we are supposed to have 16 space over here okay now if you remove it to zero let’s see let’s go ahead and save it and now we see that it’s much better and they’re equal right now left and right but with this the problem would be here the to close and they connected so how can we work with this now luckily we can set condition over here so let’s uh come over here and then here we can say final bow whole screen whole screen and then here this is what we’ll have and then here we can also Define a value this do whole screen here is false okay okay so this is the default value and then how to work on this one so here we can check like this we can use a turnar operator whole screen okay if whole screen true than zero otherwise here we can use 16 and here we do have const let’s remove that and it’s going to work okay so the default value we gave it false right so it’s going to use 16 let’s go ahead and save it okay and if you go to homepage you’ll see that okay homepage is fine but now here it’s still uh not as we expected but what we could do this time here we can pass the value whole screen and here we can say true and it’s beautiful as you can see over here and everything is aligning perfectly so once again over here we didn’t do any kind of value passing for whole screen now for that reason over here it’s using the false value if it is false then we use 16 otherwise we go ahead with zero and it’s a beautiful match as you can see over here and the screen is completely scrollable so hopefully with this you understand how navigation works and how to work with this kind of layout all right so here we have this understanding of Navigator do push and we also learned that here we have this material page route which helps us to build a screen but now problem with this is that maral page route you always have to use every time everywhere if you want to go to and navigate to a new page which means you have to write this and you have to pass the screen there are two problem s with this the first problem is every time you have to write material pager out and second you also have to mention the screen now mentioning the screen is a problem because what if you want to change the screen then wherever you have used this one you have to go and everywhere this is what creates a problem now since it creates a problem actually there’s a better way to do this thing now if we go and look our earlier example like here we said that okay here we have this home route right and then Navigator actually maintains a lot of them lot of the routes in a stack now this Home Route actually we know that this has been defined in our main. Dart class over here and if you do come over here you see that we already have this one okay now to avoid this kind of situation the situation that already has arised look at this one avoiding writing this and this everywhere actually we can Define over here so we have this routes property over here actually and routes property takes a map and this is what I was saying early that we can put our routes in a map and of course we have learned what is called map right map has to be in curly braces and that’s what we see over here let’s go ahead and hover over on this and of course here we do see that okay so this is a map and here it says when a named route is post to navigator that post name the route name is looked up in this map so it is trying to say that while earlier we are over here have used Navigator do push to push a route on on our stack but of course now we can go ahead and use Navigator do push named go ahead and say this Navigator push named so instead of Navigator push we are going to use Navigator push named now with this we’ be looking them up from our map over here we’ll look the routes map routes name from this map using the name once again we going to look up the route’s name from this map using the name and that’s what it says it the route name is looked up in this map if the name is present the associated widget Builder is used to construct a materal page route that performs an appropriate transition including hero animations to the new route so it it means that it can do uh lots of other different things so here it says that well if you do use push named material page route is going to be called automatically okay it’s going to be called by widget Builder widget Builder will call it and build this material page out so we don’t need to pass it explicitly so this is what we are going to do over here now one thing you could do over here look at this so here we can assign a name and what would be the name well earlier we have said all tickets right so here actually we could do all tickets just like this and then over here we can pass the context actually we need to pass the context so it’s more like your calling a function okay in this case actually we are calling the widget itself or the class itself so all tickets okay and that should do the job and it looks like we have a bit of issues so here we need to remove this const over here here and it looks good let’s go ahead and Define it and let’s come over here and put a const in front of it and it’s going to work okay so of course one may say what does it look like why it’s like this if you do want actually here you could also do like this return and it’s still going to work okay so even before you call this class using this route name if you want you can do data pre uh data preprocessing preprocessing if we need to do anything but in our case we not going to do any of this so we’re just going to use this uh Arrow function to do it okay it’s called fat Arrow now we already defined a route over here and then so over here inside the this double text actually we don’t need this anymore okay we don’t need this and actually we don’t need any of this so here we can say push named this one we need to pass the context and then here we need to pass this one now if you do come over here you’ll see that we need to pass con context and a route name and the route name itself what is it going to be the rout name itself is going to be a string as you can see over here so that’s what we are going to do and then what do you pass you pass actually all tickets that’s what you pass and now with this it looks clean simple and that’s it okay so it looks very simpler with this right in fact if you want you can go ahead and take this and remove this from here and then we can just use Arrow function okay and look at this okay right it’s still going to work but since it’s an arrow function we don’t need this semicolon all right now let’s go ahead and restart our app from the beginning okay and remember our changes are here let me close others we don’t need the other files okay so our changes are here and over here right so we already restarted our app of course we don’t see any changes if we do go ahead and click on this looks like nothing is happening and let’s look it up so here we have an issue here it says that okay couldn’t find a generator for Route settings all tickets so the thing it’s saying that it can’t find all tickets this one the string over here now let’s see what’s going on here we have all tickets actually I think I have a typo CK ETS all tickets and now let’s go ahead and run it and then here okay it’s beautiful it works so the route is working and at the same time actually I want to remove part of this things over here we don’t need this still printing the log all right okay cool so now let’s go ahead and run it one more time and click on this and we do see that it works okay cool now let’s come back over here again now what about this one home properties actually so this is our initial property right so one one thing we could do here we could do like this slash this slash actually is equivalent to home and then we can take this from here take this and then we can pass context put a comma and let’s remove this let me go ahead and remove this and it’s still going to work okay and of course we don’t have any issue with this and we see that it works but of course you can’t have home and slash at the same time you’ll have error I mean you can go ahead and try you’ll have error so you can either only use the slash or home property and the rest of the routes could be defined over here so now here we also see that earlier we have learned map and this is where exactly actually we are using map to work on our routes okay now of course I think by convention you can also put a slash over here and if you do if you do that you also need to I believe need to put it here as well let’s go ahead and run and let’s click on this and we see that it works so it’s beautiful well with this we have deepen our understanding about route navigation and how mapping can help us okay now let’s uh come to the homepage remember earlier we said that this is a reusable text and we want to reuse it so now let’s come over here and put this uh and I think we can also put a little bit of distance so let’s go ahead and use it here and save it and here we see this one right okay so here we are able to see all the tickets right and let’s go ahead and change it change it to hotels that’s what we are supposed to use it but now of course if you click over here it still takes you to the ticket page what’s the reason the reason is over here you see that we have um this ontap event this is also called event and this is a hard coder right so whatever we call wherever we call this class from it’s the same event is getting called so what we could do instead of passing it uh making it hardcoded here actually we can pass it through our and now here we can declare something like this so here it’s saying that okay we are going to have a variable and the variable would be a function type of course that means that we have to pass a function and here we say that we may pass function we may not pass function I think it would also work without this now we of course need to have it here actually required uh let’s come over here uh required required uh this. funk all right okay now the idea is because you see early that we can pass a string right we mention the string type and we pass the string itself so we could similarly we could also pass function okay so here we are saying that we are going to pass function and then uh we’re going to call it funk okay like this as you can see over here we function Funk now in general the convention is uh over here you mention it as void call back like that okay now how to work with this so the first thing I’m going to do is I’m going to copy this actually I’m not going to delete the yes I’m going to copy this and of course here you see that we have issues because it wants more argument and what’s the argument it should be Funk and you can pass this one and let’s see what’s going on invalid con so const could be a problem so remove that and here it wants you to import this Library as a package and arrow should be gone and here the same thing we remove const and then we do Funk and we pass what we had okay and of course the thing is that over here um we are passing the same function right okay so even before we change or do anything else so make sure the changes take effects so we are already passing function from here so this is our function and that’s what we are passing and as we are passing this we can use the past one whatever we are passing so we passed the function and we are using that function remember this is already a function okay this already has a function body so you don’t have to go ahead and do like this okay and it’s not going to work right so you have to pass uh because I mean you have to use it like this because it’s already the function that you are passing from here now let’s go ahead and restart our app and let’s click on this and we see it works right we don’t have any issues so the first thing what we did over here that it became Dynamic I mean whatever you pass down to it it’s going to work for example now we don’t want to pass the same one we want to pass something different what do you want to pass uh an empty body that’s all so let’s go ahead and restart so this is a callback function we are passing we are passing this would work if you click on it so this function would get called so that’s why we call it callback function and this is also a callback function work on this it works and you click on that nothing because it is nothing to do if you want you can print it so here it’s a print hello there all right so let’s go ahead and run and click on this and here we see hello there you see that right so it’s it’s working and it’s being printed so hello there right and if you come over here we see our tickets and you can still go back so that’s how it works actually so this part has been pretty Dynamic and beautiful so definitely we are progressing and improving this time we’re going to go ahead and work on this section and and as you can see this would be also scrollable left and right and at the same time of course this is going to scroll with the whole app itself as you can see over here now from this You’ understand that once again we’ll have a container and inside the container we will have this image and container itself will have background color as you can see over here and then uh the size of this container would be a little more than 50% of the whole screen WID over here so these are the things that we need to remember now let’s come over here and see how we can arrange the next part so as usual we’re going to put it here actually and then here uh we going to put our text text or actually I wouldn’t say text actually our widget now this is going to be here so we had this home screen so this is a screen and uh part of it over here would be uh widget actually so here I’m going to go ahead and create a directory and here we’re going to call it widgets and inside this we are going to go ahead and create a file and then we’re going to call it hotel. Dart okay like that okay now why I didn’t put it somewhere else globally because this hotel itself just going to be used in this screen over here that’s it over here it’s not going to be used anywhere else so you can put it inside the screens widgets and hotel like this so let’s go ahead and create a status class for now and we’re going to call it hotel and let’s go ahead and import the things that we need and since we have this one now over here we can simply go ahead and call hotel and let’s import the things that we need okay cool and of course nothing will change over here I mean apart from this thing this box over here all right so here one thing we do first as I said that we’re going to return a container because we are going to do a design like this and one of the thing you do understand from it here we’re going to give it a width okay now say you’re going to give it width uh 300 let’s go ahead and do that and say then you’re going to give it a height 350 and then let’s go ahead and do uh color actually so here we can say colors. gray. shade uh 200 and most we also need the this one let’s go ahead and save it okay so look like we don’t see it here yet and what if we actually change the color so actually this is close to White so colors. red and let’s save it and this is what we see so for now we’re going to Cave it as it is and we’re going to change it very soon and you see that we can already scroll up so that’s the first part and of course we don’t want the color like this the reason is because over here you see we have border right so we want to have decoration and box decoration and inside box decoration we can assign color and for now it would look like nothing has changed but instead of using this color we can here use our app Styles I think do primary color let’s go ahead and save it this is what we want and then after that over here we’re going to do border radius and Border radius do circular dot here say 2 4 let’s save it and now it’s more like looking like this one over here as you can see now of course this whole width looks like a little too much so we don’t want to show it like this in that case we need to go ahead and create a variable so here final uh say size equal here we’re going to do media quy media query media query. of context do size now here let’s go ahead and take size do width and then we’re going to take six or 6% of it so it become much smaller and in that case it will look like this one over here right so now over here you’ll see that we have this and this and this and this so looks like all of them we can put in a column luckily right here we could do a child and inside child we can have column then we’ll have children and let’s put it everything like this and save this and of course no changes there and then over here we want to show the image now for the image itself we can do a container now the reason why we are going to do a container once again we’ll have border over here as you can see so if you have container you can always assign border like that so I’m going to copy this and put it here now in this case instead of having border radius uh 24 we can have it as 12 and color is still primary color and if we save it of course nothing is visible over here and then here is this property which is called image and then we could do decoration image and then here we can do image and at the same time then we do asset image and then over here we can say image uh well let me me look at our resources folder and here we actually have media not as image so here so let’s come over here and we would say well app media app media this one and app media while then we could actually say for example go ahead with logo and we might be able to see that but looks like we don’t see it yet then in that case give it a height and give it a height of 180 and we see it here and of course it looks ugly this is not what we want to show remember earlier we had assets and I think uh this is the one that we want to show yeah this one okay this name is Hotel Rome so let’s come over here and then you can just go ahead and copy this over here and we can we’re going to call it hotel [Music] room and then let’s see hotel room this is the image name let’s save it let’s remove this and then over here we’ll have hotel room let’s go ahead and save it well not sure we have an issue okay let’s go ahead and reload it okay we already see that it’s there but then it it’s looking little weird so over here there are other properties that we can set so that property is called fit property fit fit so here we’re going to fit something called box fit do cover so not cover or contain it should be cover let’s go ahead and save it so now it is better so cover like cover letter or you know cover on a page or on an album okay so it looks better with this now this one over here we do see that it’s not like this I mean here we do have this kind of extra background which it doesn’t have now I do feel like uh keeping like this maybe better than this so I’m going to keep it as like this okay but if you do want you can also change it like this it’s going to work anyway okay so now this part is so far so good and ready now in terms of this box with. cover and contain and fill you can try different of them and you’ll see that uh whichever which one ever or which one fits your need okay it doesn’t have to be just one single criteria so it could be any of them based on your needs okay so we’re going to keep it as it is now we see so that part is all right working and then over here we could do say sized sized box height 10 all right and then over here we’re going to show our text so this is the text that we want to show over here now how we going to do that so let’s go ahead and put our text text and inside this what you want to say you want to say open space so let’s go ahead and say open space all right and after that let’s put styles to it and I guess we have app styles do headline 2 we’re going to get headline two from it then copy with all right uh looks like copy with this one and inside this we want to actually set a different color remember whatever headline has already we can keep that color and all the properties of this but we just want to change the color of it okay now say colors. red let’s go ahead and save it so we already see the color over here all right so so far so good and uh it’s fine but this is not the color that we want to show so for this one let’s go there and we set up a color over here we call it cocki color which actually matches with the design so we remove this and then here we can say uh I think that’s the app star F Styles dot Kaki color let’s save it and this is this matches better now let’s go ahead and put it here now we do see that we have a bit of issues okay uh so the text itself the children they are like this text there should be a bit of spacing actually they should be on the on this side on the left on the left side but we don’t see that they’re on the left side so here we could set up property which is called uh cross access alignment cross access alignment Dost start now this looks fine so remember for column the cross AIS is horizontal AIS now of course this doesn’t look like this one over here so that’s also a problem now around wrap this around another widget so let’s go ahead and wrap this around padding widget and then if you save it you’ll already see that you’re getting result but in this case we just going to do left so we’re going to do only left 15 okay so which is much better looking right now all right so so far so good and then here what I’m going to do I’m going to copy this and put it here okay and if I do that you’ll see now let’s go ahead and check so all I need to do change this one so here 25 and uh what was it let me go ahead and check night now if you’re going to show this dollar sign we need to have this erson I not erson this slash actually then you can only show the dollar and after that over here we can do sized box and height say five let’s save it and we see it as it is is here okay and what about this text itself we also have another text over here I think we are putting the text itself should be three actually this should be three a little big okay let me go ahead and put one and see how things go okay actually this is what I was talking and then uh we can actually copy one of the other in fact not like this and go ahead and copy and put it here okay and let me have it as it is and then instead of this here we can sell London so here you see London but the color actually we can say colors. white so far we are okay with white color and I like this so here you can have three style three let’s save it so yeah so that’s pretty much it for now okay so this is what we have now and the first first thing you want to do is moving it to the left side over here now how to do that of course there is no mechanism over here that we can do it so we need to do it here now as you see that we are inside a column right so in general we could actually set up the property cross access alignment and cross access alignment do start remember for column cross access is uh this horizontal property how you align something horizontally and then you see that yeah it aligned up and then there is also a problem with this double text over here so looks like previously we are using uh this one as 20 so let’s go ahead and use this so that we are pretty much same and save it okay cool of course this part is scrollable and then I also want to make a bit of change in the design because here the theme color is this bluish and this orange so we want to have a little bit of U bluish color now for this reason over here actually this is the container right we know that this container itself has this color okay this is the primary color right which is this one so this container is all of it right so inside this we want to create some empty space so we can always create empty space inside a container using padding so here we can use Ed inser St all and then over here save for now 0.8 sorry 8.0 let’s save it and that’s what we see now this border is a little too much okay so we don’t want any border like that I mean it’s a little too curved so we don’t want that one we want a little bit sharp edge okay and this one actually I think I would be happy with 18 okay and this is perfect now with this it looks much better okay all right so let’s go ahead and add a const modifier over it okay now let’s come over here this is our hotel and right now currently we we just have only one hotel so what you want to do you want to do it like this the single child scroll view okay now uh as we saw earli that we also want to be able to scroll left and right so we need to wrap this around single child scroll view so let’s go ahead and do that here we’re going to do single child single child scroll view like this all right and with this the only problem is that we can only put one child so we might have many of them so over here this hotel actually we want to wrap it around another widget actually we want to wrap it around the row wiget and then here we might have 12 of this so let’s go ahead and put two hotels I mean Hotel widget actually and this’s the other one that we see okay now of course there is this horizontal issue over here okay so let’s go ahead and uh I think we can assign the scroll Direction and here we do access do horizontal let’s go ahead and save it and now it’s gone we see that we are able to scroll it right but now the problem is there are too much close to each other so here for the first one we can wrap it around the container and then here we can actually assign a bit of margin to it so let’s go ahead and do that here margin this one and then here Ed inserts uh let me go ahead and find Edge inserts oh let’s see okay like this let me go ahead and copy this and let’s put it here okay okay we don’t have any conditions here like this so we’re going to just put 16 and now it’s separated just like this one and it looks beautiful but if you do see that over here ticket view we put this margin inside a container not really inside the scroll view so this hotel screen actually I think we can do the same over here so here we can do margin and you can have it and we can remove this condition let’s save it but of course we see now more distance in that case we can just simply go ahead and remove all of this actually in fact we don’t need uh like that we can just have to of [Music] this let’s save it and then we see that it works in fact you can have a lot of of them and then it’s still going to work okay all right so that’s how you go ahead and scroll so we are scrolling all of them and beautiful so it’s already looking very nice and that’s what we wanted to see all right so in next section actually we’re going to see how to load this data dynamically from our map okay so this time we’re going to go ahead and work on our map data now as usual we need to come to our all Json over here now the name once again could be confusing because once you get your data from server side actually it’ be already in Json format okay but if you do want you can change it to all map anyway so let me go ahead and put the data here so this is our hotel list and once again there is a list of map okay so that’s why we have list and inside we have map okay so list of map so that’s what we have now here everything is pretty much just set the only thing that we need to change I believe this uh this names actually the naming over here is not very correct so here we can change it to save for example well it says open space and I don’t think we have one open space over here so let me go ahead and see so this is the City View and uh we might have hotel room this one so let me go ahead and change it to hotel room hotel room okay so this one is fine and then I think we need to have another one over here okay let me go ahead with CTV the second one [Music] CTV all right and the third one over here we can go ahead and do pull view pull view okay but looks like they are not going to be the same though here we have tallest building so here we can say best pool best pool in the city like that okay all right so this is what we’ll have and let me save the data and that’s fine okay and of course we don’t need like this so we can remove all of this and we’ll end up having one okay cool so it it would be just like this so what I’m going to do I’m going to copy this row over here okay and then let me just put it here and instead of ticket list we’ll have hotel list H H hotel list okay and what do we have uh cannot be invoked on a constant expression so let me remove that and here we can say single Hotel you get the idea uh but in general the photos we are loading there might not be Hotel all of them but related to Hotel okay all right see single hotel and here we’ll have hotel and rest of the things stays the same and uh now of course Hotel over here um doesn’t match in a sense of course we didn’t declare it so let me change it to hotel which is more readable and now let’s come over here and declare it here final map okay and then string and D [Music] damic Dynamic and then here we’re going to call it Hotel okay and dyamic we have an issue and then here Hotel require uh this do hotel okay all right so now let’s go ahead and save it and we do see okay we already have two over here and the reason is because if you come over here we are taking two of them that’s why it’s showing two but in fact we are not changing any data but this is the time that we’re going to go ahead and change our data so let’s go ahead and do that and if we if you were to come over here inside this I believe so okay over here we’re going to change our image first right and and uh how to change the image itself so now the image should be coming from our the actual image link is over here right this is the image link actually this is where the images are I believe they’re uh sorted over here okay but we don’t have those images we can’t use any of this so we have to forget so for now in this case all we have to do we have to assume that we know the image path so in fact we know the image path here assets images all right like this and then here we’ll have this uh dollar sign and then this one because we’re going to put a variable which is hotel and inside this we’ll have image okay and with this I think everything is going to work fine uh let’s see so we have a con here let me go ahead and remove this so let’s understand this one so over here this would be actually image path from server but of course in that case in future we have to replace asset image with network image okay and currently we know that our images are also stored over here inside assets images folder that’s what we did right and the exact image name whatever the image itself the name is coming from this hotel image which eventually refers to to this image uh key over here so this is an image key okay so that’s what I said and uh then all we need to do let’s go ahead and save it and we’ll see that if we can view new images let’s restart it okay cool now here we already see that we have two new images and then we also have this text available over here uh but we need to change them but images have changed dynamically and if you want you can also remove that and try to load three of them and you will see it’s there three of them are here okay all this images beautiful all right okay so our next job should be changing the text now over here we already have a text and but this is also hardcoded this is not what we want so we’ll have Hotel here and then here we can just get this place variable which is this one place okay all right and then over here uh I think uh I have a typo sorry so this one should be here I think this is the first one and um the second one should be destination I believe destination we should be coming from here so Place destination and next one we’re going to show prize over here now the price itself we are going to show a dollar sign remember so this one uh so this is for showing the dollar sign right and at the same time we’ll have variable so to show show variable inside string we have to use another dollar sign and then this curly braces so this is the basic Dart thing you should know by this time and then here we’ll say price and after that over here we can do this slash and here night okay now this part may be confusing to some of you so what I said over here is that okay okay so this dollar sign to show this dollar sign we using the first slash the first slash and then dollar sign which means that we’ be able to see this one and then because hotel is a variable and we want to take value inside out of from it so that’s why we have used and the dollar sign with curly braces okay that’s how it works all right so let me go ahead and restart and then of course I believe that we have overflow issue like over here because some of this the um text is too long so in that case what we could do for now uh we can change the name to best City Pool let me go ahead and change it let’s restart okay now we don’t have any overflow issue and beautiful okay cool now after this over here if we come to home screen in fact we can actually here do take. two we just want to show two of them for example take two all right and then restart it and we’ll see that we are only showing two of all right so that’s working pretty cool and then next we might be working on this one where we’re going to show all the hotels okay so next once we done with the which we have already done over here then we are going to work on the search page so this is the page that we want to work now as we are going to work on this uh so here instead of screens folder here we are going to create a new file over here well actually what we could do here we could do like this we can do a little bit of refractor search okay and then inside there we can create a new file and search screen dot dot like this but of course with this it looks like we also have to refractor okay and then over here this one we also want to put inside a new directory and actually we’re going to call it home and we’re going to move this one over here and we need to to refractor everything alongside this and here the same thing and I think all tickets should go there as well for now okay and let’s see if we have issues or not and looks like we don’t okay we have an issue so let’s remove that and then we see where we need to import reimport so here we need to reimport everything okay all right now let’s go ahead and run W one more time from scratch and okay it’s working fine we don’t have any issues we don’t have any issues over here as well okay now over here we are going to uh work on this search screen this one over here now here we are going to create a stat list class and here we can say search screen okay let’s go ahead and import the placeholder and related libraries okay now over here if we do come to this bottom tab uh instead of search like this we can use search screen search screen have it and we’ll see that we might not have any changes but let’s go ahead and restart it [Music] okay cool well after that actually we going to continue to work on this so the first thing we can do is remove this the const as well all right now and then let’s go ahead and take a look at this one so this is once again scrollable so definitely we can use list view since this is going to be scrollable okay but before that we need to use SC F but otherwise we might not be able to color it all right and then here we’ll have body color and then inside this all sorry body not body color list view so list view would help us to scroll it let’s just save it let’s come over here so it’s this and everything else is gone and then we the first thing we need is setting the background color itself okay and let’s go ahead and see the background color I don’t think they look same so over here we need to use background color and app styles. BJ color let’s go ahead and save it okay right this is the correct color that we are looking for Okay cool so the next thing we want is showing this text over here now while we learned that over here if it’s a list view we’ll have have children so inside children we want to show a text and the text itself is what what are you looking for this one okay let’s go ahead and save it and we do say it here now we have this sln which means it’s a new line and then we want to color it or style it so here style do F styles okay dot headline so we are going to use headline one let’s go ahead and save it and we say it’s pretty big and then here we’re going to do copy with copy with and we want to change the color and the color itself uh we can use font size okay font size uh not sorry color font size actually 35 and it’ be pretty big as you can see and that’s what we have seen over here okay all right so now there is a little bit of space here so let’s remove that and now with this they’re very similar okay all right so now once again take a look at this and they do look a little bit different the way we see over here there is this padding right so but we don’t have the padding over here but inside list view actually we can apply padding so Ed inserts do symmetric this one horizontal padding say 20 and vertical padding say 20 all right okay so symmetric puts a padding or margin on the left and right side at the same time but amount of padding and margin you want you can mention them separately but in this case just we are just putting padding now it’s too close to the top section so here we could do size box and then in the side box we could do height and 40 and let’s save it okay cool and with this we are looking very similar to this one we don’t have any issues as you can see they’re exactly the same thing now the tabs are not clickable but in future we’ll make them clickable so we want to work on the tabs now for the tab self actually we want to put them over here just like this home widget so here we’ll have directory and here we’re going to call it uh widgets right and then file here we can call it app ticket tabs. Dart okay right then here we’re going to make a stess class we’re going to call it app ticket tabs all right so the first thing we want to do is go ahead and import library and as well as we also want to put it here so here we’re going to call it app ticket tabs let’s go ahead and import well looks like we are missing a semicolon over here okay right for now we’re going to put const modifier and you save it you’ll see like this and at the top of that actually we can give it a little bit of spacing over here so sized box here say height 20 and then I guess it’s fine okay right okay so now we’re going to focus on working on this beautiful uh UI section over here where it says airline tickets and hotel so definitely from here you understand that this is going to be a row wiget and then at the same time uh we going to have container so container container and then child row well the reason having container is that you see the Border style over here so every time you have to decorate or give border to a box it’s better you go ahead and use container because within container you’ll have decoration and then box decoration just like this border radius border radius do circular and then here we’re going to have 50 go ahead and do color colors do red and we need material library in that case we might not need this one at all okay so let’s go ahead and save it nothing is visible because our child we don’t have this child is empty okay if you put a text over here insert children and the text high or H as you can see it’s visible but this is something not that we want to put so over here we going to have a color so here we’ll have color and we’re going to call it o x ff4 f uh I think six FD this one so that’s the color that we want uh let me see are we doing it correctly yes we are doing it correctly L but looks like it’s still not visible is it visible I think it is visible but not that obvious though let’s put another F okay so now it’s visible and then we are fine well after this inside this actually we want to work with our first uh container so we remove that and then you may ask why container again because you see that part of it would be straight and the part would be like this border over here like radius so so we need container again so here we’ll have container and inside the container now we need to give it a WID and size and how to get that so here we’ll have final size media quy of context do size now if we do come over here inside this uh we could do okay I think we need to do like this all right and insert this over here we’re going to have width and what would be our width so here size dot width and then whatever it is we are going to take 44% out of it okay right now once again nothing is there because nothing is visible okay right and then then over here inside this let’s uh put a child over here for now a text and inside the text itself we can say airline tickets okay Air Line tickets let’s go ahead and save it and we see that is already visible now over here all it doesn’t look good so here we we could do padding so here as in sets only are actually symmetric and we’re going to do it vertical top and bottom so let’s give it seven and as you see that it already uh looking better the reason is because um in the top and bottom we have this uh padding over here okay cool and then inside this we can have a text where it’s going to Center itself of course it’s going to it’s not going to come over here because as you see that this container may actually taking all of it within the Row the first container just takes 44% of the whole thing so that’s why we see that it’s um uh just coming over here not really inside the whole container and being over here so it’s a row but the first element so it has to so row is like splitting like half and it’s putting inside the midle hopefully it makes sense and then the other thing we could do we can just go ahead and copy this and let’s put it here and let’s save it and we do see that this is what we have and right now we can put hotels instead of this one so let’s go ahead and do hotels just like this now if you do come over here inside this so let’s go ahead and apply decoration and then we could do box decoration so now here we’ll have border radius border radius do horizontal this one and then we want to apply the border to the left side so let’s go ahead and do border to the left side so here we do left and then radius. circular R radius do circular and here we’re going to do 50 now it looks like no changes at all over here one thing remember this color uh well for color itself we are going to change it very soon so let’s go ahead and do colors so here we do colors. white now see H yes it’s different and now if you don’t give it border radius you will see that it becomes like this so that’s why you also need to give another border radius okay hopefully it makes sense because this border radius now becoming same as the parent border radius okay so with this it should make more sense and I think let’s put con wherever possible okay and I think we should also do it here okay now of course with all of this actually in fact I can copy this and come over here now this this one over here instead of white we could do transparent so whatever the background color it has we keep as it is otherwise if you put it white of course it doesn’t make sense right so you want to have transparent now over here instead of having it on the left have it on the right even though they look like same is better you do it on the right even though this even transparent so it’s just taking the background color of this container itself over here which is this one okay all right so these are the few things that we need to know and then over here we can have hotels okay so airline tickets and hotels so that’s that’s what pretty much we have and uh okay so hopefully you are able to make the reusable widget which was given as an assignment but anyway if you are not able to do that I’m going to do it and show you here how to do it well we can close this now as I said early in the instructions that we can create a new widget over here in this widgets folder we can create a new file that’s one way to go and actually there’s another way in fact we can create a new stateless class over here St class and we’re going to call it we’re going to call it app tabs okay now remember what we need over here if you open up which things are changing we see that uh pretty much uh left and right condition is changing okay so we have to know whether we are applying to the left or whether we are applying to the right okay so that one and as well as this um uh text itself so these two things are actually changing so now for them we can apply as we can declare them as a string the first one string okay tab string all right and then we can also do final uh bull and a tab border okay now of course it’s uh creating noise over here it’s saying that okay you need to give me values so all right tab string now okay actually we can also give it a default value over here and let’s see remove okay if we give default value then we don’t need required that’s true and what else over here AA cannot be a b type okay I should do it tab string this one uh instead of calling it string let’s call it text because string is too technical text makes more sense all right and then over here uh this Dot tab border and uh here by default is false okay these are the two conditions that we are going to use now what I’m going to do I’m going to copy this one over here and definitely put it here okay and looks like we also need to get this guy so I’m going to copy this and of course with this we’ll have error and that’s fine I’m going to put it here okay and after that so tab text so this is the text would be sent so here I can directly use this one tab text and uh we have const so we got to remove that part and what else now this one so whether we are applying to the left and right side we need to be careful okay so by default uh it’s false so here we can say tab border border equal false okay if it is false then we are going to apply it to the left side which is already this one over here okay so it wants a const over here otherwise otherwise here we can uh actually copy this whole thing now once again we are using tary operator over here and then here we can say right okay so this is the only difference that we’ll have let me reformat the code so that it’s more readable okay so now by default is false if it is false that means we are going to apply to the left side if we send a value as by saying true then we’re going to apply it to the right side which is over here everything else stays the same so now we can be smart and remove this too we don’t need so in that case we can say app tab okay all right and you’ll see that we can also do app tabs this one if you save it uh everything is gone and it’s falling into default one right and it’s ugly so here the first thing you can say app text what’s the value of it uh the value of it is all I think all that was all tickets and that’s what we see and then over here tab text hotels save it we see now the Border itself over here tab border we can pass true and let’s save it and this is what we see now there is also a color issue though which we forgot to mention okay because this one and this one their colors are different right so this one we need to assign a transparent color where is this color coming from this box decoration color okay so we need to create another variable here we can say find bow tab color okay and then once again over here this dot tab color equal false let me reformat the code it looks better and then over here you say t color false then white otherwise wi here would say colors. transparent let’s save it and of course in this case this one still doesn’t work because we need to pass tab color true okay and then you’ll see that it works perfectly beautiful so this we just built another reusable widget all right so the next thing we want to do is showing this one over here this two now for this two once again we’ll be building reusable text widget so let’s go ahead and do that now let’s uh come over here and uh we were here inside this screens widgets right okay now here we are going to create uh well actually not this folder this one here we are going to create a new new file and we’re going to call it app text icon so let’s go ahead and name it app text icon dot Dart all right and then over here we are going to create a status class and we’re going to call it app text icon app text icon okay so let’s go ahead and do the necessary steps over here and let’s go ahead and remove this and inside this we are going to have a container the reason that we are going to have container once again if you see over here we are going to have borders so you have to use a text uh container to do that so that gives us the idea that okay here we are going to use decoration and box decoration because we will have border radius so we can do border radius do circular over here and then the Border radius we’re going to use 10 on this and at the same time here we’re going to do color so here we could do colors. white let’s go ahead and import it okay now let’s save it and of course we don’t see anything because we don’t have a child now over here we are going to do a child and the child would be row and children okay now let’s take a look why because here we have this two items right so we can put them in a row next to each other so uh that’s why we have this and at the same time you’ll see that okay first one is an icon and second one is a text so here for the first one itself we could use the icon widget okay and here we’ll have icon okay now let’s go ahead and save it let me restore it okay and let’s come over here and of course we don’t say it the reason is now let me close this search screen over here so here we could have uh const app text icon this one uh okay we don’t want this app text icon okay we have a d there and which is wrong we don’t want d That’s a typo so let’s go ahead and move that and now the arror is gone and let’s save it and here you see there is an icon we see that so let’s style it and here we could do sized box and then here we’ll do height so height actually we could do 25 let’s put it like this put it down okay beautiful now since it is here let’s go ahead and apply padding so here we’re going to do padding to it add insets dot we could do symetric first one is vertical so top and bottom vertical 12 and horizontal say 12 let’s save it now it became bigger and which is cleaner and nicer okay now few things so this color itself uh we can Define it in our app Styles file so let’s go ahead and open it app Styles okay all right so here we can say static color now let’s take a look at this one so here we can say plain color plain because these are plain right plain color like this and then I think it wants a con to here let’s go ahead and put a const and then over here we going to sorry so let’s remove this and here we can use app styles and now it became Universal right after this we going to use text now here for now it’s a [Music] departure this one and then here we could do Style app Styles dot text style this one now let’s go ahead and save it and this what we see now these two are too close to each other and then here we could do sized box and we could do width actually withd say 10 and we have an issue all right and looks like we need a const over here otherwise we’ll get these things okay at the same time we also need const over here now among all these things over here actually we want this icon and this one to be dynamic so here we could do final icon data icon final uh we can say string text and we need to put them in the Constructor required this. icon required this. text okay right now this icon would be actually sent from the uh this as a parameter right so we’re going to pass it down the place where we call it from okay now where we are calling it from we are calling it from here and we have error so that’s fine let’s go ahead and pass the icon and here we do icons dot uh flight flight rounded this one I think we’re going to do actually take off all right and then we also need the text itself so here it say D [Music] part beautiful AR is gone set con modifier now here we going to put it down over here and uh here instead of this we can use flight land rounded this one and here we can say arrival and then over here we’re going to have const sign ized box height say 20 beautiful now let’s go ahead and save it okay so with this we build another reusable uh widget app I context widget okay so all we needed to do we can uh we needed to pass this as a parameter so the idea is when you pass icon as an argument and accept it as a parameter over here you have to accept it using icon data okay so that’s one thing and the other thing we learn that by default if you have items in a row they’re all on the Left sided as you see this is the default so these are all on the left side okay this is the default property so if you don’t change all going to be on the left side but of course if you want we can put this one here departure there all right so that’s how it works so that which looks very much like this over here and I think so far so good while in next section we’ll see how to work on this uh this is done now we can go ahead and work on this one of course this would be relatively simple over here now here we can create a new widget actually inside this ser SE one okay so here we’re going to create new widget and we’re going to call it find tickets okay find tickets. Dart and then once again we are going to create a stateless class and we’re going to call it find tickets all right and then let’s import it that’s it and after that we’re going to just go ahead and call it over here going to call it const find tickets find tickets this one and we are good to go let’s save it and we see it here and obviously over here at the top we need to have con sized box and height say 25 all right okay cool so now let’s come over here and remove this so we’re going to have container and once again you understand that container is just for Border okay with container you can always apply border so now we are going to be here and then the first thing decoration box decoration and then border radius border radius do circular and then here we’ll have 10 little bit less and at the same time Colum color con color over here We Do ox D 9 1 2 I guess or 1 one 3 C so that should be our color okay now we see that this is the color Okay so the color has been given and then after that here we’re going to have a child let’s go ahead and do child CH I the child and then over here we’ll have text we say find tickets let’s go ahead and save it and we say it and it’s ugly but we can always change it using App Styles so here Style app styles this one dot Tex style and then copy with here we can use copy with color colors. white so with this we got to import this let’s go ahead and do that uh let’s reformat the code so that we have better visuals so let’s save it and we say it here the next thing we want to do want to center it so let’s go ahead and Center beautiful and after that over here we can apply padding so as inserts do symmetrical here vertical 18 horizontal 18 let’s save it and beautiful okay and over here actually we can add this now once again this color we can easily move to our app Styles class over here the Beautiful thing about them is that you can easily change them later okay so find ticket color just like this and then come over here so here we are going to say find to get color rep styles that fine ticket color let’s go ahead and save it and beautiful and everything else stays the same now in future if you want to change it we can pass more parameters and grab them in the Constructor and we would be good to go all right so now over here the code actually looks very beautiful very organized all right so the next one that we want to do is this one upcoming flights and regarding that one actually we already have our widgets so let’s go to our home screen I guess home screen over here and inside this we have this one okay so you can directly copy this and then we’re going to come over here and put it let’s go ahead and uh import it as a package let’s also import F routes okay for now we’re going to import the same route in future we may change this it’s already visible and then over here we could do cons to sized box size box and here we could do height 40 all right and let’s save it and here we go and let’s see this so okay exactly the same thing and of course we can view and go back all right beautiful so you can also do the same over here right go back and the same over here as well so it was working all right so this is another breakthrough actually all right so what is the next thing the next thing we want to do is this one so from here you see that this this would be a rollout and then over here uh this would be the first child and this would be the second child now within first child we will have column and second child itself would be a column so let’s go ahead and continue to work on this so over here the first thing we could do say let’s do row wiget right and at the top over here we could do con sized box height 10 or 15 all right and then children okay right and over here the first one once again we’ll have container for this as you can see so this would be a container and inside the container we’ll have column so let’s go ahead and do container and we could do child and uh for now we’ll say along in then the first thing we want to do inside is decoration box decoration and then here border radius border radius. circular and within it here we can do 20 20 pixel okay all right and color colors. white okay so let’s go ahead and save it and we already see it over here and of course it’s tiny text right okay so so one of the other thing that we have to do over here we have to use this okay looks like we don’t have what we wanted but find a ticket so let’s see not even this one F text icon not even this actually I’m looking for um what is it width and size okay looks like I don’t have it there so here I’m going to declare final size and then over here we’ll have [Music] media cy. off context do size okay all right so why so why we are going to have this one over here the reason is um this container itself this one the first child inside row this will have a certain width right so we need to get that wi so here we’re going to do width and then size. width and then we’re going to do uh 42% okay all right so we are going to almost taking half over here that’s why we did that okay all right and uh what else okay so within it we actually want a little bit of padding like actually you see the white space it came because of padding uh padding so let’s go ahead and do that so the padding itself over here would be adding sets do symmetric and horizontal 15 vertical 15 all right and beautiful okay right of course the text itself doesn’t look exactly the same and we also have an image over here so we’re going to work on that step by step okay right and then over here actually we also want to apply a little bit of box Shadow outside of this one okay and how to do that actually we are going to apply Shadow so it’s called box Shadow and box Shadow actually takes a list if you hover over on this you say it’s a list so we have to have this list thing over here so it takes list of Shadows the Shadows themselves are given through box Shadow this class and here color and here we could do colors. gray and then shade [Music] 200 so blow radius one and spread radius one all right so let’s go ahead and work on this and you already see that there is this sh there’s this uh Shadow over here okay now if you increase the them say for example five say it’s it spreads outside and uh but of course if you increase the spread radius uh it becomes more spreading okay so in general spread radius is bigger than blur radius so you can also do the same like this okay and then over here we could do two okay but over here we also want to we don’t want to do green which we want to do gray go and uh so it’s it’s there but not that visible okay let’s take this and save it so there is a bit of change save it all right okay so you you you do this to apply Shadows around your container okay now uh we’ll see more about this in future just remember if you have a container and in the container outside if you want to apply Shadow then you need to use box Shadow and now here you could have list of Shadows the reason is because you can also Define the direction but here we are not defining any direction we are just going as things are okay so just pretty much like everywhere so that’s the idea so that’s our box Shadow and then uh so with this we are done and after after that the thing we want to do over here we want to get a column children the reason is we want to get a column because you see this two the picture and text itself would be on the top of each other so that’s why we have this and now at the same time you also see that the picture itself has also border so so whenever you see border you need to use container so that’s what we are going to do so here once again decoration box decoration and and the only thing we’re going to apply here border radius and Border radius do circular and over here we’re going to apply 12 okay and after that um so this one also needs a little bit of height so here we’re going to use 190 and as you can see it became bigger okay so this is pretty much for the text itself and now since we have this border radius we can also use use image and here we can use decoration image and inside this we’ll have uh image again and then asset image asset image and inside this we can have our uh app media I guess this one app media dot uh okay app media dot what is it actually we don’t is is I think we have uh let’s let’s go over there in our app media class okay so app media class we don’t have much of the things so over here we need to Define our let’s open this and looks like okay now it open it’s pretty big image so here we want to declare a new image so let’s go ahead and do that and here plain set plain set and we can call it plain set plane set all right let’s save it okay cool and then over here we can do plain set let’s go ahead and save it and looks like we need to restart we started let’s come over here okay our image is not visible yet because we have wrong media type now here box fit dot cover we want to have it as a cover photo and it would look better and uh so what’s going on okay it shouldn’t be actually here box fit fit count in uh decoration image let’s go ahead and save it and bful and with this we exactly look like this one over here okay all right so before I wrap up this section let’s go ahead and this const modifier and with this it looks actually more beautiful all right cool okay so now we are going to show this one and how to do that well we are inside this ret and we had this container and inside the container we had column and then over here we’ll have this uh container which was showing this image and things like that so over here we could do like say text and then here we can just simply do 20% discount on the early booking of this flight don’t miss this one and then here we could just style and app styles do headline style to this one let’s go ahead and save it and here we go we see that and at the same time here we could do sized box sized box and a height say 12 and we are good to go let’s save it and that’s what we see okay now this is so far so good and also working as we expected let’s put a con modifier and we are good with this now this is the first uh item and then what you’re going to do is uh this one but of course uh it looks like over here we do have bit of spacing so here we are so everything should be looking the same now to make this one exactly look like this uh we could also actually assign a height over here now here we see a lot of space so here actually we can skip part of it say 05 and I think that’s fine so this is what we’re going to have so with this the first part is done and the next part would be about this one over here okay so let’s go ahead and do this one now here we do see a complex layout here we see this one actually this has been drawn by hand but we are going to Al I mean this is drawn by code not by hand actually code we’ll do that first we’re going to start off by doing this too okay and the background as well all right okay so now once again we are here inside this row Jet and then here we’ll have columns so you can have column wiet inside row and it is completely fine okay all right and inside this once again now you should be able to know that whenever you see this border like this you have to have a container I without container in general you won’t be able to apply border all right and here we do with size and then remember over here we had size dot I think we have a variable sized that with and then we want to get 44% all right in and uh after that over here definitely we’re going to go decoration and box decoration once again we need that because of Border radius we want to apply border radius. circular and we’re going to do 18 everywhere is going to do the job and at the same time over here do a height 2 one Z so we want to specifically control the height but anyway it didn’t show up yet the reason is because we don’t have any color now over here we can go ahead and Define a color so let’s go ahead and do that const color and then Ox F FF 3 a 8888 I think yeah that’s pretty much it so yes so this is the one that we had and we want it to have all right now we see the to together and then we can simply use the property over here uh main AIS alignment which is horizontally so here we do main access alignment do space between and it’s beautiful so that’s fine and what else now the next thing we want to show is the text itself this two texts but now you see inside this column there is this container is a child and the inside the container will have this two so this two on the top of each other so for that reason here we are going to send child and the child itself would be another column then we’ll have children okay so after that over here inside this first we’re going to do text just the thing that we want and then here we’ll say discount and because we want a new line for survey that one and then over here we’ll have Style app Styles dot headline 2 this one and uh then we’re going to use copy with method because whatever is there with headline 2 we’re going to keep that and then here we’re going to change the font family then font actually we want font weight not font family font weight this one dot bold and then here we’re going to do color colors. white let’s go ahead and save it that’s what we have but if we do remove this one we’ll say it’s different one so as you see copy with method we can apply the new things with it and that’s what we did over here okay right and what else after that now here we’re going to do size box size box and then height 10 because we want to put something new next to it so let’s go ahead and copy it and then we’re going to put it here like this okay but of course this is not what we want so we’re going to remove this the first thing take the survey about our services and get discount all right and this one we don’t want uh whatever is there we want to change a little bit so here w500 let’s save it okay so it’s smaller and then over here font size we can also set the font size 18 so it became much smaller now let’s go ahead and hit con over here all right now of course this is disproportionate they’re pretty much uh this one looks like actually centered and in fact this is centered too okay so the default property is centered I believe so let’s go ahead and check this so here main access alignment uh okay it’s not main actually cross access alignment which is horizontal so for column the horizontal property is Centered for column horizontal property is used by cross accessment as you see it’s a center so this is the default property actually but we want to do start and as you can see it’s working fine and now there’s this problem the problem is we want space I think our background color has a bit of issue we’ll also fix that they are not the same background color anyway so now if you do come over here uh this container itself which is holding everything over here and here inside this actually we can set up a padding so the padding should be on both side actually left and right right so here we could do add. symmetrical and here vertical say 15 and horizontal 15 so let’s go ahead and do that now it looks much better now the background color doesn’t look good actually it should be B8 and B B8 let’s go ahead and save it now it’s more clear right so with this we also done with part of this color over here and The Styling and it’s almost looking very good as we are working on it so in next section actually we’ll see how to go ahead and draw this on this beautiful line okay so now we are going to go ahead and uh show like this well we have the ticket app over here let me open this up and then we want to show this one now how to do that well we already have this column and inside this we have this container okay now this container is showing all of it actually we want to put another container inside this and we’ll see how things go right so let’s go ahead and use container okay and in this uh here we’ll have decoration and the Box decoration and then let’s go ahead and work like um give it a border okay so now we are not going to give it border radius we want to have border everywhere so here we can also use this one and with this the beautiful thing is even the Border itself you can give it color okay so here let’s go ahead and do 18 and let’s save it and we see that okay it showed up up here at the bottom and uh well uh let’s continue to work on this this is not something that we wanted but anyway so let’s go ahead and fix the color and here we can say const color o x FF 1899999 go and save it and this what we see okay and then we want to give it a special shape over here let’s go ahead and do the shape property and instead this here we can do box shape dot uh Circle actually let’s go ahead and do that and here we already see that we have a circle sitting up there and now let’s go ahead and apply padding to it let’s go ahead and do that and Andis only all over here let’s go ahead and give it padding 30 let’s see how it looks like and here we see it became big and that’s how actually the padding works okay with padding you see that small so now padding is being applied from inside okay all right so this is like padding of 30 and uh we Al also have this decoration which actually applies border now of course this is very different than the one that we see over here and how to achieve this now the thing that we want to do over here this one and this one we want to overlap and how can we can do that now we want this children actually to overlap I mean this one could come over here or somewhere so for this reason actually this this two this two container we can wrap inside around another widget which is called stack Widget the stack widget also takes children so we’re going to put them and let’s see how things go and as you can see that it’s already up here okay so they are already overlapping now of course in that case what we could do we can just go ahead and have this and uh remove that column and let’s see how it goes and we have the stack widget and Okay so everything is fine so instead of column now we can just simply keep our stack widget now as we have stack widget of course this is not the position we have as you see that a stack weet puts everything from the beginning it’s like uh left top okay everything starts from the left top now this one this one we want to put it over here so we can wrap this around another widget let’s go ahead and do that and we’re going to call it positioned Widget the position and stack widget they work together I mean if you use positioned you have to have stack as a parent or if you have stack most of the time you’d be using positioned otherwise this layout is quite messy so here on the right we want to say do zero so it went up so this is the right zero right but zero is not our Target so you can do or give negative coordinate as you see so now it’s going beyond our this zero remember this is zero over here for right for right section this is zero and then we can also apply top and then here we could do 40 and let’s save it and that’s what we see beautiful so now with this we see exactly the similar over here and it looks like okay we might have an issue with this color now let’s go ahead and work on the color itself okay now if we go ahead and conare the color doesn’t really look quite the same the reason is I have one more n over there now it looks the same as this one now of course we can go ahead and copy this and we can find app Styles over here and then over here we could do static color circle color this one and then we can be here and we can say app styles do Circle color and yeah so that’s how it works okay so first here we’ll have understanding what is called FL stack widget now here you see while a layout and you can deem them as three different containers so each color represents a container now in general if we are just going to put them on a flutter application or in screen you can’t put them like this they would definitely be like for example the first one is white the second one this little blue one would start from here okay and then this one would start from the end of or bottom of blue this rectangle or square now to achieve this kind of overlapping layout where one stays on the other one we need to use a stack widget so here we see stack okay if you put stack widget and if you put children inside stack widget like this would be stack widget then you can put them like in overlapping manner okay like inside column widget we also put children but they never overlap they always either on the top or on the bottom if you want your widgets to overlap you have to use stack widget and put the children inside the stack widget and that’s how the stack widget works so now we’re going to work on this since we are done with this section over here so we have this uh container and stack widget and over here we also have this all right now earlier we have seen that we didn’t need the column but now we need the column because we want to put this one right below it and that’s possible if we wrap it around column widget which you will understand soon so these are column widget we wrapped it around and the first one is a stack widget and inside this can have another container withget okay so let’s go ahead and do that container because if you don’t have this column we don’t have actually a mechanism to put this stack and the coming container which is this one on the top of each other right it’s not overlapping it’s on the top of each other okay so that’s why we need this thing okay so let’s go ahead and Define width and then here we’ll have size. width and 44% all right and after that here let’s go ahead and assign a height to it and once again here we’ll do decoration and box decoration and within box decoration itself we’ll get a border radius border border radius border radius do circular then 18 okay all right now we already see that it went up a little bit and looks like it didn’t align much over here and we’ll fix that don’t worry and then uh this container as you see over here it also needs a bit of padding so the top left and right right so that’s why we can apply padding to it so here we’re going to do padding add inces do symmetric vertical 15 horizontal 15 we don’t have any of this yet I mean we don’t have any child within it so looks like uh there is no change even if you I mean of course there is nothing there yet right we know that but now here we can go ahead and assign child to it so let’s go ahead and do child and if you take a look so here this text and this uh images so there would be inside a column so let’s go ahead and do that column and children and the first one is a text and it says take love let’s go ahead and put it and this is what we see over here all right now this is the problem with this uh border uh background color so we don’t have background color so here we can do color and con color Ox FF EC 65 45 that’s the color that we want and we already have the color and beautiful now these two are getting together so in that case here we could go ahead and uh give it a size box size box height and say 15 and here we go put a comma we have mistakes so here we go now once again this is disturbing and the reason is because earlier over here you see earlier over here we had this so let’s go ahead and change it to 25 and let’s see how it goes okay looks like 35 was the best approach okay right now this container this one and here we also have container like this and inside we have the other one so and including the you know different kinds of padding they are now correctly aligned so let’s go ahead and do the calculation so the first container is this one and we see that it has 435 okay so this is 435 now inside this we have this container 210 and then also we have the other one 210 so 420 and 15 so 435 and that’s why they have the same height okay so as you can see over here so it makes sense that why we are doing 435 okay and anyway so over here we can apply style and then we could do EP styles. headline 2 let’s go ahead and save it that’s what we see and then let’s go ahead and change the color and within it over here we do colors. y right save it and uh I think we need to assign the color properly okay right and let’s go ahead and save it and what else uh let’s see what property we have within this it already has bold so we don’t need to assign anything else okay right so this part is so far so good and uh it’s fine so now here we see that we are done with this page and we are running on Android device actually and we have tested well I mean on my side I have tested I don’t have any issues so first so good and everything works perfectly as you can see and uh if we come over here click on this the same thing no issues so you can run it on an Android device now if your Android simulator is smaller than this you might get an issue of this one like this overflow but in general most of the phones are longer nowadays so you wouldn’t really get a small Android phone okay so it’s pretty standard actually so we will not have any issues this idea okay now here we are on search screen and over here we have this row and this row actually contains a lot of code now we want to separate them so in fact this whole row we’re going to separate now to be able to do that inside this widgets over here we can create another new file and we’re going to call it over here we can say ticket promotion dot dot because over here it’s pretty much all about promotion So based on the feature okay and then I’m going to create a status class and we’re going to call it ticket [Music] promotion all right so let’s go ahead and import the stuff that we [Music] need okay and then I’m going to cut all of it from here and then I’m going to put it here now we might have some issues of importing some libraries so we can just go ahead and import them and most of the problem should be solved automatically let’s go ahead and just import okay and over here is the same app Styles now let’s open it up so there is only one variable size that’s not being uh consistent so for this one we can just cut this one out from here and then we can put it here and with this the error is gone now of course here we can just simply call ticket promotion this one and that’s it and most probably we can put a const modifier which is good for performance all right so and then we remove this file from here and this ones and this ones they are not needed on the same over here so let’s go ahead and restart it and here we are so we don’t see any issues over here okay so the next thing we want to do is showing it like this so this is the screen that actually we want to go Go and show this is our third tab so this was our home Tab and we have already worked on this and now we are going to work on this one all right now this would be actually our ticket screen okay pretty much our first ticket okay and that’s the screen that we want to show over here okay and as you can see New York London the time and and departure time everything matches the first ticket and there are also some additional information which we’ll fill up later okay now for this one we’re going to come over here and set the screen and here we’re going to create a directory and we’re going to call it ticket okay and then inside this first we’re going to create a file and then here we can call it ticket view. Dart okay and we know that we’d be needing some widgets so let’s go ahead and create a directory widgets all right we’ll see what we need Well for now we’re just going to work with this right and at the same time the thing that now on we need to work and uh take here is this over here bottom NE bar over here we can replace this with ticket view ticket actually we can call it screen or view okay so I’m going to call it screen because I see here we have this one so let me go ahead and change the file name over here to toate screen because everything else is ticket everything else is the word screen okay now let’s go ahead and imported ticket okay ticket screen ticket screen looks like not recognized okay well nothing is there most probably so let’s go ahead and go ahead and import it okay now let’s come over here and see whether yes this time we can recognize it all right so now let’s go ahead and restart our app and if we come over here most probably we will see a placeholder now this placeholder is coming from here okay so the very first thing we want to do over here removing this and get over here a scaffold for us and uh here we’re going to have return and then here we’ll have body and then uh okay I think all right I guess we need to import material library and then body and then list view because we also want this to be scrollable and every time you want scrollable items you just simply go ahead with list View and then we want many children within it let’s go ahead and save it okay right so one of the first thing that we want to do is doing this one so let’s go ahead and check tickets this one so for this one we can simply go ahead and invoke our text and here we can say tickets and after that style and here we could say app styles. headline one this one and we good to go let’s save it and we say it here and at the top here we could do sized box height 40 just like others we had now it once con let’s go ahead and do that and it came down all right now of course this is too much to the left so so here this is the place that where we do go ahead and do this padding add ins sets. only symetric here horizontal 20 vertical 20 save it and looks beautiful okay right and then after this over here um this is the time that actually we go ahead and show this tabs over here right these are the tabs and now this Tabs are similar as the tabs we have seen over here so these are the same tabs that we want to use okay now look at our tabs see what we have then in our search screen so ticket tabs over here so let’s see whether we can go ahead and utilize this so app ticket tabs now we are going to go ahead and uh use it here inside this and the first thing we want is working on this as a library let’s save it and then now let’s come over here so we do see the tabs right but of course our problem is these are right now hardcoded which we don’t want at the same time the background color is an issue so let’s go ahead and change the background color we know that app Styles and we might have BJ color it’s this one save it so now it’s very distinct within it and at the same time here we can do size box height 20 all right let’s go ahead and put const on it now problem with this is everything is hardcoded over here as you can see all right so we don’t want them to be hardcoded especially this strings over here okay so uh the thing you could do we can actually pass them right now so here we can have final first we do final string first tab okay then final string second tab like this and then we want them to be required required this. first tab required this do second tab all right now of course here we can just simply go ahead and replace them by tabs first tab first tab let’s see what is okay so this const causing the problem remove that and then here we could do second tab okay second tab right so now here we get to pass first Tab and second tab so let’s go ahead and do that first tab now let’s take a look what is in our first tab is upcoming so let’s go ahead and save upcoming and then second tab is previous and with this we can also put a const here but of course now we’ll have errors in our other places like we already see in search screen we have this issue so it also wants tabs from you so here you could do first tab I think it was all tickets and then second tab was hotels let’s save it and as you see here the first thing the error is gone and now if you go back and see it’s still Dynamic so here all tickets hotels and here we see upcoming and previous so which means that this part is also working as we expected now this is the video of building reusable widget which we already did of course if you do want you can also uh pass different things from here if you want because we remember that we made it dynamic so you can also pass from here actually it’s better to pass here rather than changing this conditions this conditions you don’t want to change hardcoded here but for now it’s fine because it it matches our design but in future if you want to add more conditions definitely you’re going to pass through over here and then you have default value true false or whatever it is okay all right beautiful so now let’s go back to our ticket screen over here here okay so now we want to show this this one over here now do remember that this one over here is actually same as this one including this uh uh circles over here I can say that they are same actually so it’s all about changing color now of course we have this borders that we want to do a little bit differently but this whole section is actually pretty much just like this one the only difference would be the background color and as well as the Border okay so by saying that it’s also true that we’ be able to reuse the whole thing over here okay so we be able to reuse it so let’s go ahead and get started now this is what we have and after that over here first thing over here we want to do is doing this we’re going to do a const sized box and then here height say 20 so that’s what we want to do and then over here we want to call our ticket list okay now how to go ahead and call this one well actually we’re not going to call ticket list we are going to call the widget the one that we created over here I think we call it ticket view so this is the one that we want to go ahead and call okay so here ticket view this one let’s go ahead and get that one and then over here if you hover over on this so it takes a parameter called argument called ticket and then here it needs a child or we need to provide value for it so here ticket list and get zero which means the first one and let’s save it and we already see it here and beautiful okay and this is what we wanted to see okay now let’s go ahead and uh wrap this around uh container and why we want to do that the reason is because we can apply some padding to it okay so let’s go ahead and apply padding and if you come over here inside ticket View and we’ll see that over here it has right margin over here 16 and that’s the only thing that we have right now 16 so let’s go ahead and do same over here so if it’s a container so we are putting inside a container and then here we could do padding as insets and that only and we going to put it to the left and let’s apply 16 and we see how it goes okay now it’s more like centered so we have margin over here and padding over here do remember that the padding itself is being applied from uh this container which is outside of this ticket view right the ticket itself is inside the container so in fact the container you can give it a color so you’ll know what I’m talking about colors. red okay so now as you see that it’s very symmetrical so there’s this container and inside this we have this padding if you remove the padding okay it goes up to there and if you have it so we’ll set like this and ticket itself inside we just saw that there is another margin okay now that’s also coming from outside okay so this is ticket it’s taking outside and then we had the container inside container we had padding how will it makes sense that why we are doing it like this so let’s put a con modifier and we are good to go now ticket view itself uh as you see okay let me remove the color as well okay all right so that’s it now to get itself over here you see that we have a background color right the whole container over here uh it has two background color this one and this one but this color we want to actually hide them like this container itself over here we can see this different kind of colors so we want to change the colors and hide them okay now to be able to do that what we need to do over here attach a different parameter over here okay so now here we we have this whole screen and then we can attach another one final bll is color and well which which means that whether it’s colorful or not okay now here we can say this is color equal null okay okay so or most probably let’s see what it says remove initializer it would work like this because it’s it’s notable so it could be anything all right so that means that you may pass this value you may not pass this value well if you pass this value then it would be like if you if you don’t pass this value if we don’t pass this value then we’re going to apply this one okay otherwise we’ll use a different color so let’s go ahead and check that so over here we say is color equal null because I said we said it could be null right if it is null which means that I’m not passing anything what do I mean by that so over here you see I’m not passing anything okay so I’m not passing anything the condition is remember this is a tary operator so we are keeping uh whatever value was there otherwise here we say colors do white okay so let’s go ahead and save it okay so now over here we didn’t pass anything but how about we pass say is color true save it and as you see that it changes immediately but of course it it disrupts our color pattern over here if you do and see come over here we also need to change the color right so that’s what we need to do okay anyway so I’m going to remove this for now because we need to have the visual on the color itself but now this color is quite important okay that’s why I’m going to go to over here I’m going to declare another color static color okay now well we had ticket blue ticket orange now here here we would say ticket white or ticket white or I can just say TI get color why because it could be any color that you want in future okay but for now it’s colors. white why I’m doing it like this the reason is because in future you can just directly go ahead and change whatever you want to change here okay and it looks like we do have an issue so I can do like this o x FF and 1 2 3 4 5 6 so that’s also equals to uh white color okay now then over here from here actually so this one would be calling this one from here okay so here we can say app Styles app styles do ticket color whatever the color you want okay all right let’s save it and test it that it works so here we say is color is color true okay all right so it’s looks like it works now if you want if we were to change this color over here say for example save it so let’s go ahead and change it over here so now it’s kind of yish okay so the idea is you can change it globally if you want that’s the point so that’s why we did that and let’s reload it okay right so now we get the idea so we got to change CH everything over here based on this okay now even before we change this color actually I want to make the changes in other places otherwise if you set this condition to true it becomes white and my or other colors are gone but first let us go ahead and change those other colors okay that the places that we want to change now the first thing we want to change is this one over here like over here we have text sty third so this is a place that we want to change the color so let’s go ahead and check over here so we have this one over here right now we can actually also pass this color over here so here we could say uh bow is so it could be Noble is color okay and then we also take it over here is color uh this dot is color this dot is color all right and let’s see what’s going on Final over here final okay cool all right so all we need to do we need to do this conditional check over here so just like earlier here we say is color null which means we didn’t pass anything then we are going to use uh this one Whatever is there default one so all already what we have fine that would be based on if you don’t pass anything if you don’t don’t pass anything it’s like nothing has happened we are still keeping the original one but whenever we pass something then over here we could do like this uh app styles. headline 3 okay so that’s the actually the earlier very earlier the style that we have set over here now this this one of course we are calling it from here right so over here this time we want to say pass this okay so here we say is color is color whatever you are passing so remember this ticket view would get called over here so from here we are passing right but of course tiet View also gets called from other places as well but since only we want changes over here we don’t want the changes to take effect here we just want the changes to take effect here and this place is being called from here and then from here we are passing everything so is color over here we can say true which means I want to change the color okay and as you can see so we come over here we receive it whatever was being sent over here we first change the background color whether we are sending anything or not and the later down the road the same color we pass down to here hopefully it makes sense the logic that how we are doing okay right now over here we also have this big dots okay now we want to do the same over here okay so let’s go ahead and Define a Conover here final bll is actually not const this one and then this dot is color and over here so let’s go ahead and [Music] check is color null if which means we don’t pass anything and then over here the dot itself okay so the other thing we could do actually first not really inside this we can directly change it over here is color null then we use this white color otherwise we use this color and let me remove this one first okay and most probably we need a conable for it let’s save it okay and let’s reformat the code right of course it didn’t take place yet because right now we need to be in the ticket view Big Dot over here and here we say is color is color let’s see invalid cons you can’t have this on now let’s save it and here we go our dots just appeared okay so remember these things they take the color whatever you are passing here from here it’s very important okay for example if you pass nothing okay it will take the original form if you pass something where it is true at least you pass something then it’s going to work like this hopefully it makes sense now Big Dot over here this one we also want to go to our app style class over here and then here static color dot color okay and now let’s to get a screen to get view let’s come over here where we [Music] were uh big actually let’s go over there and over here F Styles dot do color go and save it and no other changes now let’s come over here one more time and then we are here now we need to change the color over here so once again is color equal null then we use white otherwise we could do const color o x FF b a c CF7 so this is the color we want so let’s go ahead remove the const let’s reformat the code let’s save it okay now we see it over here okay now once again let me go ahead and copy this the idea is you can always change all the colors here so here would say now we already have a plain color actually plain second color okay right now let’s come over here app Styles dot plain Second [Music] Color all right and then over here Big Dot we already work on that is color is color is color let’s REM that and beautiful so we already working step by step on this okay all right so now the same thing goes over here uh as you can see text Tex stle fourth so we had this one and I think we also had Tex stle three now let me go ahead and Define Tex 3 and over here I I think pretty much the same right so it the the condition would be same we go ahead and copy this and put it here and then is this dot is color right now over here is color no do this otherwise app styles. headline 4 you get the idea okay so it’s going to work like this but of course we don’t have any changes yet because um we I think I’m missing something over here I didn’t didn’t do that yet okay so even before I move somewhere else here is color is color let’s save this okay now it appeared now over here the same thing is color is color let’s save it we’ll see this one okay all right and then let’s come over here again is color is color beautiful so all this things slowly started to appear and the same over here is color is [Music] color so we almost done with this part okay now the next part actually should be pretty much the same okay so earlier we were done with this and now we are going to work on this circles and dots and that would refer to our uh circles over here and this dots okay all right so the first thing we want to check about this color so here if the color is null nothing is given then we’ll use orange color so here is color null orange otherwise we are going to use use app styles do color white I guess do you have white color I think we should have color white looks like we don’t have uh I think I have defined it the other day tiet color actually this one I didn’t call it color white I called it ticket color okay let’s have it as it is okay so now it’s gone all right okay and now I want this big uh big circles over here now of course we also need to pass this one final bow is color and then over here the same changes actually like we did before is color now over here we’re going to check is color equal null this one then we’re going to use white or otherwise here going to use colors Dot gray shade 200 this one now let’s come over here and inside this going to pass is color is color and it should be fine looks like we have a bit of issue over here is color is color okay what’s going on invalid const okay this const is causing the problem let’s save it and we kind of see it there and most we are not happy with it let me go ahead and check that if okay I think it should be the opposite save this and then let’s compare with this okay well it’s almost not visible okay the one that I think my original design might have some problem over here and this is the correct one and as you can see all right and then over here what the same thing is color is color Okay so let’s go ahead and save and we see it on both sides okay all right now how about this one so so this part is going to be tricky well then the first thing we need to do this one over here once again so it’s pretty much everywhere setting the color is color and then here is color okay and then the only place we need to change the color is inside this so is color equal null then we use this otherwise colors do gray. shade so go ahead and use the 300 and we have a const issue once again okay is is what we have and then over here all we need to do is is color is color let’s save it and here we already see the the dots they have appeared if you see carefully that they already have appeared so that part is also working as we expected okay so now we’re going to go down to this one over here and once again inside this over here actually so you have this color so let’s go ahead and change the color is color equal null then we use this color whatever the given color otherwise Here app color do ticket color actually not app color is app Styles the ticket color this one let’s go ahead and save it and we already see it’s gone because we are not passing over here we are passing is color equal true so this condition is taking place and now how to work on this borders so here we go so in fact over here we want zero borders which means we don’t want borders so over here is color this one is null then we have 21 otherwise zero and let me remove this and the same over here is color equal null okay let’s go ahead and check and it’s gone now since it’s gone it’s going to look like more like this okay now I know that we have this problem with the color which we will fix later so let’s go ahead and work on them first all right and then the other color is over here this one okay so this is the color over here third so over here up to here we need to pass so first we are going to pass from here we are going to pass color to this one and then it’s going to pass it to this one so just keep passing so let’s come over here let’s declare this declare a color final bull is color and then actually we can do it at the beginning no let’s do it at the end oh actually sure it’s here uh the this dot is color right I think we can reorganize the code this so it’s more readable and then over here is color is color whatever it is you’re passing the same over here is color is color now all I need to do from here to pass is color is color and you’ll see that it already started to change over here the same goes here is color is color let’s save it and then over here is color is color let’s save it okay so with this our ticket has shown up so in next part we see how we are going to change this to lighter color now they’re same black but I think they have to be lighter color just like this we had all right so now we need to go ahead and change this color look at this well let me go ahead and close all of this because we have too many of them we don’t need this for now this we have ticket screen and we go to ticket view so the top part is okay like this row is okay and then the problem starts from here right this color like this one over here the color they show is the same as the top one now this is the fourth style color and over here actually let me reformat the code now if it is null then we we use default one of course which is this colors and if it is not null we go over here but there is this problem with the color actually we can add a new color inside this and it’s going to work like this okay and most all we need to go ahead and import uh material color constant most we need to remove this go ahead and reformat the code and let’s save it and if it didn’t work so let’s go ahead and restart our app and let’s come over here yes so as you see that it works now and then what else so ticket view so this part is working flying time and over here that’s fine and what else so we do have the big circle this one we good and then once again over here okay and once again the this third color that that we are using okay so okay this two right so this one this one refers to this two and this one refers to this two and this one refers to this two so how do we change well and over here we see that the first one is this one and the second one is this now of course they’re using the same one actually we can change it to Fourth let’s go ahead and see how it works is fourth is showing this color right so the first one is third which is this kind of heavy color the second one is the fourth and if we do change it and uh yes it worked okay so now previously there were the same but now they’re different and it’s working so with this we are done with this section okay so over here now we are going to continue to work on this and this work would be similar to this one actually over here and then we’ll go down to this and everything else is the same and now this part actually would be doing later okay it’s not important at this moment moment we’re going to do it later all right so at this moment over here uh we need this one uh this line over here and how do we get that now this is something that we can skip for now hopefully it’ll autoa here as we keep working on this so now let’s go to our ticket screen over here and then we’ll see that how it auto appears for example I mean this line to be appear it’s easy way to do actually we’ll use a trick and how to do it for example first here let’s go ahead and work with a container and then of course as you see all these colors is white right so here we going use color and colors. white we can use that one but we already have of course app Styles dot uh package dot I think this is ticket color was that okay looks like we have the same color so we’re going to use that one and then inside this over here let’s take a look that how things work now for now we can forget about this one okay now over here we see that actually we can first use a column the reason we’re going to use a column as you see like this thing is one piece this thing is another piss this thing is another one and this thing is another one so they are all in column format and in between we can also use rows okay so this is part of column but for children we will use row layout so first let’s go ahead and Define a child and then here we will say column and then here we’ll say children now as we have this one over here inside this the first thing as I said that we want to have row so let’s go ahead and do that as usual we’ll have children then we want to show this one and this one and it’s easy to show why because we already have this actually layout ready which is this one so all we need to do let’s go ahead and copy this and let’s put it here but of course I guess we need to import it as a package now course this one doesn’t have any validity over here so here we can say flutter DB and instead of date here we can say passenger and then is color is a color so if we don’t have anything so here we can just simply send it true okay so that’s the first first thing that we could do and then we can go ahead and copy this and put it here and if we do put it here as you see we have to have this and passwort the passwort itself so let’s go ahead and copy that so that’s the beauty of this thing because we have worked on them before so all we are doing pretty much a little bit of tweaking and uh say like this one and I do believe here we can have a space and after that over here we can say passport okay and then over here we can start it okay let’s go ahead and save it and see how it goes okay now it already showed up but of course there are some deformation the first thing we want to do want to move the um the back this one over here so instead of doing this we could do end okay and as you see that it already showed up but this one didn’t go to this end why not but this would be dictated by over here U main access alignment and Main access alignment do space between okay let’s hit enter and now we see that okay it’s working all right and but now speaking of this one this layout definitely doesn’t look good it’s overextended both left and right now since we are inside a column over here actually we can apply margin so let’s go ahead and do margin and then add in sets dot uh symmetric and we could do horizontal and say horizontal 15 okay now it came as this white one left and right beautiful but inside it’s still too much to the left and right so for this reason over here we can use the other one say padding Okay add inser do SYM mric over here we can use horizontal once again 15 and vertical say 20 okay so we’ll have a lot more space and now it looks much better as you can see over here and it’s beautiful so now let’s go ahead and put const modifier looks like we need const for each of them it’s going to work okay beautiful okay so our next step should be actually working on this distance because here we have a very tiny distance where we see there is a lot more distance okay so now we need to find where is this space coming from if we do come here we see a little bit of tiny space in that’s one pixel but here it’s way long it’s more than that so where is this coming from all right so let’s do a little bit of debugging so here inside this container so let’s set up color over here and here is say colors. red let’s save it and here we do see that so this container actually has extra margin outside okay so this is because of margin contain itself starts from here okay so this is the one that causing this extra space but of course it has children inside so one of the children is this one the very first one and let’s go ahead and check the color with this here colors. blue okay let’s go ahead and save it so here we do see that okay so in fact this container itself is causing this extra space now it has we do see that it has height so let’s reduce the height to 180 and we see that it’s gone well if it is gone then can we simply go ahead and do this sized box over here and say height to one okay and here we go we see that it appeared in that case we can just go ahead and remove this and then we can also remove this one from here okay now of course with this we don’t have any changes over here it’s just like the way it was it doesn’t affect the design and of course nowhere else it’s the same thing okay so here same and then is what we had over here okay all right so well we are looking great step by step okay so here we are we have this ticket screen and then we have this one over here the next part should be showing this right number of EET on booking code things like that now here we go this is the first row in the col column remember as we said early that everything would be in a column format here right so in the column the first row was showing this one now we’re going to go for this right and before we go for this well definitely going to go ahead and do sized box and height 20 and then definitely as you can see what you have to do next you need to go ahead and show this one this lines over here okay now to this to show this lines actually we can come to ticket View and within the ticket view while we already have let me see where we are the dots okay this one so app layout Builder widget this one so this is the one that we want to call and now let’s come over here so inste this let’s go ahead and call this one and we know that we need uh few arguments to pass but first let’s go and import and then random divider that one and what else okay so Random divider over here we’re going to pass 15 what else we need and also we have width okay now this width is optional right but we want to pass a width over here so here we’ say width equal five and then over here is color say is a color and let’s see is a colorable so we get an issue most this const so let’s go ahead and remove this let’s have it and what else undefined is color well if it’s not defined looks like tiet screen doesn’t have it but it’s okay we can pass false or true whatever as long as it has a value so as you see it already showed up over here beautiful and that’s what exactly what we wanted and then over here let’s go ahead and come over here once again I think we need a comma for this okay let’s use a const modifiers so that we are clean okay beautiful and of course right after this actually we can once again copy this one as you understand that if we copy this we going to show like that right so here let’s go ahead and put it and it would look like okay fine whatever it is okay so the first thing over here we want to change is this one so it’s a random number ticket number so that and then say like that it’s just a random number okay number of e ticket like this and and then over here pretty much the same so B1 125 like that and then over here booking code so let’s go ahead and save it and beautiful and that’s what exactly we wanted to see and that’s also we see it over here okay of course this number over here we can make a little larger if you want box side it has a lot more digits on it okay right so this what we have and after the what else we have so here you see that we also have this one so that means we can just simply go ahead and copy this section and we can put it right after this row okay and here it showed up again beautiful now let’s look at this one that how we are going to do this now once again definitely this is we can put inside a row but the problem with this is that uh here we need to introduce something new okay so let’s go ahead and do the Row first okay I think uh so let me go ahead and take a look at this so we can copy one of this and then we’re going to put it here let’s save it it showed up but as you’ll see that over here this one uh which is would be the second one over here we can keep as it is but we need to change this one because these are all text widget but here this is an image and other stuffs together okay so it has got a bit more complex layout anyway so let me work on this one first so over here we’ll have 299.99 I guess and then what is the other thing we had price okay looks like it has got four so let’s pour four and then here let me going to do price okay changed all right I need to work on this one and how do you going to work on this now let’s go ahead and take a look at the basic thing that we want okay so this is definitely a column just like this because this is column right but this column doesn’t support image so we’ll have column and this is the first child and this is the second child but first child itself could be a row because this is actually an image okay and this is a text so hopefully you understand so here let me go ahead and put column and then children and of course we need this and after that over here we can have row and then we’ll have children and as you have it over here first we want to show an image okay so here we could do image dot asset image this one and all we need to do pass the image name now let’s come to [Music] our uh this one resources folder and then media actually instead this we have all these things and then at the same time if you do come over here there should be a Visa card image This One Visa card.png so let me go ahead and declare a new variable so here we could just simply do Visa card and then here we’re going to do PNG and then this uh card that’s it let me close this and then here we can say app media get this and uh Visa card this one and what else we have so we have a const issue somewhere looks like this cons just not permittable now this is gone so we need to put cons somewhere else okay now let’s go ahead and run it let’s see how it looks okay right now it should have over here but the thing is that it’s way too big now over here let’s do scale and for scaling use use something like this so it becom smaller actually okay and then what we can do after that actually since this is a row we need to show this this one over here this things okay so here we can simply go ahead and invoke text and uh it would be I guess three stars and two 4 4 62 and let’s go ahead and apply style to it here app styles do headline go ahead with three let’s put it in beautiful okay so this is a Visa card you get to just see the last four digits beautiful okay now inside the column uh this is the first child and then here we’re going to have to have text again and then here we’ll say pment method and after that let’s do style so over here we’ll have app Styles dot headline 4 this one let’s go ahead and save it and beautiful so this exactly looks like this one over here wonderful and here actually we can create a little bit of spacing okay so here we do sized box height five and and save it okay now it looks better now all I need to do quickly go ahead and put const modifier now I’m going to be quick with this looks like all of them they need const modifier okay right so with this we’re almost done and in the next section actually we would be focusing on how to go ahead and create this and then we’ll be done with this [Music] page okay so now let’s go ahead and work on this section so we have every part every other part is ready as you see over here so only part remained this and this okay so now to be able to work on this uh we are here let’s take a look where we are right now so this is one of the containers that we had and right below this container will continue make sure that you the right place okay so right below this one so we’re going to continue so here we’ll have another container okay let’s go ahead and do that and inside the container now let’s see how to and uh the understanding this thing now so definitely this is the container okay all right this is the container and then it will have border right but only on the two sides it’s not everywhere okay so here you can say bottom of the ticket detail section okay all right now over here so we understand that this has to be uh border so we know that here we must need decoration box decoration and then inside this here we can use border radius so border radius that only because when you use only you can use border on both I mean you can select borders so first one is bottom right and then radius do circular over here and we can use it 21 and then bottom left radius do circular 21 all right so let’s go ahead and save it and of course it’s not visible because we don’t have any color yet but now let’s go ahead and put color over here color so here app styles do ticket color this one so this is going to be white and I don’t think we’ll see anything yet because we don’t have a child now insert this let’s put a child over here and this child would be a container again now here we want to have a container why the reason is is because well if we have container padding top padding left and right padding they all become easy okay so that’s why we need that now over here at the same time we see that we need to draw something like called uh it’s okay it’s so rectangular with border right it could be achiev with border radius but there is another widget we could do it we could use to achieve this so here we’ll have child and then we will use clip RCT okay this one so it would be a rectangle but clipped so that’s why we have this so here we say uh let’s see what is that I think we can get border radius radius this one and then inside this we’ll have border radius dot circular and then here we’re going to have 15 let’s see what’s going on it should be actually clip arct this one and now it’s okay let’s go ahead and save it and yet nothing is visible yet now for this reason let’s come over here and inside this we can do a child let’s do text allow flutter flter let’s go ahead and save it and here we see that it already showed up but of course that’s a little ugly but as you see on the both sides right now for now you can wrap it around the center widget uh I think I got the wrong one let’s go ahead and wrap it around a center widget so it would be Center so the first thing we want to do is removing this now removing this depends on this container because they’re coming from here the pen container this container is just occupying this space over here all right so over here you could do margin and agences do symmetric this one and then we could do say well horizontal actually we can just simply do horizontal and 15 we might not need vertical now as you see it looks rounded this and this they all look rounded beautiful isn’t it all right okay so that’s the first thing we had okay now we’ll go ahead and continue to work on this well the next thing we want to show inside this is actually this kind of barcode Now barcode actually we could go ahead and install it like this so flutter P add barcode widget and and f p get so this is the widget that we are going this is a plugin actually there the plugin that we are going to use if you do that then we’ll be able to actually use this uh or generate this this kind of barcode okay now I believe we need to stop and restart because we have installed a plugin okay well it’s not there yet but we’re going to work on this so now over here instead of using this here we could say barcode barcode widget this one and inside this over here we’ll have barcode and there is this class bar code and uh from it you can invoke this one okay now let’s see what’s going on uh so it wants the data so let’s go ahead and give it a data the data is the one that actually so since this is a barcode so it wants you to give you a data which means that once you scan it it would show this website or information related to this string so that’s why it needs data all right and we do see that it’s already visible over here and that’s what we wanted okay all right and then this one is of course I believe that this shows this vertical lines based on this one okay but of course this is not the way that we thought like this one so we need to work more on this now we saw that earlier this margin was helping to push it inside right but we now we are inside the container remember this container represents the whole barcode so we want to push the barcode inside more but within the container itself so we can use padding so over here we would use as inss only and do symmetric and here vertical 20 go ahead and use it okay so now it came down all right okay now let’s come over here this container itself now here we could do padding now the padding we can do as insets do subm metric over here I think we could do something like 15 so it’s going to push it inside more symmetric horizontal would do better okay right you see that okay so it’s over here barcode is little too big so we don’t want it like this so here we can assign height say 70 now it became much smaller okay so now this one doesn’t look like once again over here this one so we have this borders over here now remember earlier I said that this would supposed to show up as you go ahead and scan then it should show up so here’s another property do draw text so we don’t want to show the text so hide the text and now as you see it’s gone so if someone scans this hopefully to direct to this um website over here and then there are other properties that you could set up color app Styles uh dot I think text color this one we can assign this not much changes and then I think there is also called width double do Infinity so which means let it take all the available space okay so now with this we have a beautiful um ticket ready so which exactly looks like the one that we have over here okay so the next thing is just going go we need to go ahead and show this ticket over here and so let’s make sure that we have this okay so one more thing is actually missing before we go ahead so there’s this line over here so here we could just simply go ahead and do size box height one so we’ll see one pixel of differences and beautiful all right so the next thing we want to show is actually kind of this ticket which one is this this ticket as so this one actually so all we need to do go ahead and copy this and then we need to put it here okay so we can say colorful ticket and then what does that mean over here let me put white and black ticket so colorful ticket means okay let me go ahead and put it here let’s save it so definitely we see the color is here sorry the ticket is here right okay now at the same time over here we need to give it a little bit of space so let’s go ahead and do that so size box High 20 let’s save it that it came down and then we want to show the color so remove this color thing over here let’s save it and beautiful this isn’t it awesome just showed up just one line of thing it changes everywhere so here our tickets are working here everything is working we need to work on this one this is a bit slow and here of course our ticket working so everything is working as expected and if you have followed so far you’ve done a great job with this well done let’s continue on our next section okay so let’s continue the last part of the screen is having this two circles over here and of course definitely it makes it very beautiful so that’s what we want to do and to do that one thing you have to understand is that now as you see however however used scroll this thing it looks like stock on this place I mean which stays on this place and which makes it beautiful so you see that this is overlapping this as on a certain position so we need to do that and how we are going to do that well for doing this we need to use special widget which we already have used before this is called stack widget okay now how is going to work so let me col Ops the code and so that we know that how it’s going to work so so far we have list View and this list view is containing everything over here everything you see okay so we need another one that would get stuck somewhere here okay now since I said that this would be a simple overlapping so definitely we need to use stack widget now within stack widget we’ll have list View and positioned widget and that’s how they’re going to overlap each other now over here let me go ahead and find stack widget looks like we don’t have it here so I’m going to wrap it around column first and then I’m going to wrap it around Stack this stack wiget also takes children now you go ahead and restart definitely we won’t see any changes this same thing right okay cool now inside this first we need to go ahead and uh draw or show our position widget so here position and the child would be a container let’s go ahead and do that okay right and after this we need to give it even before we do anything else so let’s go ahead and give it another child okay and the child would be circle of water we we want to draw something circular and circle over is the best one in this case Max radius four and then over here background color it takes background color F Styles dot uh I think text color this one so let’s go ahead and save it and we already see that it’s over there at the Top If you see that but this is the position we don’t want so we need to give it a position so here let’s go ahead and give it a position left and we give it pixel 22 and then we do see that it moved over here and then give it a top position now let’s give it 295 and we see that it came down over here but of course it’s too small and this is where the container comes in because we already have container the first thing we could do we can give it a padding and as inserts do all so all so container within it we’ll have some empty space uh let’s see okay now let’s continue to work on this here we could do decoration and box decoration and then here we can have shape okay so this a box decoration instead of giving it border we can directly change it through box shape so box shape do Circle so let go ahead and save it and then after that give it border uh let’s see so here border and then border do all okay give it width of two now let’s see the magic so so this is the magic okay so it has a border outside and the Border itself is two and within this we have this white color which is the padding three but of course if you increase the padding it would look bigger okay but of course it doesn’t look that good so we’re going to put three within it and that’s how it works and then once again let’s see color if we can take color so here we do app Styles Dot text color let’s go ahead and save it okay all right no changes and then over here one thing we could do let’s go ahead and play around with this play this thing so here say 75 if you do that it might go up and then say 65 okay like this so you can try to set it which I haven’t done done okay so it does look like a little bit like this it may suit perfectly so let’s go ahead and do it like this and then over here we going to do the last part now to to do that last part over here now we can go ahead and just uh copy it but that’s not good so what we need to do instead we need to come to this uh ticket screen over here and we have this widget folder now inside this here we can create a new file so the file name we can say ticket position Circle dot do and then over here we could do St straight list tiet put positioned circle now I’m going to remove this and put it here and uh let’s go ahead and import whatever we need over here looks like we need coer Chino and we also need app style and then Circle over which can come from Material app then we we donate this so this way we become reusable wiet okay I’m missing one t okay all it looks beautiful copy this come over here and remove this okay and then let’s go ahead and import it we should be good to go cool all right now let’s come inside this we’re going to and close the others we don’t need them now the only thing we want to change over here is this one okay so we need to work on this position that whether it’s going to be left or right okay so we want to make it reusable and then for this reason over here we can define a Boolean final Bull and then it could be say pause which means for position okay now here we could say this dot pause and that’s it now we say that POS equal true if we pass true then we use 22 otherwise we use null now why we can use null here you see that it could be nullable okay and of course if you go ahead and restore it still works sorry uh this time it will not work and I think we might have an isue uh not issue though let’s see because it’s a knowable thing so here uh this is acting up because we need to assign it a true or false because right now it’s knowable which means that I don’t need to call it from here but if I don’t call it from here then over here this condition is not true which means it becomes null then it doesn’t work okay so what I need to do over here here I can send pause true and then you see that it works it came back to its position and then how about the other one now right condition for that one here we could do right if pause equal true then we use null otherwise 22 okay so let’s go ahead and restart and we’ll see that it doesn’t affect us okay it doesn’t affect us and here we go I mean this condition this newly added condition doesn’t affect us the reason is if pause is true which currently it is true over here in this case so well true then 22 this one and for right this one is it true then it goes goes for null hopefully it makes sense now we can go ahead and copy this so let’s go ahead and work on this so over here we can pass null and let’s see how it goes and you see it showed up and it doesn’t hamper any other de I mean position hopefully it makes sense that why it works because now for the second one you are already passing null if it is null then here it’s 22 and of course if it is if it is null so over here this condition is false then it’s still null okay so you need to think more to get your head around this thing but the condition is just like any other tary operator and the way we worked on them before right now we can go ahead and work on this profile screen but but even before we do work on profile screen I think we have to take care of few other parts like for example we have this viewall screen and we want to be click on this and go to a view like this but with Dynamic value we don’t want hardcoded values for this so we want to have Dynamic values that’s what we want to do and as well as after that we also want to go ahead and click on this and view all the hotels right now we just see two of them we can have more data and then view all them and then we can also go ahead and uh see the detail so here we’ll cover the navigation section and then we’ll also see how to see them in detail okay so currently we cannot do any of this so this is what we want to do okay so since we understand the concept what to do now now the first thing we need to do go ahead and work on this section so this all ticket screen and we know that this is our old ticket screen right so this is the ticket screen actually uh that’s showing all of them and now we want to be able to click on them and go to a new page now how to do that previously we have seen the concept of gesture detector so here we have to have gesture detector so I’m going to go ahead and U convert this sorry not con convert this wrap it around using a widget which should be called gesture detector and looks like we don’t have gesture detector so here I’m going to call it widget and then over here we could do gesture detector all right and then of course we know that the gesture detector has a property which is called on tap so here we are going to do this okay and one of the first thing here we do we’re going to say um tapped okay we make sure that we have this uh thing that’s getting printed okay I’m tapped all right now the next thing we want to do is as we click on each of them we want to get their index now why you want to get their index the reason is because if you see our ticket screen over here we’ll see that let’s go ahead and check our ticket screen so here you’ll see that we have ticket View and ticket view is uh taking ticket list and then an index okay so we need to pass Dynamic index to it so what we’ll do once we click any of the ticket view remember right now wherever you click that particular ticket view over here is getting clicked okay now if you don’t understand it it will make sense very soon just bear with me and then as I click we need to grab the index which we didn’t do yet so we’ll grab the index of this one of the items and then we need to call call this ticket screen from here and as we call we need to pass the index we’ll pass the index at the top and then over here you will see that um we would be able to pass that index the one that we are passing here to this place now that means that it’s taking Dynamic index which means a different of them so as will be clicking on differently and different ticket view item it will get me different information with this it’s more Dynamic and actual routing okay so now let’s come back over here this is what we did now one of the other things that we need to do right now is getting the index because we need to know where we are clicking at least we have to know which one okay now to be able to do that inside this ontap function we can actually create a variable you can say ver and we can call it index and then over here we need to get this ticket list this is our map remember and within this there is a function which is called index of index of get this one and if you do see that if you have index off it takes an element an element could be of map type okay okay this is our map and we know that this is a map as well so we are passing exactly the same thing so let me go ahead and grab this and pass it here and then let’s put a comma and then we can print I’m tapped on the ticket so here we can do index okay all right so let’s go ahead and print it now you click on this so I’m tapped on ticket zero I’m tapped on ticket two which means these are index actually right because index always starts from zero so we have total six tickets so if I click on this we’ll see that we are tapped on ticket five so so far so good so this is the thing that we are able to do just now that we are able to grab the index now since we are able to grab the IND index our job is to take this index and pass it to this ticket screen over here so that we are able to pass it down to this one now how to do that well there are many different ways to do that one of the ways we do using navigation okay now earlier we have seen that for navigation we need to use Navigator off context or Navigator dopost name like that those are the functions that we need to invoke so this is what we want to do now from here as we click on this we would be we need to go to new route or new screens right so just like last time we have seen before we need to Define them so the first thing we need to do in our app routes over here we can define static const ticket View and then here we do ticket view okay like this so now this would be our route name we can refer it from anywhere and now we need to register this route name with the routes uh argument over here as a map so let’s go ahead and do that here we do app routes we don’t want homepage we want here ticket View and then we pass the context and then we say const and then here we’ll say ticket screen okay right so ticket screen this this page right now would be working as a route for us okay previously it was on the bottom screen and it is still on the bottom screen but when we click it would be like a new route okay all right so that’s registering has been done but well even after that we still don’t don’t know how to pass the argument because we haven’t seen anything like this so here let’s go ahead and Define this one navigator navigator dot uh here Navigator post name this one and we pass context and our route name so what we can pass over here we can pass context we can pass rout name and we can pass arguments this three things now the route name should be like our routes name defined in the routes file so here we’re going to call it ticket view okay all right and then from here let’s see I think uh we might have an issue with the naming instead of uh ticket view we can call it ticket screen okay otherwise we might have problem with the naming and which is not good sorry for this so let’s go ahead and just simply change very quickly okay I think this is a better way to naming all right okay right so we have this and then the other thing we need to do over here is you’ll see here we have this one if you hover over on this you’ll see that okay you also have to have if you want to pass something else you can pass it the name as argument so this is what it’s saying and for this one you need to pass using this curly braces okay so this should be named route or named route here it means that the proper is UN named actually because we are giving it like this and this is also optional I think named optional arguments so this is how we are doing actually not named routes name optional arguments so we are naming them over here now here we’re going to do like this so if you go ahead and hover on this here you will see that objects arguments okay and this one you have to pass within curly braces because this is optional optional and named so that’s why you have name and curly braces so here would the arguments and do like this now within it over here you can Define your key value pair so in our case here we are doing say index and then we are passing index okay so this the only argument that we are going to pass because we grabbed the argument right okay so now let’s go ahead and restart our app and let’s come over here and this time if you’ll click you’ll see that we go to a new route or our ticket screen but of course the bottom navigation bar has gone with this we have another problem we don’t have this what is it the our abar we don’t have the ab bar so for now we are going to go ahead and create an Eber Eber for our ticket screen screen now currently we have body inside this ticket screen so to create an AB here we can just say abber and abber and then here you can say title and just pass the name so what is the name over here we want to pass tickets like this we don’t want to pass anything else so now as you see that okay it created a a back button now we are able to go back okay now it does look a little bit of ugly so we can give it a quick fix over here so here it says that horizontal and vertical we have 20 and then we also have this one so for now I’m going to go ahead and comment this out let’s go ahead and click on this yes it looks much better and at the same time we also Don need this for now so I’m going to comment this out as well okay now it looks better okay as you can see that okay and in fact we also May comment this out okay so let’s go ahead and check that okay now the other thing we could do over here right now is uh doing a little bit of styling of this okay now if you do hover over on this here you might see different colors that you can apply so we have this background color okay so let’s go ahead and apply background color and for now we’re going to apply the same color over here okay right so now it looks much better okay so whenever you click on this we do see this okay in fact over here you can also take this out we don’t need this one okay now this exactly looks like the other pages and with this our uh navigation is working but uh then this is still not dynamic as you see this this things are pretty hardcoded right but now we have very easy fix for them it’s not fixed we need to continue to work on that so let’s in next section we’ll see how to grab this now to be able to grab this we need to come to this one over here and we need to make some changes what are the changes that you want so first we need to convert this to to uh State full widget so here I’m going to do this operation and then now after that it would become a stateful widget because you see that we have a new uh part of the code or statement that’s been created over here and at the same time we are invoking this state class and which is an abstract class anyway so now let’s move over here inside this there is something called the change dependencies we need to invoke this one so this is really used whenever you move from one screen to another screen and then at the at the same time you pass arguments or objects and you want to grab them to another class so we are coming here from our earlier screen like from here and then we want to pass something on this screen and grab it and for those purposes you do the change dependencies the screen you want to grab it you need to implement the change dependencies in that screen now within it you can declare variable ARS you can name it anything and after that here we’ll have this okay so now this is a sentence that sorry not sentence a syntax that you need to use to grab arguments whenever you pass around arguments remember from here we are passing passing this things right we are passing arguments and you can obviously see that here settings. arguments now this is a very different thing which will not cover over here remember that when you pass arguments and you have to grab it you need to use this one and then here you can simply say as map okay right and then okay right we are missing something now over here that we are passing once again this thing as a map so that’s why here we mentioned that okay this is coming as a map now within this map we have things for example we going to print say past our past index actually and then here we’re going to print args and then here we’ll have index okay all right so let’s go ahead and save it okay I think we already saw something past this zero now let’s come over here click on this here we’ll see that past index three and from earlier screen we also see that here we have 3 three so this is what is aligning together okay right so it looks like this is working now if this is working we need to assign this to here our ticket View and how to do that for this first we need to go ahead and create a variable and this type is light okay we can say ticket index okay now you can give it a default value it doesn’t really matter and let’s see add annotation type okay so light in so it’s saying that okay you need something okay now whenever we have a new value like for example from here we can pass it to this one and then here can do args dot I think I don’t think we can do this so we still have to do index okay right so let’s go ahead and save it hopefully we’ll have no issues over here now since this has been done so you can take this take index and then we all we need to do pass it here so instead of being hardcoded we do like this okay of course you also need to do it over here at the bottom so let’s go ahead and find it okay right over here index uh ticket index actually this one right so now let’s save it and you might see that there are changes immediately but I think that was our first one so now let’s come over here now let’s see okay so the first one is 8 hours 30 minutes New York to London and New York to London 8 hour 30 minutes this is what we see now let’s go ahead and click on the second one so Daka to Shanghai 4 hours 20 minutes so Daka to Shang High 4 hours 20 minutes and we see over here the same thing so this is awesome this is beautiful which which means that this is already being Dynamic now this is from New York to Beijing so 9 hours 30 9 hours 35 minutes New York to Beijing 9 hours and everything else is correct as even the date as you can see that 11th of May and departure time 10:53 so perfect so this part has been done so our app became more and more lively not just few hardcoded screen not only that we are able to pass things around and make it more Dynamic so that was uh first part of the navigation in next section we’ll see how to go ahead and work on this and do exactly the same thing so now the other thing you could do right now is go ahead and work on this now to be able to work on this first we need to come over here and we have this hotel View and we know that we are we have printed before hello there so we want to go to a new screen from here just like other times so we have to do we have to go ahead and create a new route name so let’s go ahead and do that and here we can say all hotels okay and let’s go ahead and change it here we can say hotels right and then over here we can Define the routes now of course with this we will have an issue but first let’s go ahead and copy this and here we can say do all all hotels right but then we don’t have this all Hotel screen over here right so as you see early we had for home we have all ticket K and this and that so over here we can go ahead and create a new file and then we’re going to call it all hotels do Dart okay all right okay so once you do that over here we’re going to hit St stateless and then we’re going to say we can say all hotels I think that’s what we registered all hotels right so over here we’re going to P pull all hotels all hotels right now of course with this we still have issue because we need to fix on this so let’s go ahead and do that and then we need to import it let’s go ahead and import it beautiful now let’s go ahead and save it and we do see that we don’t have any issues now all we need need to do we need to move over here and then we need to copy this one okay so Navigator push named context and our app routes okay so let’s come over here go ahead and put it and instead of this yeah we going to say all hotels and it’s going to work of course so that means we can click on this and we’ll view this and it’s very ugly so let’s go ahead and change it instead of this over here we can have scaold okay and uh after that within the scafold itself here we’ll have so let’s go ahead and save it and then what the very first thing here we could do ab bar because we want to go back and then here title and then text we just text so here say all hotels okay let’s go ahead and save it and this is what we see so this routing is working and then at the same time we can go ahead and do a background color for it and I do remember that app itself we had this background color so let’s go ahead and copy this and we going to put it here and we need to import it let’s go ahead and save this and then here we see that okay right now it is weird so here we going to do the same okay now it matches up correctly as with like our other styles over here as you can see beautiful so which means that this all hotels tab is working and our next step our next job would be showing this hotels over here okay so this is where we left of last time we were able to go ahead and create a route as you can see from here now since we go over there we want to display our hotels here just like we did for hotel but right now we want to do it a little bit different we don’t want the exact same layout which I mean by like say take all this and put them here we don’t want to do this okay we want to do it a little bit different layout and which is better okay now we need to make a lot of changes regarding this if we want to do that anyway so we are going to do that right now and then over here let’s come to our old tickets and we’ll learn some new Concepts along the way okay so let’s go ahead and work with the body the concept that here we are going to introduce is called grid Builder and how it works okay so let’s go ahead and do grid grid View and Builder okay right now so how does this grid view work well if you do use grid view. Builder you’ll have layout like this okay and this is what is done using grid view well previously for each of this layout we have used single child scroll view now single child scroll view you can only get one type of horizontal or vertical layout what do I mean by that with single child scroll view as as you can see we only have this horizontal scroll view which is this one the same for the hotel so horizontal scroll view which is this one or you could do the other one single child scroll view we can also do vertical so it would be in that case just like this and there would be just one column and many rows if you do vertical layout with the single child scroll view in this case we have done horizontal layout with single shell scroll view so we got like something like this that will have only one row and many columns like for example it has two columns as you can see over here and if you go over here we see the opposite so here we see this kind of layout and it is still a single child scroll view okay so as you see that with single child scroll view you can only achieve either horizontal and vertical but whatever you achieve it will have have either one column many rows or one row many columns just like this one row and many columns okay or many rows for example here one column but with grid view buer actually it combines both at the same time so that’s the essence of grid view Windler in terms of layout so if you want to have more items together next to each other you need to use grid view Builder which means that both in column and uh roll out and where each each of the direction which means horizontal and vertical in both Direction you will have many items okay hopefully it makes sense now of course here we need to change this things it doesn’t work as simple as that it’s a grid delegate so here we need to call this class which is called Silver G red delegate fixed cross access account so here actually this is a function that we need to use and here as you see that it says cross access item so here you need to mention that how many items you want horizontally like for example here we have seen that okay horizontally you have four items but in this case we’ll just put two hopefully it makes sense all right okay so this is what you want to do and then there are other things that you need to do what is that so here you need to say cross access spacing cross access spacing would be as you can see from the name now of course here’s the other thing you have to know if our cross AIS is like this then this cross AIS spacing it also be like this okay uh you have to remember that one because in general when we have this silver grid delegate with fixed cross access account or count actually when you use this U class or widget so in general cross access refers to the horizontal one okay horizontal So when you say cross AIS spacing instead of vertical it would be horizontal spacing so spacing between these two items okay so here you’re going to say 16.0 and then main access spacing of course this would be the vertical one so vertical one meaning by the spacing between this two between this two okay all right the last one so child aspect ratio 0.7 so this tells you that the width and height of each item and what’s the ratio so because we are not giving any WID and height of each item what do I mean by that like for example say this is like a container right now this doesn’t we didn’t assign any width or height so silver grid delegate would find it out on its own now as it does it it needs to know that okay you want it like a square or rectangle now for example here we want it more like a rectangle okay or more like a square so here we can change it later and a lot of time people might say 1.0 so with that it would end up being a perfect square but of course this is not a square in our case this is just a layout now in our mobile over here definitely we’ be wanting a square okay so we want two squares next to each other so that’s what we want so we would go ahead with this child aspect ratio okay now of course here the next of the thing is coming item Builder just like any other list view Builder so here you need to pass context and length so in this case say for example uh sorry not length it should be index so and put it as index and we’re going to use it later like this so let’s go ahead and return something what do you want to return say for example return container so let’s go ahead and do that and say give it a color uh text say hello grid and then let’s give it a color so here we would say color colors. red for now okay now let’s go ahead and save it and as you can see that so here we have this it items horizontally 2x two and vertically a lot more okay now of course if you do want instead of this two here you could do four and as you can see it changes okay so that’s the beauty of grid view which you can directly work with you don’t need to create a special Loop for both horizontal and vertical layout grid view Builder would do it automatically for you now of course I know that it looks ugly but we are going to optimize it now one of the thing here we do wrapping around it padding widget and then let’s apply padding like this so now it looks better so this is what we want to look like when we click on this we will take all the hotels and we would look like this now with this your understanding about grid view. Builder should be better so now now all we need to do instead of uh this thing over here uh we need to find our hotel list and count that and insert it here one thing we could do even before we go ahead and uh use our hotel list here we can say item count say 10 let’s go ahead and see that so here you see we have 10 items so that’s how exactly it works so in next section we’ll grab our hotel list and and display it here so let’s go ahead and continue with this so over here we want to display our hotel list and then here we know that we have this hotel so this is what we want to access and pass to it now we can grab this one this guy let’s go ahead and do that and let’s come over here so let’s do that and Dot do we need to import it yes we need to okay right Hotel list. length Okay so let’s give it a length and uh we’ll see how many items we have so okay of course we have three items in our hotel list so that’s the first step and then over here you do see that we have this hotel okay so we can grab this hotel and let’s move over here can we can so in fact we can grab this let’s go ahead and do that and and uh then over here we can put it like this but of course it will throw arrrow so we’re going to fix that so the first one is ver single hotel and then we’ll have hotel list this guy oh no not this hotel list and then we pass the index to it so this index will start from zero and then we need to import it we have an extra braces and now the arrow should be gone but of course this layout might not work as expected because I mean over here you will see that we have height and width this kind of stuff but which is not suitable for this screen but anyway we’ll go ahead and pass this thing and we’ll see how it looks like and then we’ll change and of course as you see that it already showing the things now instead of four we’re going to display two of course this would look better but we still have overflow issues so these are the things that we need to change now one thing like for example let’s come over here say remove this height all and uh also remove this with now let’s go ahead and see so because of this our image is not coming out but now this is without any issues right so there are a lot more things that we need to work on this section okay so in our next tutorial next section we’ll continue to work on this so images and text and we’ll also work on the layout for the both sides okay so this is what we did last time and uh we have to fix that and even before that I think we have another issue so let’s go back and uh let’s click on this and let’s come over here okay we don’t have any problem as you can see where where you click you see the correct index and correct data but then if you do click here and if you do try to restart the app we’ll see that there would be a problem let’s go ahead and check that so here we have this null is not subtype of map Dynamic and this okay so what is this and how to understand we see it here again now if you do flut programming You’ see this kind of error a lot not only just in flut if you do react native and any sort of programming you’ll see that it is there all the time now first thing it’s saying that okay you are getting null null means there is no valid value okay in the memory and but it is expecting this one so that’s the problem so it is getting this and expecting this so it is Str that that okay null is not subtype of this in type cost so whatever it got it cannot convert it to this remember the object we get we convert to map dynamic dynamic right that’s what we do so right now we cannot do this so this is a problem okay now this could happen for many reasons the first reason most all you are getting network data and the data hasn’t arrived the UI has built then you get this because in your UI most probably you are going to use values from here but this value hasn’t arrived so it is still null and if it is null the UI cannot render anything and then you end up having this wrong value which helps you Crush the app so this is one thing regardless you read data from Json file like here we are reading data from Json file or even if you get data from Network whenever you don’t have your data ready and your UI is trying to render that in that case you will have this issue you have to avoid that now there are many ways to avoid okay now this is causing a problem so if you click on this actually you can click on here or here eventually it’ll take you here actually so actual problem is here and for that you see here this is all framework issues so from here it points to our code and then it goes to the top which is scaffold over here Bottom bar and of course it refers to eventually this one okay but anyway the actual problem is here so here this argument is null actually this argument is null and we can go ahead and uh prove that so here we can say if is null okay here we’re going to say print the value is null okay right and as you see that here the value is null okay now why this happens because remember uh on our homepage Now homepage has changed remember in our last uh section we had this grid view thing we are doing and we’ll we’ll actually take care of that don’t worry just bear with me because this issue we have encountered just now so we need to follow that but anyway so here over here when you go from here you don’t have any issues but when your app runs the first time definitely you’re not clicking any of this so it comes here and it cannot find any value because it didn’t click anywhere so it do doesn’t get any value so how to work with this so this is definitely null okay now here we could do like this one thing so we could do a conditional check if this is not null then we’re going to do this okay if this is not null we’re going to do this okay only if not null we are going to go ahead and do this that means that if you come over here and click on this this would get executed but very first time when you come to tab okay so this would not get executed because it is null right now if it doesn’t get executed this would be the value so T ticket index is zero already given a zero value and zero means that actually here we can get the very first the very first one right so let’s go ahead and click on this now let’s come over here now let’s click on this okay so we can see this and then if you come over here our app doesn’t crash we can do one more check on this so click on this our app will not crash okay right okay so this part has been sold and the other part is over here so we had this old tickets and we are going over there right as you can see but going over there we have comment this out and this is what it’s causing right so definitely we cannot change this one we cannot really make it directly reusable so we need to put it back so that our homepage stays the same okay so now let’s go ahead and reload and this is back but now if you come over here it’ll throw an error so how to solve this but for this one definitely we need to go ahead and introduce a new screen so I’m going to copy this from here all right and uh I’m gonna come over here okay so over here we can introduce a new screen okay here so whatever we had copied early from here I’m going to come over here and put it first and then I’m going to change the name to Hotel grid view okay uh let’s go go ahead and change it need to make sure we make changes here and here as well okay now we’ll make changes in this file okay so it’s not going to conflict our homepage okay so homepage would stay the same but here it’s now different now from now on actually we can go ahead and make changes that how it should look like okay so so one of the thing that we had over here is this one right now this is this has a height and then we say this thing over here the image itself okay so with the current setup we still get issues and overflow Let’s uh work on them step by step first let’s go ahead and change this aspect ratio let’s change it to 0.9 which means there would be more width than height and then over here we can also make changes so we don’t want a width like this so let’s remove this one over here and uh over here also change it to eight so that we don’t have much spacing uh on the right okay otherwise it’s giving us a lot of spacing and then ins inside this this container itself we can wrap it around an spect ratio because we need to remove this let’s go ahead and save it if you remove this because the container doesn’t have any WID and height so that’s why this image or this thing is just gone okay this container needs with an height otherwise it just doesn’t work okay now we cannot give it within height I mean that would be hardcoded so for this reason we can go ahead and wrap it around a widget and we’re going to call it aspect ratio now aspect ratio would try its best to match this or fill up this thing uh based on the aspect ratio so let’s go ahead and do that and after some testing I found that we could use 1.2 and then over here it shows up but by saying that it also means we need to make some other changes now the first few changes that we could do over here we don’t want such big line so we want two 3 and four okay so let’s go ahead and use them and as you see that it really worked and then we still have bit of problem and these are all coming at the bottom now these two are causing this problem now these two elements I’m going to go ahead and do a cut and then here I’m going to introduce the row so we can put them one after another and then inste of this we can use height let’s go ahead and save it okay right so we have already uh a lot of improvement is padding and then this is roll actually we don’t need this one I think we can just simply remove this okay and as well as instead of headline two we can use headline three all right so I think which is uh already looking better and I think we are happy with this and now if you go ahead and remove this I think that’ be gone let’s go ahead and check this thing let’s click on this okay right so we have already three of this awesome so this part is working just like here but of course here we can go ahead and click and find a certain ticket and then over here we cannot click them yet so our next step should be making them clickable we do see that it looks great but there is a bit of problem when you click on this the first problem we see is that here the spacing is not same as this now we know that this thing all hotels this body holds everything now what we could do we could go ahead and wrap it inside a container and then over here we could do margin and we can assign a margin to it so here we could do agent sets dot only and then here we could do left so over here we could do eight and let’s go ahead and fix this now there are other ways we could fix it but this is one of the fixes that we could assign to it so now here of course we do see that if we click on this now we go ahead and view all these things the next thing actually we want to do well we’re going to do it from here so we want to click any of this and then go to a new screen with detail information so that’s what we want to do now here actually when we click on a hotel we want to go to a page like this where we’ll have our hotel picture we don’t have it currently don’t worry this is what we want and then we’ll have Hotel description and then at the same time we’ll have some related images that’s what we want now one thing you see that over here as you scroll up so this image that gets smaller and then over here we see a custom scroll bar and uh I mean this is what we see as a title and then as you come down the title gets down as well and as you see that it has some animation okay so as you see it has this animation so this is what we want to do with the hotel the complete Hotel view so this is what we want to do now to do that we need to learn a lot of new Concepts so this is what we are going to SC uh cover and uh I promise that this part would be exciting because as you click on a certain hotel it’s going to take you to a new screen and that new screen will have detail information and then at the same time you you will see that it animates apart from that here you will have a button this button within this one you can do more or less okay all right so that’s why it’s very interesting so this is our all hotel and then over here we have this hotel grid View and then if we click any of the hotel we are supposed to go to a new place right and we learned that we’re going to do it using new idea our Concepts now over here this Concepts we need to cover few new widgets so the first one is called custom scroll view now this is used to do the custom scrolling which we have seen before and at the same time within this we’ll have sers slver abber and SLI list now the custom or the earlier widgets that we have seen the widgets we have seen none of them we just actually do any kind of Animation as it Scrolls because we have seen list View and list view doesn’t do any scrolling I mean sorry list view doesn’t do any kind of Animation if you use a custom scroll view as a widget then you have slivers a sers is like widgets because within it you hold sliver abar and sliver list so first we’ll have custom scroll View and within it will’ll have slivers and inside slivers we’ll have sliver abber and then we’ll have sliver list so these are nested inside each other and as you can see that sers will take a lot of slivers one of the sliver is sliver abers so SLI abber is a type of slivers and then sliver list is also type of slivers so this two we’re going to Nest inside the sliver abber and then sliver abber definitely as you see it takes abar so our abar would be animated as we have seen already and at the same time over here you will see that we’ll have sliver list within it actually we can put any kind of widget so that’s what we are going to do now now after we do this we see that our hotel each of the hotel they will have animated View and lot of fun aspect of it now the first thing I want to do it over here actually I want to wrap it around another widget first and I’m going to call it gesture detector gesture detector and then within it here we’ll have ontap event all right now our ontap event doesn’t have any event so we can come over here inside this for now I’m still going to go ahead and create a new file and later on we’ll refactor them and here we can say hotel detail Hotel detail dot Dart and then over here we’re going to create a stateless class and we’re going to call it Hotel detail and then over here let’s go ahead and import that now we learned from our earlier lessons that we need to register them now to register we need to come here app routes and then over here we’re going to say static const Hotel detail right so this is done and then over here we can come over here in our main do Dart and within it we can do app routes and hotel detail this one and then context Hotel detail now over here we need to put a comma and then we are good to go all right so since this is done now we can come over here and definitely we could do navigator navigator do push named and then here we pass the context and over here app routes and we don’t want homepage we want Hotel detail this one and for now that’s it okay let’s go ahead and click on this I think we need to restart it because we have introduced uh new section of code and routing all right now let’s click on this so this is what we see and beautiful and this is also expected now very first thing we want to do within it removing this we don’t want to show this we all we want showing this scaold here we’ll have body and within the body we’ll have custom scroll view as I said early custom scroll View and uh let’s do a return statement and let’s save it and let’s see this is an empty one and nothing is uh showing up okay so one of the very first thing I said that early that we need to show this slivers so right now we’re going to write the sers so here we’ll have slivers as you can see it takes list okay now if you hover over on this there’s a lot of explanation over here you go ahead and check it on own but I have also an article about it I’ll put the article link below so that you can find the article and also go through it but once again I’m going to go ahead and explain on my own now over here as you see that sers it takes a list and here says that yes you can put uh any kind of widget inside this thing okay so now over here what kind of widget you want to put since we are going to work with our animated Eber so here we want to have sliver abar rather than other other kind of abar so so let’s go ahead and do that let’s put it okay now we already see that we have a back button you CL click on this we can go back and this is awesome and this is already working okay and after that within it if you H over on this there are few properties that you can set okay so we going to set those properties one by one here we’ll have expanded height and say 300 okay let’s go ahead click on this save it okay of course you can see that nothing is visible yet so over here nothing is visible the reason is because we don’t have any content within it so we need to put some content now to put content we want it to be flexible because we want to make it smaller and bigger as we scroll okay so that’s why we need to use a property called flexible space now here we’ll have flexible flexible space bar as you can see that flexible space bar which means it will make our abar flexible okay now within it the very first thing we want to do is a title and for now we’ll say text and hotel title is the one that we’re going to use and of course if you go and check nothing is visible yet and the last part here you need to set image as a background okay so if you see that here it says widget but of course we’re going to put an image because we want our image to be here now to be able to do that over here we’re going to write image. Network this one for now we’re going to use Network image just for an example but later we’re going to change this so here we’re going to say https and then via now this is a website where you can go ahead and uh get their stuff for free online just write the write as I’m writing and then you are good to go so now let’s go ahead and save it okay and as you can see that it already popped up now the image itself has uh over here width of 600 and then the height of 400 okay now this expanded widget is 300 which tells you that okay so this s abar this abar that I’m building that should take 300 from safe area so this is 300 but of course if you change say 600 it would come down okay so it’s going to come down along with it all right so that’s how it works now of course you can have any size you want it doesn’t really matter so you can have uh one 1,000 by 400 it doesn’t matter so but it changes because this is very Dynamic it changes based on the item and height you give so the actual one you need to do your own experiment for your images that what you want and how much you want to show but anyway so for now we’re going to stick to 300 and 600 over here let’s save them back okay and let’s make it 300 and we are good to go now that’s the first part and then as I said later on wein it we also need slavers uh sorry we need SL list this one and it takes a delegate property and within it we’ll have slver child list delegate is what we want and it takes a list as you can see over here now within it here we could have a a lot of text let’s go ahead and put them so here I have pasted some text and it’s a lot of text now the magic will happen you will see that over here as we hover over it on top over here this image itself become smaller this image itself becomes smaller as you can see and it eventually disappears and then it starts scrolling which is very different than the earlier epur that we have worked with so SL UR is cool for doing animation and you could do a lot of control on this for example over here we do see that it goes up as you scroll up okay but we don’t want to do it so here let’s set up some property to set up the property over here we could do like this so floating false okay so we don’t want it to float so let’s see most probably we need another property to set which is also called pinned pinned true okay and then let’s come over here let’s click on this now we’ll see the magic happens as you see that abber is still at the top and we do see it okay we do see the title okay and as you come down it it disappears I mean it comes down with you as you go up it it it stays at the top and fixed and this is what this two are doing over here of course there are a lot of other customization we need to do but you get the idea the idea is you we want our text to scroll automatically not only that we want our image to scroll now for this reason we have used custom scroll View and within it of course you have to use the property sers and then the other embedded properties that you need to to use slver Ab bur and SLI list okay all right so that’s the first thing that we have done but of course we don’t want the text to appear like this okay now let’s go ahead and make some changes so I’m going to actually remove this we I don’t want any of this text over here now within it over here I’m going to do padding so let’s go ahead and do that and Ed inserts Ed inserts. all over here say 16.0 all right and then after that here we’ll have child and text now within it I’m going to put some dummy text for now so you can put a long piece of text and this is what we see so of course this is getting better for now and and uh later down the road here we’ll have a button called more or less and we’ll work on that don’t worry so that’s the first thing and then well so since this is our widget and this widget is showing our text after that we want to put another widget over here and I’m going to do the same for now I’m going to do padding and then within it here we’ll have Edge inserts and 16 add inserts do all 16.0 and then once again we’ll have text over here and here we’ll say more images okay here we want to show the images that’s relate to our uh hotel and of course here we are missing child property let’s go ahead and save it and this is what we see over here and now of course we need to go ahead and style about it so here we do Style Style and text style and within it here we’ll have font size say 20 dot w and uh font weight all right and the font weight we are going to use Font weight bold okay all right like this let’s go ahead and save it and this is what do we see now inside this we also want to show other images before we go ahead let’s go and put some const modifier because my editor is screaming at me that you should do that and at the same time I’m going to go ahead and structure this format the code all right so as you see that so by this time you do understand that sliver List It Takes list and of course since it takes list it puts the L in more like column format okay so that’s what we see over here now within this after this padding over here we want to have another container for now and say give it height say 200 for now okay forget about other stuff for now and then inside this we’ll have child so let’s go ahead and do that and then here we do child view dot Builder list view. Builder and here we want to have context and we want to pass index and then over here say I want to show some items okay and the item itself for now say we want to use Network image okay so here we’re going to return return image.net image. Network can we return this okay we have two M’s I believe that okay right now within it here we’re going to do https and then via dopl holder.com and say 200 by 150 so this is what we want to return so now we are here and make sure that you do have kind of uh limitation item count if you don’t mention it because it’s requesting too many images because in general list be Builder creates infinite number of amounts infinite amounts of widgets so that’s why you need to mention it over here otherwise your app will crash or it won’t work okay now of course here we are seeing that this is scrollable okay now of course this is not how we want we want to change it here and let’s change the scroll Direction and uh horizontal access. horizont onal I think I believe this is what we need to set okay beautiful all right so as you see that now it’s fine so we can scroll left and right and we have 10 items I believe I feel like I’ve been scrolling for a long time okay right anyway so now as you see that it’s working the scrolling is totally working make sure that before you run it first time you use limited number and lower the better after after all these are network images somehow these are all Network images they are coming from network but if you have unlimited number of them it’s going to crash your app now of course within this you can change your items over here I mean the height and width it’s all up to you now well here we do see that we have this issue of margin and and what is this so let me go ahead and wrap this thing around a container and let me reformat the code and then let’s come over here and within it over here we’re going to do margin and margin Ed inserts while all say for example value of eight and because we want to do debugging so here we can set of color colors. red so let’s go ahead and save it and here we do see that okay hide and width here we have even the 200 but here this is an image and which is not matching with our proportion so that’s why we do see that but of course if you reset to 200 which is square is going to take all this place and then of course of course this margin uh if we apply then we see that yes okay so it it works better like this and if you do want you can also do 16 like this like the earlier ones so left and right we all have margin but anyway you get the idea okay so if you want to show your images here they have to be uh especially optimized in terms of WID and height it’s better whatever the WID and height you do here you do the same over here as well at least the images okay so now with this we have an understanding what is uh custom what is so we have an understanding of what is a custom scroll View and at the same time we have understanding how to work with SLI AB sliver list and then as well as list view Builder so we also learned that sliver C scroll views and slers and list view Builder they can all work together but yes this may sound little bit complicated but trust me this thing you’re going to use again and again if you’re in flutter abdb because this is very optimized anyway so we’ll work next on the next tutorial but now here is your job so I’m going to assign an assignment to you so your job would be as we click on each of this images over here each of this images over here your job would be retrieve the title because as you can see there is always a title over here retrieve the title your job would be retrieved the title and show the title over here and at the same time you should be also able to grab the image and show it over here so this is what you need to do now there many ways that could be done one of the ways is that just passing the index of this so this hotel grid view now each of them they have an index okay so as you pass the index what you could do you could pass the index as you click on this like previously we have seen how to pass arguments so here you can pass grab the index and pass it here and as you pass it you have you will have access to the index over here but of course in that case you need to change this one and set the index and then you need to read the hotel list over here and as you read the hotel list you can go ahead and show the image so the idea is somehow try to grab the index and pass the index to this guy over here in the Constructor and then pass the index here and then when you go to hotel detail use it here and use hotel list and then use that index to grab one of the items from the hotel list and that’s how it should work thank you all right so this is where we left of last time I mean we working on this assignment and hopefully you have done the assignment once again if you have problem understanding the assignment or doing it you can always leave questions below now as I assign the assignment actually I also gave an idea how to do that so the very first idea was uh passing around this Index right we said that we need to pass an index from here actually over here within this grid Builder we already have an index okay so we can grab that index so all we need to do here create a new argument and we call it index and then over here we want to grab it as a parameter so here we do final int index and then of course because these are the properties or Fields so we also need to put it inside this Constructor so over here we going to have required this do index and that’s all okay all right so we have it and then the next thing is to go ahead and pass this one to this guy but before we pass over here let’s go ahead and print my index is here index so because we are printing a variable over here so we don’t need curly braces the dollar sign is enough now let’s click on this so I do believe that I need to go ahead and restore it all right so my index is three and then my index is two like that okay all right so that’s how it works okay beautiful so that means we can get the index now the next thing we want to do is passing it as an argument and we know that if you want to pass variables in the route you can always pass them using this argument ments property and we pass it as a map so here we’re going to call it index you can call it actually anything and then assign this value the value that we have here now remember we are not using anywhere else we have we are injecting inside our Constructor in the object itself and then we are over here as we click we’re going to pass it to this hotel detail now inside this hotel detail we can grab it so over here we need to convert it to a stateful widget okay so I’m on Mac over here option enter and it’s going to work so and we learn that as we passed parameters or arguments from one screen to another screen then we need to go ahead and uh access it using did change dependencies so this is what we are going to do over here all right now here we can create a variable and we can call it arcs and within it over here we’re going to use model route this one and then off context and then we will say that we have context and settings this one dot arguments so we getting the arguments as map all right so here this is called bang operator and with this you understand that we say okay uh the screen the screen will have context okay because context holds everything okay so that’s why we are passing this context because when you move between screen and you want to grab your objects this and that like this one it is stored somewhere in the context context context is like a state or a special memory where you can grab it okay you can understand it like this anyway then over here we are going to print ARs and then here we are going to grab it as index okay so whatever you put inside this arguments whatever the key this is called key this called value whatever the key that is you always put key here okay because this is a map and in the earlier lessons we have learned that if we have a map we can access a map item using the key name all right so let’s go ahead and save it and let’s click on this and here we go we see that all right so we we are able to grab our stuff all right so here we’re going to create a variable final light int index and then from here we’re going to do index equal ARS index okay now with this we’ll have index in this variable now we can also give it a default value so that whenever we are using it doesn’t crash so always try to have a default value valid default value in this case this is zero all right so the very first thing we want to do over here is changing this but now we don’t want to have Network image because right now these are coming from our Json data okay Json data the one that we have over here okay right so here image. asset going to do the job and then here we’re going to do assets images and then here hotel list which we can access and and then we’re going to access a certain item using the past index and then over here we’ll have image item okay and I do believe that this is the correct one and if it is not that’s the correct path I believe oh assets image yes right so images let me go ahead and fix that images and then we have the slash okay all right so let’s go ahead and restart our app now here we do see let’s go ahead and check on this okay right the image has already shown up over here as you can see at the Top If You click on this this is a new image that I have inserted and this is an old image so yes the image is a little bit different now this image is not wide enough so that’s the problem but you get the idea okay so you it should be more about width anyway so now over here we can also change this so here we could do hotel list we can access this one and then here index dot not DOT it’s called Place uh remember that these are starts with place okay all right so let’s go ahead and uh use this over here and let’s go ahead and change this so you see the best hotel this is the name best city pool but of course this still needs some uh reassignment of the name so that we can see the images correctly and the name correctly but you get the idea so it’s already working okay so this is where we left last time and then there are few problems here that we want to take care one of the problem that we want to start with this background button this is not the button color that we want the arrow button is okay but we want to give it a background now to be able to be give it a background inside this SLE R Bar we can use another property the property is called leading property okay now inside this here we want to use gesture detector and then here we’ll have ontap event gesture detector is always used for navigation or going back and forth okay so this is where we put our route or navigation but anyway now let’s move on here we can also assign a child now the child itself here we do container okay so if you don’t know how many properties this leading uh or what is this leading you can actually always look up here any kind of widget if you don’t know what it does you can always hover over on that widget and it will give you all the properties and here it says this okay well this leading is a type of widget okay and then that widget means most of the time you can use a text you can use a container like that there are a few other out there as well and container text sized box these are the most common type of widgets okay anyway so now inside this actually we want to work now the first thing here we want to do is decoration why because we want to give it a background color the background color for this arrow button currently we don’t have now to be able to give it a background color definitely we need to use container container has decoration and then it has box decoration property and within it here we want to give it a shape now here there is a property called box shape and it has other properties and we’re going to use a circle the reason is we want to give it a circle background okay all right and now let’s go ahead and save it okay and it looks like it’s gone and don’t worry about it and over here let’s give it color and here we would use app styles do not primary color let’s see okay so now it already showed up over here as you can see that but of course uh now it doesn’t work okay the reason is because whenever you use leading whenever you use leading property you have to specifically mention the back button earlier we didn’t have leading so it was okay and there was AB back Buton but now once you use the leading property you need to go ahead and then mention the route or the back button automatically and to do that in general here we could do Navigator dop okay Navigator dop let’s go ahead and do that and then here you need to pass the context and once you do that here you’ll have this uh you will see that the popup button works okay okay now we see that it already works okay cool now after that of course it’s still very ugly because this thing over here the butter itself is not shown so for this reason here we can use another property child which is inside this container and then we can use icon icon is like another kind of widget okay if you hover over on this you’ll know that this is icon and lot of different stuffs and of course uh the container itself also takes widgets like as a child and icon itself is a widget and inside this here we could use icons do array back arrowback this one now of course uh what I does you can always see from it now here there’s this property I do believe the first one okay the first one itself okay because it doesn’t take any name so you can directly go ahead and use it okay so whenever you see something like this without curly braces or outside of curly braces you can actually go ahead and use that without any name of course in that case you have to know what kind of property you are using like for example here container right you see that container the decoration right so over here you see decoration this one inside this curly braces okay this second curly braces so anything that’s inside curly braces if you want to use that you need to get their name anything that is not inside curly braces you can directly use their properties anyway so now here we are going to go ahead and uh say for example color okay here we could use color colors. white okay so let’s go ahead and save it and we already see that and of course it’s working and now there are other problems as well the problem is it’s too big we don’t want it to be so big now inside this over here this gesture detector this clickable widget we want to wrap it around padding okay so that we look good now we can give it padding of eight okay now it BEC smaller and with this we see that it’s looking much better all right so we were done with this and the next step we want to go ahead and do is working on this the things over here as well as you will see that uh in some cases this doesn’t fill out the screen and which is very ugly so these are the things that we need to take here now to be able to do that we need to put our Focus over here inside this uh flexible space bar this background image okay well the first thing here we would do is changing this image property okay so let’s go ahead and change it the image property itself like we can come over here and put a comma and come down and within it here there is a property called fit okay box fit. cover so we want to use it as cover now if you go there okay it looks like already covered and the top as well and then here left right and which is beautiful actually and here as well so with this the problem has been solved so in general uh if you have image widget and the image itself you want to fill up left right top or bottom it doesn’t matter how many directions the image box feed could help a lot okay so that that’s how you should go ahead and work now after that there is another big problem that we need to solve you’ll see that this guy first thing it’s not very visible and this position actually changes it’s not always there it changes based on you know this length uh or width so we want to give it a background color as well as keep it in a fixed place so that we don’t need to change it or keep changing all the time okay so we want to give it a fixed position okay now here once again we are going to work with our uh stack widget okay because within stack widget over here we can control the position itself so every time you want to control the position of certain widget on your UI it’s better you should wrap it around using uh what is that called stack widget okay all right now to be able to do that so we have our image widget I’m going to cut it over here and then here I’m going to have stack widget and we know that stack widget takes a lot of children so that’s why we have this one and then inside this uh we can use position and here position itself will take this image the one that we had early okay let me go ahead and refractor the code so that it becomes more readable right let’s go ahead and save it now of course it distorts everything that’s the problem here we could also use a fill property it’s going to fill it okay now it’s the problem solved okay this is another trick that you could use with positioned widget which resides inside stack widget The Fill property is going to fill up everything whatever the child it holds because it holds this child over here now this is the first position widget okay now image itself we don’t want to work on any kind of positioning now because if you have stack widget within stack widget everything you have to put using positioned widget otherwise you will get error okay so that’s why we did that even though we are not changing any position over there all right so now here actually we want to take care of this title we don’t want to use the title this one okay we want to put the title here okay now one thing I could do I can go ahead and copy this and put it here and uh I can comment this out okay let’s go ahead and save it all immediately you see that it it it’s like that it’s gone okay it’s most probably here at the top because we need to change the position now since we are using positioned widget this is the time we can go ahead and change the position now to do that say for example you change it to bottom bottom 20 okay and looks like it didn’t show up and it doesn’t matter and then also asign left okay okay right and here we do see that it showed up but if you do want that you can also use write okay so this could be a perfect place from left side from right side 20 rather than here okay all right now over here we don’t see that it looks good so this text widget we want to wrap it around container so that we can give it a transparent background okay we need to do that because otherwise this text is not very readable now the very first thing here we could do is color and then here um we could do say for example colors dot black and then with opacity say 0.5 because we don’t want complete Black okay the background itself we want a little bit of opacity like for example we can see the chair within it right okay well that’s the first thing and then at the same time the text itself is not very clear so we want to change the text now in this case we are not going to use any kind of predefined custom wiget that one we built because we want to apply Shadow to it okay so for this reason then inside this text widget over here we’re going to use the property called style okay style and then here text style and the text style itself will have color so let’s go ahead and do color and then colors. white okay now we do see that it has a color something called White okay okay all right so now it is visible and another thing that we could do here is the padding Edge inserts do symmetric so with this we’ be able to place padding horizontally and vertically just using two numbers okay because this is symmetric so here horizontal say eight now here you see left and right we have a little bit of space right so left and right and then top and bottom for that one we can use vertical and say for example for this you use four and now it gotten better okay now back to style again so this time over here uh we may use the font okay so what is the font size say font font size we’re going to use the this one and we can use 24 and now it would stand out and which is much better and clearer okay all right and if you do want you can give it more transparency okay like this okay but I think 0.5 looks perfect okay all right and then over here within this for now we can put a const modifier and over here we could do the same for now let’s go ahead and save it all right now since we use this style over here and here you see that you might have something called decoration or Shadow actually not really decoration we are looking for something called Shadow this one so our style text could be shadowed I mean the text itself could have Shadow Shadow so that’s why here we use shadows and shadows takes list of Shadows if you hover over on this you’ll say it’s a list so whenever you see a list in general you want to use this too okay and inside this you could put as many items as you want blur radius okay so inside this we’re going to do uh shadow shadow okay I think it should be is small okay I think I have’t typ sorry Shadow okay right now inside this the first thing we want to do is called blur radius and then here 10.0 and then color and here app colors app Styles app Styles Dot primary now here we do have a const so that’s going to cause the problem so let’s remove that because if you use const you can’t use Dynamic so this is dynamic this value is red on the Fly and then over here we can use upset okay and then upset would be upset okay now let’s go go ahead and save it okay so well it doesn’t look like that we have a lot of changes but with Shadow if you do apply a shadow for example if you remove this so there might be small changes okay let’s go ahead and check that let’s uh click on this and let’s come over here so this is what we have and then let’s come over here this is the other thing we have okay and now let’s to put the shadow back all right okay now with this with everything it looks much better design not like the earlier one which was very sloppy okay well in next section we’ll explain how the Shadows work
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