No God But God The Origins, Evoloution, and Future of Islam by Reza Aslan

Reza Aslan’s No God But God offers a comprehensive exploration of Islam’s origins, evolution, and future. The book examines key figures like Muhammad and their impact on Islamic theology and law, tracing the development of different schools of thought. Aslan addresses the complexities of Islamic history, including political conflicts and social reforms, while also discussing contemporary challenges and debates within the Muslim world. He explores the diverse interpretations of jihad and the role of women in Islam, challenging common misconceptions. Finally, the author analyzes the influence of Sufism and the rise of Wahhabism.

No God But God: A Study Guide

Quiz

1. Describe the Ka’ba as it existed in pre-Islamic Arabia.
2. What is the difference between a nabi and a rasul in Islamic tradition?
3. What is the significance of Muhammad’s time in Medina for Islam?
4. What is the Ummah and why is its meaning debated?
5. How did Muhammad modify existing tribal laws regarding retribution?
6. Explain how Muhammad’s marriages were largely political rather than personal unions.
7. Briefly describe the conflict between Rationalist and Traditionalist schools of thought in Islamic theology.
8. What does naskh refer to and what does it demonstrate about revelation?
9. What is the core belief of Shi’ism regarding Ali and the Imams?
10. What is dhikr in Sufi practice and what are its different forms?

Answer Key

1. The Ka’ba was a small, roofless, cube-like structure in Mecca, made of unmortared stones, with two small doors, and its interior housed a variety of gods, including Hubal, al-Uzza, and even Jesus and Mary.
2. A nabi is a prophet chosen by God to deliver a divine message, while a rasul is a messenger of God who is also given sacred texts, such as Abraham with the Torah and Jesus with the Gospels.
3. Medina is where the Muslim community was born and where Muhammad’s social reform movement transformed into a universal religious ideology, becoming a paradigm for Muslim empires and the inspiration for Islamic revivalist movements.
4. The Ummah refers to Muhammad’s community, and its meaning is debated because it may have meant “community,” “nation,” or “people” and its origins are uncertain, possibly derived from Arabic, Hebrew, or Aramaic.
5. While maintaining retribution as a legitimate response to injury, Muhammad urged believers towards forgiveness and introduced the concept of community-wide opposition against criminals, a deviation from traditional tribal practices.
6. Muhammad’s marriages in Medina were largely political, designed to forge alliances within and beyond his community. For instance, his unions with Aisha and Hafsah linked him to Abu Bakr and Umar, and others forged political alliances with powerful clans or groups.
7. Rationalists (like the Mu’tazilah) argued that God, while undefinable, exists within human reason and that theology should adhere to rational thought, while Traditionalists (like the Ash’arites) held that God’s attributes are described in the Quran and should be accepted without question, adhering to the principle of “bila kayfa” or “don’t ask why.”
8. Naskh refers to the abrogation of one verse in the Quran by another, demonstrating that God chose to introduce social and moral changes gradually, allowing the community to adjust to new ideals.
9. Shi’ites believe that Ali is the rightful successor to Muhammad, and that the Imams, descendants of Ali, possess divine authority, infallibility, and a special esoteric knowledge passed down from Imam to Imam.
10. Dhikr is a practice of remembrance of God in Sufism, with forms including vocal dhikr (repeated chanting) and silent dhikr (inner meditation), designed to help followers lose their egos and achieve oneness with God.

Essay Questions

1. Analyze the social and political context of pre-Islamic Arabia, and explain how it shaped the emergence of Islam. Consider the various religious practices, tribal structures, and economic realities.
2. Compare and contrast the roles of Muhammad as both a political leader and a religious prophet. In what ways were these roles intertwined and how did his actions in Medina demonstrate this dual leadership?
3. Explore the evolution of Islamic legal and theological thought, focusing on the conflicts between different schools such as the Rationalists and the Traditionalists. How did these internal debates shape the development of Islamic doctrine and practice?
4. Discuss the significance of the concept of the Ummah within Islamic thought and practice. How has the meaning and application of this concept evolved throughout history, and what are its implications for understanding contemporary Islam?
5. Analyze the diversity within Islamic traditions, focusing on the differences between Sunni and Shi’i interpretations and Sufi practices. How do these differences demonstrate the complexity of Islam, and what are their implications for understanding conflicts within the Muslim world?

Glossary of Key Terms

• Ahadiyyah: The Sufi concept of Divine Oneness or Unity.
• Ahl al-bayt: The family of the Prophet Muhammad.
• Ahl al-Kitab: “People of the Book”; referring to Jews, Christians, and sometimes others who share Abrahamic scripture.
• Al-Qaeda: A Wahhabist organization founded by Osama bin Laden.
• Amir: A governor of a Muslim province.
• Ansar: The “Helpers”; members of Medina’s clans who converted to Islam.
• Ashura: The tenth day of the Islamic month of Muharram, a day of mourning, especially significant for Shi’ites.
• Bid‘a: Religious innovation, often with a negative connotation.
• Caliph: The successor to Muhammad as the temporal leader of the Muslim community.
• Companions: The first generation of Muslims who accompanied Muhammad; also called the Muhajirun.
• Dervish: Meaning “beggar,” a common term for Sufis.
• Dhikr: “Remembrance”; the primary ritual in Sufism involving repetition of God’s names.
• Dhimmi: Protected non-Muslims living in Islamic lands, usually Jews and Christians.
• Du‘a: Informal personal prayer.
• Fana: The annihilation of self that occurs in Sufism when one reaches a state of spiritual enlightenment.
• Faqih: A Muslim jurist; the Supreme Leader of Iran.
• Fatwa: A legal declaration made by a qualified Muslim jurist.
• Fikr: Mystical contemplation employed by certain Sufi orders.
• Fiqh: The study of Islamic jurisprudence.
• Fitnah: Muslim civil war.
• Hadith: Stories and anecdotes of the Prophet and his earliest companions.
• Hajj: The pilgrimage to Mecca.
• Hakam: An arbiter who settled disputes in pre-Islamic Arabia.
• Hanif: Pre-Islamic Arab monotheist.
• Hashim: The name of Muhammad’s clan.
• Henotheism: The belief in one “High God” without denying the existence of other, lesser gods.
• Hijab: Muslim practice of veiling and seclusion of women.
• Hijaz: The region of western Arabia.
• Hijra: The emigration from Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E.
• Iblis: The Devil, Satan.
• Ijma: Consensus of the Ulama on a specific legal issue not explicitly covered by the Quran and hadith.
• Ijtihad: The independent legal judgment of a qualified legal scholar.
• Ikhwan: Wahhabist “holy warriors” who helped the Saudis conquer Arabia.
• Imam: In Shi’ism, a divinely ordained leader of the Muslim community.
• Jahiliyyah: The “Time of Ignorance” before the revelation of Islam.
• Jihad: Struggle or striving in the path of God; commonly understood as armed conflict.
• Ka’ba: The central sanctuary in Mecca; the most sacred site in Islam.
• Kafir: Unbeliever or infidel.
• Kahin: A soothsayer or poet in pre-Islamic Arabia.
• Kharijites: A radical early Islamic sect that believed any Muslim who sinned was no longer a member of the Ummah.
• Mahdi: A divinely guided figure who will return to usher in an era of justice.
• Matam: Self-flagellation rituals mourning Husayn’s martyrdom.
• Mujahadin: Muslim militants; those who wage jihad.
• Mujtahid: A Muslim jurist qualified to make authoritative legal declarations.
• Muruwah: Pre-Islamic code of tribal conduct.
• Muslim Brotherhood: An Islamic socialist organization founded in Egypt.
• Mu’tazilah: A Rationalist school of Islamic theology.
• Nabi: A prophet.
• Nafs: Meaning “breath,” the self or ego according to Sufism.
• Najd: The desert regions of eastern Arabia.
• Naskh: The abrogation of one verse in the Quran by another.
• Pan-Arabism: The principle of racial unity among the world’s Arab population.
• Pan-Islamism: The principle of religious unity among the world’s Muslim population.
• Pir: A Sufi master; also known as Shaykh or Friend of Allah.
• Qalb: The “heart,” corresponding to the soul in Sufism.
• Qawm: A people or tribe.
• Qiblah: The direction of prayer toward Mecca.
• Qiyas: Analogical reasoning used in Islamic law.
• Quraysh: The rulers of Mecca in pre-Islamic Arabia.
• Qurra: The Quran readers who were the first to memorize, record, and disseminate the revelation.
• Qutb: The “cosmic pole” around which the universe rotates; refers to the Sufi master or Pir.
• Rashidun: The first four “Rightly Guided” Caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali.
• Rasul: A messenger of God who reveals sacred texts, as distinct from just prophets.
• Salafiyyah: A movement advocating a return to the practices of the “pious ancestors.”
• Shaykh: Tribal elder or leader in pre-Islamic Arabia; also, a Sufi master.
• Shi’a: The branch of Islam that believes Ali was the rightful successor to Muhammad.
• Shirk: The act of associating partners with God.
• Sufism: The mystical tradition within Islam.
• Sunna: The traditions of the Prophet composed of the hadith.
• Sunni: The main branch of Islam, considered “orthodox”.
• Surah: A chapter of the Quran.
• Tabiun: The second generation of Muslims after the Companions.
• Tafsir: Traditional Quranic exegesis.
• Tahannuth: Pre-Islamic religious retreat.
• Tajwid: The science of Quranic recitation.
• Tanzil: Direct revelation handed down from God to Muhammad.
• Tariqah: The spiritual path or Way of the Sufi.
• Taqiyyah: Cautionary dissimulation practiced by Shi’ites.
• Taqlid: Blind acceptance of juridical precedent.
• Tasawwuf: The state of being a Sufi.
• Tawaf: The seven ritual circumambulations of the Ka’ba.
• Tawhid: The doctrine of God’s Oneness and Unity.
• Ta’wil: Textual exegesis of the Quran that focuses on the hidden, esoteric meaning.
• Ulama: Muslim scholars; religious jurists.
• Ummah: The global community of Muslims.
• Wahhabism: A puritanical and fundamentalist form of Islam.
• Zakat: The obligatory alms tax or tithe for Muslims.

No God But God: An Islamic History

Okay, here is a detailed briefing document based on the provided excerpts from Reza Aslan’s “No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam.”

Briefing Document: “No god but God” by Reza Aslan

I. Introduction

This document provides a summary of key themes, facts, and ideas presented in the provided excerpts from Reza Aslan’s “No god but God.” The book explores the origins, evolution, and potential future of Islam, emphasizing the historical context and complex development of the faith.

II. Pre-Islamic Arabia and the Rise of Islam

• The Ka’ba: The Ka’ba in Mecca was a central sanctuary in pre-Islamic Arabia, housing various deities, including “Hubal, the Syrian god of the moon; al-Uzza, the powerful goddess the Egyptians knew as Isis and the Greeks called Aphrodite; al-Kutba, the Nabataean god of writing and divination; Jesus, the incarnate god of the Christians, and his holy mother, Mary.” This highlights the polytheistic and religiously diverse environment in which Islam emerged.
• Muhammad as Prophet: Muslims believe in a lineage of prophets (nabis), with some designated as messengers (rasuls) who deliver sacred texts. Muhammad is considered Rasul Allah (“the Messenger of God”), who received the Quran.
• Early Revelations: Muhammad’s early experiences involved both visual and aural phenomena. “Ibn Hisham records that when the Prophet set off to be alone in the ‘glens of Mecca,’ the stones and trees that he passed along the way would say, ‘Peace unto thee, O Apostle of Allah.’” Early Quranic verses focused on the power and goodness of God, rather than immediately stressing strict monotheism.
• Monotheistic Tendencies: Aslan suggests that the Meccan community already had some exposure to monotheistic or henotheistic ideas from Jews, Christians, and Hanifs (pre-Islamic monotheists). Muhammad’s initial message focused more on the nature of God than on the number of gods.

III. The Formation of the Muslim Community in Medina

• Medina as a Paradigm: Medina, formerly known as Yathrib, is crucial in Islam, representing the birth of the Muslim community and the transformation of Muhammad’s movement into a universal religious ideology. Aslan states, “’Muhammad in Medina’ became the paradigm for the Muslim empires that expanded throughout the Middle East after the Prophet’s death…”
• Jewish Influence: The Jewish population in Yathrib held significant economic power. Aslan notes that they “…enjoyed an almost complete monopoly over Yathrib’s economy.” This sets the stage for the initial alignment of the Muslim community with Jewish tradition.
• The Ummah: The term Ummah (community) is used to describe Muhammad’s followers but is of uncertain origin and meaning, possibly referring to “a community,” “a nation,” or “a people”. Aslan notes that the term inexplicably ceases to be used in the Quran after 625 C.E., when, as Montgomery Watt has noted, it is replaced with the word qawm—Arabic for “tribe.” The Ummah can be seen as a “super-tribe” or “neo-tribe,” a new social structure based on traditional Arab tribal patterns.
• Law and Justice: Muhammad’s role as head of the Ummah involved ensuring protection and maintaining the Law of Retribution, while also emphasizing forgiveness. The Constitution of Medina sought to establish a society based on moral, rather than purely utilitarian principles.
• Marriage and Family: Muhammad’s views on marriage were influenced by both Jewish tradition and pre-Islamic Arab customs. While he limited male divorce rights and provided women with grounds for divorce, he also consolidated patrilineal society and ended polyandry. Muhammad’s own marriages in Medina were often political alliances, not strictly for sexual purposes.
• Alignment with Judaism: Muhammad connected his community with Jews and considered them part of his Ummah. “Consequently, when he came to Medina, he made Jerusalem—the site of the Temple (long since destroyed) and the direction in which the Diaspora Jews turned during worship—the direction of prayer, or qiblah, for all Muslims.” This is shown further by the adoption of some Jewish practices, like fasting on Yom Kippur.

IV. Early Conflicts and Defining Muslim Identity

• The Kharijites: The Kharijites represent an early attempt to define a strict Muslim identity. They considered anyone who disobeyed Quranic prescriptions or violated Muhammad’s example as an kafir (unbeliever). This group can be seen as the “first Muslim extremists” because of their strict adherence to rules, and their belief that they were part of “the People of Heaven” while all other people were part of “the People of Hell”.
• The Ummah as the Church in Islam: The Ummah provides meaning and purpose to believers, transcending national, ethnic, racial, and sexual identities. It serves as a unifying force, with shared practices across time and geography.

V. Islamic Theology and Law

• Tawhid (Oneness of God): Tawhid is the central principle of Islam, emphasizing that God is beyond any description or human comprehension. “Imagination does not reach Him,” stressed the Egyptian theologian al-Tahawi, “and understanding does not comprehend Him.”
• Determinism vs. Free Will: Debates arose regarding divine predetermination and human free will. The Mu’tazilite school (“Rationalist position”) argued that God exists within the framework of human reason. The Ash’arite school (“Traditionalist position”) emphasized the literal interpretation of the Quran, often using the formula “bila kayfa” (“Don’t ask why”). These are described as the two major strands of thought.
• Schools of Islamic Law: The formation of legal institutions led to the development of various schools of Islamic law, such as the Hanafi, Maliki, and Shafii schools. These different schools had different interpretations of how law should be applied, with the Shafii School emphasizing the Sunna, and the Maliki school relying mostly on the traditions of Medina.
• Abrogation (Naskh): The Quran acknowledges the abrogation of certain verses, demonstrating that God introduced changes gradually. “Whenever We abrogate a verse or cause it to be forgotten,” the Quran says, “We exchange it with a better or similar one; don’t you know that God can do anything?”

VI. Shi’ism and the Martyrdom of Husayn

• The Shi’atu Ali: The Shi’atu Ali (Party of Ali) emerged as a distinct movement, with the belief that Ali, Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, was the rightful successor. They eventually developed into Shi’ism.
• The Imamate: Shi’ites believe in the Imams, descendants of Muhammad, who possess esoteric knowledge and are considered infallible. One of the key tenets of the Shi’ah is: “There is no god but God, Muhammad is God’s Messenger, and Ali is God’s Executor (wali ).”
• The Martyrdom of Husayn: The martyrdom of Husayn at Karbala on the tenth day of Muharram is a central event in Shi’ism, associated with lamentations and self-flagellation. This was because Husayn had stepped out of his tent “…to gaze across the vast, withered plane of Karbala at the massive Syrian army encircling his camp. These are the soldiers of the Umayyad Caliph, Yazid I…”.
• Ijtihad in Shi’ism: The Usuli school within Shi’ism supports the use of ijtihad (independent reasoning) in forming legal decisions, while the Akhbari school relies solely on the traditions of the Prophet and Imams.

VII. Sufism: The Mystical Path

• Sufism as the Heart of Islam: Sufism is portrayed as the mystical dimension of Islam, focused on love and union with God. The central goal is to “destroy [the believer’s] ego so as to become one with the creator of the heavens and the earth.”
• The Pir and Dhikr: Sufis often seek guidance from a Pir (spiritual master) and practice dhikr (remembrance of God). Dhikr takes the form of “vocal dhikr” and the “silent dhikr”, in which the names of God are repeated inwardly, in an act of meditation.
• Political Sufism: Some Sufi orders, such as the Naqshbandi, became politically involved. Some, such as Shah Wali Allah, attempted to blend Sufism with orthodox Islamic values.

VIII. The Rise of Islamic Activism

• Islamism: Islamism, distinct from Pan-Islamism, calls for the creation of Islamic states governed by Muslim values. Qutb’s radicalized view transformed the landscape of the Middle East giving rise to this new political ideology.
• Wahhabism: Wahhabism, founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, is a puritanical movement that sought to restore an “unadulterated” form of Islam.
• Al-Qaeda: Al-Qaeda, a Wahhabist organization, turned against the Saudi royal family, dividing the Muslim world into “the People of Heaven” (themselves) and “the People of Hell” (everyone else). This reflects the strict, exclusionary ideology that the Kharijites used in early Islam.
• Internal Conflict: The contemporary conflict in the Muslim world is portrayed as an internal struggle among Muslims, rather than a conflict between Islam and the West. The West is thus portrayed as a casualty of the internal struggles that are ongoing in the Muslim world.

IX. The Islamic State and Modern Challenges

• The Islamic State: There is no single monolithic concept of the Islamic state. Examples like Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Morocco, Iran, and Saudi Arabia, all consider themselves the realization of a Medinan ideal, while viewing each other as desecrations of that ideal.
• Sovereignty: In Islam, ultimate allegiance is to the community and to God, not to any earthly authority. The form an Islamic state takes is seen as less important than whether it fulfills this criteria established by the Prophet in Medina and preserved by the Rightly Guided Caliphs.

X. Glossary and Indices

The document includes a helpful glossary of key terms and indices of people, places, and topics, assisting in understanding the complexities of Islamic history and thought.

XI. Conclusion

Aslan’s “No god but God” provides a detailed account of the origins and evolution of Islam, highlighting the complex social, political, and religious forces that have shaped its development. The provided excerpts emphasize the dynamic nature of Islam, its internal diversity, and the ongoing struggles to define its future. The author frames modern Islam as being in an era of self-reckoning and transformation. The book emphasizes the ongoing internal conflict within Islam, rather than with any other power bloc.

The Formation of Islam

What was the religious landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia like?

Pre-Islamic Arabia was a diverse region, both religiously and socially. While there was no single dominant belief system, the area was characterized by a mixture of tribal polytheism, henotheism (the belief in a high god without denying the existence of lesser deities), and influences from Judaism and Christianity. In Mecca, the Ka’ba housed a variety of idols representing various gods and goddesses, alongside images like Jesus and Mary, reflecting a syncretic blend of beliefs. There was also evidence of Hanifism, a monotheistic movement that predated Islam and influenced Muhammad’s own thinking. Tribal structures and rivalries played a major role in shaping social interactions.

How did Muhammad’s revelations begin and evolve?

Muhammad’s revelations began with intense spiritual experiences, including visions and auditory hallucinations, during periods of retreat in the hills surrounding Mecca. He began to receive direct messages from God, which were later recorded as the Quran. Initially, Muhammad’s message focused more on the nature of God as merciful and powerful and less on the explicit rejection of polytheism, perhaps because the Meccans were already familiar with some form of monotheistic ideas from other religions. Over time, his revelations grew to encompass a comprehensive set of religious, moral, and social teachings, gradually solidifying the core tenets of Islam.

What was the significance of Medina in the development of Islam?

Medina, originally Yathrib, was crucial to Islam’s development. When Muhammad and his followers migrated there from Mecca (the Hijra), the Muslim community transformed from a small persecuted group into a more fully formed society. In Medina, Muhammad acted not only as a prophet but also as a political leader and lawmaker. He established a new kind of social organization, the Ummah, a community rooted in shared faith rather than tribal affiliations. The “Medina ideal” became a blueprint for subsequent Muslim societies and governments, influencing Islamic revivalist movements and the desire for an Islamic state.

What is the Ummah and how did its concept evolve?

The Ummah was the community of believers that formed around Muhammad. It was a novel social organization that sought to transcend traditional tribal loyalties by uniting diverse individuals under the banner of shared faith. Initially, the Ummah included not only Muslims but also Jews and Christians, whom Muhammad viewed as part of a common monotheistic heritage. While the term Ummah was frequently used during Muhammad’s time, it’s use seemingly ceases around 625 C.E., to then be replaced by the word qawm which translates to “tribe”. However, the concept evolved to become more exclusive, defining itself against those outside of Islam and emphasizing a unified, global community of Muslims. It has been central to Islamic thought, influencing everything from political structures to expressions of identity and solidarity.

How did early Islam relate to Judaism and Christianity?

Early Islam had a complex relationship with Judaism and Christianity. Muhammad considered these faiths to be part of a common monotheistic tradition. Initially, Muslims adopted Jewish practices such as facing Jerusalem during prayer and fasting on Yom Kippur. However, as Muhammad’s revelations progressed, these traditions began to differ. The Quran acknowledges Jewish and Christian scriptures, but it also asserts its own unique role as the final and complete revelation of God’s will. This shared heritage alongside diverging interpretations eventually led to the differentiation between Islamic and other Abrahamic traditions.

What is the significance of the Shariah and how has it been interpreted?

The Shariah is the divine law of Islam, encompassing a broad range of ethical, moral, and legal principles. It’s understood as God’s will for how Muslims should live. The Shariah is primarily derived from the Quran and the Sunna (the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad). Different schools of Islamic law have developed diverse interpretations of the Shariah, giving rise to varying practices and approaches to religious life and Islamic jurisprudence. The Shariah is meant to regulate all aspects of a Muslim’s life, and as such, how it should be implemented in a modern context is debated even today.

What is Sufism and how does it relate to the more traditional expressions of Islam?

Sufism is the mystical tradition within Islam. It emphasizes the direct experience of God through practices like meditation, chanting (dhikr), and spiritual contemplation, focusing on inner devotion to a degree that can appear to deviate from more orthopraxic practices. Sufis seek to transcend the limitations of the ego and achieve a state of union with God. While it operates within an Islamic framework, Sufism often utilizes unconventional approaches and philosophies, sometimes incorporating ideas from other traditions. This has resulted in tensions with more traditional and legalistic interpretations of Islam but has also made Sufism a vital and influential spiritual force.

What are some of the major contemporary debates and movements within Islam?

Contemporary Islam is characterized by a multitude of diverse debates and movements. One important area of discussion is the role of the Islamic state and whether it should incorporate democratic principles. There are tensions between traditionalist and modernist approaches to Islamic law and theology, with some advocating for rigid adherence to the Shariah and others seeking to adapt it to modern contexts. The rise of Islamism and radical fundamentalism (often associated with Wahhabism) is also a key development, leading to internal conflicts within the Muslim world. These debates revolve around questions of sovereignty, interpretation of the Quran, and the nature of the Ummah in the 21st century.

A Concise History of Islam

Okay, here’s the detailed timeline and cast of characters based on the provided text:

Timeline of Main Events

• Pre-Islamic Arabia (6th Century CE):Arabia is largely a tribal society, with Mecca as a significant religious and trade center.
• The Ka’ba is a central sanctuary housing various deities, including Hubal, al-Uzza, al-Kutba, Jesus, and Mary.
• Henotheistic and monotheistic ideas exist among the Arabs through influence from Jewish, Christian and Hanif communities.
• Early 7th Century CE (c. 610-622):c. 610 CE: Muhammad begins to experience visions and revelations near Mecca.
• Muhammad begins preaching in Mecca, focusing on the power and goodness of Allah. He emphasizes the need to be grateful to God and to turn away from worldly pursuits.
• Muhammad initially addresses a community with already existing monotheistic tendencies.
• The early verses of the Quran do not strongly critique polytheism.
• Muhammad’s teachings initially focus on the nature of God rather than a strict declaration of monotheism.
• c. 610 – 619 CE Muhammad faces increasing opposition from the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, they boycott and persecute his followers.
• Muhammad’s tribe, the Hashim clan, initially offer him protection.
• 622 CE: The Hijra (emigration) of Muhammad and his followers from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina).
• Medina (622-632):Muhammad establishes the Ummah, a new community in Medina. It is referred to as a “super-tribe” or “neo-tribe”.
• Muhammad acts as the leader of the Ummah, ensuring protection for its members.
• Muhammad begins to consolidate his role as a leader, implementing a form of qisas (retribution) while also promoting forgiveness.
• Marriage laws are reformed, moving towards a patrilineal society, eliminating polyandry, and limiting divorce while granting women the right to divorce under certain circumstances.
• Muhammad marries several women, primarily for political alliances, including Aisha and Hafsah.
• The qiblah (direction of prayer) is initially changed to Jerusalem, indicating alignment with Jews.
• The annual fast of Ashura is adopted from the Jewish Yom Kippur.
• Conflict arises between Muhammad and some Jewish clans in Medina.
• The Muslim community begins to see itself as separate from other groups.
• The qiblah is changed to Mecca.
• 624 CE: The Battle of Badr takes place, marking a major victory for Muslims over the Meccans.
• 625 CE Battle of Uhud.
• The term Ummah falls out of use in the Quran and is replaced with the term “tribe.”
• 630 CE: Muhammad and his followers return to Mecca and conquer it, removing all the idols from the Kaaba.
• Muhammad begins the expansion of his followers and control across Arabia.
• 632 CE: Muhammad dies.
• The Rightly Guided Caliphs (632-661):632-634 CE: Abu Bakr becomes the first Caliph, the successor to Muhammad. The Riddah Wars take place to subdue rebellions by Arab tribes.
• 634-644 CE: Umar becomes the second Caliph. He oversees rapid expansion of the Muslim territory.
• 644-656 CE: Uthman becomes the third Caliph. His rule is marked by nepotism and eventually leads to his assassination.
• 656-661 CE: Ali becomes the fourth Caliph, but his rule is challenged, leading to the first Muslim civil war (fitnah). He is assassinated in 661.
• Umayyad Caliphate (661-750):Mu’awiyah establishes the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus, transforming it into a centralized monarchy. He utilizes a standing Syrian army and integrates nomadic tribes into his empire.
• 680 CE: The Battle of Karbala takes place, in which Husayn ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad, is killed by the Umayyad forces. This marks a crucial turning point for the Shi’a community.
• Development of Islamic Theology and Law (8th-10th Centuries):Scholarly debates emerge about free will versus predestination, resulting in differing schools of thought, including:
• The Mu’tazilah school (Rationalists) who prioritize human reason.
• The Ash’arite school (Traditionalists) who emphasize strict interpretation of the Quran and Hadith.
• Legal schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii) develop based on different sources and interpretations of Islamic law.
• The Quran is considered the divine word of God, and the hadith (stories about the Prophet’s life) becomes an important source of guidance.
• Development of Shi’ism (7th – 10th Centuries):The Shi’atu Ali faction emerges, claiming Ali as the rightful successor to Muhammad.
• The concept of Imams as infallible spiritual leaders is developed.
• Secret knowledge and texts are believed to be passed down through the Imams.
• The Usuli school within Shi’ism comes to prominence, emphasizing ijtihad (independent reasoning) in legal rulings.
• Development of Sufism (9th – 18th Centuries):Sufism emerges as a mystical movement within Islam, focusing on personal union with God through practices like dhikr (remembrance of God).
• Key figures like Ibn Mansur al-Hallaj and Jalal al-Din Rumi advocate direct mystical experience.
• Sufi brotherhoods or orders (tariqahs) like the Qadiri and Naqshbandi are formed.
• 18th Century:Muhammad ibn Saud forms an alliance with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, establishing the foundations of Wahhabism in the Najd region of Arabia.
• 18th – 19th Centuries:Shah Wali Allah advocates a return to traditional Islamic values and influences both modernist and puritan movements.
• Modernist movements develop in response to European colonialism, emphasizing Islamic thought and education.
• Puritan movements emerge in India, most notably the Deobandi School which will go on to influence the Taliban.
• 20th Century:1928: The Muslim Brotherhood is founded in Egypt.
• 1932: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is established.
• 1947: Pakistan is founded as a modern Islamic state.
• 1948: The State of Israel is established.
• 1952: Free Officers revolt in Egypt, led by Gamal Abd al-Nasser.
• 1979: The Iranian Revolution leads to the establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran.
• 1990-1991: The Persian Gulf War takes place. Al-Qaeda is formed.
• 2001: Al-Qaeda attacks New York and Washington.
• Ongoing: Conflicts continue within the Muslim world over the interpretation of Islam and the role of the Islamic state, including issues of pluralism, secularism and democracy.

Cast of Characters

• Muhammad: The prophet of Islam, considered by Muslims to be the final messenger of God. Received revelations which became the Quran.
• Abu Bakr: A close companion of Muhammad and the first Caliph after Muhammad’s death.
• Umar: A close companion of Muhammad and the second Caliph. Known for his expansion of Muslim territory.
• Uthman: The third Caliph, whose rule was marked by favoritism and ultimately led to his assassination.
• Ali Ibn Abi Talib: Muhammad’s cousin and son-in-law, considered by Shi’a Muslims to be the first Imam. The fourth Caliph for Sunni Muslims.
• Husayn Ibn Ali: Ali’s son and grandson of Muhammad; martyred at Karbala, a central figure in Shi’ism.
• Mu’awiyah: Founder of the Umayyad Caliphate, considered an usurper by Shi’a Muslims.
• Aisha: One of Muhammad’s wives, daughter of Abu Bakr. A prominent figure in early Islam.
• Hafsah: One of Muhammad’s wives, daughter of Umar.
• Khadija: Muhammad’s first wife and a wealthy merchant. A strong supporter of his prophethood.
• Ibn Mansur al-Hallaj: An early and renowned Sufi master who was executed for declaring “I am the Truth”.
• Jalal al-Din Rumi: A celebrated Sufi poet and mystic.
• Shah Wali Allah: An 18th-century Sufi writer and philosopher who influenced both modernist and puritan movements.
• Sayyid Ahmed Khan: An Indian Islamic modernist who advocated for European education and cooperation with British colonialists.
• Abu-l Ala Mawdudi: Founder of the Islamist organization Jama‘at-i Islami.
• Hasan al-Banna: Founder of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt.
• Gamal Abd al-Nasser: Leader of the Egyptian Free Officers revolt in 1952.
• Ruhollah Khomeini: Leader of the Iranian Revolution of 1979 and the first Supreme Leader of Iran.
• Osama bin Laden: Founder of al-Qaeda, a Wahhabist organization.
• Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab: An 18th-century religious reformer in the Najd region of Arabia, founder of Wahhabism.
• Muhammad ibn Saud: An 18th-century Shaykh who formed an alliance with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and established the foundations of the Saudi kingdom.
• Ja’far as-Sadiq: Considered the Sixth Imam of the Shi’a Muslims.
• Malik Ibn Anas: Founder of the Maliki school of Islamic law.
• Abu Hanifah: Founder of the Hanafi school of Islamic law.
• Muhammad ash-Shafii: Founder of the Shafii School of Islamic Law.
• Ahmad Ibn Hanbal: Legal scholar and founder of the Hanbali school of thought.
• Abu’l Hasan al-Ash’ari: Founder of the Ash’arite school of theology.
• Ibn Sina: (Avicenna) A renowned Islamic philosopher and physician.
• Wasil ibn Ata: Founder of the Mu’tazilite school of theology.

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The Origins of Islam

The origins of Islam are anchored in the memories of the first generation of Muslims and documented by the Prophet Muhammad’s earliest biographers, including Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hisham, and al-Tabari [1]. The Quran, which contains the divine revelations Muhammad received over approximately twenty-six years in Mecca and Medina, is also a primary source of information about the ideology of the Muslim faith in its early stages [1].

Some key points about the origins of Islam include:

• Pre-Islamic Arabia: By the sixth century CE, the Ka’ba in Mecca had become the center of religious life in pre-Islamic Arabia [2]. This era, known as the Jahiliyyah, is traditionally viewed by Muslims as a time of moral depravity and religious discord, marked by the obscuring of belief in one God and the prevalence of idolatry [2]. However, there is also evidence of monotheistic beliefs existing before Islam [3, 4].
• Hanifism: There were individuals known as hanifs who sought to return to the unadulterated religion of Abraham, turning away from idolatry [3]. These individuals, such as Zayd ibn Amr, were not Jewish or Christian, but pure monotheists [3]. The existence of hanifs indicates that monotheistic ideas were present in pre-Islamic Arabia and may have influenced Muhammad [4].
• Muhammad’s Message: Muhammad did not claim to invent a new religion [4]. Instead, he viewed his message as an attempt to reform existing religious beliefs and cultural practices in pre-Islamic Arabia to bring the God of the Jews and Christians to the Arab people [4].
• Influence of other religions: Muhammad was likely influenced by the multiethnic and multireligious society of pre-Islamic Arabia [4]. The Quran itself acknowledges the same religion enjoined on Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus [4].
• Medina: In Medina, the Muslim community was born and Muhammad’s social reform movement transformed into a universal religious ideology [5]. The ideals of Medina have inspired various Islamic movements throughout history [5].
• Early Development: After Muhammad’s death, the Muslim community faced the challenge of building a cohesive religious system out of his words and deeds [6]. The Quran had not been written down or canonized, and the religious ideals existed in rudimentary form [7]. The debates and conflicts that resulted from trying to discern God’s will led to the development of diverse institutions within the Muslim faith [8].
• The Role of Myths: Scholars interpret religious traditions by merging a religion’s myths with the known spiritual and political landscape in which those myths arose [9]. This approach can be used to reconstruct the origins and evolution of Islam by combining the Quran and traditions of the Prophet, along with an understanding of the cultural environment in which Muhammad was born and his message was formed [9].
• Reinterpretation: Muhammad’s message of moral accountability and social egalitarianism was gradually reinterpreted by his successors, leading to competing ideologies and the development of different sects within Islam, such as Sunni Islam, Shi’ism, and Sufism [10]. Each group developed its own interpretation of scripture, theology, and law [10].

In conclusion, Islam’s origins can be traced to the religious and cultural landscape of pre-Islamic Arabia, the revelations received by Muhammad, and the subsequent development and interpretations by the early Muslim community and their successors.

Islamic Theology: Tawhid, Free Will, and the Ulama

Islamic theology, also referred to as kalam, encompasses the study of God, the divine attributes, and the relationship between God and creation [1]. It is closely tied to Islamic law (fiqh), as the Ulama (religious scholars) have historically regarded Islamic practice as informing Islamic theology [1].

Here’s a breakdown of key aspects of Islamic theology according to the sources:

• Tawhid: The central doctrine in Islamic theology is tawhid, which means “making one” [2]. This concept emphasizes God’s absolute oneness and unity, meaning that God is indivisible, unique, and indefinable [2].
• Tawhid implies that God resembles nothing in essence or attributes and that creation exists as a “universal unity” without divisions [2, 3].
• The doctrine of tawhid raises complex theological questions such as whether God is responsible for evil, if humanity has free will, and how to interpret God’s attributes [3].
• Quran: The Quran is considered the direct speech of God, revealed to Muhammad [4].
• Some theologians, particularly the Traditionalists, view the Quran as eternal and uncreated, inseparable from God’s self [4]. This view is rooted in the concept of tawhid and the idea that God’s attributes cannot be separated from God [4].
• Others, particularly the Rationalists, see the Quran as a created thing, reflecting God but not being God itself [4].
• The Quran is not a narrative but a dramatic monologue by God, not about God’s communion with humanity but God’s communion with humanity [4].
• The Quran is regarded as a source of baraka, a spiritual blessing transmitted through recitation, transforming it into a dialogue between the Creator and Creation [5].
• Free Will vs. Predestination: A major debate within Islamic theology revolves around the question of free will versus predestination [6, 7].
• Rationalist theologians of the Mu’tazilah school argued that humans have complete free will and are responsible for their actions [6, 7]. They believed that it would be unjust for God to predetermine people’s actions and then reward or punish them [7].
• Traditionalist theologians of the Ash’ari school maintained that God has absolute control over human affairs, although some also acknowledged human responsibility [6, 7]. The Ash’ari school emphasized the limitations of human reason and the need to submit to God’s will as revealed in the Quran and Sunna [7, 8].
• Rationalism vs. Traditionalism: Islamic theology has been marked by a long-standing debate between Rationalist and Traditionalist schools of thought [6, 8, 9].
• The Mu’tazilah school of thought, representing the Rationalist position, believed that all theological arguments must adhere to reason, with the interpretation of the Quran and Sunna being subordinate to human reason [6, 8].
• The Ash’ari school, representing the Traditionalist position, emphasized the limitations of human reason and the primacy of the Quran and Sunna [7, 8]. They often used the formula of bila kayfa (“don’t ask why”) when faced with logical contradictions in religious doctrine [10].
• The Role of the Ulama: The Ulama, or religious scholars, play a crucial role in interpreting Islamic theology [1, 6, 8, 11]. They have historically held a position of religious authority in the Ummah (Muslim community) and have formulated legal and theological opinions that have shaped Islamic beliefs and practices [11].
• The Ulama have institutionalized their opinions into distinct schools of thought and have formulated the Shariah, the comprehensive code of conduct, which they claim sole authority to define [1, 11].
• The Ulama have often dismissed pure speculative theology as insignificant, focusing instead on the formalization of specific ways to express faith through ritual [1, 12].
• Influence on Politics: Theological questions in Islam have often had political implications [13]. For instance, the Umayyad Caliphs used the concept of God’s determinate power to justify their absolute authority [13].
• Sufism: Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, offers a different perspective on Islamic theology [14]. Sufis seek to destroy their ego in order to become one with the creator and emphasize the importance of inner spirituality, often going beyond the external regulations of the Shariah [14, 15].

The development of Islamic theology has been an ongoing process shaped by debates and interpretations, particularly between the Rationalists and Traditionalists [9]. Although the Traditionalist position has become dominant in Sunni Islam, contemporary Muslim scholars are challenging this position by emphasizing a rational approach to exegesis of the Quran [16].

The Islamic Reformation: A Multifaceted Internal Struggle

The Islamic Reformation is an ongoing internal struggle within the Muslim world over the interpretation and application of Islamic principles in the modern era [1, 2]. It is not a singular event but a complex and multifaceted process with various contributing factors and differing perspectives [2].

Key aspects of the Islamic Reformation, according to the sources, include:

• Reinterpretation of Islamic Principles: The Islamic Reformation involves a critical reexamination of the origins and evolution of Islam [3]. It seeks to reconcile religious values with the realities of the modern world, questioning traditional interpretations of scripture, law, and theology [1, 2].
• Some Muslims advocate for an “Islamic Enlightenment” by developing alternatives to Western secular ideas of democracy, while others push for the complete “Islamization” of society, rejecting Western cultural ideals [4].
• This debate is centered on who gets to define the Islamic Reformation, with different groups vying for authority in shaping the future of Islam [1].
• Modernization vs. Traditionalism: A major conflict within the Islamic Reformation is between those who seek to modernize Islam and those who adhere to traditional interpretations [2, 3].
• Modernists argue that Islamic law (Shariah) needs to be modernized to fit contemporary norms and values, advocating for a rational exegesis of the Quran and reopening the gates of independent reasoning (ijtihad) [5-7]. They see the Ulama‘s traditional interpretations as obstacles to progress [6, 8, 9].
• Traditionalists, on the other hand, seek to preserve the traditional interpretations of the Quran and Shariah, often viewing modern ideas and values as a threat to the integrity of Islam [10]. They believe that the law of God should govern all aspects of life [11].
• This conflict is evident in debates about the relationship between religion and state, with some arguing for the separation of religious and temporal power and others maintaining that Islam encompasses both religious and political authority [12, 13].
• The Role of Medina: The city of Medina, where the Muslim community was first established under Muhammad, serves as a key reference point in the Islamic Reformation [14, 15].
• It is seen as the ideal model for Islamic society and governance by all Muslims regardless of their interpretations [15].
• Islamic Modernists point to Medina as evidence that Islam advocates for the separation of religious and temporal powers, while Muslim extremists use it to construct models of Muslim theocracy [15].
• Muslim feminists draw inspiration from Muhammad’s legal reforms in Medina, while Muslim traditionalists use those same reforms to maintain the subjugation of women [15].
• Impact of Colonialism: The experience of colonialism in the 18th and 19th centuries forced the Muslim community to reconsider the role of faith in modern society, contributing to the impetus for Islamic reform [4].
• Some Muslims sought to emulate Western models, while others advocated for a rejection of Western ideals and a return to what they saw as authentic Islamic values [4, 7, 16].
• Movements like Pan-Islamism and Pan-Arabism arose as responses to colonial rule, but they were ultimately unsuccessful in uniting the Muslim world [17-20].
• The Rise of Islamism: The modern Islamic reformation includes the rise of Islamism, which advocates for the creation of an Islamic state where the socio-political order is defined solely by Muslim values [21].
• Islamism is distinct from Pan-Islamism, which aimed to unite Muslims under a single Caliph [21].
• Islamists believe that Islam is a comprehensive ideology that governs all aspects of a believer’s life [21].
• Internal Struggle: The Islamic Reformation is not primarily a clash between Islam and the West, but an internal struggle within the Muslim world [2].
• It is a conflict between those who seek to reconcile their religious values with the realities of the modern world and those who react to modernism by reverting to the fundamentals of their faith [2].
• This internal struggle is taking place in various locations, from developing capitals of the Muslim world to cosmopolitan cities in Europe and the United States, where first- and second-generation Muslim immigrants are redefining Islam [22].
• Islamic Democracy: A key aspect of the Islamic Reformation is the debate about whether Islam can be reconciled with democracy [1, 23].
• Some argue for an “Islamic democracy” that is based on Islamic moral principles, including pluralism and human rights, and open to the process of political secularization [24-26].
• This vision of Islamic democracy seeks to reconcile popular and divine sovereignty, while prioritizing the interpretation of Islam to yield to the realities of democracy [27].
• It is important to note that an Islamic democracy is not a “theo-democracy”, it does not give religious leaders control over political decision-making [26, 28].

The Islamic Reformation is not a singular, unified movement, but rather a series of interconnected struggles and debates taking place across the Muslim world. It is a dynamic and evolving process that will likely continue to shape the future of Islam [29, 30].

Islamic Law: Sharia’s Sources, Principles, and Modern Debates

Islamic law, or Shariah, is a comprehensive body of rules that guides the lives of Muslims, defining what is considered good or bad, and what actions are to be rewarded or punished [1]. The Shariah is not a single, unified code, but rather a complex system of interpretation and jurisprudence that has developed over centuries [2]. The Shariah is not just concerned with forbidding vice, but also with actively promoting virtue [3].

Here’s a breakdown of key aspects of Islamic law based on the provided sources:

• Sources of Shariah:
• Quran: The Quran is the first and most important source of Islamic law [4]. However, the Quran is not primarily a book of laws; it contains only about eighty verses that directly address legal matters [4].
• Sunna: The Sunna, or traditions of the Prophet Muhammad, serves as a secondary source of law, providing guidance on matters not explicitly covered in the Quran [4]. The Sunna is based on the hadith, which are oral anecdotes about the words and deeds of Muhammad [5].
• Qiyas: Qiyas refers to analogical reasoning, which allows scholars to draw parallels between Muhammad’s community and their own when responding to unfamiliar legal issues [6].
• Ijma: Ijma, or juridical consensus, is the unanimous agreement of legal scholars on a particular issue [6]. The Ulama consider it a binding legal decision, even if it seems to violate Quranic prescriptions [7].
• Ijtihad: Ijtihad is the independent legal reasoning of a qualified scholar, which was a vital source of law until the end of the tenth century when it was outlawed by Traditionalist Ulama [8]. The “closing of the gates of ijtihad” marked a shift towards a more rigid adherence to precedent [8].
• Categories of Behavior: The Shariah recognizes five categories of behavior [1]:

1. Obligatory actions: Rewarded if performed, punished if omitted.
2. Meritorious actions: Rewarded if performed, but not punished if neglected.
3. Neutral actions: Neither rewarded nor punished.
4. Reprehensible actions: Not necessarily punished, but discouraged.
5. Forbidden actions: Punished if performed.

• Areas of Shariah:
• Religious duties: The Shariah includes regulations regarding religious duties such as the proper method of worship [3].
• Juridical matters: The Shariah includes regulations of a juridical nature [3]. These rules govern external actions rather than inner spirituality [3].
• Development and Evolution of Shariah:
• Early schools of law: The early schools of law were influenced by local cultural practices as well as by Talmudic and Roman law [2]. They represented trends of thought within the Muslim community and adapted to contemporary situations [2].
• Role of the Ulama: The Ulama, or learned scholars, played a crucial role in developing and interpreting the Shariah [9]. They used sources such as the Quran, Sunna, qiyas, and ijma to form their legal opinions [6]. They eventually became the sole authorities in matters of acceptable Islamic behavior and beliefs [10].
• The Ulama also developed fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence, to make the moral provisions of the Shariah more concrete [4].
• Taqlid: Over time, the legal judgments of the schools became institutionalized, leading to a focus on precedent rather than innovation in Islamic law [8]. This blind acceptance of precedent is known as taqlid [8].
• Traditionalist Interpretation: The Traditionalist Ulama emphasized adherence to precedent and the literal interpretation of the Quran and Sunna [8]. They gradually outlawed ijtihad and promoted a static view of the Shariah [8].
• Modern Challenges to Shariah:
• Modernists argue that the Shariah needs to be modernized to fit contemporary norms, including democracy and human rights [11]. They advocate for the reopening of ijtihad and a rational exegesis of the Quran [12].
• The Shariah is used differently in modern Islamic states. Some states ignore it in most civil cases, some fully apply it, while others attempt to fuse it with modern principles [11].
• Shariah and Morality: The Shariah is concerned with both prohibiting vice and promoting virtue [3]. However, it focuses on external actions, leaving inner spirituality to other traditions, such as Sufism [3].
• Debate over Shariah: Contemporary Muslim scholars like Abdolkarim Soroush and Khaled Abou El Fadl are pushing for reform by calling for a return to rational interpretation of the Quran and reopening the gates of ijtihad [12].

In summary, the Shariah is a complex and evolving system of Islamic law. While it provides a comprehensive guide for Muslims, there is a continuing debate about how it should be interpreted and applied in the modern world [11, 12].

Sufi Mysticism: A Comprehensive Overview

Sufi mysticism, or Sufism, represents a complex and diverse mystical tradition within Islam that emphasizes the direct, personal experience of God through love and devotion, rather than strict adherence to religious law or dogma [1-4]. It is considered a reaction against both the rigid formalism of Islam’s learned class (Ulama) and the political realities of the Muslim dynasties [5].

Here are key aspects of Sufi mysticism:

• Nature of Sufism:Sufism is fundamentally indefinable, characterized by a medley of divergent philosophical and religious trends [2, 6].
• The term “Sufi” likely refers to the coarse wool garments (suf) worn by early practitioners, symbolizing their poverty and detachment from the world [2].
• Sufism is neither law nor theology, neither creed nor ritual, but rather a means for believers to destroy their ego in order to become one with God [1].
• It is considered to be the heart of Islam, its vital center, and the seat of its essence, but is also seen as separate from Islam, like the pearl hidden in a shell [7, 8].
• Goals of Sufism:The ultimate objective of Sufism is to achieve union with God and attain direct knowledge of the divine [1, 4].
• Sufis strive for the annihilation of the ego (fana) through a life of asceticism and detachment from worldly trappings [9-11].
• This annihilation is achieved through love of God, considered the supreme virtue of Sufism [4].
• Sufis seek erfan, a heightened level of knowing in which one is able to intuit ultimate reality through self-discipline and purification [12].
• The Sufi Path (Tariqah):The tariqah is the mystical journey that leads the Sufi away from the external realities of religion and toward the divine reality of God [13].
• It is not a straight road, but a mountain with many paths that all lead to the same destination [13].
• The journey involves passing through various “abodes and stations” along the way, each marked by a spiritual experience of evolution, until one achieves unity with God [13].
• This path requires strict guidance by a spiritual master (Pir or Shaykh), who has already completed the journey [14-16].
• Key Concepts in Sufism:Tawhid: Sufism emphasizes the concept of tawhid (the oneness of God), which means more than just monotheism, but rather that God is indivisible, unique, and indefinable [17].
• Ruh and Nafs: Sufis believe in the struggle between the nafs (the ego or self) and the ruh (Universal Spirit or “breath of God”) for possession of the heart (qalb) [11, 18]. The goal is for the ruh to absorb the qalb, thus leading to self-annihilation and union with the Divine [11].
• Love: Love is the foundation of Sufism, the most important principle a Sufi must integrate into their life, and the means through which knowledge of God is achieved [19]. This love is a passionate and all-consuming love that requires unconditional surrender to God’s will [20].
• Fana: Fana is the ecstatic self-annihilation achieved when the disciple is stripped of their ego and becomes one with the Universal Spirit [11, 21].
• Dhikr: Dhikr, meaning “remembrance,” is the central ritual activity of Sufism, which takes many forms, including vocal recitations, silent meditation, and spiritual dance [22].
• Practices and Rituals:Sufi practices vary depending on the order, but often include:
• Vocal Dhikr: Repetitive invocations of the shahadah or other religious phrases, sometimes accompanied by strenuous breathing exercises [23].
• Silent Dhikr: Inward repetition of the names of God during meditation [24].
• Spiritual Dance: The most widely recognized form of dhikr is the spiritual dance of the Whirling Darvishes [25].
• Sama: Spiritual concerts that use music to facilitate the experience of the suprasensible world [26].
• Some Sufi Orders also practice fikr (contemplation resulting in certitude of the divine), calligraphy, or even physical pain to achieve ecstasy [25].
• Sufi gatherings are egalitarian with regard to sex, ethnicity and faith [27].
• Sufi Masters (Pirs or Shaykhs):
• Sufi masters, known as Pirs or Shaykhs, have withdrawn from the Ummah to pursue spiritual enlightenment and guide others along the tariqah [14].
• They are venerated as saints and are believed to possess spiritual power (baraka) [27].
• Disciples pledge allegiance to their Pir through a bay’ah (oath of allegiance) [16].
• They are sometimes referred to as “the cosmic pole” (qutb), the axis around which the spiritual energy of the universe rotates [16].
• Sufism and Islam:
• Although Sufis consider the orthodox practices of Islam inadequate for attaining true knowledge of God, they are still considered Muslims [4, 28].
• They pray as Muslims, worship as Muslims, and follow Muslim creeds and rituals [28].
• Sufis use Muslim symbols, metaphors, and even the Quran to achieve the goals of their mystical path, but they see these as starting points or as a “shell” to be discarded on the way to a true union with God [3, 4].
• Sufis believe that all traditional teachings, the law, and theology, must be replaced with love [4].
• Contradictions with Orthodoxy:Sufi assertions that human reason cannot comprehend the divine and that knowledge comes only from intuition have often angered religious authorities [29].
• Sufis reject the Shariah as inapplicable to their search for inner knowledge, which has led to suspicion and persecution from other Muslims [29].
• Some Sufis have been known to violate Islamic law by publicly drinking, gambling, and womanizing as a way of overcoming the external aspects of religion, also causing concern with orthodox Muslims [30].
• Sufism and other traditions:
• Sufism shares common themes with other mystical traditions, but it is not an amalgamation of other religions.
• For example, Sufism, like some forms of mysticism, strives to eliminate the duality between the subject and object in worship [31].
• It has been influenced by Christian monasticism and Hindu asceticism, as well as some aspects of Buddhist and Tantric thought [6].

In conclusion, Sufi mysticism is a unique and influential tradition within Islam that offers an alternative path to experiencing the divine. It emphasizes love, devotion, and the personal transformation of the individual through a spiritual journey. Though it has sometimes faced opposition from orthodox interpretations of Islam, Sufism continues to be a vibrant and important force within the Muslim world.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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