This collection presents Bertrand Russell’s most important writings on metaphysics, showcasing his contributions as a prominent analytic philosopher. The book explores fundamental questions about reality, focusing on topics like language, individuation, universals, causation, and the nature of matter. It traces Russell’s development from British idealism to a mind-independent view of the world and examines the transition from geometry to dynamics and philosophical problems such as free will. Russell’s commitment to clarity and simplicity in philosophical analysis is emphasized, making the collection accessible to those new to metaphysics and analytic philosophy. The works challenge traditional philosophical arguments, advocating for empirical approaches and emphasizing the role of logic in resolving metaphysical debates. The book also investigates the relationship between physics and metaphysics, delving into concepts like force and laws of nature.

Russell’s Metaphysics: A Study Guide

Quiz

Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.

1. According to Russell’s early writings, what scientific argument can be made for the existence of God?
2. What is Russell’s argument against free will based on the “reign of law?”
3. What distinction does Russell make between the psychological and metaphysical points of view, particularly in relation to perceiving a table?
4. According to Russell, how does the character and disposition of an individual relate to determinism?
5. Explain Russell’s view on matter and force as they relate to the transition from geometry to dynamics.
6. What is a “term” in Russell’s philosophy, and why is it a useful concept?
7. How does Russell distinguish predicates from other terms in a proposition?
8. Explain Russell’s rejection of Bradley’s view on relations, particularly focusing on the example of “a being the father of b.”
9. What is Russell’s definition of a realist philosophy?
10. According to Russell, what are logical atoms, and how are they related to the analysis of complexes?

Quiz Answer Key

1. Russell argues that the uniformity of nature and the persistence of laws suggest a divine controlling power. He suggests that if the current laws of nature have always been in force, the exact quantity of matter and energy now in the universe must always have been in existence; but the nebular hypothesis points to no distant date for the time when the whole universe was filled with undifferentiated nebulous matter. Hence it is quite possible that the matter and force now in existence may have had a creation, which clearly could be only by divine power.
2. Russell argues that if man is subject to law, then his actions are predetermined, similar to the motions of a planet or the growth of a plant. The Duke of Argyll speaks of freedom within the bounds of law, but to me that’s an unmeaning phrase, for subjection to law must mean a certain consequence always following in given conditions.
3. Russell distinguishes between the immediate experience (“There is a table”) and the psychological reflection (“I am in a state of mind in which a table appears to my sight”). The psychological reflection transcends the given data through memory and retrospection and the judgement that I have a certain perception.
4. Russell acknowledges that circumstances lead to different actions in different characters, which shows that one’s character counts in determining acts. He recognizes that all actions have a cause, and one’s own character and disposition is always a part of that cause and can never be neglected without error.
5. Russell sees force as the only remaining way of defining matter. He explains the mechanical view of nature in terms of space, matter, and force (involving motion and time), with atoms acting as punctual carriers of relations that constitute space, possessing a super-spatial property (force) due to causal relations between atoms.
6. A “term” is anything that can be mentioned and is possessed of all the properties commonly assigned to substances or substantives. It’s useful because every term is a logical subject that is immutable and indestructible.
7. Predicates are concepts that can occur in propositions with only one term or subject, like “Socrates is human.” They are distinguished from other terms by their connection with denoting, giving rise to a host of cognate notions such as human, humanity, man, etc.
8. Russell rejects the idea that a relation implies some element within a term that accounts for the relation to another term, arguing instead for external relations. Rather it is a qua father of b that is father of b and a qua son of c that is son of c; and a qua father of b and a qua son of c are always two different entities. Instead, Russell came to see that we need to posit a and b and a relation between them that was not contained in some element of a or b but was separate or “external” to them.
9. For Russell, a realist philosophy considers existence as independent of knowledge. He is not saying, however, that sensible objects, i.e. the immediate sense-data, exist independently of us in a causal sense, but I reject the a priori arguments which purport to show that nothing can exist independently of the mind, and I believe that what is known cannot be nothing, and must, therefore, subsist, whereas what subsists may very well not be known.
10. Logical atoms are simple and unanalyzable entities that are the last residue in the process of analyzing complexes. They are logical rather than physical, representing the ultimate constituents at the end of analysis, and serve as the foundation for an atomistic logic.

Essay Questions

1. Discuss Russell’s changing views on the existence of God as presented in the provided texts. What are his initial arguments for belief, and how do they evolve?
2. Analyze Russell’s arguments for and against free will. What are the key philosophical concepts he grapples with, and how does his understanding of these concepts shape his stance on free will?
3. Explore Russell’s concept of logical atomism, explaining its core principles and its implications for understanding the structure of reality. How does Russell use logical fictions to explain our perception of objects?
4. Compare and contrast Russell’s views on particulars and universals, as presented in the later selections. What problems does he attempt to solve with his analysis, and what solutions does he propose?
5. Explain Russell’s theory of perception and his concept of “compresence” as a basis for constructing space and time. How does this theory relate to his broader philosophical project of logical atomism and neutral monism?

Glossary of Key Terms

• Atom (Logical): The simplest, unanalyzable components of reality that cannot be further reduced through logical analysis.
• Compresence: The relation of spatial or temporal overlap between qualities or events, forming the basis for perceived objects and experiences.
• Concept: A general notion or idea used to denote or classify entities or properties.
• Determinism: The philosophical view that all events are causally determined by prior events, leaving no room for chance or free will.
• Empirical: Based on observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic.
• Fatalism: The belief that all events are predetermined and inevitable, regardless of individual actions or choices.
• Idealism: The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial.
• Logical Fiction: A constructed entity or concept used to simplify complex realities and avoid metaphysical commitments to unobservable substances.
• Monadism: The metaphysical view that reality is composed of simple, indivisible units (monads) that are distinct and independent.
• Monism: The philosophical view that reality is ultimately one, unified substance or principle.
• Neutral Monism: The theory that reality is composed of a single, neutral substance that is neither mental nor physical, and that mind and matter are different arrangements or organizations of this substance.
• Particular: A specific, individual instance or entity that exists in space and time.
• Predicate: A term or phrase that expresses a property or attribute of a subject in a proposition.
• Proposition: A statement that expresses a judgment or belief and can be either true or false.
• Psycho-physical Parallelism: The view that mental events and physical events are correlated but do not causally interact.
• Realism: The philosophical view that reality exists independently of the mind or our perception of it.
• Relation (External): A connection between entities that is not intrinsic to their individual natures or essences.
• Substance: An underlying entity or substrate that possesses properties or attributes and persists through change.
• Term: Any entity that can be referred to in a proposition, including objects, properties, and relations.
• Universal: A general quality or property that can be instantiated by multiple particulars.
• Vagueness: The characteristic of words or concepts lacking clear boundaries or precise definitions.

Russell’s Writings: Metaphysics, Logic, and Atomism

Okay, here is a briefing document summarizing the main themes and important ideas from the provided excerpts from “Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell”:

Briefing Document: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell

I. Main Themes:

• Metaphysics and Epistemology: The selections grapple with fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and the relationship between the mind and the external world. Key issues explored include the existence of God, free will vs. determinism, the nature of space and time, and the problem of universals.
• Logic and Language: Russell emphasizes the importance of logical analysis for clarifying philosophical problems. He investigates the structure of propositions, the nature of terms, predicates, and relations, and the role of language in shaping our understanding of the world.
• Atomism: A recurring theme is a commitment to some kind of atomism. Whether it is logical atomism (the world can be broken down into simple, unanalyzable ‘facts’) or other kinds of atomism related to space and time, Russell explores the idea that complexes can be understood as being built up from more basic components.
• Realism vs. Idealism: Russell’s work represents a shift away from idealism towards realism, which is the view that existence is independent of knowledge. He critiques idealistic arguments and defends the possibility of a material world that exists independently of our minds.

II. Key Ideas and Facts:

• Early Belief in God (later questioned): Russell initially sought scientific arguments for the existence of God, based on the uniformity of nature and the persistence of natural laws. He argues that the laws of nature must be attributable to a divine controlling power.
• “Now in finding reasons for belief in God I shall only take account of scientific arguments. This is a vow I have made, which costs me much to keep and to reject all sentiment. To find then sci-entific grounds for a belief in God we must go back to the beginning of all things…whence come the laws which regulate the action of force on matter? I think they are only attributable to a divine controlling power, which I accordingly call God.”
• Free Will vs. Determinism: Russell examines the problem of free will from various perspectives, including the omnipotence of God, the reign of law, and the role of motives in human action. He explores different definitions of freedom and considers whether determinism necessarily implies fatalism or external constraint.
• “What do we mean, in the first place, by free will? We mean that where several courses are open to us, we can choose any one. But according to this definition, we are not ruled by God, and alone of created things, we are independent of him.”
• Psychological vs. Metaphysical Points of View: Russell distinguishes between the psychological study of mental states and the metaphysical investigation of their objective reference. He argues that both perspectives involve transcending the immediate data of experience and that metaphysics attempts to reconcile the subjective and objective aspects of reality.
• “The experience is originally given as one whole, a subjective idea with an objective reference; thought splits the whole into two parts, rele-gating the one to Physics, the other to Psychology; Metaphysics endeav-ours, somewhat lamely, it is to be feared, to undo the work of thought and restore the original concrete unity.”
• Critique of Idealism: Russell rejects subjective idealism, which he believes arises from a failure to recognize that our knowledge of our own states of mind is no more certain or ultimate than our knowledge of the external world. He argues that the mind is directly related to the object of knowledge, without any necessary change in the mind itself.
• “Knowledge of an object is a direct relation between the mind and the object: there is no corresponding change in the mind, but only a relation; in other words, knowing is not having an idea of what is known. Moreover knowing does not imply that the mind and what it knows have a common nature. In this sense, the philosophy in question is realist.”
• The Nature of Terms and Predicates: Russell defines a “term” as anything that can be a logical subject. He distinguishes between terms, predicates, and relations, arguing that predicates are concepts that occur in propositions with only one term or subject.
• “A term is, in fact, possessed of all the properties commonly assigned to substances or substan-tives. Every term, to begin with, is a logical subject…every term is immutable and indestructible.”
• External Relations: Russell argues against the view that a term’s relation to another term implies some element within the first term that accounts for the relation. He advocates for the doctrine of external relations, which holds that relations exist independently of the terms they relate.
• “…we need to posit a and b and a relation between them that was not contained in some element of a or b but was separate or “external” to them.”
• Logical Atomism: Russell proposes that the ultimate constituents of the world are logical atoms: simple, unanalyzable entities. Molecular propositions are built from atomic propositions using logical connectives like “if,” “and,” and “or.” He denies the existence of molecular facts corresponding to molecular propositions.
• “Molecular propositions are built out of propositions by using words such as “if ”, “and” and “or”…Though there are disjunctive propositions, there are no disjunctive facts…”
• Logical Fictions: Russell argues that many entities that are commonly regarded as metaphysical substances, such as atoms, electrons, and even persons, are actually logical fictions. These fictions are constructed from empirically given data and serve scientific purposes, but they are not ultimate constituents of reality.
• “Those things are all of them, as I think a very little reflection shows, logical fictions in the sense that I was speaking of…you can construct a logical fiction having the same formal properties, or rather having formally analogous formal properties to those of the sup-posed metaphysical entity and itself composed of empirically given things…”
• Neutral Monism: Russell explores the possibility of neutral monism, the view that the fundamental entities of the world are neither mental nor physical, but “neutral” particulars that can be arranged into both physical and mental series.
• “Any such entity will be a member of physical series and a mem-ber of mental series. Now I want to say that if you wish to test such a the-ory as that of neutral monism, if you wish to discover whether it is true or false, you cannot hope to get any distance with your problem unless you have at your fingers’ end the theory of logic that I have been talking of.”
• The Problem of Universals: Russell grapples with the problem of universals, considering whether general terms like “redness” denote real entities or are merely names for classes of particulars. He explores different theories of universals and their implications for our understanding of reality.
• Vagueness: All words are vague and have uncertain boundaries.

III. Significance:

These selections offer a glimpse into Russell’s evolving philosophical thought, his commitment to logical analysis, and his engagement with fundamental metaphysical and epistemological questions. His work challenged prevailing idealistic views and helped to shape the development of analytic philosophy in the 20th century. The document also reveals Russell’s interest in connecting philosophy with science, particularly physics, and in exploring the implications of scientific discoveries for our understanding of the world and ourselves.

Bertrand Russell: Metaphysics and Logic FAQ

FAQ on Metaphysics and Logic from Bertrand Russell’s Writings

• What motivated Russell’s initial shift away from Idealism and towards Realism?
• Russell’s dissatisfaction with Idealism stemmed from its difficulty in accounting for the objective reference of experience. Idealism struggled to reconcile the subjective idea with its objective referent, leading to complexities in bridging the gap between the ideal and the real. Furthermore, Russell found Idealism’s denial of external relations, which held that a term’s relation to another implied some element within the term accounting for that relation, implausible. Meeting Frege and Cantor allowed him to find the tools he needed to move away from Idealism.
• What are logical atoms, and why are they important in Russell’s philosophy of logical atomism?
• Logical atoms are the simplest, unanalyzable constituents of reality in Russell’s atomistic logic. They are logical rather than physical, representing the final residue of analysis when breaking down complexes into their most basic elements. They are significant because Russell believes that understanding the structure of complex facts requires understanding these fundamental building blocks.
• How does Russell define “matter,” and what role does it play in geometry and dynamics?
• Russell offers several definitions of matter. Generally, matter is that in the data of the outer sense which can be regarded, with less contradiction than any other sensational datum, as a logical subject or substance. Kinematically, matter is that of which spatial relations are adjectives. In geometry, matter is essential as space requires something that can move within it. In dynamics, matter is linked with force; atoms are punctual carriers of relations that constitute space, with force being the causal relations between these atoms.
• What is the Free-Will problem, and what positions does Russell take on it at different points in his life?
• The Free-Will problem explores the extent to which our actions are determined by external forces, internal character, or a combination thereof. Initially, Russell grapples with the conflict between divine omnipotence and human freedom, exploring how our actions might be predetermined. He later considers the possibility of a freedom defined by the absence of external compulsion, where actions align with desires. Throughout, he examines the interplay between determinism (actions having causes) and fatalism (actions being irrevocably compelled from without).
• How does Russell address the problem of universals?
• Russell explores whether universals (general terms like “redness”) exist independently or are merely abstractions. He suggests that what we commonly perceive as particulars (objects) are really bundles of qualities. The relationships between these qualities, particularly similarity and compresence (overlapping in space-time), become fundamental. He ultimately grapples with whether relations like “above” are actual ingredients of reality or simply ways we describe complex wholes.
• What is Russell’s theory of “neutral monism,” and how does it relate to the mind-body problem?
• Neutral monism posits that the fundamental constituents of reality are neither mental nor physical but “neutral” particulars. The distinction between mind and matter arises from how these particulars are grouped. Physical objects are classes of sense-data experienced by different people, while mental events are classes of sense-data experienced by a single person. Thus, “seeing a chair” is merely the existence of a sense-datum that is a member of both the series constituting the self and the series constituting the chair.
• How does Russell address vagueness in language, and why is it significant?
• Russell argues that all words, even those intended to be precise (like “metre”), possess inherent vagueness due to the limitations of our senses and the gradual nature of processes like birth and death. Words have a core area of certain applicability, a penumbra of uncertainty, and then an area of certain inapplicability. He states that vagueness undermines the law of excluded middle. This vagueness stems from the fact that our sensations cannot always distinguish between stimuli that are believed to be different. This is significant because it impacts how we understand and use language to describe the world.
• What is determinism, and how does Russell analyze its implications for teleology and human action?
• Determinism, as defined in this text, is the belief that the state of a system at any given time is a function of its prior state, which entails functional relationships between the state of a system at time t and the state of certain elements within it at an earlier time. This does not mean that it compels us to do things we desire not to do. He suggests that whether the universe operates according to a deterministic mechanical system is unrelated to whether the universe is teleological (purposeful) or not. Also, Russell discusses the concept of a “deterministic system,” implying that the laws governing it can be expressed through mathematical formulas. But even if the universe is deterministic in theory, the formulas involved may be too complex to be apprehended.

Exploring Metaphysics: Reality, Philosophy, and Russell’s Insights

Metaphysics is one of the most abstract areas of philosophy. It seeks to uncover the fundamental nature of reality beyond what is apparent and studies the world in a way that differs from scientific observation. According to Bertrand Russell, metaphysical entities are those considered part of the ultimate constituents of the world but are not empirically given.

Key aspects of metaphysics include:

• Fundamental Nature of Reality: Metaphysics explores the essence of reality beyond appearances.
• Non-Empirical Inquiry: Metaphysical questions are addressed through philosophical analysis, reason, and argument rather than empirical observation.
• Divergence from Science: While physicists and metaphysicians may consider the same subjects, their approaches differ significantly. For example, both may ponder material substances, but a physicist’s empirical findings may not resolve metaphysical questions.
• Methods of Argument and Analysis: Metaphysicians use argument and analysis to decide between theories.
• Connection to Other Branches of Philosophy: Metaphysics is closely related to other philosophical fields like moral philosophy and epistemology, as all rely on abstract, non-empirical reasoning.

Russell’s engagement with metaphysics:

• Russell was deeply engaged in metaphysics, and some of his most significant philosophical insights were metaphysical in nature.
• His work contributed to the transition from British idealism to analytic philosophy.
• Russell’s approach involved a new logic with a metaphysical basis, assuming mind-independent propositions, objective truth and falsehood, relations external to their relata, and a plurality of objects.
• He challenged Hegelian metaphysics and its dialectical logic.
• Russell explored diverse metaphysical questions, such as vagueness, the relationship between mental and physical events, the implications of language for metaphysics, and the nature of particulars.

Some metaphysical problems include:

• Substance: determining whether substances are bundles of qualities or have underlying substrata
• Universals and Particulars: examining the division between universals and particulars and whether this dualism is fundamental
• The problem of individuation: abstract issue of “what is a ‘particular’?”
• Free Will: Science seemingly threatens the possibility of freedom.
• The nature of space and time: considering whether space and time are plenal or punctual
• The external world: addressing what one means when referring to a desk being the same over time
• Mind-body problem: investigating the relationship between mental and physical events
• The problem of negative facts: determining whether negative facts exist

Russell explores the connection between language and metaphysics. He warns against attributing the properties of language to the world, emphasizing that the study of symbolism can help avoid fallacious inferences. He also contends that complete metaphysical agnosticism is incompatible with linguistic propositions.

Bertrand Russell: Logic, Metaphysics, and Analytic Philosophy

Bertrand Russell was a highly influential figure in the history of philosophy, particularly noted for his contributions to logic and analytic philosophy. His work significantly impacted twentieth-century philosophy, especially in the English-speaking world.

Key aspects of Russell’s philosophical work and thought:

• Contributions to Logic and Philosophy: Russell’s most significant contributions lie in logic and philosophy. His influence on both the substance and style of twentieth-century philosophy, especially in its anglophone form, is extensive.
• Engagement with Metaphysics: Russell was deeply involved in metaphysics, and some of his most important philosophical insights were metaphysical.
• Transition from British Idealism to Analytic Philosophy: Russell played a crucial role in the shift from British idealism to analytic philosophy.
• Emphasis on Clarity and Simplicity: Russell believed that clarity and simplicity were achievable in almost all areas of philosophy and that even complex ideas could be simplified to their basic elements.
• Realism: Russell and Moore came to be realists. They accepted as real all the everyday, common sense, things that Bradley had told us were mere illusions.
• The doctrine of external relations: Russell’s commitment to realism was demonstrated through his embrace of the doctrine of external relations.
• Rejection of Idealism: Along with G.E. Moore, Russell rejected British Hegelianism for metaphysical reasons.
• The new logic: By discovering the new logic, Russell was able to diagnose all the fallacies of Bradley and the idealists that had lead them to so counterintuitive a position.

Russell’s studies and views on specific topics:

• Mathematics and Logic: Though famed for his work on the foundations of mathematics and logic, perhaps his greatest achievement was thinking of the metaphysical basis on which to build his mathematics and logic.
• Theory of Descriptions: Russell’s theory of descriptions is fully expressed in “On denoting”.
• Universals: Russell touches on the topic of universals, considering them to exist outside of space and time and separate from human thought. He wrestled with the division between universals and particulars, leaning toward a collection of qualities as the defining trait of particular things.
• Causation: Russell presented two main claims regarding causation, arguing for a general deflationism about causation, and attempting to replace permanent physical objects with connected events.
• Vagueness: Russell’s paper “Vagueness” is a classic and seems to have been the first paper to have taken vagueness as a serious philosophical subject. Russell argued that vagueness is a property of language and representations, not of the world itself.
• Mind-Body Problem: In response to the metaphysical question in the philosophy of mind, Russell developed his concept of neutral monism and suggested mental and physical events are compresent.
• Language and Metaphysics: Russell considered the metaphysical implications of language. With sufficient caution, the properties of language may help in understanding the structure of the world.
• The Principle of Individuation: Russell addresses the abstract issue of “what is a ‘particular’?”.

Russell’s “Tiergarten programme:”

• Russell planned to write one series of books on the philosophy of the sciences from pure mathematics to physiology, and another series of books on social questions.
• The two series might ultimately meet in a synthesis at once scientific and practical.
• His scheme was largely inspired by Hegelian ideas.
• Although Russell abandoned the Hegelian masterplan in 1898, his writing career showed that he continued to produce books that would fit into each series.
• Geometry was the first science to be attacked and this project he completed with his Essay On The Foundations Of Geometry.

Russell’s impact on analytic philosophy:

• Russell has the strongest claim to being the father of analytic philosophy.
• Russell’s own book, The Principles of Mathematics (1903), was one of the key texts in the foundations of analytic philosophy.
• The establishment of analytic philosophy in the Anglo-American world can be understood as springing from a metaphysical insight.
• Russell brought together the insights of G.E. Moore and the analytic tool provided by Gottlob Frege.

Bertrand Russell on Causation: An Examination of His Evolving Views

Causation is a complex topic in metaphysics and philosophy of science, and Bertrand Russell had much to say on the matter. Here’s a discussion of causation, drawing from the sources:

Russell’s Empiricist Stance on Causation Russell is often considered part of the empiricist tradition, which influences his views on metaphysics, including causation. His empiricist metaphysics is evident in two main claims:

• Deflationism about Causation: Russell generally argues against the existence of causation and modal truth in the world, suggesting necessities are limited to language or relations between propositions.
• Event-Based Ontology: Russell attempts to replace the ontology of enduring physical objects with a series of connected events.

Early Rejection of Causation In an early paper, Russell argued strongly against the notion of cause, advocating for its elimination rather than replacement with a more precise relation. He believed causation, like concepts such as demonic possession, is fundamentally misconceived and does not exist.

Later Modification and the Role of Laws In later papers, Russell seems to acknowledge the need for a relation that unites events to constitute what we understand as an object. In “Physics and Metaphysics,” Russell describes objects as “a series of more or less similar phenomena, connected, not by substantial identity, but by certain causal connections”.

• Faced with the challenge of explaining this connection without true causation, Russell turns to the concept of laws of nature as a replacement for causes.
• However, his empiricism dictates that laws only describe what happens, not what must happen. This raises questions about what truly binds successive stages of an object together.

Evolution of Russell’s Views In a later work, “Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits” (1948), Russell argues that causality is one of the fundamental postulates of science, a basic assumption upon which science rests. This is a radical shift from his earlier view dismissing causation. Despite this change, Russell maintains an empiricist account of causation.

Critique of Traditional Causality Russell critiques the traditional, Hume-derived notion of cause and its corollaries. He challenges the asymmetry between cause and effect, questioning the idea that a cause “operates” on an effect. Instead, Russell points to the use of formulae in science, such as F = ma, where identifying cause and effect is impossible.

Rejection of “Force” Russell denies the existence of forces acting between bodies as part of modern physics. While acknowledging the concept has been used to rationalize natural processes, he deems it fruitless and not based in experience. He advocates for the reduction of “force-talk” to non-“force-talk”.

Against the Law of Causality Russell argues the word “cause” is associated with misleading ideas and should be removed from philosophical vocabulary. He seeks to identify the principles used in science in place of the “law of causality”.

• Russell points out that advanced sciences like gravitational astronomy do not use the word “cause”.
• He contends that the “law of causality” is a relic from the past, persisting only because it is mistakenly believed to be harmless.

Analysis of the Definitions of Causality Russell analyzes common definitions of “cause” and finds them lacking:

• He finds the definition of cause as the “necessary connection of events in the time-series” unintelligible without defining “necessary”.
• He critiques psychological definitions that refer to the “thought or perception” of a process rather than the process itself.
• He challenges the idea of temporal contiguity between cause and effect. Because the time-series is compact, cause and effect cannot be contiguous.

Rejection of Common Maxims Russell rejects several common maxims associated with causality:

• Resemblance: The principle that cause and effect must resemble each other.
• Volition Analogy: The idea that cause is analogous to volition, requiring an intelligible nexus between cause and effect.
• Cause Compels Effect: The notion that the cause compels the effect.
• Existing Operation: The idea that a cause cannot operate when it has ceased to exist.
• Operational Location: The principle that a cause cannot operate except where it is.

Emphasis on Correlation and Laws of Correlation Russell suggests replacing the notion of force with laws of correlation, where events are grouped by their correlations. He stresses that this is an observed fact rather than a postulate.

Causal Laws in Science Russell notes that science does not employ the principle that “same cause, same effect,” which philosophers often consider vital. He argues that antecedents become too complex to recur exactly once they are fully specified.

• He suggests that the constancy of scientific laws lies in the sameness of relations, best expressed as the “sameness of differential equations”.
• He defines a “deterministic” system as one where events at any time can be inferred from events at assigned times.
• He describes causal laws as stating functional relations between events at certain times and other events at earlier, later, or the same times.

Causation and Free Will Russell addresses the implications of his view of causation for the problem of free will:

• He notes that symmetrical differential equations replace the traditional asymmetrical concept of causality, influencing the free will debate.
• He argues that discussions about whether matter causes mind or vice versa become irrelevant.

Causal Lines To define the identity of a physical object across time without relying on substance, Russell introduces the concept of a “causal line”. He defines a causal line as a series of events where some events allow inferences about others without needing information about the environment.

Bertrand Russell on Laws: Metaphysics, Science, and Causation

Laws are a recurring and complex theme in Bertrand Russell’s philosophical writings. His views on laws evolved over time, and he considered them from various angles, including their relationship to metaphysics, science, and causation.

Key aspects of Russell’s perspective on laws:

• Laws as Descriptions of Regularity: Russell adopts a Humean perspective, viewing laws as descriptions of observed uniformities rather than necessary connections between events. Laws do not govern events; they merely summarize regular occurrences.
• Laws and Freedom: According to Russell, if laws are simply descriptions of regularities, they do not impose external constraints on the universe. This leads to a concept of “self-determinism,” where the universe and its constituents are free to the extent that they act in harmony with the whole.
• Laws and the Free-Will Problem: Russell suggests that the apparent conflict between free will and determinism can be resolved by understanding laws as self-imposed regularities. This perspective aligns with compatibilism, which seeks to reconcile freedom and determinism.
• Laws in Science: Russell notes that science seeks to discover causal laws, which enable prediction and control. However, he also points out that scientific laws are often approximations rather than exact truths.
• Laws of Nature: Russell’s early writings express doubt about the existence of objective necessity in nature, suggesting that the laws of nature are simply descriptions of what happens. Later, he acknowledges the importance of causal laws for scientific knowledge but emphasizes that these laws may only state probabilities.
• Laws of Physics: Russell contrasts traditional dynamics, which include laws of velocity and acceleration, with modern physics. He notes that modern physics emphasizes laws of correlation and statistical probabilities rather than deterministic laws.

Here are some additional details from the sources:

• Dialectic of the Sciences: Russell saw “every Science” as an attempt to construct a universe out of its own limited set of fundamental ideas.
• The nature of cause: According to Russell, the “plain man” and the “up to date man” both abuse metaphysics, yet metaphysics can offer a way out of their difficulties related to free will, determinism and the nature of cause.
• Harmony with the Whole: A person is free when their activity aligns with the universe, and limitations arise when one opposes the General Will.
• Discovering Laws: Russell argues that laws must be discovered through experience and are therefore merely perceivable regularities.
• Self-Imposed Laws: Russell posits the laws of the universe are self-imposed. Each being in the universe participates in determining these laws, contributing to the freedom and self-determinism of the whole.
• Approximate Regularities: Common-sense causal laws like “fire burns” are approximate regularities, providing sound guidance despite exceptions.
• Persistence and Change: Causal laws relate to persistence (e.g., the first law of motion) and change (e.g., quantum theory).
• Science and Causality: According to Russell, the power of science resides in discovering causal laws that allow inferences about regions of space-time.
• Causal Lines: Russell defines a “causal line” as a series of events where some allow inferences about others, independent of the environment. The earlier events in a causal line can be said to “cause” the later ones.
• Limitations of Induction: Pure induction is invalid, and instead, the simplest law fitting known facts should be chosen.
• Uniformity of Nature: The principle of the uniformity of nature means that laws must not explicitly depend on time and place.
• Evolution of Scientific Theories: Modern scientific theories are more “jolty and jagged” compared to the “smooth cosmic stream” envisioned in the Victorian era.
• Inference and Interpolation: Empirical laws rely on inference from observations, interpolation, and extrapolation.
• Influence on Einstein: Russell’s idea of eliminating permanent substances influenced Einstein and modern physics.
• The basis of scientific method: There is the law of causality; there is the uniformity of nature; there is the reign of law: there is the belief in natural kinds, and Keynes’s principle of limited variety; and there is structural constancy with spatio-temporal continuity.

Russell on Universals: An Exploration of Metaphysics

Universals are a central topic in metaphysics, and Russell grapples with their nature, existence, and relation to particulars throughout his philosophical writings.

Definition and Key Questions

• A universal is anything that can be shared by many particulars.
• The problem of universals concerns the status of these entities: Are they real, and if so, how do they relate to the particular things we experience?

Russell’s Evolving Views

• Early Platonism: Initially, Russell’s view on universals was close to Plato’s transcendent realism. He suggested that particular things are white, just, or square because they “participate in a common nature or essence”.
• Division Between Universals and Particulars: Russell argues for a fundamental division between universals and particulars.
• Universals as Compresent Qualities: Later, Russell posited that particular things are simply collections of compresent qualities, suggesting everything is constituted solely by universals. Universals, under certain conditions of compresence, form spatially located particular things.

Arguments for the Existence of Universals

• The Resemblance Argument: Even those who deny universals must concede that particulars resemble each other. The relation of resemblance itself seems to be a universal. For example, different white objects resemble each other, and this relation of resemblance is the same whether it’s between two white things or two red things.
• Universals and Relations: Russell argues that the existence of relations is certain, even more so than the existence of properties.

The Nature of Universals

• Non-Spatial and Non-Temporal Existence: Universals do not exist in space and time.
• Subsistence vs. Existence: Russell suggests that universals subsist rather than exist, and their subsistence is independent of minds.
• Universals and Knowledge: Universals are known as concepts, while known particulars are sense-data. Neither exists in the mind that knows them. Abstract sciences have objects independent of any mental element.

Challenges and Criticisms

• Abstraction: Russell’s account of how we attain knowledge of universals through abstraction from particular experiences is unclear. Critics question how abstraction can occur without prior knowledge of the universal in question.
• Spatial Location: Russell’s distinction between universals and particulars based on spatial location faces challenges. While particulars exist in one place, non-relation universals can exist in many places simultaneously. Relations, however, exist in no place.

Universals and Language

• Words Denoting Universals: Russell argues that a primary vocabulary consists of words denoting universals. Children learn the meaning of words by associating them with similar occurrences, like “cat” or “mother”.
• Universals and Predicates: Russell connects the problem of universals to the linguistic distinction between subject and predicate.
• Universals and Similarity: Russell considers whether the relation of similarity can replace universals.

Nominalism vs. Realism

• Nominalism: This view holds that universals are created by language and have no existence outside of it.
• Realism: This view asserts that universals exist and that predicates mean universals, similar to how proper names mean persons or things.

Later Views

• Qualities and Bundles: Russell later proposed that a “thing” is a bundle of qualities, and position in space is defined by certain qualities.
• Technical Problem: In his later years, Russell saw the problem of universals as a technical one related to the interpretation of language, largely independent of broader metaphysical views.

Key Distinctions and Oppositions Russell explores several distinctions related to universals and particulars:

1. Percepts vs. Concepts: Percepts are objects of perception and are particulars, while concepts are objects of conception and are universals.
2. Entities Existing in Time vs. Not Existing in Time: Particulars exist in time, while universals do not.
3. Substantives vs. Verbs: This relates to whether predicates are verbs, with substances on one side and predicates and relations on the other.
4. Entities in One Place vs. Many Places: Particulars can be in one place at a time, while universals can be in several places simultaneously or in no place at all.

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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