This YouTube transcript meticulously explains 500 English grammar rules, ranging from basic to advanced C2 level. The speaker covers parts of speech, verb tenses, conditionals, modal verbs, and the passive voice, often contrasting simpler and more sophisticated usages. Numerous examples and illustrative diagrams are provided to clarify complex grammatical concepts and their applications in various contexts. The transcript also explores the subtle nuances of word placement and meaning shifts based on context. Finally, it encourages active learning by proposing a task for the viewer to engage with.

Advanced English Grammar Study Guide

Quiz

Instructions: Answer each question in 2-3 sentences.

1. What is a determiner, and what role do articles play as determiners?
2. Describe the difference in usage between the articles “a/an” and “the.”
3. What are copular verbs, and how do they relate to the use of the indefinite article (“a/an”)?
4. What are the rules for using no article (the zero article) before a noun?
5. How do “this,” “that,” “these,” and “those” differ in their demonstrative usage?
6. Explain how “some” and “any” differ in their basic usage within sentences.
7. What are the basic rules for using “much” and “many,” and how can they be used without a noun?
8. Describe how adverbs of frequency are usually positioned in a sentence.
9. Explain the difference in meaning between “really” when it goes at the beginning of a sentence and when it goes after a noun.
10. What is a compound verb and what are some ways to make them?

Quiz Answer Key

1. A determiner is a word that specifies a noun, indicating which, how many, or whom the noun refers to. Articles, a, an, and the, are types of determiners. They are used to denote if a noun is general or specific.
2. “A/an” is used before a singular countable noun when it is one of many, introduced for the first time, and not specific. “The” is used when a noun is specific, unique, or previously mentioned.
3. Copular verbs, such as “to be,” link descriptive information to the subject. When “a/an” is used to describe a subject after a copular verb, it describes a general characteristic or an example of that noun.
4. No article is used before a noun when it is plural, refers to a general concept or topic, or when it is an uncountable noun when we are not being specific.
5. “This” and “these” refer to things that are near in proximity or time, with “this” used for singular nouns and “these” for plurals. “That” and “those” refer to things that are further away, also with singular and plural usage, and they can also be used for hypothetical situations and experiences that are far in time.
6. “Some” is generally used in positive or affirmative statements and questions where a positive answer is expected, while “any” is typically used in negative statements and general questions.
7. “Much” is used with uncountable nouns, while “many” is used with countable nouns, both indicating a large quantity. They can be used without a noun when the noun is clear from the context.
8. Adverbs of frequency usually take the mid position in a sentence, usually between the subject and the verb, but can sometimes be at the end in informal situations or before the subject when they describe the whole situation.
9. When “really” is used after a noun, it means “to a great extent.” When it is used at the start of a sentence it means “in actual fact.”
10. A compound verb is a combination of two or more words, and it usually includes a prefix, or sometimes a combination of two different words, such as brainstorm or overestimate.

Essay Questions

Instructions: Please answer the following questions in essay format.

1. Analyze how the choice of articles (a/an, the, or zero article) significantly alters the meaning of a sentence. Provide examples using different types of nouns (countable, uncountable, plural, singular).
2. Discuss the use of demonstrative pronouns (“this,” “that,” “these,” “those”) in relation to proximity, time, and hypothetical situations. How can choosing the wrong demonstrative impact the intended meaning?
3. Explore the advanced uses of quantifiers (“some,” “any,” “much,” “many”) and how they function beyond their basic definitions. Include situations in which the “rules” for using them can change.
4. Explain how adverbs are used to add levels of complexity to a sentence, discussing the different types of adverbs (frequency, place, manner, etc.) and where they fit in a sentence.
5. Explain the function of modal verbs and their various uses to express concepts like possibility, obligation, permission and speculate about the future, as well as more advanced concepts such as a planned time, certainty, or annoying behavior.

Glossary of Key Terms

Article: A type of determiner (a, an, the) that specifies whether a noun is general or specific. Determiner: A word that introduces a noun, indicating which, how many, or whom the noun refers to. Countable Noun: A noun that can be counted and has a plural form. Uncountable Noun: A noun that cannot be counted and does not have a typical plural form. Plural Noun: A form of a noun that indicates more than one item. Singular Noun: A noun form that refers to a single item. Definite Article: “The” – used when the noun being spoken about is specific or known. Indefinite Article: “A” or “An” – used when the noun being spoken about is one of many, and not specific or known. Zero Article: The absence of any article (a, an, or the) before a noun, usually when referring to a general concept or plural nouns. Copular Verb: A verb that connects a subject to a noun, adjective, or other word that describes or identifies the subject, such as forms of “to be,” “seem,” “appear,” etc. Demonstrative Pronoun: A pronoun that points out specific people or things (this, that, these, those). Quantifier: A word used to express quantity (some, any, much, many, etc.). Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb, providing information about how, when, where, or to what extent something is done. Adverb of Frequency: An adverb that indicates how often something occurs (often, rarely, sometimes, etc.). Adverb of Place: An adverb that indicates where something is located or occurs (above, below, inside, etc.). Adverb of Manner: An adverb that describes how something is done (slowly, quickly, carefully, etc.). Subject Complement: A word or phrase that follows a linking verb and describes or identifies the subject. Compound Verb: A verb that is formed by combining two or more words, often with prefixes, creating a new verb with a related meaning. Transitive Verb: A verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning. Intransitive Verb: A verb that does not require a direct object. Ditransitive Verb: A verb that takes two objects, a direct and an indirect object. Delexical Verb: A verb that loses its typical meaning and instead relies on the object to carry the activity, e.g. to have a shower Modal Verb: An auxiliary verb that expresses possibility, necessity, permission, or obligation (will, would, can, could, may, might, must, should). Subjunctive: The mood of a verb used to express wishes, hypothetical situations, or commands. Subordinator: A word that introduces a dependent clause (if, when, because, etc.). Noun Clause: A clause that functions as a noun in a sentence and can have its own subject and verb. That Clause: A subordinate clause introduced with the subordinator “that.” Object Complement: A noun or adjective that follows an object and describes it further. Relative Clause: A clause that modifies a noun or pronoun and which contains a relative pronoun (who, which, that, whose, etc) First Conditional: A conditional sentence that expresses a real or likely possibility. Second Conditional: A conditional sentence that expresses a hypothetical or unlikely possibility. Third Conditional: A conditional sentence that expresses a hypothetical situation in the past and its imagined consequences. Zero Conditional: A conditional sentence that expresses a general truth or a situation that is always true.

Mastering English Grammar

Okay, here is a detailed briefing document summarizing the key themes and ideas from the provided text, with quotes included.

Briefing Document: Comprehensive English Grammar Review

Overall Theme: The provided text is a transcript of a video lesson designed to provide a comprehensive overview of English grammar, moving from basic concepts to more advanced and nuanced points. The lesson covers a wide range of topics with particular emphasis on: articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, adverbs, adjectives, verbs (including modals and conditionals), subordinators, and noun clauses.

Key Concepts & Ideas (Organized by topic):

1. Articles (a, an, the, zero article):

• Indefinite Articles (a, an): Used before singular, countable nouns when the noun is “one of many” and it’s the first mention.
• “We use uh or an before a noun when it is one singular noun of many… we’re not focusing on a specific example of the noun though.”
• “A” precedes consonant sounds, “an” precedes vowel sounds. “if it’s a vowel sound then we say um before it if it’s a consonant sound we say uh before it”
• Definite Article (the): Used when the noun is unique, specific, or has been previously mentioned.
• “whenever we use the’ we are making the noun unique in some way… we’re focusing on a specific example of the noun here”
• “if you’ve mentioned it before in the same context we usually switch from uh to the”
• Zero Article: Used before plural nouns when referring to a general group, uncountable nouns in general, topic nouns, and abstract nouns.
• “used no article before a noun when it is one plural noun of many… we’re not referring to just one phone here”
• “with abstract nouns that are not usually counted… it’s an idea in our minds”
• Advanced Article Use
• Copular verbs can be followed by “a” in second mention. “I bought a phone it was a black phone I’ve used uh twice here with the first mention and the second mention”
• “A” is used before a group noun. “A range of phones are on sale”
• “A” is used when an example represents all types of the noun “a phone is useful for watching videos”
• “The” is used before a group noun to specify “the range of phones in the shop”
• “The” is used when specifying a noun to make it unique or with a superlative. “the latest phone”
• Special Article Rules:
• Countries: Use “the” with plural names, real word names, or island groups (e.g., “the United Kingdom”) but not with simple country names (e.g., “France”).
• Rivers: Use “the” (e.g., “the river Amazon”), but not with lakes or waterfalls (e.g., “Lake Victoria”).
• Mountains: Use “the” with ranges (e.g., “the Himalayas”) but not with individual mountains (e.g., “Mount Everest”).
• Directions: Use “the” when north, south, etc., are nouns (e.g., “the North”), but not when describing another noun (e.g., “South London”).
• Places: Most places take “the” (e.g., “the shops”), but common places like “church”, “school”, and “home” often don’t, unless specifying.
• Transport: Use “the” before the transport type (e.g., “the train”), but not after “by” (e.g., “by train”).

2. Demonstratives (this, that, these, those):

• Basic Use: “This” and “these” refer to things near, while “that” and “those” refer to things far.
• “this refers to things that are near that refers to things that are far”
• Advanced Use: “This” and “these” can refer to situations/experiences near in time, while “that” and “those” refer to situations/experiences far in time or hypothetical situations.
• “this and these can refer to situations and experiences that are near in time… that and those can refer to situations and experiences that are far in time”

3. Quantifiers (some, any, much, many):

• Basic Use: “Some” and “any” indicate an unspecified amount. “Some” is for positive sentences, while “any” is for negative sentences and questions. “Much” and “many” indicate a large amount, with “much” for uncountable and “many” for countable words.
• “some here is used with positive sentences … and any is used with negatives… or questions”
• “much and many mean a large amount… much is used with uncountable words… beans is countable”
• Advanced Use: “Some” can be used in a question if a positive response is expected. “Any” can be used in affirmative clauses with negative words (e.g., “hardly”, “rarely”, “never”) to express a small quantity.
• “some first of all usually represents a positive meaning therefore if asked in a positive way… any usually represents a lack of something”

4. Adverbs:

• Types: The lesson covers adverbs of manner, frequency, place, certainty, completeness, and evaluation.
• Frequency: Adverbs like “rarely,” “sometimes,” “often,” “usually,” and “always” can be replaced with more advanced versions (e.g., “barely,” “sporadically,” “frequently,” “routinely,” “invariably”).
• Placement: Adverbs generally take the mid-position (subject-adverb-verb) but can be flexible. “frequency adverbs tell how often a word happens and they usually take the the mid position”
• Adverbs of Manner: Can be front, mid, or end position, though there are exceptions. “adverbs of manner tell how something happens and they can go in many positions usually you can be very flexible”
• Certainty: Ly ending adverbs usually take mid position (possibly, probably). Models without ly are often front or end (maybe). “words ending ly to do with certainty commonly but not exclusively take the mid position”
• Completeness: Usually mid position, but can be end for emphasis (e.g., “entirely,” “completely”). “again these usually go in the mid position”
• Evaluation: No strong position trend (e.g., “surprisingly”). “with valuative adverbs there’s no strong trend for position”
• Special Adverb Rules:“Quite” changes meaning before adjectives (fairly, totally) and before nouns. “when quite means somewhat or fairly it usually goes before the whole noun phrase… or totally when you place it before the adjective and after the article”
• “Rather” normally before adjectives, but in storytelling before articles (e.g., “It was rather a cold winter”).
• “Already”, “yet”, “still”: specific placement rules and exceptions, noting that “yet” can be an adverb or conjunction and “still” is mid-position (unless negative or a conjuction)
• “Even,” “only”: usually mid position but front when referring to the subject
• “Hard,” “hardly”: distinct meanings. Hard means with effort, hardly means not much.

5. Adjectives:

• Basic Use: Adjectives describe nouns.
• Comparative & Superlative: One syllable add -er / -est. Two or more syllables, use more/most. Irregular forms (good/better/best, etc.)
• “if you have a on syllable word adjective then to make it a comparative add e ER… if there’s two or two syllables or more then usually we use more”
• Equal and negative comparisons use as … as and not as … as
• Adjective Placement: Typically before a noun (e.g., “a fast car”), but can be placed after copular verbs, nouns in poetry or songs, certain nouns (e.g., “something special”), or when describing a state or action with verbs like wipe (e.g., “I’m wiping the floor clean”)
• Adjectives follow copular verbs (is, seems etc.)
• “I saw the sky blue”
• “I’m wiping the floor clean… literally what happens to the floor it becomes clean”
• Special Rules:With words “as”, “how”, “so”, “too”, and “that”, adjectives can precede the article (e.g., “as fast a car”).
• Adjectives can end a sentence to make it rhyme.
• Adjectives can follow a noun when they describe something with a copular verb (is, seems etc.).
• When a verb object is followed by an adjective, the adjective describes what the object becomes.
• Adjectives Ending in -ly: If they already end in ly (e.g. friendly) do not add another ly for the adverb. Adverbs and adjectives can have the same form (e.g., fast, slow).

6. Verbs:

• Subjunctives: Use the infinitive form, not changing for tense, often showing importance or in hypothetical situations.
• “with the subjunctive put simply we use the verb infinitive in instead of changing for tense in the second clause”
• Transitive vs. Intransitive: Transitive verbs take objects (e.g., “I am driving a car”), intransitive verbs do not (e.g., “I am swimming”).
• Transitives can take a passive form. Intransitives cannot.
• Some verbs change meaning when used intransitively vs transitively. “Victoria returned the dress… Victoria went out but she has just returned”
• Ditransitives: Take two objects: direct and indirect (e.g., “He gave a gift to his father”). Indirect objects can be moved before the direct object if “to” is dropped
• Some verbs follow the rule, some do not, so must be learned.
• Delexical Verbs: Transfer the activity to the object rather than performing it themselves. (e.g. “I gave it a try”) “delexical verbs can shift the activity onto the object”
• Compound Verbs: Made up of two words. (e.g. “brainstorm”, “overestimated”) “compound verbs refer to English verbs which are a combination of two words”
• Copular Verbs: Link subject to a noun or adjective but do not show an activity (e.g., “the food tastes nice”).
• Followed by nouns and adjectives, not adverbs.
• Some verbs can be copular or non-copular based on the verb and subject (the verb can carry an activity if non copular).
• Causatives: Involve getting someone else to do something (e.g., “I had my phone fixed”). Get means you organised it and have means you arranged it. “we’re putting the emphasis on the person who does the action, not the person who received the action”
• Auxiliaries/Negatives: Usually requires an auxiliary verb. Feelings and mental processes may take “think not” and “hope not” type negatives. “most negatives require an auxiliary”
• State vs. Active Verbs: State verbs relate to states and situations. Active verbs show actions.
• Some verbs like “appear” can be both. “we’re making the point that verbs do not always fit into one of these categories sometimes they’re mixed”
• Regular and Irregular Verbs: Some verbs are regular and the past form of the verb follows the rules. Some are irregular and must be learnt by heart.
• Verb + Preposition: Certain verbs require specific prepositions before their objects (e.g., “listen to”, “look at”), but the prepositions are dropped if the object is dropped. “Many verbs require a preposition to go before the object… if the object is dropped the preposition is also dropped”

7. Tenses and Time:

• Present Simple/Continuous: Simple for permanent and continuous for temporary situations or those that are in progress.
• Use simple to talk about past permanent situations, continuous for temporary, repeated, or hypothetical past situations. “for situations that feel more permanent about the past use the simple form… if it’s a temporary situation in the past it’s common to use the continuous form”
• Past Simple/Continuous: Simple for sequential events and continuous for actions that take place over time or together.
• Use continuous with high frequency adverbs (always) when talking about repeated actions. Use past tenses for distancing and to make sentences more polite. “if you have a past activity that was often repeated The Continuous form would be preferred here… we create distance in time between uh us and the person listening… distance in time can be created by using past tenses”
• Simple form is most common when “that” is the subject of the sentence.
• Past Perfect: When events are not in time order. Past perfect not required after subordinator of reason if the two events happen at the same time.
• Can be omitted in lists where there is symmetry and the same grammar is repeated. “when events are not in time order we use the past perfect… particularly with reason clauses I had left my phone at home because my mother needed it not because my mother had needed it”
• Future (will, going to, present continuous):“Will” for expectations, certainty, promises, offers, consent, plans made in the moment, predictions without physical evidence, orders, threats and refusals.
• “Going to” for plans already made, physical evidence for predictions, future arrangements.
• “Present continuous” for fixed arrangements.
• “Going to” is used with state verbs but “present continuous” is not.
• Future perfect completion of something by a future time. Often used with “by”.
• Future perfect continuous activity ongoing up to a point in the future. Often used with “for” and “since”.
• “Will have finished” for anticipating what is true without evidence.
• Passive Voice: Used when the receiver is more important than the agent. Transitives take the passive, intransitives do not.
• Can be used to increase formality and focus. “the passive is more formal… to focus on the receiver of an action”
• Passive can be used with “with” after to introduce an agent.
• Use of “it” as a dummy subject. “it points to the information that’s underlined people do not live on Mars”
• “Being” should not be used next to “been”. “they had been being followed by millions of viewers… it is usually avoided it’s too confusing”
• Omission of words when relative clauses are defining or non-defining, or when passive structures or short phrases (to be/which are) can be removed.
• Object complements: When the object is described by a noun or phrase after the verb (e.g. “she was considered a genius by the students”).
• “By” can be replaced by “through” or “of”.
• “Let” does not take “to” when made passive.
• Some verbs are almost always passive: “born”, “repute”, and “rumor”. “there are some verbs that are almost always passive and these verbs are born repute and rumor”

8. Conditional Sentences (zero, first, second, third):

• Zero Conditional: Describes general truths. If + present simple, present simple. “If the weather is nice it’s hot, if the weather is not nice it’s cold”“When” can be used instead of “if” with little change in meaning. “if told to leave do so immediately… when told to leave do so immediately”
• First Conditional: Describes possible and realistic future situations. If + present simple, will/can/should.
• Can introduce a consequence in the form of advice using should.
• Past tense can be used in the “if” clause if a past event will influence a present consequence.
• “Going to” can be used to emphasize that a future action is planned.
• “Should” in first clause when something is unlikely but might happen.
• Informally “if” can be omitted for quick instructions (but it can sound rude).
• “When” can be used in place of “if”.
• Subject can be dropped along with to be for formal instructions.
• “If you must”: A phrase that means a reluctant acceptance of something that may need to happen.
• Second Conditional: Describes imaginary or unlikely situations. If + past simple/were, would/could/might.
• “Will” can be used in the second part if asking for something in a polite way.
• Use “would be” if describing present consequences, use “could have” for a possible past consequence.
• “Were to” for a future hypothetical action.
• Use “would it be” to politely ask to do a particular action.
• “But for”: Introduces the only reason something didn’t happen.
• “If it wasn’t for”: Introduces the only reason something was able to happen.
• Third Conditional: Describes imaginary situations in the past. If + past perfect, would/could/might + have + past participle.
• Present or future consequences can be described. “although this structure usually refers to a past consequence… it can also refer to a present or future consequence if the content text allows”
• Use “would be” for present consequences, “could have” introduces a possible consequence.
• “If anything”: Introduces truth of a situation when looking at a sentence before.
• “If so”: Connects a consequence to a condition from a previous sentence.
• “If not”: Refers to a consequence if a condition is not met, or can intensify a phrase.
• Inversion: Conditionals can be inverted so that “if” disappears, and “were”, “had”, or “should” comes first. “sometimes we can invert structures when we’re talking about conditionals”
• “If only”: Introduces desire. Present (past tense), future (would), and past (past perfect).
• Supposing and Imagine: Introduces hypothetical situations. “supposing is one of those this is similar to if in the first clause… this can turn an if clause into an independent sentence”
• Provided that / Providing: Introduces a unique condition. “provided that the food has been cooked thoroughly it will be safe”
• On condition that: Introduces a condition that must be fulfilled before the consequence.
• So long as is similar.
• What if: Introduces a hypothetical question.
• Clauses can be reversed.
• Will/would/had can be contracted informally.
• Imperative Clauses can precede “if” or “when”.
• “Unless” introduces a conditional meaning except if.
• “Even if” introduces a conditional with the sense that doing something won’t enable a condition to be fulfilled.

9. Modal Verbs (can, may, might, should, will, must, need, ought to, dare):

• Basic Uses of “can”: Ability, permission, requests, possibility, and negative deduction.
• Advanced Uses of “can”: Can be used as a request where the opposite is expected, for extreme surprise, or in the passive. Can be omitted in the sentence to avoid repetition.
• “As luck would have it”: A phrase meaning you have been very lucky in a situation.
• “Would you believe it”: A phrase to show disbelief or surprise.
• “May” Basic Uses: Logical deduction (present/past), permission, good wishes.
• “May” Advanced Uses: May as well or might as well (cannot succeed so do the following); past lamentation (something you should have done, an annoyance); might as a noun (strength) and future speculation (a situation that is not possible).
• “Should” Basic Uses: Advice, obligation, right thing to do.
• “Should” Advanced Uses: Good idea for the past (I should have done X, I shouldn’t have done Y); used in conditionals to describe expectations; planned time of events (It should have started at X).
• “Will” Basic Uses: Expectations, certainty, promises, offers, consent, plans made in the moment, predictions without evidence.
• “Will” Advanced Uses: Orders, threats, refusals, knowledge you expect in the listener, for annoying behaviour. As a regular activity that is expected.
• “Will” can be used as a noun (desire).
• “Dare” as a Modal Verb: Means to be brave or encourage bravery, followed by “to” but can be followed by the infinitive without to in negative and question form, where it acts like a modal.
• “Had better”: Used to mean something is a good idea or should be done but it isn’t technically a modal verb. “had better a modal verb or not… you had better say sorry you’ve really upset her”
• “Must” Basic Uses: Obligation, prohibition, strong recommendation, certainty.
• “Must” Advanced Uses: Certainty in the past, annoyance, determination. Also to stress importance (“it must be emphasized”).
• “Needs must” means that actions are essential to meet your needs. Must can also be a noun.
• Used for things that are almost always present (e.g. “must always be”).
• “Need”: Like “have to” for obligation. Optional “to” in negative form, never in question form.
• Ought to: Grammatical rules similar to “need to”.

10. Subordinators:

• Subordinators of Time: When, before, after, as soon as, while, until, since, once, by the time (a future moment or period)
• Advanced Subordinators of Time: No sooner than (two actions in quick succession). The moment (action immediately after another), whenever (anytime or every time).
• Subordinators of Manner: How, as if, as though, in whatever way, in such a way (action is organized).
• Subordinators of Distance: As far as (and as), to the point where/that, at the point, to the extent that (degree of abstraction).
• Subordinators of Frequency: Each time, every time, at any time, in the instance that (one specific time).
• Subordinators of Reason: As, because, since, in that, seeing that, on account of (formal), in the light of (more formal).
• Subordinators of Purpose: So that, in order that, for the purpose of, in the hope of, with the intention of, with a view to.
• Subordinators of Result: Such… that, with the consequence that, consequently, therefore (formal), hence (formal).
• Subordinators of Comparison: As, than, whereas, while. “subordinators of comparison use as than whereas and while”“Where” shows a contrast between one thing in relation to another.
• Subordinators of Exception: Except that, unless, apart from. “except that introduces something that is different”

11. Noun Clauses:

• Noun Clauses: Clauses acting as a noun.
• Use any question word followed by a clause (who, what, when, where, why, which, how etc.). “you can make noun clauses with any question word wh words followed by a clause or how followed by a clause”
• Can function as a subject, object, or complement in sentences.
• Use a that Clause:
• As a direct object.
• As a subject compliment.
• As an adjective complement.
• As a noun compliment.
• Rarely as a subject “you can use a that clause as a subject that I cannot explain is surprising you won’t hear this very often it’s not used much”

Quotes that exemplify the scope of the lesson:

• “welcome to one of the biggest English grammar videos on YouTube… it’s like a grammar book but on video”
• “we’re looking at all of the grammar points here and all of the grammar points here too”
• “there’s over 5 hours of English grammar lessons and over 500 English grammar points explained”
• “this is a really special video because it’s going to fill in so many gaps in your knowledge of advanced English grammar areas”

Conclusion:

This briefing document outlines the major concepts and specific grammar rules discussed in the provided text. The video lesson aims to provide an extensive grammar resource, covering a wide range of topics from basic articles to complex conditional structures and noun clauses, all with clear explanations and examples. The lesson emphasizes the importance of mastering not only the basic rules but also the nuances and advanced aspects of English grammar for effective and nuanced communication. It is a resource suitable for both learners looking to understand the basic principles of English grammar and more advanced learners seeking to refine and expand their knowledge.

English Grammar Essentials

• What are articles, and what are the three main types in English? Articles are a type of determiner that specify whether a noun is specific or general. The three main articles in English are ‘a’, ‘an’, and ‘the’. ‘A’ and ‘an’ are used for general, non-specific countable singular nouns, while ‘the’ is used for specific nouns. Sometimes, no article is used, which is known as the “zero article”.
• How do you decide whether to use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before a noun? The choice between ‘a’ and ‘an’ depends on the sound of the following word, not the actual letter. Use ‘a’ before words starting with a consonant sound (e.g., a phone) and use ‘an’ before words starting with a vowel sound (e.g., an alarm clock). It’s important to focus on the sound and not the letter, as there are cases where the letter and the sound do not match.
• When should you use the definite article, ‘the’? ‘The’ is used to make a noun unique or specific. It can be used when the noun is already known to the listener or has been mentioned before. It’s also used when referring to a specific item, unique group or a superlative (e.g., the latest phone), and with group nouns where a particular group is being referred to. ‘The’ can precede countable and uncountable nouns as long as it makes the noun unique.
• When is the “zero article” used in English grammar? The “zero article” means using no article (a, an, or the) before a noun. This occurs when referring to a plural noun in general (e.g., phones are half price), when discussing topic nouns (e.g., connectivity is vital), abstract nouns that are not usually counted (e.g., connectivity), or when discussing what a plural noun is usually like (e.g., phones enable people to connect).
• How do ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ function in English grammar? ‘This’ and ‘these’ refer to nouns that are near the speaker, either physically or in time, while ‘that’ and ‘those’ refer to nouns that are further away. ‘This’ and ‘that’ refer to singular nouns while ‘these’ and ‘those’ refer to plural nouns. ‘That’ can also be used to refer to hypothetical situations. These words can also refer to experiences, or be used to modify a feeling or a level of certainty.
• What are some basic and advanced uses of quantifiers like ‘some,’ ‘any,’ ‘much,’ and ‘many’? ‘Some’ and ‘any’ both mean an unspecified amount, but ‘some’ is typically used in positive sentences, while ‘any’ is used in negatives and questions. ‘Much’ and ‘many’ mean a large amount, with ‘much’ used for uncountable words (like food) and ‘many’ used for countable words (like beans). In advanced use, ‘some’ can be used in a question if you expect a positive response, whereas ‘any’ can be used in affirmative sentences to express a limited quantity, especially if a negative word comes before it.
• How can adverbs of frequency, place, and manner be used, and how can basic examples of these be upgraded? Adverbs of frequency, like rarely, sometimes, often, usually, and always, indicate how often an action occurs and usually go in the mid-position of a sentence (subject + adverb + verb), but they can be at the end in informal speech. Adverbs of place can come after what they describe or before the whole situation, and describe physical locations. Adverbs of manner describe how an action is performed and are quite flexible in placement, and can be placed at the beginning, middle or end of a sentence. More advanced alternatives are available for the basic forms including barely, sporadically, frequently, routinely, invariably for adverbs of frequency; over, aloft, beneath, within, alongside for adverbs of place, and sluggishly, swiftly, faintly, vociferously, attentively, and sloppily for adverbs of manner.
• What are some key rules regarding the placement and meaning of adverbs of certainty, completeness, and evaluation? Adverbs of certainty, often ending in ‘-ly’ (like ‘possibly’ and ‘probably’), usually take the mid position in a sentence (after the verb ‘to be’ or between the subject and the verb). Adverbs of completeness typically go in the mid position (e.g., entirely) but can go at the end if you want to stress the situation completely (e.g. completely). Evaluative adverbs, like surprisingly, show the speaker’s response and are quite flexible in placement, with no strong trend for their position in a sentence. There are special word rules with such words like quiet and rather, that change meaning depending on the position in a sentence, which must be understood.

English Grammar Essentials

The provided sources extensively cover English grammar, including articles, demonstratives, quantifiers, adverbs, adjectives, verbs, conditionals, the passive voice, and more [1-48].

Articles

• Articles are determiners that specify a noun [1].
• The articles are a, an, and the [1].
• A or an are used before a singular, countable noun when it is one of many, not a specific example [1]. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds [49].
• The is used to make a noun unique, referring to a specific example, or when the noun has been previously mentioned [49].
• A zero article is when no article is used [49].
• Zero articles are used with topic nouns in a general sense, abstract nouns that are not usually counted, and when saying what a plural noun is usually like [50].
• The is used with countries that are real words or plurals or island groups, but not with other country names [51].
• The is used before rivers, but not lakes or waterfalls [51].
• The is used with mountain ranges, deserts, and forests, but not individual mountains [51].
• The is used with compass directions when they are nouns, but not when they are describing another noun [51].
• The is used with most place nouns, except some common places such as church, school, and home [52].
• The is used with transport types, but not when ‘by’ is used [52].

Demonstratives

• The most common demonstratives are this, that, these, and those [2].
• This and these refer to things that are near in space or time [2, 53].
• That and those refer to things that are far in space or time, and can be used for hypothetical situations [53].
• This and that can refer to information from a previous sentence with the difference being a sense of near or far [54].
• Those can be a general word referring to everyone who is defined by what comes after “who” [54].
• That can mean “to a great extent” [3].

Quantifiers

• Some and any both mean an unspecified amount [3].
• Some is used with positive sentences, and any is used with negative sentences or questions [3].
• Much and many mean a large amount [3].
• Much is used with uncountable words, and many is used with countable words [3].
• Many is more common in affirmative statements than much [4].
• A lot of is preferred to much in affirmative contexts [4].
• Much can be a subject on its own in formal writing, meaning a great amount [4].

Adverbs

• Adverbs have three main positions: front, mid, and end [4].
• Adverbs of degree tell how much an adjective, adverb, or verb is [5].
• Just comes in the mid position or after the subject [5].
• Too comes before a determiner or adjective [5].
• Enough can come at the end of a sentence or before the noun it describes [5].
• Really usually comes before the word it modifies [5].
• Adverbs of certainty commonly take the mid position [6].
• Adverbs of completeness usually go in the mid position [6].
• Valuative adverbs do not have a strong trend for position [6].
• When quite means somewhat or fairly it usually goes before the whole noun phrase [6].
• Hardly and hard have different meanings [7].
• Fine and finely have different meanings [7].
• Late and lately have different meanings [7].
• Most and mostly have different meanings [7].
• Wide and widely have different meanings [7].

Adjectives

• The + adjective means all of the adjective [7].
• Country adjectives can often become nouns by adding an S, except countries ending in sh, ch, or eas [8].
• When it is obvious which noun is being described by an adjective, the noun can be omitted [8].
• With words like as, how, and so, the adjective can come before the article [8].
• Intensifying adjectives need to go before their noun [9].
• When there are multiple adjectives, they follow an order: opinion, size, physical quality, age, shape, color, origin, material, purpose [9].
• Adjectives ending in -ed mean something else causes the feeling, and adjectives ending in -ing mean the subject causes the feeling [10].
• Most adjectives ending in -ed do not have a vowel sound, but there are exceptions [10].
• For one-syllable adjectives, add -er to make it comparative and -est to make it superlative [11].
• For adjectives with two or more syllables, use more/most to make it comparative/superlative [11].
• Irregular comparatives/superlatives include: little/less/least, good/better/best, bad/worse/worst, much/more/most, far/further/furthest [11].
• Use as + adjective + as for equal comparison [11].
• Adverbs often add -ly to an adjective, but some adjectives end in -ly [12].
• Some adverbs and adjectives have the same form [12].
• Adjectives can be used after imperatives to describe expected behavior [12].
• With copular verbs, the adjective can come after the noun [12].
• Adjectives can be followed by a preposition phrase or a to clause or that clause [13].
• An adjective’s meaning can change when it changes position [13].

Verbs

• The subjunctive uses the verb infinitive instead of changing for tense in the second clause, usually showing importance or being hypothetical [13].
• For hypothetical situations, use the past subjunctive, with the past form of “to be” becoming “were” [14].
• For situations stating importance, use the present subjunctive, with the bare infinitive “be” [14].
• Transitive verbs need an object, while intransitive verbs do not [14].
• Ergative verbs are transitive when the subject does the activity, but intransitive when the subject receives the activity [15].
• Some verbs change from transitive to intransitive with no meaning change [15].
• Ditransitive verbs have two objects, direct and indirect [16].
• When the direct object comes before the indirect object, separate them with a preposition.
• When the indirect object comes first, do not use a preposition [16].
• Some verbs must take the direct object first [16].
• Delexical verbs shift the activity onto the object [17].
• Compound verbs are a combination of two words, often with a prefix [17].
• Copular verbs link the subject to an activity or noun, and are followed by nouns or adjectives, but not adverbs [18].
• Some verbs can be copular or non-copular [18].
• Get and have can be used to show an arrangement for someone else to do an activity [19].
• Most negatives require an auxiliary verb, but with feelings and mental processes, a verb can be followed by ‘not’ [19].
• Many verbs require a preposition before the object, but the preposition is dropped if the object is dropped [19].
• State verbs take the simple form, and active verbs take the continuous form, but many verbs can be state or active [20].
• With mental process verbs, the state form means you’ve reached a decision, and the active form means you are in the process of reaching a decision [20].
• Verbs related to discovering a quantity become active, while reporting a quantity becomes state [21].
• “To be” is a state verb, but it can be an active verb to show temporary behavior [21].
• “To see” is usually a state verb, but it is an active verb for relationships and meetings [21].

Tenses

• The present simple is used for facts, truths, descriptions, present habits, present routines, and timetables [21].
• It can also be used to describe future time in subordinate clauses, instructions, formal correspondence, and permanent situations [22].
• It is also used with state verbs [22].
• The present continuous is used to indicate present activities and activities close to the present [22].
• It can also be used for future plans and background information [22].
• With the historical present tense, the continuous form gives background information and simple forms make progress in a story [23].
• The past simple is used for finished actions, finished states, past facts, past descriptions, and past habits [23].
• The past continuous is used for finished activities, the longer of two past actions, when interrupting a long action, or to give background to a story [24].
• If a past idea is no longer true, use the simple form [24].
• To link past events together in sequence, use the simple form, but use the continuous form for events happening at the same time [24].
• For situations that feel more permanent in the past, use the simple form, but for temporary situations, use the continuous form [25].
• For past activities that were often repeated, use the continuous form [25].
• Past tenses can be used to show you are being hypothetical or to create distance in time to be more polite [25].
• The present perfect is used for recently completed activities, recently completed states, and speaking about the past from the context of the present [26].
• If the focus is on an activity, use the continuous form, and if the focus is on the completion of an event, use the simple form [26].
• If the focus is on something being permanent, use the simple form, and if the focus is on something being temporary, use the continuous form [26].
• The present perfect is common with already, just, and yet, but the past simple can be used with these words depending on the English variety [27].
• News reports start with the present perfect to give general information, but switch to the past simple for more specific information [27].
• The past perfect is used to make clear which event happened first when events are not in order, and for repeating events before a point in the past [28].
• It is used when being hypothetical about the past [28].
• It is used to show events immediately before another, for reporting speech in the past, and for intentions or wishes that did not happen [28, 29].
• Temporary situations up to a point in the past are often in the continuous form, while states up to a point in the past are usually simple [29].
• If events are in time order, use the past simple, and if they are not in time order, use the past perfect [29].
• With reason clauses, do not repeat the past perfect; with coordinator clauses, repeat the past perfect [30].
• “Will” is used for expectations, certainty, promises, offers, consent, and future plans [30].
• “Going to” is used for restating previous decisions, and the present continuous is used for fixed arrangements [31].
• “Going to” can be used for fixed arrangements, and is used with state verbs [31].
• The future perfect is used for completion of something by a known future time, while the future perfect continuous is for an activity that is ongoing up to a point in the future [31].

Conditionals

• The first conditional uses the present simple and “will” to say a condition and a present or future consequence [32].
• “Will” can be used in both clauses where one condition requires another [32].
• The second conditional is for unreal situations with an imagined outcome, using the past simple with “would” [32].
• The third conditional is for an unreal past situation, using the past perfect [32].
• The zero conditional uses the present tense in both clauses for a general cause and effect rule [32].
• The order of clauses in a conditional can usually be reversed [38].
• In informal situations, “if” can be omitted when giving quick instructions [36].
• “When” can sometimes replace “if” [36].
• “Unless” can introduce a conditional, meaning “except if” [39].
• “Even if” introduces a conditional with the sense that doing something won’t enable the condition to be fulfilled [39].
• “Imagine” can turn an “if” clause into an independent sentence [38].
• “Provided that”, “providing”, and “on condition that” introduce a unique condition [38].
• “So long as” is similar to “on condition that” [38].
• “What if” introduces a hypothetical question about a condition [38].
• A past simple clause with “will” can be used to describe a likely future consequence [35].
• “Should happen to” adds extra condition to a clause [36].
• “If” can be omitted by omitting the subject and to be, used in formal or official instructions [36].
• In informal situations, “would” can be used in the “if” clause [37].
• When making requests more formal, “would” can be used to make it more polite [37].
• The clause after “if” can contain “should” to give advice [37].
• Second conditional is often used when someone does something, but the second person doesn’t understand why it didn’t lead to a particular consequence [37].

Passive Voice

• The passive voice is formed with “to be” plus the past participle of the verb, and the subject receives the action instead of doing it [32].
• The passive voice can emphasize the action, the receiver of the action, or the information itself [33].
• Use the passive voice when the agent is unknown, obvious, or unimportant [33].
• Some verbs cannot be used in the passive voice because they are not active verbs [33].
• Dummy subjects can be used, such as “it” which refers to information that follows [33].
• “Being” is the present participle of “to be” and can be used with the passive [33].
• “By” is used to introduce the agent in the passive voice [34].
• With defining relative clauses, the relative pronoun and “to be” can be omitted [34].
• With non-defining relative clauses, these clauses can be shortened and moved to the front of the sentence as a participle clause [34].
• Object infinitives can be made passive when there is an object before the infinitive [34].

Modal Verbs

• “Can” is used for ability, permission, requests, possibility, and negative deduction [39].
• “Could” can be used for possibility, permission, past ability, polite requests, and suggestions [39, 40].
• “May” is used for possibility, polite requests, and formal permission [40].
• “May well” states a higher level of possibility, and “may as well” means what you should do when there is a problem [41].
• “Might” can mean a low possibility or past lamentation [41].
• “Might” can be a noun meaning “strength” [41].
• “Should” is used for advice or suggestions, obligation, and the right thing to do [41].
• “Should” can be used for a good idea for the past that did not happen, what is expected in a situation, and planned times [42].
• “Ought to” can replace should in formal situations, and has a different grammatical arrangement in the question and negative forms [43].
• “Shall” is generally a more formal and less used version of will, and can be used for the future, polite offers, or obligation [43].
• “Shall” is used for added obligation [43].
• “Must” is used for obligation, prohibition, and strong recommendation, and has a specific grammatical form in questions and negatives [44].
• “Must” can also be used as a noun, meaning something you should do or have [44].
• “Need to” and “have to” can be used instead of must for obligation, prohibition, and strong recommendation [44].
• “Needs must” means doing something necessary to meet your needs [44].
• “Will” can be used to show that something is very likely or a desire [45].
• “Will have noticed” refers to knowledge at the time you’re speaking [45].
• “Will” can be used to show annoyance or typical behavior [45].
• “Will” can be a noun meaning “desire” [46].
• “Dare” can be a modal verb when used in the negative or question form [46].

Other

• Coordinating conjunctions join equal grammatical structures (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so), while subordinators introduce a dependent clause [47].
• Alternatives for coordinating conjunctions for nouns include: along with, combined with, together with, and in addition to [47].
• Subordinators of time include: before, after, and when [47].
• Subordinators of time include: once, each time, every time, any time, and in the instance that [48].
• Subordinators of reason include: in that, seeing that, and on account of [48].

This is a comprehensive overview of the information found in the sources.

English Articles: A Comprehensive Guide

Articles are a type of determiner that specify which, how many, or whom a noun refers to [1]. There are three articles in English: a, an, and the [1]. There are also instances when no article is used, which is called zero article [2].

Basic Rules for A and An

• Use a or an before a singular, countable noun when it is one of many, and it’s the first time the noun has been mentioned [1].
• Use ‘a’ before a word that begins with a consonant sound [1]
• Use ‘an’ before a word that begins with a vowel sound [1]
• For example, “I bought a phone,” or, “I bought an alarm clock” [1].
• When using a or an, the speaker is not referring to a specific example of the noun [1].
• For example, “a phone” could be any phone, not a specific brand or model [1].

Basic Rules for Zero Article

• Use zero article before a plural, countable noun when it is one of many and is mentioned for the first time [2].
• For example, “Phones are half price on Black Friday” [2].
• When using zero article with plural nouns, the speaker is not focusing on a specific example of the noun [2].
• For example, “phones” could be any number of phones [2].
• When listing features or information about a plural noun, the zero article can be used repeatedly [2].
• For example, “Phones are half price on Black Friday. Phones are useful for keeping up with news. Phones are owned by the majority of adults” [2].
• Use zero article with uncountable nouns [2].
• For example, “water” [2].

Advanced Rules for A and An

• A or an can be used after copular verbs when mentioning a noun for a second time [2].
• For example, “I bought a phone. It was a black phone” [2].
• A or an can be used before a group noun, if it is considered a singular group [3].
• For example, “a range of phones” [3].
• A or an can be used to introduce an example that represents all types of that noun [3].
• For example, “A phone is useful for watching videos” [3].

Advanced Rules for The

• The can be used before a group noun to specify a particular group [3].
• For example, “the range of phones in the shop,” means a specific range of phones [3].
• The can be used when specifying a noun to make it unique [3].
• For example, “the latest phone” [3].
• The is used with superlatives, like “latest,” which means “the last one to happen before now” [3, 4].

Advanced Rules for Zero Article

• Zero article can be used with topic nouns in a general sense [4].
• For example, “Connectivity is vital in the 21st century” [4].
• Zero article can be used with abstract nouns that are not usually counted [4].
• For example, “connectivity” [4].
• Zero article can be used when stating what a plural noun is usually like [4].
• For example, “Phones enable people to connect with each other across the globe,” states what phones are usually like [4].

Special Article Rules

• Use the with countries that are plural or consist of real words. Do not use an article for other countries [5].
• For example, “the United Kingdom,” but “France” [5].
• Use the before rivers [5].
• For example, “the Amazon river” [5].
• Do not use an article before lakes or waterfalls [5].
• For example, “Lake Victoria” or “Niagara Falls” [5].
• Use the with mountain ranges, deserts, and forests [5].
• For example, “the Himalayas,” “the Sahara,” or “the Amazon rainforest” [5].
• Do not use an article before individual mountains [5].
• For example, “Mount Everest” [5].
• Use the with compass directions when they are nouns [5].
• For example, “I live in the North” [5].
• Do not use the with compass directions when they are adjectives [6].
• For example, “I live in South London” [6].
• Use the before most nouns for places, but some common places drop the [6].
• For example, “the shops,” “the museum,” but “church,” “school,” and “home” [6].
• Use the if you are deliberately specifying one place and not another [6].
• For example, “Did you go to the church?” means one particular church [6].
• Use the before common transport types, but when using “by” do not use an article [6].
• For example, “I’m taking the train,” but “I’m traveling by train” [7].

A Comprehensive Guide to English Adverb Placement

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs [1]. They can add detail to a sentence by describing how, when, where, or to what extent something is done [1-3]. Adverbs are versatile and can appear in different positions within a sentence [2, 4]. There are, however, some rules about where adverbs can and cannot go [2].

Basic Adverb Positions

• Front position: Before the subject [5].
• Example: “Quickly, they ran to get out of the rain” [5].
• Mid position: Between the subject and the verb [5].
• Example: “They quickly ran to get out of the rain” [5].
• End position: After the verb and any objects [5].
• Example: “They ran quickly because it was raining” [5].

Adverbs with Auxiliary Verbs

• In the mid position, adverbs can come after an auxiliary verb but before the main verb [5].
• Example: “They have probably been running to get out of the rain” [5].

Adverbs with the Verb “To Be”

• With the verb “to be,” the adverb usually comes after the verb [5].
• Example: “They were completely wet by the time they arrived” [5].
• Informally, an adverb can come before “to be” to emphasize the verb [2].
• Example: “They really were trying to avoid the rain” [2].

Restrictions on Adverb Placement

• Adverbs usually cannot go between a verb and its object [2].
• Example: “They left the house quickly,” not “They left quickly the house” [2].
• Adverbs usually cannot go between two verbs that are next to each other [2].
• Example: “They started running quickly,” not “They started quickly running” [2].

Adverbs of Degree

• Adverbs of degree indicate the intensity or amount of an adjective, adverb, or verb [2, 3].
• Basic adverbs of degree: slightly, mostly, very, completely, extremely, enough, almost [2]
• Advanced adverbs of degree: marginally, predominantly, truly, entirely, immensely, sufficiently, virtually [2]
• They typically go in the mid position [3].
• Example: “It was too hot to go outside” [3].
• Example: “We almost ran out of gas” [3].

Special Rules for Adverbs of Degree

• Just: can come in the mid-position, or after the subject [3].
• Example: “I’ve just seen the people at the bus stop.” [3]
• Example: “Just two people were left at the bus stop.” [3]
• Too: comes before a determiner or an adjective [3].
• Example: “You worry too much.” [3]
• Example: “The ending was too upsetting.” [3]
• Enough: can come at the end of a sentence, or before the noun it describes [3].
• Example: “I don’t use it enough.” [3]
• Example: “My posts didn’t get enough followers.” [3]
• Really: can come before the word it modifies [3].
• Example: “I really enjoy eating Chinese food” [3].
• Example: “It was a really impressive concert” [3].
• When “really” means “a lot,” it goes before the adjective [3].
• Example: “It is a really incredible car.” [3]
• When “really” means “in actual fact,” it goes at the front of the sentence [3].
• Example: “Really, I should have bought a new one.” [3]

Adverbs of Frequency

• Adverbs of frequency indicate how often something happens [6].
• Basic adverbs of frequency: rarely, sometimes, often, usually, always [6].
• Advanced adverbs of frequency: barely, sporadically, frequently, routinely, invariably [6].
• They usually take the mid position [6].
• Example: “I always brush my teeth” [6].
• In informal situations, they can come at the end of a sentence [1].
• Example: “I brush my teeth always” [1].
• With the verb “to be”, adverbs of frequency come after the verb [1].

Adverbs of Place

• Adverbs of place indicate where something happens [1].
• Basic adverbs of place: above, below, inside, near [1]
• Advanced adverbs of place: over, aloft, beneath, within, alongside [1]
• Adverbs of place can come directly after the word it is describing or before the whole sentence [1].
• Example: “The street in front was full of people” [1].
• Example: “I ran outside” [1].
• Example: “Outside, the street was full of people” [1].

Adverbs of Manner

• Adverbs of manner describe how something happens [4].
• Basic adverbs of manner: slowly, quickly, quietly, loudly, carefully, carelessly [4].
• Advanced adverbs of manner: sluggishly, swiftly, faintly, vociferously, attentively, sloppily [4].
• Adverbs of manner can go in the front, mid, or end position [4].
• Example: “Confidently, she entered the room” [4].
• Example: “She gladly told of all her past achievements” [4].
• Example: “Her friends left the room quietly” [4].
• To improve clarity, adverbs of manner should not be too far from the word they describe [7].
• Example: “The people who had been waiting outside in the rain for an opportunity to speak confidently entered the room,” is better than “Confidently, the people who had been waiting outside in the rain for an opportunity to speak entered the room” [7].

Adverbs of Time

• Adverbs of time indicate when something happens [7].
• Basic adverbs of time: early, late, eventually, recently, previously [7].
• Advanced adverbs of time: timely, belatedly, ultimately, lately, formerly [7].
• They usually go in the front or end positions [8].
• Example: “Last year, there was a fantastic celebration” [8].
• Example: “There was a fantastic celebration last year” [8].
• They can come after the noun they describe [8].
• Example: “The people after had to go home” [8].
• Adverbs of duration usually come at the end of a sentence or clause, unless it is key information, in which case they can go at the front [8].
• Example: “For a long time, people had not left their homes” [8].

Multiple Adverbs

• When multiple adverbs are used, they often follow the order of manner, place, and time [8].
• Example: “You need to play brilliantly out there tomorrow” [8].

Adverbs with Modals

• Adverbs usually follow modal verbs [8].
• Example: “You must always wash your hands before eating” [8].
• If you are intensifying the modal, the adverb can go before it [9].
• Example: “You really must wash your hands before eating” [9].

Adverbs of Certainty, Completeness, and Evaluation

• Adverbs of certainty often take the mid position [9].
• Example: “This is possibly the hottest day of the year” [9].
• Example: “I probably know all of the people in this room” [9].
• Other adverbs of certainty are more likely to be at the front or end position [9].
• Example: “Maybe you should open the window” [9].
• Adverbs of completeness usually go in the mid position [9].
• Example: “The box is entirely full” [9].
• They can go at the end of the sentence to emphasize the whole situation [9].
• Example: “I finished eating the cake completely” [9].
• Valuative adverbs have no strong trend for position [9].
• Example: “The movie was surprisingly good.”

Special Rules for Individual Adverbs

• Quite: When “quite” means “somewhat,” it usually goes before the whole noun phrase [9].
• Example: “There was quite a loud noise coming from the hall.” [9]
• When “quite” means “totally,” it is placed before the adjective and after the article [10].
• Example: “It was a quite unnecessary noise.” [10]
• Rather: Usually comes before adjectives, but can come before the article in storytelling [10].
• Example: “It was a rather cold day.” [10]
• Example: “It was rather a cold winter in Canada.” [10]
• Already: Placed in the mid or end position [10].
• Example: “I’m already doing it.” [10]
• Example: “I’m doing it already.” [10]
• Yet: Usually goes at the end of the sentence, or at the front of a clause when it is a conjunction [10].
• Example: “I haven’t done it yet.” [10]
• Example: “He didn’t have any tickets, yet they still let him in.” [10]
• Still: Usually goes in the mid position, but before the verb phrase when it is a negative [10].
• Example: “I have still got the same car.” [10]
• Example: “I still haven’t been to the garage.” [10]
• Even and only: Usually go in the mid position, unless referring to the subject, in which case they go at the front [10].
• Example: “It even has sat nav.” [10]
• Example: “It only has a maximum speed of 30 km per hour.” [10]
• Example: “Even my rich relatives want to buy my car.” [10]
• Example: “Only my father doesn’t want it.” [10]

A Comprehensive Guide to English Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express a range of meanings such as possibility, necessity, permission, and obligation [1]. They add nuance to sentences and indicate the speaker’s attitude towards the action described by the main verb [1]. Some common modal verbs include can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, and would [1].

Basic Uses of Modal Verbs

• Can: Expresses ability, permission, requests, possibility, and negative deduction [2].
• Ability: “I can play the guitar” [2].
• Permission: “You can start the exam” [2].
• Requests: “Can you pass me the salt?” [2].
• Possibility: “You can walk up the hill on this path” [2].
• Negative deduction: “That can’t be the right answer” [2].
• Could: Indicates ability in the past, polite requests, past possibility, and suggested actions [3].
• Past ability: “I could touch my toes when I was a child” [3].
• Polite requests: “Could you help me with my homework?” [3].
• Past possibility: “We could see the beach from our hotel room” [3].
• Suggested actions: “You could try the back door” [3].
• May: Used for logical deduction in the present, permission, and offering good wishes [4].
• Logical deduction: “The train may be coming” [4].
• Permission: “May I sit next to you?” [4].
• Good wishes: “May you enjoy good health” [4].
• Might: Expresses logical deduction in the present or past, and future speculation [4-6].
• Logical deduction: “The train might be coming.”
• Logical deduction in the past: “The train might have left” [4].
• Future speculation: “We might have been able to see Big Ben” [5].
• Must: Indicates obligation, prohibition, strong recommendation, and certainty [7].
• Obligation: “You must not walk on the grass” [7].
• Strong recommendation: “You must go on a river trip” [7].
• Certainty in the present: “They must be on the boat trip” [7].
• Shall: Used for the future, polite offers, and indicating requirements [8]. It is generally a more formal version of will [8].
• Future: “We shall visit our aunt” [8].
• Polite offers: “Shall I give you some assistance?” [8].
• Requirements: “Everyone shall leave the area immediately” [8].
• Should: Used for advice or suggestions, obligation, and the right thing to do [6].
• Suggestions: “You should stop smoking” [6].
• Obligation: “Children should not play ball games on the grass” [6].
• Right thing to do: “We should tell the hotel that we broke the shower” [6].
• Will: Used for expectations about the future, certainty, promises and offers, consent, future plans made in the moment, and predictions without physical evidence [9, 10].
• Expectations for the future: “They will be here at 6pm” [9].
• Certainty: “Nothing will stop the rain from falling” [9].
• Promises and offers: “I will buy you an ice cream” [9].
• Consent: “They will let you into the country” [9].
• Future plans made in the moment: “I’ll call my friend” [10].
• Predictions without physical evidence: “I think it will rain later” [10].
• Would: Indicates the past of will for reported speech, past habits and routines, hypothetical situations, and polite requests [11].
• Past of will: “They said they would return next summer” [11].
• Past habits and routines: “The circus would come to my town every year” [11].
• Hypothetical situations: “If I were braver, I would work with lions in a zoo” [11].
• Polite requests: “Would you give up your chair for the elderly lady?” [11].

Advanced Uses of Modal Verbs

• Can for extreme surprise [3]: “Can you believe it!”
• Could:
• Past permission: “They could play in the park when they were younger” [3].
• Present deduction: “That could be my coat” [3].
• Past deduction: “They could have arrived late” [11].
• A possible future outcome which will now never happen: “She could have become a professional dancer” [11].
• Would:
• Future in the past: “The day ended badly, it would get better the next day” [11].
• Past refusal: “I wouldn’t go to the zoo last year” [11].
• Commenting on a situation: “I’m not surprised you’re going, I would do the same” [11].
• With have been to express regret about a situation: “It would have been nice” [4].
• “Would you believe it” to express that something is hard to believe [4].
• As an alternative for will in formal requests [12].
• May:
• May as well/Might as well means that there are no other options and it’s best to do something [4]. “I may as well give up.”
• Past lamentation: “You might have told me the brakes didn’t work” [5].
• To mean strength: “I tried with all my might” [5].
• Future speculation: “We may have been able to see Big Ben” [5].
• Should:
• A good idea for the past that didn’t happen: “I should have started learning English when I was younger” [6].
• Something that happened but wasn’t a good idea: “I shouldn’t have spent so much time doing nothing” [6].
• In conditionals to say what is expected in the situation: “If you’re cold, you should put a coat on” [6].
• Planned time of events: “It should start at 3pm” [6].
• With a slight change to mean that the planned time has been changed or delayed: “It should have started at 2pm” [6].
• Future expectation: “It should be a wonderful occasion” [8].
• Shall:
• Added obligation: “You shall get back before it’s dark” [7].
• Must:
• Certainty in the past: “He must have left his phone in his bag” [7].
• Annoyance: “Must you talk so loudly?” [7].
• Determination: “I must carry on” [7].
• To stress importance with “it must be…that”: “It must be emphasized that the plane will leave” [7].
• Need:
• Can be used with and without “to” depending on the sentence structure [13].
• The phrase “needs must” means that something is necessary to meet one’s needs [13]. “I don’t want to work overtime, but needs must”.
• As a noun, to mean that something is necessary or a must do: “Walking through the Alps is a must” [13].
• Will:
• For threats: “Don’t get in my way, I’ll call security” [14].
• For the present: “You will have noticed that I’m wearing a pink ribbon” [14].
• To express annoyance: “He will interfere in our games” [15].
• To describe typical behavior: “She will always watch her favorite program at that time” [15].
• As a noun, meaning desire: “I don’t have the will to finish the race” [15].
• Dare: As a modal verb, can be used without “to” in negative and question sentences [16]. “I don’t dare go out in the snow.” “Dare you cross the weak bridge?” [16].
• Had better: Indicates that something is a good idea and that it should be done; has more urgency than should [16]. “You had better say sorry.”

The modal verb that was missed in the description of the basic uses of modal verbs is ought to. In positive statements, ought to can be used in place of should in more formal situations [8]. In questions, ought is used without to, and in negative sentences, ought not to or ought not are used [8].

Conditional Tenses in English

Conditional tenses are used to express hypothetical situations and their potential consequences [1]. They often involve the use of if clauses and are categorized into zero, first, second, and third conditionals, each with specific structures and meanings [1].

Zero Conditional

• The zero conditional is used to express general truths, scientific facts, or habitual actions [1-3].
• It uses the present simple in both the if clause and the main clause [1-3].
• Example: “If the weather turns cold, people don’t go out” [3].
• The if clause can be replaced with a when clause to emphasize that something will definitely happen [3].
• Example: “When autumn arrives, the leaves on many trees turn brown” [3].
• A range of modal verbs can follow when clauses, leading to different meanings [3].
• Example: “When you get home, you must keep quiet” [3].
• The zero conditional indicates that a condition will always lead to the same consequence [2, 3].

First Conditional

• The first conditional is used to express real or likely situations in the present or future [1, 4].
• It uses the present simple in the if clause and will in the main clause [1, 4].
• Example: “If they arrive for the lecture early, they will get a seat” [4].
• The word then can be included before the will clause to make it clearer that one thing depends on another [4].
• Will can also be used in the if clause if the condition is a result of the consequence [5].
• Example: “If you will benefit from my assistance, I will help you” [5].
• Will in the if clause can also be used for polite requests [5].
• Example: “If you will sign the register, we will let you join the class.” [5].
• Other modal verbs like might, could, must, can, and should can be used instead of will in the main clause [5].
• Example: “If we run fast, we might catch the train” [5].
• Example: “If you want to catch the train you must arrive on time” [5].
• Must and should can move the condition to the second clause when talking about needs, wants, or wishes [6].
• Example: “If you want to get a seat on the train, you should travel at quiet times” [6].
• The first conditional can use a past simple in the if clause to describe a likely future consequence of a past situation [6].
• Example: “If the factory didn’t use high-quality materials, it will wear out quickly” [6].
• Going to can be used instead of will to emphasize a pre-planned consequence [7].
• Example: “If the materials arrive on time, I’m going to make socks” [7].
• The structure if you should, if you happen to, or if you should happen to is used when something probably will not happen, but the condition is stated just in case it does [7].
• Example: “If you should find the buttons, tell me” [7].
• In informal situations, if can be omitted but may sound impatient or rude [2].
• Example: “Want to finish early, work harder” [2].
• For formal or official instructions the subject and to be can be omitted [2].
• When can be used instead of if, with little change in meaning [2].

Second Conditional

• The second conditional is used to express unreal or unlikely situations in the present or future [1, 8].
• It uses the past simple in the if clause and would in the main clause [1, 8].
• Example: “If I earned a lot of money, I would buy a bigger car” [8].
• The verb to be can be expressed as were instead of was [8].
• Example: “If I were rich, I would choose a fast car” [8].
• This structure can be followed by a question when something is true and a related question is asked [8].
• Example: “If you were in my city last week, why didn’t you visit me?” [9].
• In informal speech, would can be included in the if clause [9].
• The word would is used to make requests more polite [9].
• Example: “I would prefer it if you would drive more slowly” [9].
• Should can be used in the if clause to represent advice based on a hypothetical situation [9].
• Example: “If you were paid $10,000, you should do it” [9].
• Might can be used to indicate a possible consequence [10].
• Example: “If I were paid $20,000, I might do it” [10].
• Will can be used instead of would in the main clause when making a polite request with a promise [10].
• The structure were to in the if clause introduces a hypothetical future activity [10].
• Example: “If you were to jump out of a plane, your parents would be terrified” [10].
• The phrase would it be is used as a polite way of asking if something can or cannot be done [10].
• But for is used to introduce the only reason why a situation did not happen [11].
• Example: “But for the storms, we would have jumped out of a plane today” [11].
• If it wasn’t for is used to introduce something that saved a situation from a bad consequence [11].
• Example: “If it wasn’t for John, I would never have fulfilled my ambitions” [11].

Third Conditional

• The third conditional is used to express unreal situations in the past and to imagine how they might have been different [1, 11].
• It uses the past perfect in the if clause and would have + past participle in the main clause [1, 11].
• Example: “If I had studied harder, I would have passed my exams” [11].
• The second clause can refer to a present or future consequence if the context allows it [11].
• Example: “If I had studied harder, I would have reached a higher level by now” [11].
• Would be can be used as an alternative to would have + past participle when the consequence is in the present [11].
• Example: “If I had studied harder, I would be studying at a higher level” [12].
• Could have can be used instead of would have to express a possible consequence [12].
• Example: “If I had revised every day, I could have passed” [12].
• Might can also be used instead of could [12].
• The adverbial phrase if anything introduces a clause that means if there is any possibility of the previous thing being true, then this should happen instead [12].
• Example: “I don’t think I should invite her, if anything, she should invite me” [12].
• The phrase if so links a consequence back to a condition in the previous sentence [12].
• Example: “Why don’t you see if you can get time off, if so we can accept your mother’s invitation” [12].
• The phrase if not indicates a consequence if a condition is not fulfilled [12].
• Example: “Why don’t you see if you can get time off, if not ask for a day off” [12].
• If not can also be used to intensify a situation [12].
• Example: “Often, if not always, she invites us” [12].
• The word if can disappear when inverting the sentence structure [13].
• Example: “Were I to spend time with my son, I would play games with him” [13].
• Example: “Had I spent more time with my son, I would have played games with him” [13].
• Example: “Should there be no school today, I will take my son to the park” [13].

Other Conditional Structures

• If only is used to introduce a desire for something to be different [13].
• With a past tense: a desire for something to be different in the present.
• Example: “If only the weather was better” [13].
• With would: a desire for something to be different in the future.
• Example: “If only it would stop raining” [13].
• With a past perfect: wishing for a different outcome in the past [13].
• Example: “If only it had been a sunny day” [13].
• Supposing is similar to if, often leading to a question [13].
• Example: “Supposing the delivery is late, how will we feed our guests” [13].
• Imagine can turn an if clause into an independent sentence, or be used without if to introduce a hypothetical situation [14].
• Example: “Imagine if everyone had enough food, all charities would close” [14].
• Example: “Imagine life in an igloo, it would be challenging” [14].
• Provided that and providing introduce a unique condition for the consequential clause [14].
• Example: “Provided that the food is cooked thoroughly, it will be safe” [14].
• On condition that means that the second clause can only be fulfilled after the first condition is also fulfilled [14].
• So long as is similar to on condition that [14].
• Example: “So long as you get qualified, you can become our cook” [14].
• What if introduces a hypothetical question about a condition [14].
• The order of clauses can usually be reversed [14].
• Will, would, and had can be contracted informally to ‘ll or ‘d [14].
• An imperative clause can be used before an if or when clause [15].
• Example: “Answer him if he speaks” [15].
• Unless can introduce a conditional meaning except if [15].
• Example: “Unless you listen, you won’t know the answer” [15].
• Even if introduces a condition with the sense that doing something won’t enable the condition to be fulfilled [15].
• Example: “Even if you read all the books, you won’t learn what the lecturer can tell you” [15].

By Amjad Izhar
Contact: amjad.izhar@gmail.com
https://amjadizhar.blog

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